MILLER/SPOOLMAN

LIVING IN THE ENVIRONMENT 17TH

CHAPTER 4
Biodiversity and Evolution
 Science Focus 4.1: Have You Thanked
the Insects Today?
• Bad rep: sting us, bite us, spread disease, eat our
food, invade plants

• Pollination: lets flowering plants reproduce sexually

• Free pest control: insects eat other insects

• We need insects more than they need us

Importance of Insects

Fig. 4-A, p. 83
 4-1 What Is Biodiversity and Why
Is It Important?
• Concept 4-1 The biodiversity found in genes, species,
ecosystems, and ecosystem processes is vital to
sustaining life on earth.
 Biodiversity Is a Crucial Part of the
Earth’s Natural Capital (1)
• Species: set of individuals who can mate and
produce fertile offspring

• 8 million to 100 million species

• 1.9 million identified

• Unidentified are mostly in rain forests and oceans

 Biodiversity Is a Crucial Part of the
Earth’s Natural Capital (2)
• Species diversity : Variety of organisms within a
community
• Genetic diversity: Variety of genes within a
population, or within a species on earth. Greater Genetic
diversity means a population will have an easier time adapting to environmental
pressures.

• Ecosystem diversity
• Biomes: regions with distinct climates/species
• Functional diversity: The variety of processes that
occur whithin an ecosystem
• Biodiversity is an important part of natural capital
 Functional Diversity The biological and Ecological Diversity The
chemical processes such as energy flow variety of terrestrial and
and matter recycling needed for the survival aquatic ecosystems
of species, communities, and ecosystems. found in an area or on
the earth.

Solar
Chemical
nutrients
energy
Heat (carbon dioxide,
oxygen,
nitrogen,
minerals)

Heat Heat

Decomposers Producers
(bacteria, fungi) (plants)

Consumers
(plant eaters,
Heat meat eaters) Heat

Genetic Diversity The

variety of genetic material Species Diversity The number
within a species or a and abundance of species
population. present in different communities. Fig. 4-2, p. 82
 Species Diversity:
Two Species: Columbine Lily and Great Egret

Fig. 4-3, p. 82
Genetic Diversity:
Caribbean snail

Fig. 4-3, p. 81
 Ecosystem Diversity

Denver
Baltimore
San
Francisco
Las
Vegas St. Louis

Coastal Sierra Great Rocky Great Mississippi Appalachian

mountain Nevada American Mountains Plains River Valley Mountains
ranges Desert

Coastal Coniferous Desert Coniferous Prairie Deciduous

chaparral forest forest grassland forest
and scrub

Fig. 4-4, p. 81
4-2 How Does the Earth’s Life Change
Over Time?
• Concept 4-2A The scientific theory of evolution
explains how life on earth changes over time through
changes in the genes of populations.

• Concept 4-2B Populations evolve when genes

mutate and give some individuals genetic traits that
enhance their abilities to survive and to produce
offspring with these traits (natural selection).
Biological Evolution by Natural Selection
Explains How Life Changes over Time (1)
• Fossils
• Physical evidence of ancient organisms
• Reveal what their external structures looked like

• Fossil record: entire body of fossil evidence

• Only have fossils of 1% of all species that lived on

earth
Fossilized Skeleton of an Herbivore that Lived during
the Cenozoic Era
Biological Evolution by Natural Selection
Explains How Life Changes over Time (2)
• Biological evolution: how earth’s life changes over time
through changes in the genetic characteristics of populations
• Darwin: Origin of Species

• Natural selection: individuals with certain traits are more

likely to survive and reproduce under a certain set of
environmental conditions

• Huge body of evidence

Evolution of Life on Earth

Supplement 5, Fig. 2, p. S18

 Evolution by Natural Selection Works
through Mutations and Adaptations (1)
• Populations evolve by becoming genetically different

• Genetic variations
• First step in biological evolution
• Occurs through mutations in reproductive cells
• Mutations: random changes in DNA molecules
 Evolution by Natural Selection Works
through Mutations and Adaptations (2)
• Natural selection: acts on individuals
• Second step in biological evolution

• Adaptation may lead to differential reproduction

• Genetic resistance: ability of one or more members of

a population to resist a chemical designed to kill it
(a)
A group of (d)
bacteria, Eventually the
including (c) resistant strain
genetically (b) The genetically replaces all or
resistant ones, Most of the resistant most of the strain
are exposed to normal bacteria start affected by the
an antibiotic bacteria die multiplying antibiotic

Normal bacterium Resistant bacterium

Fig. 4-7, p. 87
Case Study: How Did Humans Become
Such a Powerful Species?
• Strong opposable thumbs

• Walk upright

• Complex brain
Classifying Homo Sapiens

Supplement 5, Fig. 2, p. S19

 Adaptation through Natural Selection
Has Limits
• Adaptive genetic traits must precede change in the
environmental conditions

• Reproductive capacity
• Species that reproduce rapidly and in large numbers
are better able to adapt
Three Common Myths about Evolution
through Natural Selection
1. “Survival of the fittest” is not “survival of the
strongest”

2. Organisms do not develop traits out of need or

want

3. No grand plan of nature for perfect adaptation

 4-3 How Do Geological Processes and
Climate Change Affect Evolution?
• Concept 4-3 Tectonic plate movements, volcanic
eruptions, earthquakes, and climate change have
shifted wildlife habitats, wiped out large numbers of
species, and created opportunities for the evolution
of new species.
 Geologic Processes Affect Natural
Selection
• Tectonic plates affect evolution and the location of
life on earth
• Locations of continents and oceans have shifted
• Species physically move, or adapt, or form new
species through natural selection

• Earthquakes

• Volcanic eruptions
225 million years ago

Fig. 4-8, p. 89
135 million years ago

Fig. 4-8, p. 89
65 million years ago

Fig. 4-8, p. 89
Present

Fig. 4-8, p. 89
225 million years ago 135 million years ago

65 million years ago Present

Stepped Art
Fig. 4-8, p. 89
 Climate Change and Catastrophes
Affect Natural Selection
• Ice ages followed by warming temperatures

• Collisions between the earth and large asteroids

• New species
• Extinctions
18,000 years Northern Hemisphere Modern day
before Ice coverage (August)
present

Legend
Continental ice
Sea ice
Land above sea level

Fig. 4-9, p. 89
 Science Focus: Earth Is Just Right
for Life to Thrive
• Temperature range: supports life

• Orbit size: moderate temperatures

• Liquid water: necessary for life

• Rotation speed: sun doesn’t overheat surface

• Size: gravity keeps atmosphere

4-4 How Do Speciation, Extinction, and
Human Activities Affect Biodiversity?
• Concept 4-4A As environmental conditions change,
the balance between formation of new species and
extinction of existing species determines the earth’s
biodiversity.

• Concept 4-4B Human activities can decrease

biodiversity by causing the extinction of many species
and by destroying or degrading habitats needed for
the development of new species.
 How Do New Species Evolve?

• Speciation: one species splits into two or more

species

• Geographic isolation: happens first; physical

isolation of populations for a long period

• Reproductive isolation: mutations and natural

selection in geographically isolated populations lead
to inability to produce viable offspring when
members of two different populations mate
Geographic Isolation Can Lead to Reproductive
Isolation

Fig. 4-10, p. 91
 Extinction is Forever

• Extinction
• Biological extinction
• Local extinction
• Endemic species
• Found only in one area
• Particularly vulnerable
• Background extinction: typical low rate of extinction
• Mass extinction: 3-5 over 500 million years
Golden Toad of Costa Rica, Extinct

Fig. 4-11, p. 92
 Science Focus: Changing the Genetic
Traits of Populations
• Artificial selection
• Use selective breeding/crossbreeding
• Genetic engineering, gene splicing

• Consider
• Ethics
• Morals
• Privacy issues
• Harmful effects
 Desired trait (color)

Cross
Pear breeding Apple

Offspring

Best result

Cross
breeding

New
offspring

Desired
result

Fig. 4-C, p. 92
Genetically Engineered Mice

Fig. 4-D, p. 92
4-5 What Is Species Diversity and Why
Is It Important?
• Concept 4-5 Species diversity is a major component
of biodiversity and tends to increase the
sustainability of ecosystems.
Species Diversity: Variety, Abundance of
Species in a Particular Place (1)
• Species diversity

• Species richness:
• The number of different species in a given area

• Species evenness:
• Comparative number of individuals
Species Diversity: Variety, Abundance of
Species in a Particular Place (2)
• Diversity varies with geographical location

• The most species-rich communities

• Tropical rain forests
• Coral reefs
• Ocean bottom zone
• Large tropical lakes
Variations in Species Richness and Species Evenness

Fig. 4-12, p. 93
Global Map of Plant Biodiversity

Supplement 8, Fig. 6, p. S36

 Science Focus: Species Richness
on Islands
• Species equilibrium model, theory of island
biogeography
• Rate of new species immigrating should balance with
the rate of species extinction

• Island size and distance from the mainland need to

be considered

• Edward O. Wilson
 Species-Rich Ecosystems Tend to Be
Productive and Sustainable
• Species richness seems to increase productivity and
stability or sustainability, and provide insurance
against catastrophe

• How much species richness is needed is debatable

 4-6 What Roles Do Species Play in an
Ecosystem?
• Concept 4-6A Each species plays a specific ecological
role called its niche.

• Concept 4-6B Any given species may play one or

more of five important roles—native, nonnative,
indicator, keystone, or foundation—in a particular
ecosystem.
 Each Species Plays a Unique Role
in Its Ecosystem
• Ecological niche, niche
• Pattern of living: everything that affects survival and
reproduction
• Water, space, sunlight, food, temperatures

• Generalist species
• Broad niche: wide range of tolerance

• Specialist species
• Narrow niche: narrow range of tolerance
Specialist Species and Generalist Species Niches

Fig. 4-13, p. 95
 Specialized Feeding Niches of
Various Bird Species in a Coastal
Wetland Herring
gull is a
Brown pelican Ruddy
tireless
dives for fish, turnstone
Avocet sweeps bill scavenger
which it locates through mud and searches
Dowitcher probes
Black skimmer from the air under shells
surface water in deeply into mud in
seizes small fish and pebbles
search of small search of snails,
at water surface for small
crustaceans, marine worms, and
invertebrates
insects, and seeds small crustaceans

mportantmportant

Flamingo Scaup and other Louisiana Oystercatcher feeds Knot (sandpiper) Piping plover
feeds on diving ducks heron wades on clams, mussels, picks up worms feeds on insects
minute feed on into water to and other shellfish and small and tiny
organisms mollusks, seize small into which it pries crustaceans left crustaceans on
in mud crustaceans, fish its narrow beak by receding tide sandy beaches
and aquatic
vegetation

Fig. 4-14, p. 96
 Case Study: Cockroaches: Nature’s
Ultimate Survivors
• 3500 species

• Generalists
• Eat almost anything
• Live in almost any climate

• High reproductive rates

Cockroach

Fig. 4-15, p. 96
 Species Can Play Five Major Roles
within Ecosystems
• Native species: Species that normally live and thrive in the
ecosystem
• Nonnative species: Also called Invasive or Alien species, these
can often compete with or reduce the native species.
• Indicator species: Species where a sharp decline in their
population numbers often means that some factor in the ecosystem is
problematic.
• Remember from case study the amphibians are indicator species because
of their exposure to water. Birds are vulnerable to pesticides and habitat
fragmentation.
• Keystone species: Species whose extinction or reduction can
result in loss of ecosystem services for the whole community, and
ultimately cause ecosystem collapse.
 Indicator Species Serve as Biological
Smoke Alarms
• Indicator species
• Provide early warning of damage to a community

• Can monitor environmental quality

• Trout
• Birds
• Butterflies
• Frogs
Keystone Species Play Critical Roles in
Their Ecosystems
• Keystone species: roles have a large effect on the
types and abundances of other species

• Pollinators

• Top predators
 Three Big Ideas
1. Populations evolve when genes mutate and give
some individuals genetic traits that enhance their
abilities to survive and to produce offspring with
these traits (natural selection).

2. Human activities are decreasing the earth’s vital

biodiversity by causing the extinction of species and
by disrupting habitats needed for the development
of new species.
 Three Big Ideas
3. Each species plays a specific ecological role
(ecological niche) in the ecosystem where it is
found.