Philippine Normal University

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A Synopsis of
Lecture on Diatoms

Submitted by:

Mark Kevin C. Escleto

MASE Bio
 Diatoms are very unique
organisms that are very diverse. They
also have the ability to in just about
every ecosystem in some shape or
form. But, further more they have
something that no other organism has,
a glass cell wall called a frustule. Its
presence gives the diatoms a large
amount of advantages and causes them
to be a large interest to humans
because of its unique beauty and
because it is one of the only
microorganisms that will fossilize because of it being hard tissue. The frustule is also rather
complex and deals with a large amount of what the diatom is able to do.

The frustule is made out of silicon. The diatoms obtain the silicon in the form of silicic
acid this is at fairly high concentrations in waters worldwide, because silicon is one of the most
prevalent elements on earth and gets consciously washed into the oceans via rivers and rain
runoff. The frustule is composed of two parts or valves. They are uneven in size and fit together
like a Petri dish or a pill box. The larger part is called the epitheca and the smaller part is the
hypotheca. They are produced at two parts in the diatoms life cycle. The most common form
is when the diatom is reproducing asexually each of the divided cells will take one of the valves
as the epitheca and will secrete the hypotheca, this causes one of the diatoms involved in the
division to gradually get smaller and smaller. The other part in which the cell produces the
frustule during sexual reproduction and it is formed with in the auxospore. Within the
auxospore both valves are produced they are produced at the maximum size that the frustule
for that diatom species can be to compensate for the gradual reduction in size caused by
asexual reproduction.

The function of the frustule is rather

diverse and can vary to a degree
depending on species and habitat. The
primary functions of the frustule though
that is shared though species is rather
fundamental. The functions include, but
are not restricted to, providing support,
protection from predation, attachment to
surfaces and substrates, change the
buoyancy of the organism (placement in
water column), in terrestrial habitats it
allows organisms to help maintain water,
and it helps refract and reflect light on the
inside of the organism causing a greater
amount of light contact to the
photosystems and increasing the
effectiveness of cell to fix carbon. The
frustule proves a lot more functions
although not all of these apply to all species of diatom, such as organism that attach to
surfaces of substrates don’t have frustules that affect the organisms buoyancy. The different
attributes of the frustule are attributed to various features that are present on the diatoms.

The features that are present on the frustules of diatoms are various and include
different combinations, sizes and ordinations of pores, spines and some other features. The
spines are used in
various means
such as providing
some protection
from predation and
the ability to attach
to various
substrates. The
pores allow
transport of various
solutions in and out,
as well as, slimes
out of the cell. The
pores allow the
diatom to obtain
some nutrients from the different sources as well as to allow them to secrete some of their
extracellular polysaccharides. Some species of diatoms can also use the pores to assist in the
locomotion via gliding. There are other structures the diatoms use that are on the frustule that
do other structures.

Beyond the structure and use

of the frustules diatoms other promising
features that can be put to use because
the majority of them are grow in open
ocean and because of that it limits the
growth because the lack of iron.
Although, because diatoms acquisition
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere,
plans have been brought together to
fertilize open ocean areas with iron that
will facilitate diatoms in the area to grow.
This causing them to talk up carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere and this
could reduce the carbon omissions and
combat global warming.
CLASSIFICATION

The way the classification are placed here are as they currently understood and placed
into their various phyla, classes, orders, and families.

Diatoms are Eukaryotic and belong to the Kingdom protista. They further belong to the
super group Chromalveolata and are grouped into the Strameopiles as the lineage
Diatoms. They then form two phyla, Bacillariophyta and Chrysophyta. They are then divided
into 2 orders in each phyla. Then there are several suborders under each order. Then this is
followed by numerous families and subfamilies.

Diatoms are organized into the different orders if they

are Pennales (linear symmetry) or Centrales (radial symmetry).
They are further divided into their suborders and families by
other features of their frustules (pores, spikes, ect.) and by their
environment (aquatic, terrestrial, arctic, tropical, ect.).

Domain: Eukarya
Kingdom: Protista
1) Phylum: Bacillariophyta
a) Class: Diatomatae
i) Order: Centrales
(1) Suborder: Discineae
(a) Family:
Coscinodiscaceae
(b) Family: Actnodiscaceae
(c) Family: Eupodiscaceae
(2) Suborder: Soleniineae
(a) Family: Soleniaceae
(3) Suborder:Biddulphiineae
(a) Family: Chaetoceraceae
(b) Family: Biddulphiaceae
(c) Family: Anaulaceae
(d) Family: Euodiaceae
ii) Order: Pennales
(1) Suborder: Araphidineae
(a) Family: Fragilariaceae
(2) Suborder: Raphidiodineae
(a) Family: Eunotiaceae
(3) Suborder: Monoraphidineae
(a) Family:Achnanthaceae
(4) Suborder: Biraphidineae
(a) Family: Naviculaceae
(b) Family: Epthemiaceae
(c) Family: Nitzschiaceae
 (d) Family: Surirellaceae
2) Phylum: Chrysophyta
a) Class: Bacillariophyceae
i) Order: Bacillariales
(1) Suborder: Coscinodiscineae
(a) Family: Cosinodiscaceae
(b) Family: Hemidiscaceae
(c) Family: Actinodicaceae
(2) Suborder: Aulacodiscineae
(a) Family: Eupodiscaceae
(3) Suborder: Auliscineae
(a) Family: Auliscaceae
(4) Suborder: Biddulphineae
(a) Family: Biddulphiaceae
(b) Family: Anaulaceae
(c) Family: Chaetoceraceae
(5) Suborder: Rhizosoleniineae
(a) Family: Bacteriastraceae
(b) Family: Leptocylindraceae
(c) Family: Corethranaceae
(d) Family: Rhizosoleniaceae
(6) Suborder: Fragilariineae
(a) Family: Fragilariaceae
(7) Suborder: Eunotiineae
(a) Family: Eunotiaceae
(8) Suborder: Achnanthineae
(a) Family: Achnanthaceae
(9) Suborder: Naviculineae
(a) Family: Naviculaceae
(b) Family: Auriculaceae
(c) Family: Gomphonemaceae
(d) Family: Cymbellaceae
(e) Family: Epithemiaceae
(f) Family: Bacillariaceae
(10) Suborder: Surirellineae
(a) Family: Surirellaceae
ii) Order: Centrales
(1) Suborder: Coscinodiscineae
(a) Family: Melosiraceae
(b) Family: Thalassiosiraceae
(c) Family: Coscinodiscaceae
(d) Family: Asterolampraceae
(e) Family: Heliopeltaceae
(f) Family: Strictodicaceae
(g) Family: Hemidiscaceae
(2) Suborder: Rhizosoleniineae
(a) Family: Pyxillaxeae
(b) Family: Rhizosoleniaceae
(c) Family: Chaetoceraceae
(3) Suborder: Bidulphiineae
(a) Family: Hemiaulaceae
 (b) Family: Biddulphiaceae
(c) Family: Eupodiscaceae

HABITAT

Diatom are one of the most prolific

phototrophic organisms on the plant. One of the
primary reasons that they are able to do this is
because the fact that they can live virtually
everywhere and they do so in substantial numbers.

It’s impressive to think that they are one of the

few organisms that can live in open ocean, polar
waters, tropical waters, all fresh water areas, soil,
snow and even glacial ice. The different species of
diatoms though have to develop different adaptations
to survive within each environment.

Open Ocean:

The species that live in Open Ocean diatoms have a lesser pressure from predation
then in some other environments, but they have a greater pressure from the lack of some key
element that they need for growth. The largest is often iron and diatoms develop special
mechanism to obtain and retain iron. But it still causes a large limitation to their growth. Another
key element that diatoms also will experience a lack of is nitrogen in a usable from. Although,
this isn’t always a large problem especially in areas of Open Ocean where there is also
populations of cyanobateria that will produce nitrate the diatoms will be able to use. Then the
last major element that they need that may end up being a restricting agent is silicon
concentration in the water. Although, silicon concentrations are almost in sufficient supply if it
is in short supply then diatoms will be unable to reproduce at a sufficient rate because they
will be unable to produce their famous frustules. Also, since there isn’t a complete dissociation
of all the dead and discarded diatom frustules there is a mild decrease in the concentration of
silicon in the environment. Although, they are the most dominate primary producers of these
ecosystems.

Polar Water:

The species that live in polar

waters are going to often have
ample nutrients due to ocean
currents and the abundance of life
adding iron and nitrogen to the
water through various means. But
they have to adapt to have a good
portion of the year being enveloped
in darkness and not being able to
photosynthesis. They either
develop into vegetative cells or they
resort to heterotrophic methods.
This allows them to be the primary
production in polar ecosystems.
Tropical Waters:

The species that live in tropical

waters have a large amount of
competition and probably the
greatest pressure from predation
than any other habitat. They typically
have slightly thick frustules and have
protecting adaptations within their
frustules to prevent predation. They
don’t have to worry about any
nutrients though since tropical
waters have typically high
concentrations of just about all the
element that organisms need to live.
The dominance of diatoms will vary
in tropical waters. The dominant primary producers in these will often be some form of algae,
or if it’s a reef system it will often be the dinoflagellates that are in association with the coral.
Even so diatoms typically have a strong foot hold in these waters and are able to be very
prevalent and end up still producing a large degree of the net primary production.

Fresh Water:

The fresh water habitats of

diatoms’ include lakes, rivers,
streams, marshes, swamps, est.
they grow in all fresh water habitats.
There are almost never special
adaptations for obtaining the scarce
elements that they need for growth.
Although, if they are in rivers or
streams they often have to develop
mechanisms to allow them to stay
relatively steady and prevent them
all form getting washed down the
river. These often come in forms of
the diatoms attaching themselves to
various surfaces that will allow them
to be steady or they will grow in the
upper part of the sediment which
allows light to still permeate down to
them but prevents them from
washing away. Then in lakes,
marshes and swamps they don’t
typically have any issues with growth
because there is relatively little flow
to the water so their basic buoyancy
is enough to allow them to stay in the
areas with relatively no problem. In
these habitats though do have a fair
competition, which comes from
various fresh water plants such as
water lilies, cat tails, duck weed and others. The competition isn’t extremely intense though so
because light is still able to move past the plants and still reach them, as well as, the fact that
diatoms are able to use some wave lengths of light that plants aren’t able to use very well.
Also, diatoms are able to photosynthesis year around if the light is available. This allows
diatoms to be very effect in these habitats.

Soil:

Some species of diatoms are able to grow in moist soils. They have to develop new
mechanisms that allow them to withstand a more dynamic temperature are as well as
mechanisms that allow them to maintain water more effectively. They are often growing in field
soils rather than wooded soils because of the light and they also usually are pennale species
that are able to move, (more about movement in facts), usually by a slimy substance that they
excrete. Well there are very few of these species, it is impressive that they are able to establish
themselves in such a large amount of soil.

Glacial Ice:

There have been diatoms found in

glacial ice. This is impressive. They
have to live in extremely limited
environment. Having little silica, iron,
nitrogen and sometimes even
gasses they are inherently smaller
and extremely slow growing. They
also have to be able to form a
vegetative cyst whenever there isn’t
enough light present which would
allow them to produce energy and all
their organic molecules. Simply an
example of how far they can go and
how many places that they are able
to grow.

ADAPTATIONS

Diatoms are extremely

unique organisms. They are
extremely abundant photosynthetic
algae, with a few exceptions which
are heterotrophic or mixatrophic.
They store energy in the form of oils
and they usually produce extra
cellular polysaccharides. But on top
of it all they have cell walls. Their cell
walls aren’t made of cellulose or
peptidoglycan or any other complex
organic molecule. Instead they are
surrounded in a silica (glass) cell
wall which is often call frustules.
 Now they are also highly
evolved to photosynthesis and they
are one of the most productive
photosynthetic groups of organisms
on earth. 20 to 25 percent of the total
global net primary production is done
by these organisms. Several of their
adaptations allow them to do this.
Three of the big ones are that they are
able to store energy as oils which also
helps them with staying higher in the
water column, they have the strong
silica frustules that pprotects them
from a large amount of predation
(more on the frustules in reproduction and facts), and they are able to grow virtually
everywhere on the plant. There are species of diatoms that live in the soil, the snow, ice, arctic
waters, Antarctic waters, tropical waters, rivers, and possible even more places (more at
habitat). This allows them to be extremely prolific primary produces and a large portion of the
base in many ecosystems.

Other specific adaptations will vary greatly between the 200,000 estimated species.
Although, very few species have developed any adaptations that cause them to consistently
form or need to participate in a symbiotic relationships.

Different diatom species have specific adaptations to their specific habitats that will be
covered in habitats rather than here.

NUTRITION

Diatoms are mostly phototrophic organism with a few species that are mixatrophic and
even fewer that are solely heterotrophic. With nutrients and growth factors, they require all the
same ones that other eukaryotic organisms do but on top of that they also require greater
amounts silicon, for their frustules. They obtain this silicon from the environment where it is
dissolved in the form of silicic acid.

The oceans usually sufficient silicic acid

concentration for diatoms to grow effectively but there is
rather large areas where iron concentrations are low
which leads to limited growth in diatoms. This usually
only occurs in open waters.

Unlike with land plants the carbon that diatoms fix

almost never goes into long term storage. Instead it ends
up being used for cell division and reproduction or they
get eaten as a strong base for marine and aquatic
ecosystems.

Some diatoms aren’t sole photoautotrophic. The species that can be heterotrophic are
mostly pennale species that live in the benthic regions. In polar waters they have been found
in a confusing symbiosis with sponges. The symbiosis a mutualism and a parasitism part to it.
The mutualism part of the symbiosis occurs when the diatoms are able to have enough light
to produce the energy to cover their
metabolic demand that; well, the
parasitic part occurs when the diatoms
are unable to produce enough energy to
cover their metabolic demand they shift
to eating the sponge, so in low light to no
light conditions. During the mutualism
part of the symbiosis the sponges
provides protection to the diatoms from
predation and the diatoms provide
energy in the form of extracellular
polysaccharides, which most diatoms
produce, and they assist as support for
the sponge. But during the parasitic part
of the symbiosis the diatoms being
unable to fulfill their metabolic demand
begin to consume the sponge to prevent them from becoming vegetative and allowing them
to continue to divide. The diatoms in these situations end up being facultative parasite and
facultative mutualism depending on time of year and if the area in which the host sponge is
growing has sufficient light to prevent the diatoms from becoming parasitic.

REPRODUCTION

Diatoms like all of protists are

able to undergo sexual and asexual
reproduction; also, like all protists they
predominately reproduction asexually.
The mechanism they use to reproduce
asexually is simple mitosis. But they
have a slight problem. They are incased
in a class shell. They way its put
together though is very useful for
reproduction though. The frustules fits
together like a Petri dish, a larger valve
called the epitheca and the smaller
valve called the hypotheca. When they
divide each cell ends up taking one of
the valves for its epitheca. They then
proceed to secreting the hypotheca.

There are several problems their form of asexual reproduction. Such as one of the
cells is going to be continuously be getting smaller and smaller. That isn’t constructive for the
cells. They find the solution to that though their method of sexual reproduction.

Like many protest for sexual reproduction there has to be particular triggers that cause
diatoms to take the sexual reproduction path way such as unfavorable conditions, predations,
time of year, ect. In the case of diatoms there are several possible triggers. They could be the
cell has gotten too small, one of the valves was damaged (often the larger older one), the
conditions are unfavorable and they have to form a vegetation cyst, and sometimes it’s just
random.
 Well to process by which diatoms go through sexual reproduction is rather complex.
First of all one of the cells forms the male gametes, this if often a smaller cell, first the cell
divides into several smaller diploid cells that are called spermatogonia and they remain within
the frustule until it opens and then they undergo meiosis to form haploid sperm. Then for the
female gametes there is three pathways in which it can go depending on species. The first is
they form oogonia (protective mucus around diatom eggs) containing two eggs. This way it
starts out undergoing and equal cytokinesis in the first division of meiosis and the during the
second meiosis there is no cytokinesis. The second is an oogonia containing a single egg and
a polar body. This way starts by undergoing and unequal cell division after the first cell division
and then the second division it does the same as the first form. Then the third form is an
oogonia containing a single egg. It is formed by reductions divisions where there is no
cytokinesis present and ends up forming one large active nucleus formed by two smaller
pycnotic nuclei around it. These are also evolutionary steps and the third form is the most
derived form of how the eggs are developed and the first form is the most primitive form of
egg development.
 Then fertilization takes place by the sperm cell approaching the egg and interning the
oogonial thecae (outer coat of the oogonia) through a sperm channel. It then goes and gets to
the egg cell and binds to it and from a zygote.

The zygote of a diploid cell is called an auxospore and it is virtually a diatom without
the silica shell. During this time the cell grows rapidly but doesn’t divide. It undergoes and
incomplete mitosis lacking cytokinesis forming the epitheca on the inside of the auxospore.
Then one of the nuclei is removed or broken down by the cell. The cell repeats the process
again to produce the hypotheca. This process ending with a complete internalized diatom cell
with everything including frustule. Then the auxospore lyses open releasing the newly formed
full size diatoms cell.

There are variations of this between the different phyla, classes, and orders.

INTERACTIONS

Within, the base interaction for all

Diatoms specie is that they function as
the base of their food webs. This is
because they are extremely prevalent
and efficient primary producers,
contributing an estimated 20 to 25
percent of the World’s net primary
production every year. There are very few
species that for symbiosis with other
organism though, but they do hold a large
amount of human interests in various
ways.

When it comes to symbiosis

Diatoms they are in short supply.
However, some species do form a unique
symbiosis with polar sponges. The
species are almost always pennale,
benthonic, species of diatoms. The
symbiosis consists of two parts: a
mutualism and a parasitism. The two
parts will vary on time of year and the
location in which the sponge is growing. If
the diatom has enough light it will grow
without any problems and will produce
extracellular sugars that the sponge can
feed on, well the sponge provide protection to the diatom. Well if there isn’t enough light
present then the diatom begins to consume the sponge to prevent itself from going into a
vegetative state. For the diatom becoming a parasite allows it to just continuing to grow without
any problems but it also requires energy to consume the sponge that it is living in. So if enough
light is present it will follow through and photosynthesis because it is what is best for it. When
it all comes down to it, the sponge doesn’t matter to the diatom, they produce the extracellular
sugars anyway, with the sponge though, there is less threat of predation and no risk of being
forced into an unproductive vegetative state.
 The most common at uses by humans at this point in time is in the form of
diatomaceous earth, which is fossilized diatoms, which is used as: a dietary supplement,
filtration agents, used in paints to causes it to sparkle, some abrasives and some more.

Recently though diatoms have expanded beyond diatomaceous earth for humans to
use them. At Oregon State University and Portland State University diatoms have been used
to increases the likely hood that light would be trapped in solar panels. Possibly increasing a
new form of solar panel effectively by three times. The new solar panels worked by having a
photosensitive dye on it along with some titanium on it. The dye when hit my light releases
electrons that the titanium takes up to great an electrical current. They researchers first
effectively replaced silicon dioxide with titanium dioxide causing the frustules to be made out
of titanium instead of silicon. Then the organic material is removed from the diatoms and the
titanium frustules are in the panel with the dye and the idea is that the frustules would increase
the likely hood that the light would come in
contact with the dye because the frustules could
also trap the light. This did work and did increase
the panels effectively by roughly three times.
With the use of diatoms it allows cheaper more
effective solar cells compared to the previously
used silicon cells that were also environmentally
unsound.

Humans are also interested in diatoms

because of the possibility of using them as a fuel
source. It is starting to be put into development
to use diatoms to produce a sustainable carbon
natural energy source. This oil can be used to
run cars and power plants without taking up a
large amount of space or using food crops as an
energy source. With a little genetic engineering
they could be modified to secrete the oils much
as they do with many polysaccharides. This way they oil that they produce can be harvested
daily. This way they don’t have to be destroyed to harvest the oil allowing the process to occur
extremely quickly and at a constant rate.

Most of the content of this synopsis are mentioned in the UWL Website.mhtml.