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BESE-132

Guidance and
Indira Gandhi
Counselling
National Open University
School of Education

Block

2
TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURES
UNIT 5
Techniques of Guidance 5
UNIT 6
Guidance Programme 29
UNIT 7
Group Guidance 45
UNIT 8
Techniques of Counselling 61
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. Neerja Shukla (retd.) Dr. Swati Patra
NCERT, New Delhi SOSS, IGNOU
Prof. Jessy Abraham Dr. Eisha Kannadi
JMI, New Delhi SOE, IGNOU
Prof. M.C. Sharma (retd.) Dr. Gaurav Singh
SOE, IGNOU SOE, IGNOU
Prof. N.K. Dash Dr. Elizabeth Kuruvilla
SOE, IGNOU SOE, IGNOU

PROGRAMME COORDINATION
Prof. Saroj Pandey Dr. Gaurav Singh
SOE, IGNOU SOE, IGNOU

COURSE TEAM (PRE-REVISED)


Course Contribution
Dr. L.V. Reddy Dr. Kanchan Bala
CIRTES, Min. of Labour, Delhi Formerly Consultant
Ms. Poonam Jain IGNOU
School Counsellor, Delhi Dr. Jyoti Bawane
Dr. Seema Veena Research Scholar
Formerly Consultant, IGNOU RIE, Mysore

COURSE TEAM (REVISED)


Course Contribution Content Editing
Dr. L.V. Reddy Prof. Jessy Abraham
CIRTES, Min. of Labour, Delhi JMI, New Delhi
Ms. Poonam Jain Dr. Eisha Kannadi
School Counsellor, Delhi SOE, IGNOU
Dr. Seema Veena Language & Format Editing
Formerly Consultant, IGNOU
Dr. Eisha Kannadi
Dr. Kanchan Bala SOE, IGNOU
Formerly Consultant, IGNOU
Course Coordination
Dr. Jyoti Bawane
RIE, Mysore Dr. Eisha Kannadi
SOE, IGNOU
Dr. Eisha Kannadi (Unit 8)
SOE, IGNOU

Material Production
Prof. Saroj Pandey Mr. S.S. Venkatachalam
Director A.R. (Publication)
School of Education School of Education
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
October, 2017
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2017
ISBN-978-93-???????????
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other
means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the
University’s Office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-l10068.
Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by Director,
School of Education, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Laser Typeset by Tessa Media & Computers, C-206, A.F.E.-II, Okhla, New Delhi.
Printed at:
BESE-132: Guidance and Counselling

BLOCK 1 Introduction to Guidance and Counselling


Unit 1 Understanding Guidance and Counselling
Unit 2 Guidance in the School
Unit 3 Personnel in the Guidance Programme
Unit 4 Counselling in Schools

Block 2 Techniques and Procedures


Unit 5 Techniques of Guidance
Unit 6 Guidance Programme
Unit 7 Group Guidance
Unit 8 Techniques of Counselling
Block 3 Career Development
Unit 9 Nature of Work and Career Development
Unit 10 Occupational Information
Unit 11 Career Patterns
Unit 12 Career Development of Girls in India
Block 4 Guiding Students with Special Needs
Unit 13 Guiding Students with Disabilities
Unit 14 Socio-Emotional Problems of Students with Disability
Unit 15 Behavioural Problems of Students
Unit 16 Mental Health and Stress Management
Techniques and Procedures
BLOCK 2 TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURES
Block Introduction
In Block 1 we introduced the concept of guidance and counselling. After reading
the Units, you may have developed an understanding of the process of guidance,
the personnel involved in school guidance programme, the role of teachers in
school guidance programme, the meaning of counselling, the different approaches
to counselling, and the different types and areas of counselling that can be offered
in school setting. Block 2 aims to provide you specific understanding about the
techniques and procedures for carrying out guidance and counselling.

In Unit 5 Techniques of Guidance, we discuss the different techniques of


guidance. There are non-standardized and standardized techniques of guidance.
The understanding of these techniques would help you to provide appropriate
guidance to your students.

Unit 6 is titled Guidance Programme. This Unit provides you an understanding


of various guidance services that can be offered in school which include
orientation, pupil inventory, occupational information, counselling, placement,
and follow up services. Organizing school guidance programme is an important
task of the teachers. Another important function is the evaluation of the ongoing
guidance programme in the school. These two aspects are also discussed in the
Unit.

The concept of group guidance is introduced in Unit 7 Group Guidance. We


have discussed the principles of group guidance and the various group activities
teachers can conduct in schools. How to organize group guidance activities, the
difficulties in organizing group activities and the limitations of group activities
are other points for discussion in this Unit.

In Units 1 and 4, we discussed the meaning, definition, different theoretical


perspectives and areas of counselling. In Unit 8 Techniques of Counselling, we
begin with describing various skills required to be a counsellor. Behavioural and
cognitive interventions are used by counselors to facilitate the healing process
of clients. We have discussed in detail the various techniques used in making
these interventions. Transactional analysis is another tool we have discussed in
the Unit which would help you to understand the effective and ineffective aspects
of our personality. At the end we have discussed the characteristics of effective
counselors which would help you analyse your effectiveness as a counsellor.

4
Techniques of Guidance
UNIT 5 TECHNIQUES OF GUIDANCE

Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 Techniques of Guidance
5.4 Non-standardized Techniques
5.4.1 The Questionnaire
5.4.2 Observation
5.4.3 Sociometry
5.4.4 Autobiography
5.4.5 Rating Scales
5.4.6 Anecdotal Record
5.4.7 Case Study
5.4.8 Cumulative Record
5.4.9 Interviews
5.5 Standardized Techniques
5.5.1 Aptitude Tests
5.5.2 Achievement Tests
5.5.3 Interest Inventory
5.5.4 Personality Tests
5.6 Let Us Sum Up
5.7 Unit-end Exercises

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Children come into the world genetically endowed with all their human potential
for growing, developing and learning. You, as a parent or teacher have an exciting
opportunity as you become part of a team of adults interacting with young children
and stimulating the development of their human potential through careful and
thoughtful guidance techniques. A child’s natural endowment requires a rich
environment with thoughtful nurturing and guidance if the human potential
contained in each child is to reach full bloom in order to contribute fully to
improve the quality of human life.

Guidance is one of the means employed by educationists to develop the human


potential. The child learns from a teacher not only mastery over a subject, but
also values, attitudes and habits.

5.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through the unit, you should be able to:
• explain the term techniques of guidance;
• describe the major techniques of guidance;
• enlist different non-standardized and standardized techniques of guidance;
• identify non-standardized and standardized techniques of guidance;
5
Techniques and Procedures • use different techniques of guidance in school settings; and
• discuss the techniques of guidance in education.

5.3 TECHNIQUES OF GUIDANCE


Guidance is the help given by one person to another in making choices and
adjustments and in solving problems. Guidance aims at aiding the recipient to
grow in independence and ability to be responsible for one’s own self. It is a
service that is universal – not confined to the school or the family. It is found in
all sectors of life – in the home, in business and industry, in government, in
social life, in hospitals and in prisons; indeed it is present wherever there are
people who need help and who provide help.

The techniques which are generally employed by guidance workers for collecting
basic data about a person are either standardized or non-standardized ones. The
non-standardized techniques are case study, interview, ratingscales, questionnaire,
observation, sociometry, biography, cumulative record, and anecdotal records.
The standardized techniques are tools of measuring interests, intelligence,
aptitudes and personality traits. Both the categories of techniques are used in
getting primary data. All the techniques are useful. The only consideration which
the guidance worker should keep in mind is that the techniques employed should
give reliable and objective information. Standardized tests of intelligence, interests
and aptitudes provide reliable and valid information. They are reusable, less
time consuming and can be scored easily. Non-standardized techniques used in
the study of human beings are also helpful, and sometimes give more useful
information than that given by standardized tests. For example, autobiography
which is a non-standardized technique does provide clues and insights into the
emotional problems of a person as well as hopes and aspirations. Similarly, case
study helps the counsellor in understanding the whole individual.The use of a
technique, however, depends upon what the guidance worker wants to get out of
it.

5.4 NON-STANDARDIZED TECHNIQUES


Non-standardized techniques are commonly employed for individual analysis
by counsellors in various settings. These techniques provide a broader, varying
and more subjective approach to data gathering and interpretation for human
assessment. We shall now discuss various non-standardized techniques of
guidance.

5.4.1 The Questionnaire


A questionnaire is a list of questions to be answered by an individual or a group
of individuals, especially to get facts or information. It should be elaborated to
match with other techniques. Questions are designed to get information about
conditions and practices about which the respondents are presumed to have the
knowledge. The questions in a questionnaire are basically of two types – the
closed and the open type. In the open type, questions require the individual to
think and write. For example, what is your favourite sport? The closed type
question requires the answer in the form ‘yes’ or ‘no’ or in a limited number of
given categories. The open type questionnaire is time consuming and requires
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special skill in interpreting the responses. The closed type questionnaire can be Techniques of Guidance
easily scored, interpreted and is more objective.
i) Closed-ended Questions
• Gender Male/Female
• How often do you watch Discovery Channel on TV?
Every day/once in a week/Occasionally/Never
ii) Open-ended Questions
• Which types of programmes do you like to watch on TV?
• What steps would you like to take to improve science teaching in your
school?
Questions should be few in number and simple to be understood and answered.
They should directly cover the point of information.
This technique has its limitations. However, it is very often used to obtain factual
data.

5.4.2 Observation
In this technique behaviour is studied through observation by a trained observer.
The effectiveness of the technique depends upon the skillfulness of the observer.
The observer is expected to observe well defined behaviours free from biases
and prejudices.

Observational techniques are useful in the study of students and individuals but
their usefulness depends upon the manner and purpose with which they are
conducted.

5.4.3 Sociometry
The purpose of this technique is to study the nature of social relationship of
individual within a group. It offers an opportunity to identify personality problems,
especially in isolates and the rejected. Isolatesare students who remain alone
with no relationships in the class. Rejected students are disliked by other students.
The technique is a useful source of information for appraisal of social behaviour
of students.

There are usually three types of sociometric techniques: (i) the nomination (ii)
the social acceptance and (iii) the ‘who’s who’ or ‘guess who’. In the nomination
techniques the student is asked to select and name his/her peers in terms of some
criterion suggested by the teacher. For example, the teacher may ask students to
name three best friends in the class. In the social acceptance technique, levels of
social relationship are stated and the student is asked to express his/her sociometric
choice. In the ‘Guess who’ technique, brief descriptions of various types of
students are provided and they are asked to guess who in the class matches with
the description. For example, one of the statements may be ‘The boy is always in
trouble with his parents’, who?

The sociometric data are presented in the form of a sociogram which shows
attractions and repulsions within a group and helps the teacher and the counsellor
in discovering the problems of students in relation to the group.
7
Techniques and Procedures 5.4.4 Autobiography
You might have read autobiographies of great personalities. An autobiography is
a description of an individual in his/her own words. As a guidance technique for
studying the individual, it gives valuable information about the individual’s
interests, abilities, personal history, hopes, ambitions, likes, dislikes, etc. In
guidance, structured autobiographic items are given to the individual and he/she
is asked to write them out. The autobiographical material thus obtained is verified
by various other means. Since feelings, values and attitudes cannot be measured
by any other technique, autobiography appears to be the one technique for
appraising these characteristics.

5.4.5 Rating Scales


In this technique presence or absence or a behaviour or trait in a person is rated
in terms of quantity and quality. You might be rating your students’ performance,
handwriting, habits and many other aspects in your day-to-day teaching. For
example, Ashok has done better than Meena in Mathematics but Meena scored
the highest in Hindi. Ram is taller than Shyam but Shyam is taller than Nitesh.
The world ‘rate’ means judging somebody or estimating the value of something.
The guidance worker, who has observed the individual in many situations, gives
his/her judgments. In a rating scheme each student is judged on the same general
traits and judgments are expressed in the form of a scale on which are marked
‘very poor – poor – average – good – very good’. For contrast and convenience
these ratings are shown graphically on profiles.

A rating scale is a selected list of ‘words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs, following


which an observer records a value or rating based on some objective scale of
values’. It is a special kind of checklist in which the items or characteristics
checked are rated quantitatively or qualitatively according to the degree of
presence or absence of a trait, the degree or perfection of a skill or the degree of
completion of a task.

In a rating scale, the characteristics are rated according to given number of points.
The points are in terms of grades or numbers. For example, meeting strangers
may present a serious problem to one individual and no problem at all to another.
Between these two extremes, the seriousness of the problem may differ from
one individual to another. The ratings may be qualitative or quantitative. For
example, seriousness of the problem may be rated as below:
Qualitative Rating Quantitative Rating Grading
Never a problem 0 E
Seldom a problem 1 D
Occasionally a problem 2 C
Fairly serious problem 3 B
Serious problem 4 A

Characteristic situations in which rating scales are used given below. These are
the situations when no other technique gives reliable and valid measurements of
the individual’s characteristics seeking educational or vocational guidance.

8
1) Areas which cannot be objectively measured. Techniques of Guidance

2) Rating scales are used to supplement the information collected by


standardized psychological tests. For example, a test of achievement is
administered to a class of students. The test results can be verified with the
help of ratings the class teacher has given to them.
3) In situations when the guidance worker wants to collect information about
many things and many students in a short-time, teacher’s ratings could be
obtained.
4) In situations when the construction of standardized toolsfor studying the
individual require special expertise, money and time, information can be
obtained through rating scales which are relatively easy to prepare.
5) In guidance and counselling when self-analysis and self-evaluation by the
client is needed. Self-rating scale provides useful information for self-analysis
which leads to better self-understanding.
Limitations of Rating Scales
1) Rating scale is an observational technique and has its limitations like other
observational techniques. Unless the guidance worker understands clearly
the purpose of rating, the data obtained from ratings are not dependable.
2) Rating scales require necessary expertise and understanding on the part of
the observers and any one is not suited for this job.
3) Ratings by some raters are too low while by others they are too high. With
proper care this shortcoming can be removed.

Types of Rating Scales: Some of the frequently used rating scales include: (a)
descriptive, (b) graphic, (c) forced choice, (d) the paired comparison, and (e)rank
order.

a) Descriptive Rating Scales: These are used to assess a personality trait, an


attitude or behaviour of a person. The following is an example of a descriptive
rating scale to assess the behaviour of an individual. In the first column you
have a number of phrases describing varying degrees of helpfulness arranged
in order which may be descending or ascending.
Always Usually Occasionally Never
i) Helpful to others - - - -
ii) Does what he is asked - - - -
iii) Likes to try new things - - - -
iv) Likes to go on trips - - - -

The above is an example of a rating scale for systematic appraisal of real


life behaviour. The observer selects the phrase that applies or comes closer
to describing the trait under consideration.

b) Graphic Rating Scale: In a graphic rating scale an attempt is made to


characterize degrees of a trait by brief description. The line showing the
presence of a trait in an individual is divided into 3, 5 or 7 points.
9
Techniques and Procedures An example of graphic rating scale is given below which measures
persistence of effort.
1 2 3 4 5
Gives up at Leaves after Tries to do Keeps trying Never leaves,
the slightest making some everything inspite of persists till the
difficulty trials inspite possible and repeated goal is
of difficulties then gives up failures achieved

The teacher places a mark at a point which describes the trait possessed. A
check mark may be placed in between if necessary.

c) The Choice Method: Forced choice rating scale forces the rater to choose
between two alternatives such as True or False. The two alternatives appear
to be similar, nevertheless only one statement reflects the presence or absence
of the trait. The rater is forced to make a choice. A number of such statements
are given and the rater has to choose only one of the two from each pair.

When the rater chooses A or B, his/her exact opinion is sought.

d) The Paired Comparison Rating Scale: These scales use as points of


reference certain typical students known by those being rated and then a
comparison is made. An example follows: Students Shashi, Prabha and
Roshan are typical students. The first is highly cooperative, the second is
average, the third never cooperates with others. The trait measured is the
degree of cooperation.

Never cooperates Cooperates Always ready to


like Roshan like Prabha cooperate like Shashi

e) Rank Order Method: In this method a group of students are ranked


according to a certain trait by as many teachers separately as who teach
them. Then an average rank is obtained for each student.

Check Your Progress


Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
1) List any three limitations of a rating scale.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2) List the different types of rating scales. Describe any one of them in
brief.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
10
5.4.6 Anecdotal Record Techniques of Guidance

An anecdotal record contains short descriptive accounts about some events


regarding a student. Every account is a report of a significant episode in the life
of a student. It is a simple statement of an incident deemed by the observer to be
significant with respect to a given student. When such reports describing, on the
spot, some incidents are recorded so that they may be of some significance, they
are collectively known as an anecdotal record.

An anecdote may be compared to a snapshot of an isolated incident of the


behaviour of the student, which suggests some special significance. Just as a
camera catches the pose of an individual at a given time, similarly the anecdote
should report exactly the behaviour observed. If we accept the uniqueness of the
individual as a basic principle of guidance, this word snapshot is of immense
significance to us for guidance purposes. An individual’s behaviour is always in
response to some felt need. For example, desire for affection or threat to his/her
security may cause him/her to show certain strange behaviour. A teacher should
note it down at once, i.e. he/she should have a word snapshot.

Such word snapshots written by as many teachers as they meet individual students,
in as many situations as possible, give a true picture of the students’ behaviour
pattern or his/her personality.

Maintaining anecdotal records: An anecdotal record is the result of observation


by a teacher about the specific behaviour of the student in a situation. It is written
down to get a better understanding of the student because the teacher may forget
the incident if it is not written down. The teacher writes down what s/he observes
and does not give any remarks. S/he may describe the behaviour and say something
by way of comment or s/he may describe the behaviour and suggest possible
remedial measures.

What to observe: A proforma is supplied to each teacher to note down his/her


observation. It contains date, place, incident and remarks on the proforma
supplied. Directions to the teachers are given indicating that they must record
the child’s behaviour, by making their statements descriptive and specific to
avoid vague/general remarks. Their descriptions should be statements of what
happened, for example, came late by half an hour without an excuse for previous
day’s absence, did not obey instructions and showed defiance.

Areas to be noted down:Haphazardly noting down bits of information serves


no purpose. Hence, in the proforma supplied, areas are clearly marked, on which
observations are to be made. An anecdotal record is a record with a purpose. For
example, a boy’s interest in industrial work may be exhibited by his article on
the visit to a local factory. A girl’s interest in a literary magazine may be indicative
of her literary taste. A teacher can find many such occurrences in the life of his/
her students, of which he/she has to make a note. For example, a boy’s comment
on a radio newscast is a good item for an anecdotal record if he is interested in
studying the text for current history. A girl’s comment on some recent scientific
invention may show her interest in science. An anecdotal record is of special
interest in understanding social and emotional behaviours. If a boy is found sitting
alone when all are rejoicing and making merry in a holiday excursion, shows
that he has some emotional problems.
11
Techniques and Procedures Longitudinal Approach: Only those anecdotal records are of any help to the
guidance worker, in which behaviours of an individual are described over a long
period of time. Longitudinal anecdotal records maintained from the nursery school
to the high school are very useful. The anecdotal record file should not contain
irrelevant material. The file should be scrutinized from time-to-time and irrelevant
material may be removed. Anecdotal records pertaining to all aspects of life
should be maintained.

Every teacher in the school should be provided with forms to write down the
incidents about students as and when they occur. A few basic considerations to
be kept in mind are given below:
1) The form should be short and informal.
2) Reports should be of some significant episodes. The episode described should
show a marked tendency from the norm of the individual or the group.
3) The anecdotes should be written about all students and not just about the
high achiever or the problematic ones i.e., stereotypes.
4) The anecdotes should be the reports of the actual observations and written
just after the events.
5) A single incident is of no value.
6) Both positive and negative incidents of behaviour should be noted down.
7) We should know what to look for, where to look for and how to record.
Uses of anecdotal records
1) Anecdotal records supply useful information about the individual’s
personality characteristics, reactions to different situations, interests in
studies/vocation and interpersonal relationships. They give a realistic picture
of students’ personality.
2) Anecdotal records are of special value in indicating social and emotional
situations.
3) Anecdotal records are very useful in fields where formal measurements are
very difficult. For example, in judging sociability, social alertness, social
behaviour, attitudes, acceptance of personal responsibility and work habits.
4) A healthy teacher-pupil relationship is established when teachers are asked
by the school organization to write down anecdotal reports.
5) Systematically kept anecdotal records provide an exceedingly valuable
information to the counsellor.

Check Your Progress


Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
3) Write any three considerations you would like to keep in mind while
maintaining anecdotal records of students.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

12
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5.4.7 Case Study Techniques of Guidance

A case study is defined as a collection of all available information – social,


physiological, biographical, environmental, vocational – that promises to help
explain a single individual. A case study is a comprehensive collection of
information gathered using different tools and techniques of data collection. It is
the most important technique and the best method of studying the whole
individual. Its purpose is to say positively and with confidence that, as far as
possible, all sources of information have been tapped and all kinds of data have
been gathered about the client. In case study, information about the individual is
so organized and combined into a whole that the individual studied is viewed as
a dynamic one trying to adjust to the environment in which he is. The main
object behind a case study is to observe the individual as a whole.

Behind a case study there is always a large developmental view. The counsellor
is interested not only in diagnosing the problem and suggesting suitable remedies,
but s/he is also interested in bringing about a better adjustment. A detailed case
study is conducted for bringing about a better adjustment of the person who is
the subject of investigation. The counsellor looks for the strengths and weaknesses,
abilities and disabilities to plan possible ways of development and proper growth
of the individual.
Facts to be collected in a case study
A case study about a person presents basic information on the following topics:
a) the physical, socio-economic and cultural environment
b) the history and present status of the family
c) personal history of the individual.
a) The physical, socio-economic and cultural environment:The physical
environment includes the neighbourhood in which the individual has grown
up and now lives, rural/urban, working/middle class surroundings, living in
own/rented/makeshift home, small/large house etc. The socio-economic
environment refers to the society in which the individual is brought up and
its condition regarding material prosperity. Are the people among whom
the individual lives farmers, businessmen, or professional people? Does
the community provide playground facilities and youth activities?

Cultural environment – What are the ways of life, ideals and points of view
of those among whom one lives? Are they well educated and prosperous?

b) Family: Many diverse information about the family has to be collected to


understand the characteristics of the individual being studied.
What isthe status of health and physique of the family members – father,
mother, brothers and sisters? Are most of these members active, lethargic,
strong or frail?
What is the educational or occupational status of the family members? What
are their special abilities or disabilities?
Is there harmony in the family or is it a broken family? Does the individual
get proper care and security? What has been the attitude of the parents
towards the individual – affectionate, indifferent, dominating or interfering?
13
Techniques and Procedures What about the emotional adjustment of the family members? Are they
moody, cheerful, short tempered, aggressive, timid, reserved, or uninhibited?
Is there any conflict in the family?

What about the social status of the family? Is it a progressive family? Is the
family well accepted or isolated in the community? Has it fallen into disrepute
or is held in high esteem?

c) Personal history of the individual under study: The study of the individual
is to be made in a similar way as done under family history.

Individual’s physical health – Has the physical growth been normal as shown
by height, weight measurements or by age, of walking, talking and reaching
puberty? Has there been some illness or physical defects, for example, those
of hearing and vision? Is the individual by appearance active, vigorous or
ailing? What are the findings of the medical check-ups?

Individual’s abilities – Has the individual been given tests of intelligence?


What is his ability? Has his mental development been normal or has he
developed certain faculties earlier than normal? Has he done well or poorly
at school?

Emotional development – Is he emotionally mature or unstable? Does he


show strong antagonism, jealousy or affection? Is he timid, anxious, worried,
nervous or withdrawing? Is he bad-tempered or hard to control? Is he good-
natured and overconfident?

Social development – What is his position in the family? Is he the only


child, a favoured child or the eldest child? How does s/he get along with
siblings? How does s/he get along with his classmates? Is s/he shy or retiring?
Is s/he a leader, follower or isolate? Is s/he a bully who uses his/her strength
or power to hurt others? Does s/he show manners which are disliked by his/
her companions? Is s/he in the habit of antagonizing others?

Ideals and attitudes - Is s/he a person who believes in ideals? Has s/he
sophisticated tastes? Has s/he ever been a delinquent? Hass/he ever created
troubles at home, in the school and in the community?

Above stated are some of the many details which should be secured before
the case is diagnosed. The data about the individual so collected should be
interpreted keeping in view the total picture. Keeping in mind all the
information collected about the environment the family and his/her own
development, an appraisal is made of the total person. An explanation is
given as to what has made him/her what s/he is and recommendations are
offered as to what should be the most appropriate action in the light of these
findings.

Difficulties in making a case study – Making a case study is not easy. It is


too complicated and time consuming. It may also become too subjective if
the person who prepares the case study is not skilled. Preparing a complete
case study for each child is also not feasible in the classroom. A teacher may
take up one or two cases for studying them.

14
Techniques of Guidance
Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
4) List the three main topics/headings you would collect information in a
case study technique.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

5.4.8 Cumulative Record


It is a record of information concerned with the appraisal of an individual student.
The information which is obtained periodically through various sources,
techniques, tests, interviews, observations, case study and the like, is assembledin
a summary form on a cumulative record card, so that it may be used when the
student needs advice for the solution of some educational or vocational problem.

The cumulative record has been defined as “a method of recording, filing and
using information essential for the guidance of students”. A cumulative record
card supplies information on points such as the following:
a) Personal: (i) name, (ii) date of birth, (iii) place of birth, (iv) sex, (v) colour,
(vi) residence.
b) Home: (i) names of parents, (ii) occupations of the parents, (iii) parents
alive or dead, (iv) economic status, (v) number of siblings, older or younger,
(vi) language spoken at home.
c) Test scores: (i) general intelligence, (ii) achievement, (iii) other test scores,
and (iv) personality traits.
d) School attendance: (i)days present or absent each year, (ii) schools attended
with dates.
e) Health:record of physical disabilities, vaccination record, diseases suffered
from.
f) Miscellaneous: (i) vocational plans, (ii) extracurricular activities, (iii)
employment during studies, and (iv) counsellor’s note.
If we analyse the items recorded on a cumulative record card, we find that only
such items are included as are recorded in a case study. Data collected through
non-standardized techniques like checklists, questionnaires, autobiographies do
not find a place in the record card file. It must be remembered that recording and
filing of information are not as important as using the information.
Need and Importance of Cumulative Record
The cumulative records about students provide useful information to teachers,
counsellors and administrators. The need and importance of cumulative records
in guidance are given below:
15
Techniques and Procedures Importance in Guidance
i) The basic principle and assumptions of guidance take into consideration
individual differences. Every individual differs from the other in some
psychological character, quality or trait. For example, no two individuals
are alike. They differ from each other as far as interests, aptitudes and abilities
are concerned. Cumulative records reveal such individual differences and
indicate the nature and amount of professional assistance needed by
individual students at various stages of their development.

ii) The cumulative record is a permanent history of the educational development


of the individual student. It indicates his/her attendance, health, achievement
and various other aspects of school life. Hence it is useful in analyzing the
future needs of the individual student and proper educational and
occupational guidance can be offered on the basis of his needs. For example,
if it indicates the weaknesses in the physical development of the student,
steps to remove those weaknesses can be suggested.

Importance in Teaching
i) The cumulative record of an individual student indicates if the achievements
are in proportion to his/her mental abilities. If the student is under achieving
he/she can be guided as to what steps he/she should take to remedy the
defect.
ii) The cumulative records of different students help the teacher in classifying
students in accordance with scholastic aptitudes and mental abilities.
iii) The cumulative records of different students of a class help the new teacher
in understanding the needs of students.
iv) They are diagnostic tools to analyse a behaviour problem or an educational
one. For example, why is a student backward in academic performance?
What steps can be taken to remove his/her backwardness?
v) Cumulative records indicate to teachers about students who need individual
attention.
vi) Cumulative records help the teachers in writing reports about individual
students, and the principal in writing a character certificate most objectively.
vii) Teachers can locate children needing special help and adjust the teaching
accordingly.
viii) For making case studies the cumulative record is very useful to teachers,
because there is some similarity of items collected.
Importance to Administrators – Cumulative records give enough information
to the juvenile courts, probation officers for understanding the delinquent
behaviour of a student.

The cumulative record is needed by teachers/counsellors for the same reason as


that a cumulative record is maintained by a physician. Records maintained over
a long period of time tell the story of growth and deterioration of the client.

16
Characteristics of a Good Cumulative Record Techniques of Guidance

The following are the characteristics of a good cumulative record:

1) Information gathered should be complete, comprehensive and adequate so


that valid inferences may be drawn. It should be more comprehensive than
the progress report. Since the record is a permanent history of the educational
growth of a student it should give all types of relevant information needed
by a teacher or a guidance worker. For example, it should indicate the
vocational plans, the vocational choices, the assets and liabilities of the
student needed in vocational guidance.

2) Information recorded should be true and valid. Any information received


second-hand may have limited validity and reliability. Before preparing a
comprehensive model of a cumulative record, for example, for a high school
student who needs the guidance for a job, it should be decided what items
are needed for such a schedule. Like other tools of measurement, a cumulative
record can be valid only when it measures what it intends to measure.

3) Information to be reliable should be collected by a number of teachers and


then compiled. The reliability of a cumulative record depends upon the
caution with which information on different aspects of student growth are
gathered and assembled. All information so collected should come as a result
of personal contact with the student, not by one teacher but by a number of
teachers, who come in close contact with the student. Information received
second-hand should be verified.

4) A cumulative record should be re-evaluated from time-to-time.

5) A cumulative record should be objective and free from personal opinions


and prejudices. If bias, likes and dislikes enter in the collection of data, the
record will be unreliable.

6) It should be usable. A cumulative record may be card type, folder type or


booklet type. The folder type cumulative records are more popular because
they permit the inclusion of comprehensive information about the student.

Check Your Progress


Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
5) Discuss in brief the importance of cumulative records in teaching.
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17
Techniques and Procedures 5.4.9 Interviews
An interview is a conversation with a purpose. The purposes for which interviews
are arranged are introductory, fact finding, evaluative, informative and therapeutic
in nature. Another characteristic is the relationship between the interviewer and
the interviewee. The occasion should be used for a friendly informal talk. The
interviewee should be allowed to talk in a permissive atmosphere with confidence
and freedom.

Different Types of Interviews


Interviews differ with respect to the purpose that is kept in view. If the purpose is
to select a candidate for a post, it is an employment interview, but if the purpose
is to gather some facts or verify them it will be called a fact finding interview. So
interviews are classified on the basis of purpose. Interviews are categorized also
on the basis of the nature of relationship between the interviewer and the
interviewee. If in the interview the dominating figure is the counsellor, it is a
counsellor centered interview and if it is the client, then the interview is client
centered. The following are the major types of interviews:
1) An Employment Interview: The purpose behind such an interview is to
assess the fitness of a person for the job. The interviewer talks too much
and the interviewee too little. He simply answers the questions asked.
2) A Fact Finding Interview: The purpose of a fact finding interview is the
verification of facts and data collected from other sources.
3) Diagnostic Interview: The purpose of a diagnostic interview is remediation.
An effort is made by the interviewer to diagnose the problem of the
interviewee and find out symptoms. Necessary information is collected to
help the interviewee in solving a problem.
4) Counselling Interview: The purpose of a counselling interview is to provide
an insight, a suggestion, or a piece of advice to the interviewee. The
counselling session begins with the work of collecting information and
proceeds with guidance and finally ends with psychological treatment of
the problem.
5) Groups versus. Individual Interviews: When several persons are
interviewed in a group such an interview is known as a group interview, but
basically all group interviews are individual interviews because it is not the
group that is interviewee. The purpose behind a group interview is collecting
information and the knowledge of common problems facing the group. In
the individual interview the emphasis lies on the problems faced by the
individual.
Carl Rogers holds a divergent view about an individual interview. He says
that in an individual interview it is not the problem faced by the individual
which lies in the centre. The focus is on the individual himself/herself. The
aim of an individual interview is not to solve one problem, but to help the
interviewee to grow so that s/he may cope with the present and with problems
that may arise in future in a better integrated manner.
6) Authoritarian Vs. Non-authoritarian Type: In the authoritarian types of
interview, the client and his/her problems are submerged and the interviewer
18
dominates the interview because of the elevated position that he holds. The Techniques of Guidance
non-authoritarian rejects the authoritarian role. The interviewee may still
regard the interviewer as a man of authority, but the interviewer does not
act as an authoritarian. S/he accepts the feelings of the client and does not
reject them. S/he uses a variety of techniques during the interview such as
suggestion, persuasion, advice, reassurance, interpretation and giving
information.
7) Directive Vs. Non-directive Interviews: In the directive interview the
interviewer directs, shows the path through advice, suggestion, persuasion
or threat. But in a non-directive interview it is assumed that the interviewee
has the capacity to grow and develop. S/he has complete freedom to express
his/her feelings and emotions. The interviewer does not try to probe into the
past of the client, makes no suggestion. S/he does not try to re-educate or
change the client.
8) Structured Vs. Unstructured Interviews: In the structured interview a
definite set of questions is predetermined. The interviewer confines himself/
herself to pre-decided questions in the interview. In a structured interview
definite questions are asked. In an unstructured interview there is no such
restriction. The interviewer is free to give expression to his/her ideas. The
subject to be discussed is not determined in advance. The unstructured
interview sometimes provides information which on the face of it, may
appear to be trivial, but is extremely useful when an interpretation is made.
General Principles of Interview in Counselling Situation
The following are the guidelines to make an interview successful:
1) Interview situation should offer a good listening by one who has greater
experience and training.
2) The counselee should feel the need of interview and counselling.
3) The counsellor should have all relevant data about the client before he starts
counselling.
4) A rapport should be established between the counsellor and the counselee.
It is a sort of personal relationship of mutual trust and respect based on the
feelings of confidence and security.
5) Interview should start with cordial and pleasant greetings and should not
indicate that one has authority over the other.
6) Discussion should be restricted to issues at hand.
7) When the counselee expresses himself/herself, s/he should be accepted. The
counsellor will gain nothing by antagonizing or embarrassing the counselee.
8) Interview should aim at helping the counselee gain insight into the problem
and reach conclusions.
9) The counselee should be allowed to take the lead in making decisions.
10) The interview should end with a constructive note.

19
Techniques and Procedures Advantages of an Interview
An interview is a non-standard technique used for studying the individual.
Interview is commonly used in counselling. It is a technique without which no
counselling is possible. It is a valuable technique for obtaining information, giving
information to a group, selecting a new employee and helping the individual in
the solution of an adjustment problem.

The following are the advantages of interview as a technique of guidance and


counselling:

1) It is a widely used technique in guidance because it has certain advantages


which are not possessed by other techniques of guidance. For example,
personal data can be more easily collected in much shorter time by using
this technique.

2) It is very flexible. It is useful in almost all situations and with people having
different backgrounds.
3) It serves a variety of purposes. You may determine your purpose and have
an interview for that purpose.
4) It has a great therapeutic value. An interview establishes a face-to-face
relationship between the interviewer and the interviewee. The direct
relationship gives a great insight into the problem faced by the client.
5) Interview is helpful in diagnosing a problem. It is very helpful in revealing
the causes of a problem faced by the client. Hence some psychologists regard
interview a very useful technique for diagnoses and remediation.
6) The face-to-face contact gives very useful clues about the client’s personality.
The facial expressions, gestures, postures convey meaning and reveal feelings
and attitudes indirectly.
7) Interview is useful to the client also because it enables him to think about
the problem and about his ‘self’. It is the most useful situation in which the
client gets a better understanding of his ‘self’, his abilities, skills, interests
and also of the world of work, its opening and their requirements.
8) Interview provides a choice to the client and the counsellor to exchange
ideas and attitudes through conversation.

Limitations of Interview as a Technique


1) An interview is a subjective technique. It lacks objectivity in the collection
of data about the client. The bias and the prejudices of the interviewer enter
his/her interpretation of the data collected through an interview.
2) The personal bias makes the interview less reliable and valid.
3) The results of an interview are very difficult to interpret.
4) The usefulness of an interview is limited. The success of an interview
depends on the personality qualities of the interviewer, his/her preparation
for the interview and the way in which s/he interviews. If the interviewer
monopolises talking or does not listen patiently to what the client says, the
interview loses value.
20
Techniques of Guidance
Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
6) List any five non-standardized techniques you would like to use in your
school.
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5.5 STANDARDIZED TECHNIQUES


There are four types of standardized tests. These include achievement, interest,
aptitude and personality testing. There is some overlap in these categories,
especially in interest and personality. Let us examine these one by one.

5.5.1 Aptitude Tests


Aptitude may be defined as a trait that characterizes an individual’s ability to
perform in a specific area or to acquire the learning necessary for performance in
a given area. It presumes an inherent or natural ability that can be developed to
its maximum through learning or other experiences. However, it cannot be
expanded beyond a certain point, even by learning. In theory, then, an aptitude
test measures the potential of one to achieve in a given activity or to learn to
achieve in that activity.

Aptitude tests may potentially be used by counsellors and others because (1)
they may identify potential abilities of which the individual is not aware; (2)
they may encourage the development of special or potential abilities of a given
individual; (3) they may provide information to assist an individual in making
educational and career decisions or other choices between competing alternatives;
(4) they may serve as an aid in predicting the level of academic or vocational
success an individual might anticipate; and (5) they may be useful in grouping
individuals with similar aptitudes for developmental and other educational
purposes.

Special Aptitude Tests – You might have seen or heard about clerical aptitude
test, numerical ability test, etc. Special aptitude tests usually refer to those that
seek to measure an individual’s potential ability to perform or to acquire
proficiency in a specific occupation or other type of activity. Tests that measure
special aptitude are sometimes referred to as single aptitude tests because they
only secure a measure for one specific aptitude. Counsellors, most frequently
use standardized tests to measure a single aptitude in areas of mechanical, clerical,
or artistic abilities. Single aptitude tests have also been developed for use in
various graduate and professional schools. Aptitude tests are also available for
particular school subjects.
21
Techniques and Procedures Vocational Aptitude Batteries – Multiple aptitude tests typically consists of a
series of subtests that relate in varying combinations to a series of occupations
or occupationally related activities. Commonly used multiple aptitude batteries
are the General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB); the Differential Aptitude Battery
(DAT); the Flanagan Aptitude Classification Test (FACT); and the Academic
Promise Test (APT).

Scholastic Aptitude Test – Scholastic or academic aptitude tests measure one’s


potential for performing in academic situations. Such tests are those that comprise
the SAT and PSAT batteries have much merit in so far as predicting academic
performance at higher educational levels. However, a more appropriate label
would be academic achievement, because they tend to predict future academic
achievement on the basis of past learning, rather than on the basis of natural
ability.

Check Your Progress


Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
7) Name-three types of aptitude tests.
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5.5.2 Achievement Tests


You have been using these tests to assess student’s performance in school subjects.
All unit, semester and terminal examination tests are nothing but achievement
tests. These tests focus on skills or abilities that are traditionally taught in the
schools. Therefore, achievement tests may be defined as tools designed to measure
the degree of student learning in specific curriculum areas common to most
schools, such as Mathematics, English usages, etc.

Achievement tests are used as learning measures of (1) the amount of learning,
(2) the rate of learning, (3) comparisons with others or with achievement of self
in other areas, (4) level of learning in sub-areas, and (5) strengths and weakness
in a subject matter area because of their extensive use and relatively easy task of
identifying appropriate context measures.

Check Your Progress


Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
8) Write the importance and need of achievement tests in school in brief.
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22
5.5.3 Interest Inventory Techniques of Guidance

You might have observed in your class that some students show more inclination
in math, while others in computers, some in literary activities, in paintings, etc.
Interest is a behaviour orientation towards certain objects, activities or
experiences. It is an expression of our likes and dislikes, or our attractions and
aversions. An individual chooses the most acceptable, suitable alternative out of
many, go after preferred objectives, activities, etc., and consequently derives
satisfaction, success and happiness out of the activities selected.

Interests are related to general ability, special aptitudes and values in various
ways. Linguistic and scientific interests are positively correlated with intelligence,
technical interests are related to mechanical aptitude and business interests are
related to the tendency to stress material as opposed to theoretical, social or
aesthetic values and so on.
Interest testing is done to achieve some purpose i.e.
i) To provide teachers and counsellors with information regarding the students
preference and aversions which will help them acquire better understanding
of students and their problems.
ii) To help the students to identify and clarify their interests in terms of the
demands of varied courses and careers and choose work and experiences
consistent with their interests.
iii) To enable teachers, counsellors and parents to know the kinds and intensity
of the student’s interests and assist him to prepare his educational and
vocational plans consistent with his interests.
iv) To help channelize the energies of the youth in appropriate directions.
v) To help in the selection of the right person for the right work, and thus save
frustration, unhappiness and disappointment in the lives of the individuals
and increase productive capacity of individuals.

Methods of Measuring Interests


We can measure the interests of individuals by the following methods:
1) Observation: We may observe manifest interests. What an individual actually
does is a good indication of what his interests are.
2) Claims of the Counselee: We can know the interests by knowing the
expressed interests of the individual, in a subject, activity, object or vocation.
Verbal claim can be an indicator of his/her interests.
3) Use of Instruments: We may assess interests using an instrument like
Michigan Vocabulary Test on the grounds that if the individual is really
interested in something, s/he will know the vocabulary involved in that
area.
4) Use of Inventories: We may determine the pattern of an individual’s interest
from his/her responses to lists of occupations and activities. Interest
inventories provide information about the student’s preferences which are
more stable than the verbally claimed interests. The latter are too often
influenced by his/her limited and faulty knowledge of occupations. This
23
Techniques and Procedures technique is by far the most common means of assessing interests and is
commonly used.
Advantages of Interest Inventories
Interest inventories are useful in many ways:
1) They are well-adapted to vocational counselling – The student expects his/
her interests to be considered. The interpretation, when given, carries
considerable force because the student can see that s/he is looking at himself
in a mirror, that s/he is only receiving an analysis of what s/he himself /
herself has said.
2) They are useful for the counsellor too as they are less fraught with emotional
significance. The subject can discuss the interest scores with the counselor
freely.
3) They are helpful devices for the counselee too – Students do not mind
revealing their interests and are eager to have a report of their scores. A
promise to interpret scores is an excellent, non-threatening gambit to entice
the student into the counsellor’s office.
4) They are economic – They can be given to a group; interpretation of profiles
can be carried out in group discussion.
5) They provide excellent preliminary information either to further group study
of careers or to individual counselling.
6) They assist counsellor in dealing with many other student problems.
Limitations of Interest Inventories
There are certain limitations to be found in interest inventories.
i) Many students fail to show through their responses to interest inventories
strong likes and dislikes or clearly defined preferences.
ii) The inventories can have validity only with persons whose likes have been
long and varied enough to have provided them with experiences of the kind
which will enable them to choose between alternatives presented by each
item in the inventories. These inventories are, thus, more useful with mature
than immature students.
iii) Vocational choice or success cannot be predicted on the basis of even clearly-
defined patterns shown by the inventories alone. Ability, training and
opportunity for training – all need to be considered. Interest test results
cannot be over-emphasised.

Estimating Interests
One way of assessing the interests is to ask the individuals what they like to do.
The other way is to analyse the activities that a person performs. The third method
of assessing interests is by the use of interest tests and inventories. There are
many instruments now in use and majority of them deal with occupational interest.

1) Kuder Interest Inventories: There are various forms, versions and editions
of the Kuder Interest Inventories. They help in the measurement of interests
from different angles and are designed for different purposes. The items in
24
the Kuder inventories are of the forced-choice triad type. For each of three Techniques of Guidance
activities listed, the respondent indicates which s/he would like the most
and which s/he would like the least.
The following forms of Kuder Interest Inventories are quite common:
i) The Kuder Vocational Preference Record – It provides 10 interest
scales plus a verification scale for detecting carelessness,
misunderstanding and the choice of socially-desirable but unlikely
answers. The interest scales include: Outdoor, Mechanical,
Computational, Scientific, Persuasive, Artistic, Literary, Musical,
Social Service and Clerical. Forced-choice triad items are used. The
respondents indicate which of the three activities they would like most
and which least. The scores are obtained not for specific vocations but
for 10 broad interest areas.
ii) Kuder General Interest Survey (KGIS) – It has been developed as a
revision and downward extension of the Kuder Vocational Preference
Record. It is designed for grades 6 to 12. It employs simpler language
and easier vocabulary. It is a revision of the Strong Vocational Interest
Blank (SVIB).
iii) Kuder Occupational Interest Inventory (KOII) – The occupations
covered by this inventory vary widely in level, ranging from baker and
truck driver to chemist and lawyer.

2) Strong Vocational Interest Blanks (SVIB) – It is based on the assumption


that a person who has the interest patterns typical of successful people in a
given occupation will enjoy and find satisfaction in that occupation.

Check Your Progress


Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
9) Write any two advantages and limitations of interest inventories.
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5.5.4 Personality Tests


Personality is inclusive of everything about one’s physique, socio-emotional and
personal characteristics. Therefore, personality is the sum total of an individual
behaviour in social situations.
Purpose of Personality Testing – Personality testing is necessary to achieve the
following purposes:
i) It helps the students in proper educational and vocational choice. Personality
plays an important role in individual, personal, educational and vocational
25
Techniques and Procedures adjustment and success. It is, therefore, important to diagnose the individual’s
personality pattern to see whether he possesses the traits which are likely to
contribute significantly to his adjustment to the course or career he is
choosing.

ii) It helps the individual in resolving emotional conflicts. Personality diagnosis


becomes essential when the difficulty the individual encounters in making
proper adjustment with the educational and occupational choices, lies in
emotional conflict about which the client has no knowledge. When the cause
of the individual’s mental conflict is diagnosed, it may be possible for him
to solve his problem in his own way.

iii) It helps the teacher and the counsellor. Personality testing through various
techniques will help the teacher and counsellor to get this information and
help the individual on the basis of this information.

iv) It helps the employer in proper selection of the personnel.

v) It helps the clinical psychologist. A clinical psychologist can use personality


assessments to help choose the best therapy for his clients.
Techniques of Testing Personality
A number of techniques are used for testing personality. The techniques are:
• Interview
• Observation
• Self Ratings and Personality Inventories
• Checklists
• Rating Scales
• Situational Tests or Behavioural Tests
• Projective Techniques
• Anecdotal Records
• Autobiography
• The Daily Diary
Interview, observation, rating scales, anecdotal records and autobiography have
already been discussed under Non-standardized Techniques of Guidance in
Section 5.4. The other techniques are described here.

Checklists:An important approach to the study of personality is by developing


an inventory of the felt problems of students. They have been used as aids in
counselling or in surveying the concerns of the student body. For the second
purpose they may be filled out anonymously. A problem checklist or inventory
consists basically of alist of problems which are common to a population of the
age being studied. The student doing the inventory indicates which of these
problems are bothering him although a student, for a variety of reasons, may not
be willing to admit that a problem is concerning him, these checklists, if
interpreted properly, furnish interesting and helpful data for counsellors. They
may reveal unsuspected problems and in many cases, their hidden causes. Their
greatest value is as a basis for a counselling interview.
26
Projective Technique: In contrast to the previous measurement techniques, the Techniques of Guidance
global approach to the appraisal of personality attempts to study personality as a
whole. This method is often called the projective technique because the individual
is stimulated to project his/her personality into the test exercises. The stimuli
used in projective techniques attempt to arouse responses that are a projection of
the innerself or motives and personality traits that are usually hidden and often
even unsuspected by the individual himself. The subject may be asked to respond
to series of pictures, inkblots, or similarly ambiguous stimuli. The interpretation
of the responses requires a long period of training and should be done only by
those who are specially qualified.

Self Rating and Personality Inventories (Paper and Pencil Personality Tests):
An individual’s written account of the past behaviour, feeling and wishes can be
a good source of information about his/her personality. Self-ratings can be done
through personality inventories and paper and pencil tests. Both of these serve
as an excellent basis for interviews later.

Limitations of Paper and Pencil Personality Tests


i) Majority of the questions in these inventories deal with personal matters.
ii) Subject’s unconscious resistance also affects his responses to a great extent.
It is very difficult to get valid and correct information.
iii) Suggestion is another important factor which tampers with validity. Our
recollections of emotionally toned experiences are liable to be false.
Moreover, it is quite easy that suggestive questioning may lead us to accept
experiences as our own which never really occurred.
iv) The influence of temporary mood, optimism, worry, etc. might also affect
test responses.

Situational or Behavioural Test


It is a test in which the behaviour of the individual is evaluated in action by
judges or by his peers or he is confronted with the situations related to his/her
own life, in response to which he gives expression to his feelings for other persons.
The subject reveals some of his/her personality traits through his preference for
or against certain contacts with others and through his/her spontaneous methods
of dealing with life-situations that confront him. Psycho-drama and socio-drama
are the two techniques of this type.

According to Jennings, “Socio-drama” is an intensive, vivid, living through


experience of common concern to the group members’ experience which may
have been cut short in life and blocked from full expression, leaving unresolved
buried emotional impact. The process aids the individual in mobilizing his
resources for behaving spontaneously and discovering his potentialities of
expression. Psycho-drama involves the “staging of a situation in which selected
members of the group are the spectators.

As the word psycho-drama implies, the individual has to play a role spontaneously
in a specified situation. His/her behaviour is observed by trained observers. It is
assumed that individuals project their inner feelings and conflicts in the role
they play.
27
Techniques and Procedures The Daily Diary
The daily diary maintained by students can also serve as a device for the
measurement of personality. The diary, being of a very personal nature, can contain
the record of such events, thoughts and feelings as are of great importance to the
student. The diary, if properly maintained and made, can serve as a useful medium
of throwing light upon many aspect of the personality of the individual. It, being
an hour by hour record of the individual, is valuable for showing the general
pattern of a student’s life, the activities in which s/he is currently engaged regularly,
and some of his/her special interests.

Check Your Progress


Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
10) Briefly describe any two purposes of personality testing. List any five
techniques of testing personality.
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5.6 LET US SUM UP


The aim of all guidance is to assist the learners to acquire sufficient understanding
of themselves and of their environment to be able to utilize most intelligently
the educational opportunities offered by the school and the community. Guidance
is the assistance given to individual in making intelligent choices and adjustments
in their lives. The ability to make wise choices is not innate; it must be developed.
The fundamental purpose of guidance is to develop in each individual up to the
limit of his/her capacity the ability to solve his/her own problems and to make
his/her own adjustments. The techniques which are generally employed by
guidance worker for collecting basic data about the individual are either
standardized or non-standardized. The non-standardized techniques include
interview, ratings, questionnaire, observation, sociometry, biography, cumulative
record, anecdotal records. The standardized techniques are tools of measuring
interests, intelligence, aptitudes and personality traits.

5.7 UNIT-END EXERCISES


1) Administer a questionnaire on a subject suitable for secondary students,
to10 students of secondary levels. Go through their responses. Write a report
highlighting the need and importance of questionnaire in school education.

2) Discuss in detail the use of achievement and aptitude test in classroom


teaching. Give suitable examples.
28
Techniques of Guidance
UNIT 6 GUIDANCE PROGRAMME

Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Objectives
6.3 Various Guidance Services
6.3.1 Orientation Service
6.3.2 Pupil Inventory Service
6.3.3 Occupational Information Service
6.3.4 Counselling Service
6.3.5 Placement Service
6.3.6 Follow-up Service
6.4 Organization of School Guidance Programme
6.4.1 Pre-requisites of a Guidance Programme
6.4.2 Planning of a Guidance Programme
6.4.3 Guidance Activities
6.5 Evaluation of Guidance Programme
6.5.1 Need for Evaluation
6.5.2 Steps in Evaluation
6.5.3 Methods of Evaluation
6.6 Let Us Sum Up
6.7 Unit-end Exercises

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Students facemany problems during the various phases of school life. These
problems may be related to personal, behavioural, educational, or vocational
factors. Enabling students to overcome these problems and become self-reliant
in future is one of the major aims of the guidance programme. However, one is
also aware that the implementation of guidance programme in schools is hardly
noticeable. This situation persists in spite of various recommendations made by
the government since the last few decades. One of the likely causes for the non-
implementation of guidance programme is largely due to the lack of adequate
knowledge among the concerned staff regarding the planning and organization
of the guidance programme in schools.

The present unit deals with the various services involved in a guidance programme
and the functions performed by each of these services. Subsequently a brief is
made on the planning and organization of guidance programme in the schools.
This is finally followed by a description of various steps involved in evaluating
the guidance programme.

6.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
• define a guidance programme;
• explain the various functions of a guidance programme;
29
Techniques and Procedures • prepare a plan for organizing guidance programme in school;
• enumerate different guidance activities required in schools; and
• describe the procedure for evaluation of a guidance programme.

6.3 VARIOUS GUIDANCE SERVICES


A school guidance programme constitutes a cluster of activities which enable
the students to overcome their educational, vocational, personal or social problems
that they face during the different phases of development. It forms an integral
part of school education and is non-instructional in nature. A guidance programme
constitutes various services.

A school guidance programme largely consists of six services. They are


orientation, counselling, pupil inventory, occupational information, placement
and follow-up services. Each of these services is distinct due to their specific
functions.

Guidance Services

Orientation
Service
Follow-up Pupil Inventory
Service Service
Guidance
Service

Placement Counselling
Service Service
Occupation
Information
Service

6.3.1 Orientation Service


It is generally noticed that when students shift from one school to another, they
find it difficult to immediately accept and adjust to the new surroundings. This
also occurs in case of those students who either move from school to college or
school to a work situation. An entry into anon-familiar or new situation may
lead to certain adjustment problems among the students. To overcome this
obstacle, the orientation services are organized, especially to familiarize the
students with the new surroundings and thereby adapt themselves and make
necessary adjustments. Hence, it is always advisable to begin any educational
course or programme with an orientation activity.
Some of the objectives of the orientation service are:
1) Develop awareness regarding the rules and regulations, functioning patterns
and available infrastructural and physical facilities in the school or institution
or work place.
2) Acquaint the students with the concerned staff and the student body.

30
3) Provide opportunities for the staff members and student body to interact Guidance Programme
with the new comers.
4) Develop favourable attitudes among the students both towards the school
and the staff.
One should also note that the orientation services are not only restricted to the
students, but they can also be extended for the parents and towards the community.
Further, this service needs to be organized for all students so that they fulfil their
various needs. In addition, this can also be a continuous activity, implying that
implementation of these activities can be distributed throughout the year.

Orientation Activities
The activities are to be organized based on the age group of the students and the
availability of resources.

The activities can be broadly classified as (i) Pre-admission Orientation and (ii)
Post-admission Orientation.
i) Pre-admission Orientation: This is one of the services which is lacking in
our schools. It helps to acquaint students with the institution, its tradition,
purpose, its rules and regulations, curricula, extracurricular activities, the
staff and the student body.
Activities: Some of the suggested activities could be:
a) visit to schools along with the staff or parents;
b) arranging conferences and talks with the parents, since they also play
a major role;
c) issuing handbooks or pamphlets giving information about the school,
its courses and activities; and
d) arranging exhibitions to expose them to the activities that students are
undertaking.
ii) Post-admission Orientation: This service can be provided throughout the
year. It helps the teacher in determining the abilities of students and thereby
adapting their teaching styles and activities according to the student needs.
Activities
a) Conduct various games like “get-acquainted” games where the student
can talk about themselves, such as their interest, hobbies, etc.
b) Arrange group activities, wherein the students are provided
opportunities to interact with each other and exhibit their abilities.

6.3.2 Pupil Inventory Service


Apart from knowing the general characteristics of students, it is also very essential
to identify the specific abilities predominant among the students, before a
counsellor or career teacher assists them. Without identifying the pupils’ aptitudes
and interests, one cannot determine what to expect from them and what they are
capable of doing. The various aspects that have to be assessed before one guides
a student are his aptitude, achievement, interests, attitudes, socio-economic status,
family background etc. In Unit 5: Techniques of Guidance you have studied
31
Techniques and Procedures about various techniques of guidance. The pupil inventory service helps in
recording and maintaining of these data. These records can be prepared by the
collaborative effort of the teacher, counsellor and career teacher through various
techniques. You are familiar with the techniques as testing and non-testing
techniques. Observation, anecdotes, rating scales, sociometry and interview are
some of the well-known non-testing techniques. The testing techniques are the
verbal tests, non-verbal tests, performance tests, projective techniques and the
personality tests. These tests must be administered by the counsellor or any
professionally trained personnel. However, assistance from a teacher is must for
maintaining the records of students using some of these techniques. A teacher
could give details of certain behaviour of students by observing them in the
classroom situations and making their records. These incidents could be
accumulated in the form of anecdotal records.
The objectives of pupil inventory service are:
i) to identify the various abilities of students by administration of various tests;
and
ii) to maintain various records concerned with each student and update them
periodically.
The types of data generally collected are personal, family data, psychological
data, achievement, health data etc. These data help a counsellor and a career
teacher in their counselling process and career guidance programme respectively.

6.3.3 Occupational Information Service


This is a service which can be provided by the integrated effort of a teacher,
counsellor and a career teacher. The main objective of the service is to provide
the students information about the educational opportunities in various levels,
related training programmes and occupations available. This helps the students
to be aware of the options open to them with respect to a particular course or
subject in any of the above areas. Further the student is also exposed to the world
of work, nature and pattern of work and the skills required for performing the
work.
The objectives of information services are:
i) To create an awareness of the necessary occupational and educational
information;
ii) To develop a broad and realistic view of the various educational, training
and occupational opportunities; and
iii) To help the student obtain and interpret the information he/she needs in
making specific plans for his/her future career.
This service needs to be more emphasized at the secondary and higher secondary
levels. The various information given to students through this service are about
the job or occupation positions, duties performed, educational and professional
requirements, conditions of work, rewards offered, promotional avenues, etc.
Such information are collected and disseminated by the guidance worker in the
form of career talks, conferences, etc.

32
6.3.4 Counselling Service Guidance Programme

This service is the most fundamental aspect of the guidance process. The purpose
of it is to assist the students in the process of all round development. It provides
an opportunity to the individual to discuss their plans and problems with a
professional or counsellor in a helping environment. The process ultimately makes
a person capable of self-directing and self-sufficient. This service can be practiced
only by a counsellor. A detailed description of the role of counsellor and
counselling techniques are described in Unit 4&8. However, some assistance
can also be provided by the teacher in a school. This is because a teacher is the
one who spends maximum time working with the students in the classroom.When
the teacher comes across any student who displays deviant behaviours, he/she
can always refer the case to a school counsellor. Further, observations made and
recorded by the teacher about certain students can help the counsellor in the
counselling process. The counselling service includes individual counselling and
group counselling which we have explained in Unit 4. It must be noted that
counselling is open to all students.

6.3.5 Placement Service


The placement service makes an effort to help those students secure employment,
who are either in school or have left the school. The school provides certain
facilities through which the employment needs of the students are met either
through special placement personnel or by integration services of the other
guidance personnel. It is an activity which requires the co-operation of the
principal, counsellor, teacher, career master, state employment agencies, private
agencies and also the community. This service is more significant for the students
at the secondary and higher secondary level. The placement service here is
concerned for those:
i) Who withdraw from the formal education before they complete school (drop-
outs).
ii) Who prefer part time work while going to school or may be during the
vacation or after school hours or during weekends.
iii) Who terminate formal education after completingsenior secondary
education.
The basic aim of placement is to facilitate the process of meeting the needs of
both employer and the prospective employee. The student should be included
for the placement service only after the correct and appropriate information
regarding him/her has been obtained from the counsellor or the incharge guidance
personnel. The information that is generally made available is his/her personal
bio-data, achievement grades, attendance, test-scores, health-data and such other
required data. The teacher may also assist by providing details concerning the
student’s interest, and other skills such ascommunication and participation in
various school activities.

Apart from placement, this service also orients the students to some of the job
applying techniques. The guidance worker could familiarize them with the
methods of applying for a job, identifying various sources of information and
how to prepare for the interview. These skills can be developed either through
group or individual counselling. A school that provides placement services hence
33
Techniques and Procedures should be capable to draw upon all the possible resources to assist its students in
finding suitable and appropriate jobs. The extent to which the placement service
fulfils this purpose is a measure of its effectiveness. This could largely be met by
a systematic and proper functioning of the guidance committee. The school
committee could also publicize about the placement programme both to the
students and community. Within the schools, the information could be published
in school magazine, notified in the libraries or announced in student assemblies.

6.3.6 Follow-up Service


A guidance worker who does not assess the progress made by his/her student is
like the physician who does not verify whether his/her patient has recovered or
not.

Here, it becomes very essential in a guidance programme to learn the nature and
extent of progress of the student even after he leaves the school. This service
does not only pertain to the study of occupational aspect but also to other related
aspects such as emotional and social adjustments.

For example, if a student has been counselled for social-emotional problem,


after he/she leaves the school, the guidance worker must do a follow-up to check
how far he/she is able to cope up with the new environment and whether he/she
is still facing any such problem.
Purpose of this Service
i) It draws upon information from the former students regarding the extent of
influence or effectiveness of the school guidance programme.
ii) Based on the feedback obtained, make relevant changes in the school
guidance programme.

The guidance worker generally keeps contact with the students and drop-outs
after leaving school. One of the most common methods adopted for follow-up is
the questionnaire which is periodically sent to the students after they leave
school.Based on the experiences of former students, the guidance worker can
formulate future programme for the present students. The follow-up service has
relevance for research. After receiving valid information from former students,
the administrators can improve upon their services. Further, employing this
information, the educational institutions can conduct studies of the relationship
between the training given to these former students and how far the utilization of
the training was made. Studies on the effectiveness, efficiency and desirability
of the courses offered can also be conducted.

The three steps that are dealt in a follow-up programme are:

i) A systematic gathering of data from the alumni.

ii) Interpretation and presentation of that data to all the concerned personnel,
i.e. student, parent and community.

iii) Suggest a modified framework of educational programme based on the


findings made.

34
Guidance Programme
Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
1) Describe a guidance programme in 3-4 lines.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2) List out the 3 major services of a guidance programme.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
3) Match the following.
Service Purpose
a) Counselling a) bridge the gap between home and school
b) Placement b) awareness of various career options
c) Orientation c) obtaining suitable jobs
d) Occupational information d) assisting in all round development
4) The service which keeps in touch with the students who pass out of
school is ...................... (Counselling/placement/follow-up)
5) The service which aims at collecting information about individuals by
various methods and techniques is
a) Counselling service
b) Pupil inventory service
c) Placement service
d) Occupational information service
6) Counselling service is not a part of guidance service. (T/F)
7) Guidance programme must be available for children at all levels.(T/F)
8) In elementary level, more emphasis must be laid on occupational
information service. (T/F)
9) Differentiate between placement and follow-up service.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
35
Techniques and Procedures
6.4 ORGANISATION OF SCHOOL GUIDANCE
PROGRAMME
The organization of guidance programme at the schools requires cooperative
effort of various personnel present both within and outside the school. The
programme must be planned with the assistance of various personnel like the
school principal, the staff, counsellor, career master and the parents. Before
planning a guidance programme, it is essential to understand the purpose and
aims of guidance which we have discussed in Unit 1.

6.4.1 Pre-requisites of a Guidance Programme


Some of the preliminary tasks needed to be undertaken to organize a guidance
programme are:
a) Formation of a guidance committee, which comprises of at least seven to
eight members. The committee would be constituted of various personnel
such as at least two parents, two teachers, a counsellor and a career master.
The principal could bethe chairperson of the committee.
b) Decisions and arrangements must be made regarding the allotment of budget
for conducting the various services. The expenses could be determined also
keeping in view the payment of honorarium for guest lectures, conveyance
to specialists or professionals such as educationists, doctors, etc.
c) Suitable arrangements need to be made to acquire minimum infrastructural
and physical facilities such as a guidance cell or room, tables, chairs various
psychological tests and other required literature.
d) Support from the parents and community could be obtained by orienting
them to the significance of a guidance programme.
e) The school staff and students also need to be briefed about the purpose and
importance of the guidance programme and encouraged to participate.

6.4.2 Planning of a Guidance Programme


The following steps are necessary to be undertaken to plan the guidance
programme:
1. First make a survey of the available guidance services existing in the school
or institution.
2. Identify the student needs (or) areas where assistance is required.
3. Obtain the opinion of the staff members and ascertain the extent of assistance
possible from them.
4. Statement of explicit objective for the guidance programme on the basis of
the student needs.
5. Specification of the various functions of each guidance service.
6. Assignment and defining of duties to each personnel, who are the members
of the guidance committee.
For the smooth functioning of guidance service, a well-planned guidance
programme is necessary. It facilitates co-ordination of activities among the
personnel in an integrated pattern.
36
In brief, the guidance committee first identifies the programme objectives based Guidance Programme
on the survey of the student needs and characteristics. This is followed by
preparation of a yearly plan of the school guidance programme. Further, keeping
in view the objective, the committee prepares a tentative plan or chart, indicating
the functions of various personnel. Next, another subsidiary chart is prepared,
specifying the duties or tasks to be performed by each personnel.

Role of the Principal: The principal, chairperson of the committee provides the
required facilities for the smooth and successful functioning of the guidance
programme at the schools. Some of them have provision of a separate room or
office for the counsellor, space for conference room, clerical staff and other
physical facilities such as table, chairs etc. Apart from that appropriate action
needs to be taken by the principal to make suitable arrangements for the
procurement of psychological test materials, literature, documents and arranging
sufficient budget. Further, monitoring of the guidance activities are also been
done by the principal.

Role of the Teacher: The teacher provides assistance by maintaining the


cumulative records of students and also in organizing the various guidance
activities. A detail description of the role of teacher, career master and counsellor
has been already provided in Unit 3.

Above all, one should also be aware that during the initial stages of the programme
implementation, the following problems are likely to come up:
1) Inadequacy of staffor trained personnel to provide assistance for conducting
the service.
2) conflict of roles and responsibilities among the various personnel and
3) the involvement of personnel in non-guidance activities.
However, gradually you can overcome the above problems.

6.4.3 Guidance Activities


At Secondary Level
This stage which includes students of class IX and X, requires guidance activities
to be focussed on the needs of three group of students. They include those who
intend to:
a) Continue in higher education (graduation).
b) Take up vocational or professional courses (polytechnics; professional
education like medicine, etc.)
c) Enter a job.
Keeping in view the above target groups and their characteristics, the following
are the objectives of the guidance activities organized at this stage.
The Objectives are listed here:
i) Help the students to understand and accept the physiological changes in
one self.
ii) Help them to make effective adjustments in the family, school and society.
37
Techniques and Procedures iii) Identify, develop and strengthen their abilities and interests.
iv) Provide information about various educational and vocational opportunities
and the essential requirements.
v) Enlighten parents and teachers about the importance of this stage especially
adolescent and create appropriate situations for effective learning and
development.
vi) Enable them to make realistic educational and vocational choices.
After class X, the students have to choose their subject stream, hence the most
important function of guidance services at this stage is to enable students make
appropriate choices.
Services and their activities for secondary school students
Service Activities
Orientation i) organize school visits, talks by the other school
staff.
ii) Arrange parent-teacher meetings to orient the
parents.
Pupil Inventory i) Collect data on abilities, aptitudes, interests,
achievement and other psychological variables
through administration of tests.
ii) Maintain student cumulative records.
iii) Identify under-achievers and drop-outs from the
school records.
Counselling i) Refer the cases to counsellor.
ii) Counselling activities to develop one self.
iii) Organize and conduct group activities, discussions,
role-playing to develop personal and social skills.
iv) Arrange talks by professionals such as doctors,
educationists on matters like health, addiction,
personal habits, sex education and other educational
issues.
v) Conduct activities on social service and arrange for
camps.
Occupational i) Organize career exhibitions and career conferences.
information ii) Arrange field trips.
iii) Arrange career talks.
iv) Orient the parents regarding various courses after
class X.
v) Prepare activities showing self-employed persons.
vi) Conduct programme to interact with self-employed
persons.
Placement Provide placement:
i) For drop-outs
38
Guidance Programme
ii) For students who terminate their formal education
and get into some vocational course.
iii) For students who are completing school education.
Follow-up i) Obtain and document the addresses of the school-
leaving students and drop-outs.
ii) Administer questionnaires or interviews to obtain
students opinion about the school guidance
programme.
iii) Arrange meetings like “old student association or
Alumni”.

At Higher Secondary Level


This stage covers two classes i.e. XI and XII and the age of the students usually
ranging from 16 to 18 years. The objectives of guidance programme at this stage
are:
i) Help students to make appropriate choice of course(s) in accordance with
their abilities and interest.
ii) Help them to plan their career based on the choice of course.
iii) Make them aware of various job opportunities related to various courses.
iv) Guide them in the area of personal-social adjustment.
v) Help them develop self-confidence.
vi) Help them make decisions.
Services and their activities for (+2 students) senior secondary students
Service Activities
Orientation i) obtain pamphlets/handbook of various educational
institutions.
ii) orient parents and teachers about various
educational institutions.
iii) arrange talks by the school/institution staff,
employees.
Pupil Inventory i) administer various tests to measure abilities, and
other psychological variables.
ii) Maintain the records of the students and constantly
up date them.
Counselling i) conduct sessions to develop self-confidence in
students.
ii) conduct sessions on role playing.e.g. attending an
interview; communication skills; leadership
qualities.
iii) Arrange debates, group discussions, and drama on
various social and educational issues such as:
a) “Discipline in work place”
b) career choices and life styles
39
Techniques and Procedures
c) making decision and alternatives in planning
career goals
d) strategies to cope with stress and anxiety.
Occupational i) Organize
information - career conferences
- field visits
- career talks
ii) establish communication with the staff at
employment exchanges and related agencies.
iii) conduct classroom sessions on
- “Resumes, Applications and Interview”
- “Employment Trends”
Placement i) arrange for in-campus interviews
ii) advertise vacancies and college information on the
school notice board and address or announce during
the assemblies.
Follow-up i) form a students’ association of the school leaving
students
ii) administer follow-up questionnaires to students
periodically.
iii) arrange meetings to invite old students.

Check Your Progress


Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
10) Orientation programme must be conducted only during the pre-
admission period. (T/F)
11) List out any three major activities that can be carried out by the
orientation service and pupil inventory service at secondary level.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
12) Career exhibition and conferences are conducted by the ........... service.
13) Explain in brief the planning of a guidance programme.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
40
Guidance Programme
14) List out any two counselling service activities that need to be conducted
at the higher/senior secondary (+2) level.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

6.5 EVALUATION OF GUIDANCE PROGRAMME


Evaluation of guidance programme refers to the process where efforts are made
to assess how far the objectives of the programme have been fulfilled or what
extent is the programme is effective.

6.5.1 Need for Evaluation


Evaluation is needed to determine various aspects like:
- effect of various guidance services on the behaviour of students
- quality of guidance services provided
- adequacy and feasibility of the guidance services provided
- the other activities and techniques need to be adopted in order to make the
service effective.
In general, it contributes to the sum total of useful knowledge in the guidance
field.

Research and evaluation are simultaneous activities. Hence, in every aspect of


the guidance service, a research component is essential. The results derived from
research and evaluation have implications for both the improvement of guidance
programme and also for the school curriculum. An educational institution can
utilize these findings to redesign its instructional techniques so that they are able
to meet the needs of its students at a greater extent. A qualified guidance worker
must always be encouraged to evaluate and simultaneously undertake research.
The guidance committee could discuss the findings with the other staff members,
parents and students, thereby facilitating a better co-ordination and hence leading
to improvement in the guidance services. Unless the existing programmes are
evaluated, the worth of it cannot be established.

6.5.2 Steps in Evaluation


i) Identification of objectives: The first step is to list out the objectives of
the guidance programme. The objectives need to be clearly defined, such
that they are specific and measurable.

ii) Criteria for measurement: After the identification of objectives the criteria
for measuring them must be established. This is followed by the
determination of the appropriate methods and techniques to collect the
required data based on the criteria selected.
41
Techniques and Procedures iii) Implementation of the plan: Once the design of the plan is prepared, it
requires to be implemented. Before its implementations, the expert’s opinions
and suggestions from other guidance personnel could be obtained
subsequently. The activities could be organized and conducted in a systematic
way.

iv) Interpretation of findings: Maximum efforts must be made to check that


the data collected is reliable. The data must first be compiled and later
interpreted accurately. The findings must be summarized and shared with
the school personnel and guidance worker. Further, steps must also be taken
to implement these findings.

6.5.3 Methods of Evaluation


Based on the criteria of evaluation, the methods of evaluation have to be decided.
Some of the methods are suggested below:

i) Survey method: It is one of the most commonly used methods. Here the
reactions of the students are collected either through questionnaires or by
personal interviews. The survey is not limited to the follow-up study of
school leavers, but it can also be done on the students who are still at schools.

ii) Experimental method: It is used generally on two groups. Where, one


group must be control group. The groups are matched in all respects except
the treatment factor, for example, in the present situation counselling is
done on the experimental group and no treatment given to the control group.
After the treatment the outcomes of the two groups are compared. This
shows whether the counselling technique (treatment) has any influence on
the experimental group and how far is it. More detailed studies using more
than two groups can also be carried out.

iii) Case study method involves a detail and continuous study of each student
and maintaining contact with him/her for a considerable period. The careful
and individual follow-up of students helps them in making a better school
record in terms of monthly report. This monthly record will indicate the
effect of counselling/treatment of student.

In addition to this, availability of records of a number of other students may


provide an adequate basis for evaluation.

Check Your Progress


Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
15) Identify two major needs of evaluation process in the guidance
programme.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
42
Guidance Programme
16) List out the steps in evaluation.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
17) One of the most common methods of evaluation is
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
18) The effectiveness of a guidance programme can be measured even
without evaluation (T/F)

6.6 LET US SUM UP


In this unit, we have discussed the various services in a school guidance
programme. These are orientation, pupil inventory, counselling, occupational
information, placement and follow-up services. Each of these services has distinct
functions and objectives.

To organize a school guidance programme, some of the preliminary steps to be


undertaken are formation of guidance committee, arrangement of required
facilities, budget and orienting the students, parents and community.

On the basis of the objectives of each service, various guidance activities can be
conducted for the secondary and higher or senior secondary school students. The
activities are also organized keeping in view the need and characteristics of these
students.

Evaluation of the guidance programme also forms an essential component in a


school guidance programme. The need, procedure and methods for evaluation
have also been described.

6.7 UNIT-END EXERCISES


1) Visit any school and study their organization of guidance programme at the
secondary level. Prepare a chart showing the organization of the guidance
programme and list out the various activities that are carried in each service.

2) Visit any school and study the functioning and objectives of the institution
at higher secondary level. Identify the student’s needs and prepare a list of
activities that need to be carried out by each service. Prepare a report in
about 600 words.
43
Techniques and Procedures 3) Suppose you are a counsellor of a school and you wish to make an evaluation
of the guidance services in your school. Write in detail the plan and how
you would like to go about doing it? Write a detailed report in about 600
words only (specify the objectives, and procedure).

4) Develop a follow-up questionnaire for school leaving students (XII standard)


to get a feedback about the effectiveness of the guidance programme of the
school.

5) A survey was conducted on all the 80 students of the secondary class IX and
X in a school. The following data was obtained.
a) 50% of the students were below average students.
b) 10% of the students were above average students.
c) 20% of the students drop-out very year.
d) 70% of the students are unaware of the various courses and job’s
opening.
Mention what guidance activities need to be adopted for any of the two groups
mentioned above. Justify your answer with the help of suitable illustrations.

44
Guidance Programme
UNIT 7 GROUP GUIDANCE

Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives
7.3 Group Guidance: Concept, Need and Significance
7.4 Principles of Group Guidance
7.5 Group Guidance Activities
7.5.1 Orientation to the Students
7.5.2 Career Conferences
7.5.3 Class Talks
7.5.4 Career Talks
7.5.5 Plant Tours
7.5.6 Group Discussion
7.5.7 Socio-Psycho Drama and Role Play
7.5.8 Visit to Career Fair/Exhibition
7.5.9 Career Quiz Session
7.5.10 Student Council Meeting
7.6 Aids to Guidance in Group Situations
7.7 Limitations of Group Activities
7.8 Problems in Organizing Group Guidance Activities
7.9 Let Us Sum Up
7.10 Unit-end Exercises

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Guidance can be imparted individually as well as in groups. This unit discusses
the concept of group guidance. It includes those activities of guidance which are
carried out in a group situation to assist its members to have experiences desirable
or even necessary for making intelligent educational, vocational and social
decisions. Such group activities save time and money. Further certain common
problems can be advantageously discussed among groups of students. It also
prepares the way for individual counselling.

Some of the activities of group guidance are group discussion, orientation


programmes, career conferences, class talks, and group career planning. It also
includes many informal types of play groups.

7.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
• Define group guidance;
• Appreciate the need and importance of group guidance;
• Plan and organize group guidance activities such as career conferences,
orientation programme, class talks, career talks, visit to career fairs, etc;
45
Techniques and Procedures • Discuss the limitations of group guidance activities; and
• Identify problems in organizing group guidance activities and find ways to
deal with them effectively.

7.3 GROUP GUIDANCE: CONCEPT, NEED AND


SIGNIFICANCE
Group guidance is guiding the individual in a group situation. For example,
orientation programmes for new entrants in a school and career talks by a career
counsellor in classroom situations are some of the common examples. You may
be organizing and producing many group guidance situations to your students
with respect to academic, career or other guidance.

In schools, where group guidance is promoted, students are able to avail the
following benefits through participation in them.
1) Information regarding:
a) Higher educationprospects
b) Occupational opportunities and vocational preparation
c) Leisure time activities
d) Social and civic conditions.
2) Experience in cooperative living leading to the development of :
a) Interpersonal skills
b) Good sportsmanship
c) Understanding of the self and others
c) Social skills
3) Development of individual’s abilities and interests through:
a) Participation in group projects
b) Organization of student initiated activities
c) Special services and programmes in schools and other institutions.
Advantages of Group Guidance
i) It is suitable for certain kinds of guidance activities like information about
careers or orienting new entrants about the school. Here individual guidance
will be a mere waste of time and other resources involved in undertaking
the activity.

ii) It establishes a relationship between students and guidance worker which


creates avenues for other guidance services. For example, new entrants to
11th standard want help in selection of subject from the school counsellor
after a talk was delivered on “How to plan your career effectively?”

iii) It provides orientation to unfamiliar situation on new experiences. For


example, the new batch of 10+2 level felt at ease when a counsellor told
them about the school, the various facilities available in the school, the
rules and regulations and the expectation from them.
46
iv) It paves the way for individual counselling. Group guidance saves time and Group Guidance
effort on part of the counsellors as well as the students. Further it reduces
monotony. Imagine how boring it is to repeat the classtalk on time
management separately for each student in a class of 40.

v) It focuses collective attention on common problems. A group situation helps


individual more readily to find a solution for a problem than he could if he
works on it alone. Further he develops an awareness that the problems are
not peculiar to him but are shared by others too. Therefore, he discusses the
problem in permissive atmosphere and the emotional tension gets a release.
The suggestions made during group discussion are thus more acceptable to
him.

vi) It provides the individual with a chance for real group life and opportunity
to deal with people. In group situation students are more exposed to a variety
of group experiences which help them to modify their behavior in a socially
acceptable way. They also learn to respect others point of view.

vii) It also helps a counsellor to multiply contacts with the students.

viii) The informal and free atmosphere of the group discussion provides a good
opportunity to the counsellor to observe the behavior of each student in a
group situation and learn about them more. In individual counselling
sessions, artificiality in behavior may occur. Further the counsellor may
not be able to note the interaction pattern of the student. Thus, group
guidance is very much required in certain situations.

Check Your Progress


Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
1) State whether the following statements are true or false by encircling
(O) the appropriate letter.
i) Guidance can be imparted only individually. (T/F)
ii) Group guidance saves time and effort. (T/F)
iii) Group guidance helps in building rapport with the students. (T/F)
iv) Group guidance and individual guidance are complementary to each
other. (T/F)
2) Fill up the blanks.
i) …………………………..is guiding the individual in a group.
ii) Group guidance is suitable for those guidance activities which are
basically …………….in nature.

7.4 PRINCIPLES OF GROUP GUIDANCE


There are certain considerations to be kept in mind if one is to organize group
guidance effectively.
1) It is a team work. It requires the co-operation of the students, teachers, and
administrative staff in the school setting. 47
Techniques and Procedures 2) The identified/selected groups should have the common need, and problem.
For example, if class talk is delivered on “Effective Career Planning” for
the students of class VI, it is going to be a futile exercise because they are
too young to realize its importance.
3) Group guidance must be a continuous activity of the school so that its impact
is realized by the students.
4) It requires active participation of all the team members. So, such methods
should be employed so that the students feel curious to ask questions/issues
etc. e.g. while organizing class talks, individuals should be encouraged to
express their personal experiences.
5) The size of the group should not be very large.
6) It is not a substitute for individual guidance, but both types are
complementary to each other.

Check Your Progress


Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
3) State whether the given statements are true or false by encircling (O)
the appropriate letter.
i) Group guidance must be a continuous activity of the school.
(T/F)
ii) The group for which it is planned need not have common need/
problem. (T/F)
iii) It requires active participation of the group members. (T/F)
iv) Group guidance is not a co-operative venture. (T/F)

7.5 GROUP GUIDANCE ACTIVITIES


Group guidance includes a variety of activities like orientation, career talks, class
talks, career conferences, educational tours to an institution, industry, museum,
laboratory, etc. andmany types of informal play groups. Each one of these has
been discussed from the point of view of their organization in school setting.

7.5.1 Orientation to the Students


The purpose of the orientation programme is to help each person feel at home in
a new surrounding. It is assumed that every new situation makes the individual
feel uncomfortable and possesses difficulty in accepting and adjusting to it very
easily. Transition from home to school for every school child at the nursery class
level and later from one school to another is a very difficult process. Remember
your first day in college. Did you feel,”If someone could tell where the library is
or where the canteen is”? Orientation helps in such situations.
Information about the institution, its physical layout, personnel and administrative
arrangement, help students become acquainted with the new settings. The newly
admitted students can be given information about the school, the various facilities
48
available, the rules and regulation, the course curriculum, what is expected of
them, etc. They can be asked to introduce themselves. Further a small get together Group Guidance
with the teachers can be arranged for. Orientation thus begins when the parents
first takes a child to a nursery school. This is not the end. Orientation should be
provided for everyone moving into the school during the term as he moves into
the new class.

Orientation programme will not be the same for elementary, secondary and senior
secondary students. It has to be different at different levels depending on the
need.

7.5.2 Career Conferences


In this, a carefully planned series of meetings are arranged for students to provide
information on various themes which will be helpful to them to plan their future
education and career. It provides the students with occupational information and
makes the teachers, parents and the community in general aware of the significance
of the guidance programme.
The planning of career conference calls for a collective efforts on part of the
counsellor, school faculty and the students. Further a planning committee
consisting of representation of all these groups should be formed to give the
entire school a sense of involvement. The parents can be taken as the resource
persons.
Certain guidelines can be drawn while planning a conference. These are:
• The students should be informed beforehand about the purpose of the
conference.
• Through the checklist, the occupational interest of the students may be
determined so that speakers can be chosen from those areas.
• The names of the guest speakers should be suggested in the meeting and the
person who is going to take the charge be appointed.
• The conference dates should not conflict with examination dates.
• The schedule of talks, discussion groups, film shows etc. should be
announced in advance.
• Duties should be assigned to the staff members and volunteer students.
• Prepare pamphlets for due publicity. A note should be sent to the parents
informing about the conference.
• Charts could be prepared for displaying the topic/theme of the career
conference.
Steps in Planning the Conference
The career conference requires months of planning in advance. The following
steps are important:
• The idea of organizing the conference should be presented at least 45 days
in advance. Once approval has been obtained the students can be informed
about it. Informing the students beforehand is very much required because
then they can offer themselves as volunteers.
• A list of the volunteer teachers and students to be made and duties to be
assigned to them like arranging for the mike, lectures, refreshment,
distribution of pamphlets etc. 49
Techniques and Procedures • Information should be sent to the principals of other schools and parents.
The aim of the career conference and a brief outline of the plan should be
sent to them.
• Draft invitation letter for guest speakers.
• A detailed programme schedule of talks, discussion, films, charts to be made.
• The session-wise programme schedule should be decided well in time and
intimated to the students and other participants.
• Prepare a list of speakers for each session. It is generally good to have 2 or
3 speakers for each session so that in case of unavailability of one, the other
can be invited. The resource persons could be the parents, alumni, staff
members.
• Brief the speaker about the theme and the objectives of the conference.

After the conference conduct a discussion to evaluate the strengths and


shortcomings of the conference. The feed back can be used for making the next
conference better.

7.5.3 Class Talks


This is one of the effective ways of imparting group guidance. Class talks can be
arranged for the students of a class having common interest. E.g. a class talk can
be given on “Time Management” to standard XI students.
Certain points are to be kept in mind while organizing a class talk.
• The topic selected should be according to the need and level of students.
• It should be presented in simple terms with lots of examples and illustrations
from daily life. Use of difficult words should be avoided.
• Ensure the participation of students.
This can be done by asking questions, or by encouraging students to give examples
from their life. This will make the students feel interested and involved in the
talk.
• Charts, posters pamphlets, etc. can be used to highlight the major points
more effectively.
• Tables/figures, etc. can be prepared.
• The talk should not be very long.
• The number of students should not be more than 40.
• The students should be informed in advance about the schedule, theme,
venue and other details of the talk.
• Supplementary material like charts, posters, films are to be kept handy.
Class talks can be on topics such as time management, study habits, how to
prepare for examinations, life skills, healthy eating habits, healthy living, social
skills etc.

50
7.5.4 Career Talks Group Guidance

Career talks are different from class talks. The topics for the class talks are general
and varied while career talks concentrate on information about the various careers.
For example, the topic for class talks could be ‘Effective Study Habits’ or ‘Time
Management’ whereas the topic for career talk will be ‘Careers in Chartered
Accountancy’.

While preparing the career talk, the general points are the same as for the class
talks. Certain additional guidelines while preparing the career talk are:

The future prospect of the career, educational qualifications required, the


institution offering the course, duration of the course, mode of selection, hostel
facilities, positive and negative points associated with the career, etc. should be
clearly stated while delivering a career talk.

Career talk should include topics on a variety of careers to accommodate the


interests of all students present.

7.5.5 Plant Tours


Plant tours provide an excellent opportunity to the students to be aware of the
various occupations available. These tours to industrial and business establishment
for class groups can be arranged as part of group guidance programme.

The main purpose of the plant tours is to increase the career awareness of the
students by their interaction with people at work in occupation.

Organization of a plant tour: The idea of the plant tour should be first discussed
with the principal.

Selection of venue: The place to visit should be the one where most students are
likely to work. It should be planned keeping in consideration the socio-economic
status and other variables of the group e.g., few places could be hotels, telephone
company, banks, etc.

Selection of transport mode: How to plan for such tours is another important
question. How do you get permission from companies for the visit? Parents can
act as a resource person. The parent who is involved in specific type of job can
be of potent help. Or else a direct call to the director of the company can be a
help. State to him/her clearly the purpose of your visit and size of the group.

Preliminary arrangements: In making the arrangements, whether through visit,


letter or telephone, following points should be kept in mind.
• Explain clearly the purpose of the tour.
• Number, size, level and interest of the group(s), number of facilitating
teachers with the group.
• Fix the starting- returning time.
• Arrange for a question/discussion period before and after the tour.
• Arrange transportation.
• Secure the parents consent if necessary.
51
Techniques and Procedures Orientation of the Students
Some dosand don’ts one has to keep in mind:
• Be appreciative. It costs time and money to entertain you.
• Don’t act like labour inspector.
• Don’t criticize
• Don’t be too loud
• Don’t disrupt the company work.
• Don’t ask irrelevant questions.
• Avoid comparisons.
• Don’t try to educate or socialize with the employees or the management.
• Move with the group.
What to Observe
Inform students beforehand what they are expected to make a note of. They
should be asked to pay attention to the nature of work rather than on the talks
that are exchanged among the workers.

7.5.6 Group Discussion


Group discussion is a useful group guidance activity. In permissive situation
comprising of members having common need, the students learn to talk freely
about those things that worry them. It helps students define their working
relationships and be associated with an accepting group of people of their own
age who face problems similar to their own.
Certain norms must be formed while inviting participation from students in group
discussion.
• The topic should be of interest to them.
• Each one should present their own views.
• Criticizing, leg pulling should not be encouraged. In such a situation
counsellor should intervene.
• The points for discussion should be limited to the topic only. The discussion
should not deviate from the original topic.
In the group discussion, the topic to be selected and presented should follow
certain principles.
• The topic should be based on problems of real importance to students. The
topic should represent matters of concern to the majority of students. This
will lead to more participation from the students.
• Topic should match with the maturity level of students in the group.
Sometimes a few students dominate a discussion. So, the group may be divided
into 3-4 smaller groups of 5 students each. To introduce a topic or to “warm up”
the group, a buzz session is a useful method. The teacher writes a thought
provoking question/issue on the blackboard. Then divides the class into sub-
groups of 3-4 students and prompt them to discuss. This is known as the buzz
52 session.
During the group discussion, many personality traits of the individual can be Group Guidance
observed like the leadership qualities, co-operation, submissiveness, dominating
behaviour, etc.

7.5.7 Socio - Psycho Drama and Role Play


Socio drama and psycho drama provide spontaneous situations wherein people
could gain insights by dramatizing their conflicts. In psycho drama, emphasis is
on to promote personalized work of individual whereas in socio drama a problem
common to several members or a group is taken. For example, how to convince
one’s parents about one’s desire to select humanities over science stream is a
case of psycho drama while convincing the society against untouchability, dowry,
etc, are some of the issues for socio drama.

Socio drama is useful in school situation. The plan is to create a situation, assign
roles to players and act out a planned sequence of events. For e.g. a skit may be
prepared showing a party situation. The aim is to make the participants learn
various social graces and manners. Such socio drama could take place in front of
a group of receptive audience.
Procedure: Some prerequisites for conducting a socio drama are:
• Describing clearly and specifically through discussions, situation common
to the group members. The situation should be appropriate to group
characteristics.
• Breaking down the situation into sequences.
• Obtaining volunteers to play the various roles. Creating a feeling of reality
about the situation by making the players familiar with the persons whose
role(s) they are planning.
• Carrying out the socio dramatic situational sequences.
The audience can give their reactions after the drama is over. Later on, all can be
asked to report on the learning that has taken place and also how they feel.

Problems that may come into the way of carrying out the socio drams are the
lack of time to plan and organize it and sometimes it is difficult to keep it at a
serious level.

Role play activities: it provides students with an opportunity to act as well as


talk about their problems. It may be utilized to help adolescents deal with conflicts
in school or family situations. For example, if the student is having difficulty
with his/her father, he/she may be placed in the role of the father while a fellow
student plays the role of the son. In human relations valuable insights can develop
through role playing. Role play can also be utilized to demonstrate how to attend
a job interview, how to accept disappointments etc.
Some suggestions, for counsellor who plan to use this technique:
- A counsellor must encourage students to act the scenes whenever a student
wants to know how others perceive one’s conflict and how they react to
one’s proposed actions.
- Whenever the counsellor senses that a student is having trouble describing
his/her problems and telling how he/she feels about them, the counsellor
53
Techniques and Procedures should respond to the student’s feelings of inadequacy in the situation. He/
she may suggest role play as a technique. But he/she should also stress it is
not effective unless the student volunteers to play the role.
- The scene to be acted out should be described by the member who had the
problem.
- When the group has finished discussing on the first role playing of the
situation, some members of the group may suggest replaying the scene with
reassignment of roles. Such repeating the scene with the players in new
roles usually results in new insights.

Sometimes a reversal of role is helpful. For example, a boy has problem with
father. He feels that the father is always treating him as a kid. He won’t let him
take his cycle on the road. So, this boy doesn’t like the behavior of his father
towards him. In this case, the role play can be initiated. The boy can first act his
role and other student as his father. Once the role play has taken place, the boy
can change into the role of the father and another student plays his role. This
type of role reversal helps the person to see the other person’s point of view also.

7.5.8 Visit to career Fair/Exhibition


Career fair offers tremendous opportunities to help the students explore various
avenues opened to them. Many of us are not familiar with the concept of a career
fair. In a career fair, various stalls are put up by different institutes offering different
courses. For example, Institute of Fashion Technology, Institute of Hotel
Management or various Universities.They give information about the courses
offered by them. Students get a chance to get information about various courses
at one place itself.

These institutions sometimes use video cassettes, slide show, films, etc. to show
the nature of work related to that career. They distribute information booklets or
pamphlets free to the visitor.

Find out if such career exhibition/fair is organized in your city. The advertisement
appears in the newspapers from time to time.

These fairs save time and effort. The students need not go from one institute to
another to get information about the courses. But precaution must be taken and
find out if these courses are recognized by the concerned regulatory body. If the
courses are not recognized they may not lead to any job later.

7.5.9 Career Quiz Session


Career quiz sessions are also a useful way of giving information pertaining to
career. This activity motivates the students to get information so that they can
participate in the quiz. Such quizzes of short duration can be made a regular
feature of the extracurricular schedule. One-word answers, true or false statements
can be given:
• State the full form of N.I.F.T., I.T.I., M.B.A., B.Ed., IIM, BITS, N.I.D.,
N.I.I.T., N.D.A. etc.
• State the educational qualification for entering into N.D.A.
• Which stream is required for joining the navy wing of defence force?
54
Such short questions can be asked. For reference they can be told to see the Group Guidance
newspapers and the information displayed on the bulletin board from time to
time.

7.5.10 Student Council Meeting


Participating in Student Council will help students develop decision making and
problem solving skills. Student Council also provides experience to students
about the functioning of participatory democracy. Student Council can be formed
with 2-3 students representing each class, 2-3 teachers, counsellor and the
principal. The counsellor and the teachers should orient the student members
about the functioning of the SC and their responsibilities. The student
representatives can discuss the problems faced by the student community, provide
ideas about improving academic achievement, request for additional service to
facilitate student welfare etc. in the SC and find solutions.Meetings can be held
periodically, say twice a month as per convenience.

Such council meet helps in knowing the students’ problems and building a rapport
with the students and the management. Further students feel responsible and
important. They play an active role in the decision-making.

Check Your Progress


Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
4) i) Name any four group guidance activities.
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
ii) Mention two topics for class talk.
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
iii) Mention three topics for career talk.
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
iv) Write two norms which have to be formed while inviting
participation from students in group discussion.
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
v) How is socio drama different from psycho drama, discuss in brief.
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
vi) State two points to be considered while conducting class talk.
.......................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
55
Techniques and Procedures
5) Fill in the blanks.
i) The group guidance activity which aims at making the new comers
feel comfortable with the school surrounding is called .............
6) State whether the following statements are true or false by ticking the
appropriate letter.
i) Orientation programmes are merely wastage of time. (T/F)
ii) Orientation programme should be the same for elementary,
secondary and senior secondary level students. (T/F)
iii) Career conference does not require the help of teachers and
students. (T/F)
iv) There is no need to plan a career conference. (T/F)
v) Class talk should be of one hour duration (T/F)

vi) Plant tours do not require deciding upon the time for visit to the
plant. (T/F)

7.6 AIDS TO GUIDANCE IN GROUP SITUATIONS


Various types of supplementary materials are now available to aid counsellors in
motivating group interest in pertinent topics of discussion. These materials need
to be used with discretion however. The basic theory behind using the aids is
that more the number of sense organs involved in perceiving, better will be the
learning.
Supplementary group guidance materials include appropriate books, newspapers,
films, film strips, radio and TV programmes, charts posters, pamphlets, brochures,
etc.
A) Books: Various books have been written dealing with career related topics
or improving one’s personality.
B) Newspaper: Various newspapers are coming out with topics related to
careers. They publish articles related to career regularly on a weekly basis.
They provide latest information about different careers. Newspapers also
providetopics pertaining to human resource development.
C) Magazines: There are magazines that provide information about careers
and topics related to human resource development. Schools can subscribe
to these career magazines for the library. School magazine can also be made
use for providing information about scholarships and various colleges giving
information pertaining to career. It can provide helpful supplementary
service.
D) Prospectus of different institutes offering courses, pamphlets, brochures
are also invaluable sources of getting information.
E) Audio Visual aids: Film, TV programmes, video cassettes, etc. depicting
life situations used as aids for guidance in group situation for students and
parents. E.g., the nature of work of a person in defence service can be
comprehensively grasped if the students are shown a documentary film
56 depicting the adventurous life they lead.
While making use of a movie or video film in group guidance the following Group Guidance
points are to be kept in mind.
– Select an appropriate movie relevant to the topic.
– The time duration is noted beforehand.
– Check the print.
– Inform the group beforehand about the film and the purpose of showing it.
– Encourage discussion after the film show is over.
More and more states and cities are sponsoring local radio and TV programmes
for educational and vocational purposes.

One such radio programme which started is “Phone in Programme”. They


advertise about it in the newspapers. E.g., if a programme is organized on
“Chartered Accountancy as a Career”, 2-3 experts will be called from that area
to the radio station to respond to the queries.Questions can be asked by anyone
on the telephone and the experts would immediately respond to them.

Some television channels also telecast career related programmes. Counsellors


can ask students to listen to these programmes and later it can be discussed in the
class.

Bulletin board displays: Information which should reach a large number of


students can more efficiently be imparted through bulletin boards. Advertisement
about careers, articles of general interest, charts and posters providing information
can be put on the display board. Such bulletin boards should be put at place
which is common for the students.

Activity: Bulletin board display competition can be organized in schools. For


example, the students of class IX are divided into 5-6 smaller groups. Each group
is given a different topic for the display. Let us say the topics are Hotel
Management, Designing, Defence Services, Business Administration, Law, etc.
Each group is supposed to collect material related to the topic ( pictures, pamphlets
etc.). A general guideline can be given to them:
– Job profile
– Present scope and prospects
– Qualifications
i) Educational
ii) Professional
iii) Age limit
– Mode of selection
– Various departments specifying the type of work carried out in each
department.
– Few clips of advertisement related to this field.
– Pictures showing work of people in different departments.
The students are required to put the above information along with the pictures
on the display board.
57
Techniques and Procedures Each group will put up the display material for one week. They can be evaluated
and by the end of one round, the group with the best presentation can be given
certificates.

Career query boxes: As there is generally one full time counsellor in the school
and the work load is much on him, so it is not possible for him to devote time to
the career related questions individually. Moreover, many questions are common
therefore the counsellor doesn’t need to address them separately.

‘Career Query Box’ can be used in such cases. A wooden box of approximately
12×12 inches can be taken. There is a small cut on the top of the box from where
papers can be slipped in (like the ballet boxes). It can be locked. Students can
put their questions related to career with name and class. A day in a week can be
decided to open it. The answer can be written on slips of papers with the question
and put up on the display board. The help of the students can be taken for writing
the answers.

7.7 LIMITATIONS OF GROUP ACTIVITIES


Group activities though serve a useful purpose, cannot be taken as a substitute
for individual counselling. Group activities serve many of the objectives of the
school guidance programme, but not all of them. It helps the students with their
common problems but individuals differ in the amount of assistance they need
to work through their difficulties. Further students may feel hesitant to come out
with their personal problems in the group. So, in such cases group guidance
cannot be of help.
Group activities are not taken seriously by some of the students.
Despite the limitations, group activities save time and efforts. It helps in making
the individual counselling easy. It is complementary to individual counselling.

Check Your Progress


Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
7) State any two limitations of group guidance activities.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................

7.8 PROBLEMS IN ORGANIZING GROUP


GUIDANCE ACTIVITIES
Group guidance activities serve useful purpose specially saving in time and effort.
While organizing these activities, some problems that a counsellor may face are
mentioned below:
58
• A rigid type of administration is often a major cause of trouble. Generally, Group Guidance
when the counsellor asks for slot in thetime table for conducting these
guidance activities, he/she may get a discouraging reply, the time table is
already full. Then the counsellor is left with no other choice than to take the
substitute/arrangement period.

• Lack of cooperation on part of the administration as well as the staff members


may also create problems in organizing such activities. Teachers may feel
that guidance activity is an additional burden.

• Lack of adequate funds is another problem.

These problems can be overcome if tackled with a bit of planning, patience and
boldness. E.g. the problem of time table, which does not have a period for guidance
activities, one may take work experience/S.U.P.W. classes. Further, co-curricular
activity classes can be taken in rotation every week. Career quizzes can be arranged
with no difficulty if the entire plan has been discussed with management.

Further, the use of guidance in teaching and reducing the problem of truancy and
indiscipline, underachievement can be conveyed to the teachers. Once they find
a positive correlation between the two, they will be most willing to help.

As far as the inadequacy of funds is concerned, the management needs to be


convinced about the minimum requirement.

Check Your Progress


Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
8) Write any two problems in organizing group guidance activities.
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7.9 LET US SUM UP


Guidance can be imparted individually as well as in groups. Group guidance
includes those activities of guidance which are carried out in a group situation.

Some of the activities of group guidance are group discussions, orientation, career
conferences, career talks, class talks, plant tours, career fair etc.. It also includes
many informal types of play groups like socio drama, psycho drama and role
play.

There are various supplementary things which act as aid to guidance in group
situations. These include reading material like books, magazines, newspapers,
pamphlets, prospectus, brochures, etc. Various audio visual aids are also used to
59
Techniques and Procedures provide assistance in group guidance activities. Bulletin board display and career
query boxes provide immense help in carrying out the group guidance activities.
Charts and posters could be used for similar purpose.

Group guidance activities cannot be taken as a substitute for individual


counselling. Rather both work as complementary to each other.

Certain problems are faced by counsellors while organizing group guidance


activities like lack of co-operation on the part of teachers and the administration.
These can be overcome if the activities are carefully planned and made to see the
utility of these activities in improving the school situation.

7.10 UNIT-END EXERCISES


1) Explain the term group guidance.
2) Mention any five group guidance activities which are carried out in school.
3) Develop an outline for orientation of students at secondary and senior
secondary level for your school.
4) Mention the points you would like to keep in mind while writing a class
talk for secondary students, i.e. IX and X.
5) Visit a school in the nearby area and collect the information about the choice
of career talk. Discuss how you would organize such talk.
6) Find out if career fairs are held in your city. Which are the organizations
participating in them?
7) State the various audio visual aids in guidance services explaining in few
lines about each one of them.

60
Group Guidance
UNIT 8 TECHNIQUES OF COUNSELLING

Structure
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Objectives
8.3 Counselling Skills
8.4 Behavioural Interventions
8.4.1 Behavioural Counselling Techniques
8.5 Cognitive Interventions
8.5.1 CBT techniques
8.5.2 Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy
8.6 Transactional Analysis
8.6.1 Ego states
8.6.2 Contamination of ego states
8.6.3 Exclusion of ego states
8.7 Characteristics of Effective Counsellors
8.8 Let Us Sum Up
8.9 Unit-end Exercises
8.10 References and Suggested Readings
8.11 Answers to Check Your Progress

8.1 INTRODUCTION
After reading Units 1 and 4, you are familiar with the meaning of counselling
and may have realized the importance of counselling services in our life and
especially for school going children. We have discussed the goals and principles
of counselling in schools. Counselling is a process and it goes through different
stages. We have discussed different approaches to counselling which belongs to
different schools of thought. Individual as well as group counselling are important
in school settings. We have highlighted certain important areas in counselling
that schools should engage in. The effectiveness of the counselling process
depends on the skills of the counsellor and his/her ability to choose appropriate
strategies for dealing with problems of the client.

Children spend a lot of their time with teachers in schools. When students have
problems- academic, social or emotional- it is more likely that they approach a
teacher whom they consider confidante as in most cases they have nobody else
to turn to. Therefore, even if you had not prepared yourself for the role of a
counsellor, students tend to see you as their confidante and counsellor. This is
more so a telling reality in India as most schools do not have a counsellor. Teaching
is a helping relationship and the teacher is a helper.In this Unit, we are going to
discuss the skills required to be an effective counsellor and the various strategies
that can be used for helping the clients deal with their problems.

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Techniques and Procedures
8.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you should be able to:
• recognize the need for providing counselling service in schools;
• appreciate counselling as a helping relationship and an extension of your
teaching profession;
• explain the different skills of counselling;
• develop the various counselling skills and use them effectively in your
professional setting;
• explain the various behavioral and cognitive techniques used in counselling;
• demonstrate the applications of different behavioral and cognitive
interventions as a counsellor;
• explain the professional as well as personal qualities of an effective
counsellor; and
• develop professional as well as personal qualities required to be an effective
counsellor.

8.3 COUNSELLING SKILLS


Counselling is an extension of the helping relationship and the positive outcomes
of the process depend largely on the helper. The counsellor’s personal as well as
professional qualities influence the counselling process. Self-awareness,
understanding of others, the ability to relate to others, academic training, and a
set of professional skills are essential qualities of a counsellor. In this section,
we will focus on the professional skills required to be an effective counsellor.

Active Listening
Counsellors not only listen to the words spoken by the clients but also to the
feelings, facial expression, emotion, gestures, and the unspoken thoughts of the
clients. This means, when the client speaks the counsellormust give full
attention. Active listening is essential for arriving at an objective assessment of
the client’s problem and determining appropriate strategies for starting the healing
process.

Attending
In the counselling process, listening and attending skills go together. Active
listening is possible only when the counsellor gives total attention to the client.
Total attention giving behavior of the counsellor means using body language,
facial expression, eye contact, head nod and such other non-verbal expressions.
If the counsellor is attending to phone calls, writing on the note pad, not looking
at the client, sitting away from the client with crossed arms, showing no facial
expression or such other cues would be perceived by the client as devaluing
him/her. Leaning forward towards the client indicates an attending gesture. On
the other hand, if the counsellor sits or leans too closely, the client may feel
intimidated and withdraws instead of opening about the problem.
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Egan (1994) has summarized the useful non-verbal behavior in counselling as Techniques of Counselling
SOLER.
S- Facing the client squarely indicates total attention to the client.
O – Open posture; crossed arms/legs may indicate less involvement of the
counsellor.
L – Leaning towards the client shows the counsellor’s interest.
E – Eye contact with the client.
R – Relaxed state of the counsellor which acts as social modeling for the client
to achieve relaxation.
Paraphrasing
This is restating or rewording the content (what is said by the client) back to the
client. This should not be mere parroting the words back to the client. Paraphrasing
involves reflection of the content and feelings of the client. Paraphrasing and
reflection help in confirming with the client if the counsellor has understood the
problem as narrated by the client.

Empathy
This refers to the counsellor’s ability to sense what the client is feeling,
experiencing and thinking. Empathic skill involves the use of attending, listening
and interpersonal sensitivity of the counsellor.

Asking Questions
Counsellors ask questions for fact finding and engaging with the client. Fact
finding questions are used for collecting data such as age, occupation, family
status etc. regarding a new client. Open-ended questions help in engaging and
establishing a relationship with the client. Open-ended questions are used to
elicit a response from the client, probe and expand a response given by the client
or explore deeper into the client’s problem.

Immediacy
Immediacy refers to the counsellor disclosing feelings about the client or the
therapeutic interaction at that moment as it happens. For example, after listening
to a student who suffered sexual abuse, the counsellor may share his/her feeling
towards the student:
Counsellor: “I appreciate you trusted me with one of the most traumatic
experiences of your life. And I respect your courage for confronting the problem”.

Self-disclosure
This refers to the counsellor stating feelings about a similar situation as the client
is presently in. For example, the counsellor disclosing to a student seeking help
for dealing with public speaking phobia:

Counsellor: “When I had to speak before the class, I used to stutter”.


The skills of self-disclosure and immediacy are closely associated. Self-disclosure
promotes immediacy in your relationship with the client. Self-disclosure
intervention should be used in appropriate context and time only. According to
Kottler and Kottler (2007), “Self-disclosures are best employed when you wish
63
Techniques and Procedures to (a) demonstrate that the student is not alone, (b) bridge perceived distance
between you, and (c) model openness (p.58)”. They maintain that self-disclosures
should have the following features.
• It should be concise.
• It should be devoid of self-indulgence.
• It should be used very conservatively (p.58).
Summarizing
After listening to a series of statements or at the end of a session, the counsellor
summarizes the content presented by the client. Through summarizing, the
counsellor attempts to find out if s/he has properly understood the frame of
reference of the client and also helps the client to place his/her problem in
perspective.

Goal Setting
After assessing the problem, the counsellor works with the client to set realistic
goals or behavioural changes the client wants to accomplish. It is important to
set goals that are achievable. Goals are set depending on the nature of the problem
and the client’s ability to engage in the helping process. Time bound specific
goals give a sense of purpose and accomplishment to the client.

Ending Sessions and Follow-up


Setting boundaries is important in a counselling relationship. Counsellors should
begin and end sessions on time. Clients should be informed about the rules of
the counselling contract and counsellors should not be lenient if the client is late
for the session. The message to the client should be, being late means forgoing
the session. This is necessary because it is the client’s responsibility to work
towards the set goals or behavioural changes. When ending each session, the
counsellor may encourage the client to carry on the new behavior learnt in the
session in the outside world. This may be followed up at the beginning of the
next session by enquiring about the client’s accomplishments in the world outside.

Termination of Counselling
Counselling or therapy relationship is a contract. Therefore, it must come to an
end one day. Termination happens when the set goals have been accomplished,
the client wants to move on or end the relationship, the counsellor wants to
move on, the counsellor concludes that the therapy is not productive, or the
counsellor gives the client referral to another professional in the field. Whichever
way the termination happens the counsellor should prepare herself/himself and
the client for the eventuality. Abrupt ending of the counselling relationship may
adversely affect some clients. Therefore, it is better the counsellor discusses with
the client about the termination plan two or three sessions prior to the actual
event and prepares the client for the day. Morally a counsellor should terminate
the contract if she realizes that the therapeutic relationship is not productive.
After a few sessions, if the counsellor feels that the client is avoiding responsibility
for working towards the desired change, the client should be told so and the
contract may be terminated. Whatever be the reasons for termination, it should
leave a positive feeling with the counsellor and the client.
64
Techniques of Counselling
Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
1) List the various counselling skills.
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2) Explain SOLER.
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3) What is paraphrasing?
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4) Explain goal setting skill.
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8.4 BEHAVIOURAL INTERVENTIONS


You have studied learning theories in BES- 123. You may recall classical
conditioning and operant conditioning theories of learning here. Behavioural
approaches to counselling take the view that all behaviours are learned. Behavior
that is approved or reinforced, through childhood, provides satisfying experience
and such behavior is likely to be repeated. In the same way, if a behavior is
discouraged, not approved or not reinforced it tends to disappear. Therefore, if
behavior is learned, it can be unlearned in a similar way. Behavioural learning
65
Techniques and Procedures theories can, thus, help us understand behavioral patterns exhibited by the clients
as well as modify them. There are positive and negative reinforcements. A
reward(stimulus) that is presented during the behavior or immediately after the
behavior is called a positive reinforcement. Similarly, if the stimulus is withdrawn
or not given after the behavior, it is considered a negative reinforcement.
Therefore, behavior counselling is based on the understanding that reinforcement
strengthens the behavior which means positive reinforcement leads to the behavior
occurring in the future whereas negative reinforcement resulting either in behavior
modification or dropping of the behavior.Behaviouralcounselling aims at
developing desirable behavior and modifying or removing undesirable behavior.

In behavior approach to counselling, the counsellor begins with the assessment


of the client’s behavior so that problem behavior can be identified. Behavioural
analysis helps the counsellor in understanding the situations that lead to a behavior,
the consequences of the behavior or if the behavior reveals any pattern. The
counsellor then attempts to find out if the problem behavior changes when the
situation leading to it or the consequences is altered.Let us understand behavioural
analysis using the ABC model.
‘A’ refers to antecedent, which means what happens prior to the problem behavior
occurs.
‘B’ refers to the problem behavior of the client.
‘C ‘refers to the consequences of the behavior.
After the functional analysis of the behavior, the counsellor would assess if change
in ‘A ‘(antecedent) would result in a new (desirable) or modified behavior (B).
Alternatively, the counsellor would assess if removing or change in ‘C’ would
develop a new behavior (B). The focus of the behavioural intervention is in a)
developing a new behavior, b) strengthening a newly developed behavior, c)
weakening a problem behavior, or d) modifying the problem behavior (B). For
designing a behavioural intervention plan you need to collect baseline data related
to the problem behavior of the client. You can ask the client to keep a self-
monitoring diary that will provide information about the frequency, length and
intensity of the problem behavior. As your clients would be your learners, you
can observe them regarding the problem behavior and maintain a diary. You can
seek report from parents, teachers and peer group about the client’s behavior.

8.4.1 Behavioural Counselling Techniques


Behavioural counselling techniques are based on the classical and operant
conditioning theories. Exposure therapies are based on classical conditioning,
which include systematic desensitization, in vivo desensitization, flooding and
implosion.

A) Exposure Therapies
Some of the commonly observed behavioral problems among children are due
to anxiety, fear, anger, phobia, etc. For example, a child may be fearful of entering
a dark room, speaking in the class room, an insect, animal, elevator or heights.
Exposure therapies are used to reduce these disabling feelings and emotions.
The client is gradually exposed to the problem situations or in imagination under
the supervision of the counsellor. The behavioural assessment should clearly
indicate that the problem behavior is irrational and inappropriate which means
66
the problem behavior is not because of the inadequacy of skills. For example, if Techniques of Counselling
a child is fearful of swimming it should not be due to the lack of swimming
skills. Let us now discuss some of the techniques used in exposure therapies.

Systematic Desensitization
In systematic desensitization and in vivo desensitization, the fearful situation is
paired with a state of relaxation. The systematic desensitization is done in the
following steps:
Constructing anxiety hierarchy
Training in relaxation
Desensitizing the anxiety inducing stimulus
Constructing Anxiety Hierarchy
The client is asked to list all the situations or events that induce anxiety and
arrange it in increasing order of intensity. In the anxiety hierarchy, the client may
be asked to construct 10-12 episodes/scenes that produce anxiety. The first scene
produces the least anxiety and the last scene produces anxiety of the highest
intensity. Given below is an example of a list of anxiety hierarchy created by a
client fearful of spiders.

1) Hear someone mention spider.


2) See picture of spider.
3) See a small spider on the wall.
4) See a small spider crawling on the floor.
5) See a big spider on the wall.
6) See a big spider crawling on the floor.
7) Spider crawling on the desk.
8) Spider crawling on the arm of the chair he is sitting.
9) Spider crawling on shirt sleeve.
10) Spider crawling on bare foot or arm.

Relaxation training
Anxiety induces physiological stress. In some people anxiety may cause irregular
heart beat, sweating or tightening of muscles. Counsellors use a variety of
relaxation techniques to help their clients deal with anxiety. In step 2 of the
desensitization process, the counsellor provides training to the clients in
relaxation. Clients receive training to relax different muscle groups in the order
starting with the small muscles (toes, feet) to the larger muscle groups (shoulder,
neck, face).
Another relaxation technique is using mental imagery in which the client is asked
to imagine herself/himself in a place or situation that is associated with pleasant
memories. The pleasant imagery helps the client to move into a state of relaxation.
When the client is in a state of relaxation, the physiological changes that happen
are opposite to the physiological responses induced by anxiety. In relaxation
67
Techniques and Procedures state, the heart beat and the respiration rate start returning to normalcy, and muscle
tension begins to loosen.

Shavasana is yoga posture that can be practiced for relaxation. In this yoga posture,
the client is asked to maintain the posture of a corpse and instruct the body to
relax gradually from toe to head. Vipassana is a meditation technique which can
be used for relaxation. Pranayama , the breathing technique which many of us
are familiar with, is another relaxation technique.

Relaxation activity has to be done in a calm environment and in a comfortable


posture in a chair or mat.

Desensitizing the anxiety inducing stimulus


This is the last step in the desensitization process. Following the counsellor’s
instructions, the client enters into relaxation state. When the client is in deep
relaxation state, he/she is presented with the least anxiety provoking scene from
the list constructed by the client earlier. The client is instructed to visualize each
item in the list. Even if a scene produces tension, it would not be lasting as
relaxation and tension cannot go together. However, if the tension stays longer
the client is instructed to move away from the scene and asked to relax further.
Once again when the client is in deep state of relaxation the scene that provoked
anxiety is presented. The process is repeated with each scene till the time the
most anxiety provoking scene fails to provoke anxiety in the client. When the
client stays calm and relaxed while imagining the high anxiety provoking scene,
there is little chance that the corresponding event in real life would provoke
anxiety. Remember the state of equanimity is not achieved in one sitting but
through a series of sessions, usually 8-10 sessions. Therefore, the counsellor
must make the decision after assessing the severity of the case about the
approximate number of sessions that would need for the desensitization therapy.
The counsellor should also review the progress of the desensitization process
periodically and make changes, if required.

In Vivo Desensitization
In cases where systematic desensitization fails, in vivo desensitization can be
used. In in vivo desensitization, the client is gradually introduced to the real life
anxiety provoking stimulus. Here too the client is asked to develop a hierarchy
of fear inducing stimulus. The client receives training in relaxation techniques.
When the client is in relaxation state, the counsellor gradually presents the fear
producing actual stimulus. Some counsellors provide positive reinforcement in
place of relaxation.

Flooding
This technique is usually used when the systematic and in vivo desensitization
processes fail. As in the desensitization process, in flooding too the client is
given training in relaxation. A few sessions are used for learning the relaxation
techniques. The client may practice the relaxation techniques at home too. After
the client has learned the relaxation techniques, the counsellor exposes the client
abruptly to the anxiety provoking stimulus. Due to classical conditioning the
client has learnt to associate fear with the stimulus. In flooding technique, the
same principle is used to extinguish the fear response by replacing it with a
feeling of relaxation. Unlike the systematic desensitization process, in flooding
68
the exposure to the fear inducing stimulus is rapid, abrupt and direct. Flooding is Techniques of Counselling
applied in real situation and the client cannot escape from the situation.

Mohan is afraid of spider. As soon as he sees a spider he starts screaming


and shaking with fear uncontrollably. Even after the spider disappears,
his discomfort and anxiety would continue for quite sometime. Mohan’s
parents approached a counsellor. The counsellor recommended flooding
therapy to extinguish Mohan’s anxiety. Mohan was first given training in
relaxation. He also practiced relaxation techniques at home. After a few
sessions, Mohan mastered the skill to relax himself. In the following session
the counsellor exposed Mohan to the fear evoking real object (spider). As
Mohan’s fear of the spider is quite intense, it would not be easy for him to
remain calm. Here, Mohan uses the relaxation techniques to lower his
anxiety to a manageable level. Therefore, mastering the relaxation
techniques before confronting the fear evoking stimulus is very crucial. In
subsequent sessions, Mohan managed to reduce his anxiety level further
and could confront the fear evoking stimulus minus the presence of the
counsellor. This means Mohan eventually learnt to dissociate the stimulus
(spider) from fear.

Implosion
Flooding is done in real situation whereas implosion is done using imagery. Let
us try to understand implosion using Mohan’s case described earlier. Here, Mohan
may be asked to imagine a scene in which spiders are crawling around the room.
The counsellor continues with exaggerated details of the scene that the spiders
are crawling on Mohan’s face and entering his nose. In implosion treatment the
client may show strong emotional reactions. The treatment is continued till the
client is assessed to have eliminated the anxiety behavior associated with spider.
Let us consider another example.

Sonam is fearful of public speaking. She doesn’t ask questions in the class.
When the teacher asks question, she doesn’t say the answer although she
knows it. In implosion therapy, Sonam is asked to imagine a scene in which
she is addressing the school assembly, fumbling for words, students laughing,
whistling and hooting, noise becoming louder, and principal and teachers
angry and scolding her. Sonam goes through a few more sessions of intensive
anxiety evoking imagery of public speaking till her public speaking phobia
is eliminated.

B) Stimulus Control by Using Reinforcement and Punishment


Systematic use of reinforcement and punishment for stimulus control is based
on the principles of operant conditioning. In stimulus control technique the focus
is on the antecedent to the occurrence of a behavior. Let us understand stimulus
control through an example.

Arunima teaches English in class IX. After the class also if the students
have any academic problem they would go to her and discuss. She would
listen and help them to deal with their problems. Mira teaches Science to
the same group of students. But the students do not go to Mira although
they experience difficulty in the subject. Initially when students would
69
Techniques and Procedures
approach Mira to discuss their subject related problems, Mira would scold
them for not being attentive in the class. Gradually students stopped going
to her. As Arunima listens and provides reinforcement to the students
whenever they approach her, they continued to meet her and discuss their
subject related problems. Here, Arunima’s presence is an antecedent to the
behavior of the students which is discussing their academic problems. Or
we can say Arunima’s presence is serving as stimulus control for the
behavior of the students. As Mira did not reinforce the behavior of the
students, it gradually stopped occurring.

C) Role Play
We learn a behavior by observing others and then imitating their behavior. As
children we acquire certain behavior through modeling and imitating others.
Counsellors use role play technique to modify a behavior. Role play can also be
used to learn a new behavior. In role play, the counsellor and the client assume
specified roles and enact a problem situation. Initially the counsellor plays the
role of the client and the client does the role of the other actor (parent, teacher or
principal) in the problem situation. In the following session, they exchange the
roles which means the client plays his/her role and the counsellor plays the role
of the other actor. In the second session, where the client is playing his/her original
role in the problem situation, he/she attempts to model his/her behavior on the
behavior demonstrated by the counsellor in the first session. Over time in
subsequent sessions of role exchanges and modeling, the client learns a new
behavior or modifies the existing behavior so that the situation is no more
problematic. Consider the following case:

Ruhi is a class X student. Her academic performance is very good. She is


also an excellent classical singer. She wants to pursue a career in classical
music and become a vocalist. Her parents are doctors and own a hospital.
They want her to pursue a career in medicine and eventually run the hospital
when they retire. They are now planning to get her admission in an expensive
coaching centre to prepare for the medical entrance exam after the 12th
class. She has been so far unsuccessful in telling her mother about her
desire to pursue a career in classical music. As soon as she begins to talk
to mother about her future career plans, her mother would block her by
saying that she is going to become a doctor and there was nothing more to
discuss. Ruhi doesn’t want her parents to be unhappy but she doesn’t want
medicine for a career either. But she has so far not succeeded in presenting
her case to the parents. She feels unhappy and distressed. That is how she
approached the school counsellor and discussed the problem. The counsellor
suggested role play to Ruhi for dealing with the situation. Ruhi agreed to
the suggestion. To begin with Ruhi was asked to enact her mother’s role
and the counsellor played Ruhi’s role. In the next session, Ruhi assumed
her own role and the counsellor played her mother. In this session Ruhi
was expected to incorporate what she has learnt from the counsellor’s
behavior while playing Ruhi. Initially it was not very easy for Ruhi to model
her behavior on the behavior of the counsellor as Ruhi in the earlier session.
Because, she felt nervous confronting her mother. In subsequent sessions
involving exchange of roles and modeling by the counsellor, gradually Ruhi
has learnt to confront her mother and assert herself.
70
D) Token Economy Techniques of Counselling

In this technique, positive reinforcement is used for behavior modification. Rules


are established prior to the start of the treatment which specify the behavior to be
modified and the reward to be given. Each time the client exhibits the desired
behavior, it results in the reward of a token, for example a cartoon sticker.
Undesirable behavior would result in the removal of a token. The token economy
technique is found to be very effective with children. After collecting a certain
number of tokens, the client may be given a more meaningful object in exchange
for the tokens. In place of the meaningful object, the reward can also be something
like a picnic, going for a movie or such other privileges. The token rewarding is
gradually withdrawn as the client starts displaying independently the desired
behavior.

Check Your Progress


Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
5) Explain the ABC model of behavioral analysis.
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6) List the different exposure therapies.
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7) Mention the steps involved in systematic desensitization.
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8) State the difference between systematic and in vivo desensitization
techniques.
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9) State the difference between ‘flooding’ and ‘implosion’ techniques.
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Techniques and Procedures
8.5 COGNITIVE INTERVENTIONS
Aron Beck is the proponent of cognitive therapy. Cognitive approach to
counselling is based on the understanding that human behavior is influenced by
cognition or thought process. Therefore, when individuals respond to events or
situations they do so depending on their beliefs, attitude, or expectations. This
means there is a pattern of thinking behind our manifested behaviour. That
ineffective behavior is due to distortion in the thinking process.So if maladaptive
behavior has to be unlearnt, modified or a new behaviour has to be learnt, changing
the thinking pattern is necessary. Thus, the client is helped to examine the
rationality of assumptions behind his/her behavior. Most counsellors combine
behavioural and cognitive therapy to deal with client dysfunctions or problems.

Beck (1976) and Burns (1980) have identified a list of some common fallacious
and ineffective thought patterns people engage in.
i) All or none thinking: This refers to thinking in the extreme, either good or
bad. There is no middle ground here. For example, if a child is denied one
of his/her many demands by the parents, s/he thinks that his/her parents
don’t love him/her. This means, my parents love me or they don’t love me.
ii) Over generalization: In this thinking pattern, people draw exaggerated
conclusions, often based on a single event. An unpleasant event has occurred
and you start thinking of it as the beginning of an unending series of disaster.
iii) Arbitrary inference: This happens when people draw unjustified
conclusion without adequate evidence. You went to meet the principal and
she/he didn’t smile at you. You concluded that s/he is angry with you.
iv) Jumping to conclusion: You are a newly appointed principal of a school.
You jump to the conclusion that the teacher from the same school who lost
the job to you would be hostile to you. This is known as “mind reading”,
although you have no evidence to support your conclusion. Another
associated cognitive distortion known as “fortune telling” is, when you
conclude that your time as a principal in the school is going to be disastrous.
v) Magnification and minimization:This refers to magnifying the intensity
of the unpleasantness or negative effect of a situation or event.And shrinking
or rejecting the pleasant experience or positive effect of the event.
vi) Personalization:Whenever things go wrong you think you are responsible
for it. See yourself as the cause of the negative effect of an external event
over which you had no control.
vii) Should statements:You keep saying to yourself, I should do this, or I
shouldn’t have done that. The emotional consequence of this kind of thinking
is guilt.
viii) Labeling and mislabeling: This is overgeneralization in its extreme form.
“I am a loser”. Here, instead of acknowledging your error or shortcoming,
you attach a negative label to yourself. When you find someone’s behavior
unacceptable, you label him, “He is a jerk”.Here, we use highly colored
and emotionally loaded language to describe an event.

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ix) Disqualifying the positive:This is automatic discounting or rejection of Techniques of Counselling
your positive experiences. For example, when you are congratulated for a
task done, you brush it aside as, “it is not so great”. This is due to your
negative self-perception. By disqualifying your every day positive
experiences, you maintain your negative belief about the self.
x) Emotional reasoning:Here your reasoning is not objective but based on
how you feel about a situation. “I am angry with you, therefore you have
wronged me”. “I feel guilty, therefore it is my mistake”. You accept emotion
as evidence for your thought and do not attempt to look for facts objectively.

A counsellorcan help clients identify and correct cognitive distortions in their


thinking process. Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) uses different techniques
to help clients examine their dysfunctional thoughts to understand their non
productive or self destructive behavior.

8.5.1 CBT techniques


Some of the techniques used by cognitive behavioural therapists are described
below.

• Cognitive rehearsal
A client is fearful of travelling in metro train. S/he feels trapped inside the
train. The client describes his/her negative thought patterns and feelings
when s/he uses the train (daily to reach his work place) to a counsellor. The
counsellor helps him/her to explore some things s/he can do to reduce the
anxiety next time s/he boards the train. One of the things could be to do a
breathing exercise as soon as s/he enters the train. Another thing could be to
listen to his/her favorite music track.

• Validity testing
Rohan could not top the class in the annual examination. He was short of
two marks compared to the topper in the class. His mother starts thinking,
“I am to blame for Rohan’s poor performance. I should have spent more
time teaching Rohan. I am a bad parent”. She feels depressed and approaches
a therapist for help. The therapist asks her to list her behavior as bad mother
and prove them so. As she does so the therapist helps her to confront and
test the validity of her beliefs (bad parent) and exposes these negative
thoughts as baseless.

• Guided discovery
The counsellor asks a series of specific questions about the client’s thoughts,
feelings and emotions surrounding the maladaptive behavior. The counsellor
then helps the client link the distorted thought patterns and the maladaptive
behavior.

• Writing in a journal
The client is asked to note down her everyday anxiety behavior and the
thoughts and emotions surrounding such behavior for about 2-3 weeks. The
journal is then reviewed together by the client and the counsellor to discover
the unhelpful thought patterns and emotions that induce the anxiety behavior
in the client.
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Techniques and Procedures 8.5.2 Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy
Albert Ellis is the proponent of rational emotive beahavioural therapy (REBT).
He suggests that our emotional disturbances and dysfunctional behaviours are
largely due to irrational beliefs/thoughts. It is not the reality out there, rather
how we perceive the reality that is causing the emotional disturbance. He says
irrational beliefs are unhelpful and unhealthy, whereas rational beliefs are more
flexible, helpful and enhance our mental health. We allow ourselves to be
‘disturbed’ by having irrational beliefs. So, for resolving our problems, we have
to take responsibility for changing our ‘crooked’ ways of thinking to rational
ways of thinking. According to Ellis, the commonly held irrational beliefs are
the following.
• It is essential to be loved and approved by every significant person in one’s
life.
• To be worthwhile, a person must be competent, adequate and achieving in
everything attempted.
• Some people are wicked, bad, villainous, and should be blamed or punished.
• It is terrible and disastrous whenever events do not occur as one hopes.
• Unhappiness is the result of outside events and a person has no control over
such despair.
• Something potentially dangerous or harmful should be a cause of great
concern and should always be kept in mind.
• Running away from difficulties or responsibilities is easier than facing them.
• A person must depend on others and must have someone stronger on whom
to rely.
• The past determines one’s present behaviour and thus it cannot be changed.
• A person should get upset over the problems and difficulties of others.
• There is always a right answer to every problem, and a failure to find this
answer is a disaster.
Ellis used the A-B-C-D-E therapeutic approach to help clients resolve their
problems.

A is the activating external event. B is the beliefs (irrational or rational) the


client has about the event. C is the consequences (feelings and behaviors) due to
B (beliefs). The therapist helps the client to dispute (D) the beliefs (B) and modify
them. E refers to the effect due to therapy resulting in modified behavior.

Let us consider the following example.

Your colleague entered the staff room looking very distressed. You enquired
if everything was fine. She said, “The principal doesn’t like me. I feel very
depressed”. What makes you think so, you asked her. When the principal
saw me coming in, she didn’t smile and looked away.
The activating event (A) is principal didn’t smile and looked away.
The colleague’s belief (B) is principal doesn’t like her.
The consequence (C) is a state of feeling depressed.
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Techniques of Counselling
The therapist helps her to dispute (D) her belief. Has such an event happened
before? No. Is she certain the principal has seen her coming in? She is not
certain about it. Could the principal have been mentally preoccupied by
some other serious matter? Yes she could be. Is the principal’s behavior (A)
or client’s belief (B), what has caused the depression (C)? The client’s belief.
What is the effect (E) of the therapy? The client acknowledges it is her belief
rather than the external event which is responsible for the negative feeling.
The client learns to dispute the irrationality of her beliefs.

Check Your Progress


Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
10) What is ‘arbitrary inference’?
...............................................................................................................
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11) Describe ‘magnification and minimization’.
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12) What does it mean, ‘disqualifying the positive’?
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...............................................................................................................
13) Mention the different CBT techniques.
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14) What according to Ellis is the reason for emotional disturbances?
...............................................................................................................
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15) Explain the ABCDE model of REBT.
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8.6 TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS


Transactional analysis, commonly known asTA, is a psychological tool that
helps us to understand the constituents of our personality. The TA theory was
originally proposed by Dr. Eric Berne who was a practicing psychiatrist. TA
theories are based on life experiences and observable realities, therefore can be
used by anybody to understand one’s personality. TA helps us to understand the
effective and ineffective aspects of our personality. As a counsellor, you can
train your clients to apply TA to improve their intra-personal and inter-personal
effectiveness.

8.6.1 Ego states


According to Eric Berne, the proponent of transactional analysis, our personality
is constituted of ego states. Here, ego means I, ego state means state of I. This
means we keep shifting from one ego state to another from time to time. An ego
state can be described as a set of patterns of behavior thatinclude thinking, feeling,
decision making which are experienced internally, and manifested as behavior
of the individual. Each ego state has a set of behavior of its own. An ego state is
a reflection of how we relate to ourselves and others at a particular moment or
point of time. Eric Berne’swork revealed that every human being has three sets
of behavior. He named these three sets of behavior as:

Parent ego state or Parent(P) refers to our personality characteristics,


physiological and emotional attitudes and social behavior that we have
internalized from our biological parents, parent figures (aunts, uncles or
grandparents), any other authoritarian figures, or care givers.

Adult ego state orAdult(A)which refers to that part of our personality that deals
with the reality of the here and now. A is manifested by objective recording and
processing of the data ,alertness of the outside world of reality and the
psychological reality of the people we interact with in our daily life.
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Child ego stateor Child(C) which refers to that part of our personality we carry Techniques of Counselling
along from birth through childhood into the present moment of our life. It is
revival from our early life experiences which means it is the repository of our
feelings and emotions. Thus, the child ego state is the recording of events that
unfolded around us and our responses to the outside stimulus, for example,
sometimes gurgling with joy, going through distress, feeling sad or angry, feeling
of amazement or fear. In short, the child ego state is the seat of all our feelings
and emotional responses.

The TA model of personality structure is depicted diagrammatically as given


below.

PARENT

ADULT

CHILD

Fig. 8.1: A Structural Diagram

Let us now examine in detail the different dimensions of each of these ego states.
In our discussion, we will use Parent with capital P which denotes the Parent
ego state, not the biological parent. In the same way the Adult ego state will be
represented by A and the Child egostate will be represented by C, both A and C
are not the physiological adult and the child.

The P, A, and C are part of our personality that we have started developing early
in our life. We have said earlier that TA is a psychological tool that helps us
understand our personality and the personality of others. How do we experience
ego states? Can we observe the ego state experiences of others? Can others observe
our ego state experiences? Ego states are interior experiences that are not
observable by others. That is why we may not know if there is a distressing,
chaotic thought behind the calm exterior appearance of a person. The inner
experiences of the ego states are perceived only within the self. By developing
self-awareness and with practice, we can identify our inner thoughts, words,
feelings, experiences, and expressions as originating from the Parent, Adult or
Child ego states. Thus, self-awareness of the ego states experiences, which have
their origin in our past, help us to sort out and bring positive and productive
changes to our present day life experiences. Let us try to understand the ego
states using the behavioural models of ego states.

The Parent Ego State(P)


As children, while growing up, we observe people around us and internalize
many of their characteristics without being conscious of it. We pick up the
gestures, postures, behaviours, or expressions of others we observe especially of
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Techniques and Procedures the significant others, parents or parent figures, in our life. Thus, we have a
repository of values, feelings, attitudes, emotional expressions and behaviours
that we have copied from the significant others in our life. These recorded
messages in our brain later on become almost automatic behavior and responses
to situations or events in our life. Therefore, when in Parent ego state we tend to
behave like our parents or parent figures in our life. It is through Parent ego state
we regulate and nurture our life as well as others. The Parent ego state is
manifested in two ways as the controlling or nurturing behaviours.

• Controlling Parent
Also known as the Critical Parent, in this ego state we refer through the do’s
and don’ts, the good and bad, and the right and wrong in our life as well as
others. The negative Controlling Parent in us is judgmental about ourselves
and others. But the positive Controlling Parent in us regulates and provides
us with a guidance system that helps us to be productive and constructive in
our life. It is the positive Controlling Parent in you that tells you, “It is
important to prepare a time table and study regularly for the B Ed
programme”.If you tell your student, “You are not working hard and it would
reflect in your exam results”, you are criticizing him/ her (negative
Controlling Parent) and your student is likely to rebel which may prove
counter- productive. This means the positive Controlling Parent is helping
and productive while the negative Controlling Parent is not only non-
productive but may turn out to be counter-productive and ineffective.

• Nurturing Parent
The Nurturing Parent ego state is about providing love, care, support and
protection. It is concerned with the feelings and emotions of the people. It is
founded in understanding and comforting others. In this ego state, we are
accepting of others for what they are, which means in the Nurturing Parent
ego state we are non- judgmental of the other person. We appreciate people
for their achievements and positive behaviours. We don’t criticize them.
The Nurturing Parent in you would tell your student, “I know you are working
hard for the exam and I am there for you whenever you need me”. The
negative Nurturing Parent in you would say, “You are intelligent and need
not take the exam so seriously because you will be the topper anyway”.
Such over indulging (negative) nurturing behavior sends a negative message
to the student that he/she doesn’t need to regulate himself/herself and behave
responsibly.

Reflection
i) What is your dominant Parent ego state behavior? Controlling Parent
or Nurturing Parent?
ii) Ask a friend or family member to describe your dominant P behavior.
Validate your P behavior using your self-assessment and assessment by
others.
iii) How will you optimize the positive aspects and minimize the negative
aspects of your CP and NP?

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The Child Ego State(C) Techniques of Counselling

As mentioned earlier, the Child ego state is about gratifying the needs, wants
and desires of the person.

• Natural Child(NC)
When our needs, wants and desires are met we express joy, if unfulfilled
we become frustrated and angry. This is the Natural Child functioning of
our Child ego state. This functioning is also known as the Free Child.

• Adapted Child(AC)
In addition to satisfying the needs, wants and desires, the child wants to
survive. Therefore, when the child senses a situation as dangerous, it will
try to comply or adapt to the situation. This functioning of the Child ego
state is known as the Adapted Child. In the adapting behavior we try to
modify our inclinations as a Natural Child to meet the demands from the
significant authority. For example, if career promotion rules demand that
you acquire a new skill, you would cut short your leisure time and get the
required training. For example, you are pursuing the B Ed programme
presently.

• Compliant Child
There is another beahavioural aspect to the Child ego state which is the
Compliant Child. In the Compliant Child ego state you surrender yourself
to what others want you to do even if that is not what you want to do yourself.
For example, the daughter of doctor parents wants to pursue liberal arts in
higher education but submits to the demands of her parents and takes medical
profession instead.

• Rebellious Child(RC)
There is a third dimension to the Child ego state functioning, which is
known as the Rebellious Child. This functioning of the Child ego state
rebels when it experiences any authority as imposing.

Reflection
i) Identify your dominant Child ego state behavior.
ii) Which of the C behavior is absent in your life?
iii) How does the dominance or absence of a particular C behavior affect
your life as well as others around you?

The Child Ego State(C)


As mentioned earlier, the Child ego state is about gratifying the needs, wants
and desires of the person.

• Natural Child(NC)
When our needs, wants and desires are met we express joy, if unfulfilled we
become frustrated and angry. This is the Natural Child functioning of our
Child ego state. This functioning is also known as the Free Child.

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Techniques and Procedures • Adapted Child(AC)
In addition to satisfying the needs, wants and desires, the child wants to
survive. Therefore, when the child senses a situation as dangerous, it will
try to comply or adapt to the situation. This functioning of the Child ego
state is known as the Adapted Child. In the adapting behavior we try to
modify our inclinations as a Natural Child to meet the demands from the
significant authority. For example, if career promotion rules demand that
you acquire a new skill, you would cut short your leisure time and get the
required training. For example, you are pursuing the B Ed programme
presently.

• Compliant Child
There is another beahavioural aspect to the Child ego state which is the
Compliant Child. In the Compliant Child ego state you surrender yourself
to what others want you to do even if that is not what you want to do yourself.
For example, the daughter of doctor parents wants to pursue liberal arts in
higher education but submits to the demands of her parents and takes medical
profession instead.

• Rebellious Child(RC)
There is a third dimension to the Child ego state functioning, which is known
as the Rebellious Child. This functioning of the Child ego state rebels when
it experiences any authority as imposing.

Reflection
i) Identify your dominant Child ego state behavior.
ii) Which of the C behavior is absent in your life?
iii) How does the dominance or absence of a particular C behavior affect
your life as well as others around you?

The Adult Ego State (A)


The Adult ego state behavior is reflected as our concern with information, facts
and data about the here and now of our living. In the Adult ego state, we collect,
analyze and evaluate the old and new data. We formulate hypotheses and test
them. Unlike the other two ego states, the Adult ego state deals with facts and
data, not with feelings and emotions. There are two aspects to the Adult ego
state, the Photographic Adult (PA) and the Combining Adult (CA).

• Photographic Adult(PA)
It is that part of our personality which records what is happening around us,
remembers and reports it. In this functioning of the Adult ego state, our
brain perceives the surroundings like a camera, clicks it, records it, and
reports on it when needed. For example, when you tell someone that you
had met her last Sunday at the theatre, you are using your photographic
Adult ego state.

• Combining Adult (CA)


The Combining Adult part of our personality analyzes and evaluates the
data collected by the Photographic Adult and what is stored in the memory.
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Based on the analysis and evaluation of the data, the CA provides reasoning, Techniques of Counselling
probabilities and predictions.It is by using the combining Adult you take the
decision,if a job offer to you is a winning or losing situation.

Nurturing NP CP Controlling
Parent Parent

Photographic Combining
PA CA
Adult Adult

Natural Rebellious
FC AC RC
Child Child

Adapted
Child

Fig. 8.2: A behavioural model of ego states

In summary,we can say that we have three ego states,each ego state has its own
functions and each ego state has different behavioural dimensions to it. Children
also have all the ego states and their various functions we have discussed here.
For example, children exercise their adult ego state when they learn to use a
knife safely, learn to cross the road safely, keep away from dangerous situations
such as fire or assess if a touch by the other is appropriate or not.

For leading a healthy life we need all the ego states functioning in an integrated
way. The P ego state provides direction to our lives according to certain values
and judgments. It nurtures, safeguards, supports and regulates our life and others
(children, students or employees) in our care. The A functions of collecting,
analyzing, and evaluation of data in the present, help us in examining and updating
our P and C. Thus,A provides a framework to examine, if our old values and
practices (for example, caste system/ women should not work outside home/
dressing style/ child marriage, etc.) are applicable today. It also helps us in keeping
our emotional expressions in checks and balances. The C helps us to meet our
physiological as well as psychological/emotional needs, which is manifested as
expressions of joy, sorrow, frustration, anger, creativity, etc.

Reflection
i) We have discussed different ego state functions. Identify from which of
the ego states you function most of the time.
ii) Do you analyze and evaluate the data before judging others?

Which of the ego states is more effective? When we function more often from
the Nurturing Parent, Adult, or Natural Child ego states, we are more effective
as these ego states provide sustenance to our life and the well being of others
around us. If we operate from the other ego states frequently, we are thought to
be ineffective. In our daily life, as we interact with reality, it is necessary that we
shift from one ego state to another as the context demands. Each ego state has its
own function. Integrated functioning of all ego states make us effective.Can any
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Techniques and Procedures problem arise in the functional autonomy of the ego states and their integrated
functioning? Let us discuss it next.

8.6.2 Contamination of Ego States


There can be disturbance in the integrated functioning of the ego states when
ego states boundaries are crossed and functional autonomy of an ego state is
restricted by the other ego state or ego states.(When ego states overlap, it causes
confusion, lack of clarity, and develops blind areas in our personality. This is
known as contamination of the ego states.) Contamination occurs when the Parent
or Child ego states intrude into the boundary of the Adult ego state and inhibits
its objective thinking. For example, when you say boys have superior intelligence
compared to girls, you are operating from a contaminated Adult ego state. Here
you have accepted the cultural prejudice of male supremacy as afact. This means
your Parent ego state has contaminated your Adult. Let us take another example
of contamination of the ego state. In the case of Ruhi cited earlier, say she takes
up the medical profession although that is not what she wished to do. Because
she thinks this way she can please her parents and she is happy to take up medical
profession. When she was a little girl, her mother would say, be a good girl and
do as told because she knew what was best for Ruhi. Here, Ruhi’s Parent ego
state has contaminated her Child ego state. And the Child ego state has
contaminated the Adult ego state when she says she is happy joining the medical
profession although classical music is her passion.

PARENT

ADULT

CHILD

Fig. 8.3: Double Contamination

Reflection
i) Identify contamination in your ego states.
ii) Identify if there is exclusion of ego states in your functioning as well as
in the functioning of people around you.

8.6.3 Exclusion of Ego States


Some people function as though one or two ego states are missing from their
personality. This is known as exclusion of the ego states. A common example is
a parent or a caretaker who is expected to look after everyone in the family and
does not have any time for herself. Here the caretaker has excluded her Child
ego state and operates from the Parent ego state. Another example is a parent
who does not look after and provide for the family. This person has
decommissioned his/her Parent and Adult ego states.

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Techniques of Counselling

Fig. 8.4: Exclusion

Check Your Progress


Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block.
16) Define ego state.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
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............................................................................................................
17) How many sets of ego states do we have? Name them.
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............................................................................................................
18) What are the functions of Parent ego state?
............................................................................................................
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............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
19) Describe the behavioural models of ego states?
............................................................................................................
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Techniques and Procedures
20) What is contamination of ego states?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
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............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
21 What is exclusion of ego states?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
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............................................................................................................

8.7 CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE


COUNSELLORS
Counselling is a helping relationship characterized by the personal as well as
professional qualities of the helper/counsellor. So far we have discussed the skills
and techniques a counsellor needs to have for facilitating the counselling process.
Acquiring skills and knowledge to perform the job are part of the professional
training. However, professional knowledge itself is not enough to make the
counselling process effective. Numerous studies have shown that effective helpers
have specific personal qualities that enable the helping process. Therefore the
counselling process is effective when the counsellor possesses professional as
well as personal qualities.Some of the characteristics of the counsellor that make
the counselling process effective are described below.
• Effective counsellors are interested in specialized knowledge of the
profession.
• They regularly update professional knowledge and skills.
• They innately like to help others.
• They are interested in the wellness of people.
• They are in harmony with others.
• They are able to involve objectively in the helping relationship.
• They demonstrate personal qualities such as self-awareness, equanimity,
empathy, unconditional positive regard, and genuineness.
Self-awareness refers to the counsellor’s knowledge and understanding of the
self. This means effective counsellors know about their strengths, weaknesses,
feelings and emotions. Self-awareness helps thecounsellors in identifying their
feelings and emotions and in avoiding projecting them on to the clients.

84
Equanimity refers to the counsellor’s ability to remain calm and composed during Techniques of Counselling
the counselling process even in times of extreme provocations by the client or
when listening to the client’s tortured past (for example, a child who is subjected
to violent sexual abuse). Maintaining calm and composure during emotionally
charged sessions is important. Because if the counsellor breaks down during the
session, it would send a confusing signal to the client (the client may start thinking
that it is her fault that the counsellor is crying or angry and the client may withdraw
and clam up) and the focus may shift from the client to the counsellor. Clients
feel safe and secure with counsellors who exhibit equanimity in their interpersonal
interactions.

Empathy is the ability to understand the feelings of the other person. We have
discussed empathy in earlier section.

Unconditional positive regard refers to accepting the other person (client) without
conditions. The counsellor offers warm caring to the client irrespective of the
behavior of the client.

Genuineness also known as congruence means what the counsellor conveys


during the relationship, verbal or non-verbal, should be real. This means the
counsellor should not be phony in the relationship. The counsellor should express
only what is real.

We have discussed some of the characteristics of effective counsellors here. There


are many more characteristics that are desirable for a counsellor. Capuzzi and
Gross (2013, p.7) have compiled from numerous sources a list of desirable
counsellor characteristics which is presented below. You can find out which of
these characteristics you possess.
Desirable counsellor characteristics
Intelligent Empathic
Energetic Optimistic
Caring Self-confident
Trustworthy Self-aware
Genuine Creative
Emotionally stable Flexible
Resourceful Hard-working
Unselfish Insightful
Curious Nonjudgmental
Good listener Knowledgeable
Realistic Ethical
Dependable Friendly
Hopeful Sense of humour
Respectful of individual differences Comfortable with intimacy
Maintains balance in own life Able to express oneself clearly
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Techniques and Procedures
8.8 LET US SUM UP
In this Unit, we have tried to emphasis that the positive outcomes of the helping
process depend largely on the helper. The counsellor’s personal as well as
professional qualities influence the counselling process. A counsellor is required
to employ various skills adeptly in the counselling process to help the client
work towards the desired change. We have discussed various counselling skills
to help you develop as a counsellor. Apart from acquiring the skills, the counsellor
should also have adequate professional knowledge to make appropriate
interventions to facilitate the healing process in the client. We have explained
the theoretical framework to behavioral as well as cognitive interventions in the
counselling process. Next we have described various behavioral and cognitive
techniques and strategies you can use for facilitating the helping process. Effective
counselling is as much an outcome of the professional knowledge as that of the
personal qualities of the counsellor. In the last section we have discussed the
characteristics of an effective counsellor with the purpose that as budding
counsellors you would aspire to acquire many of these qualities.

8.9 UNIT END EXCERCISES


1) Practice the different counselling skills described in the Unit in your school
setting. Ask your colleagues to observe you and give feed back.
2) Discuss the various intervention techniques given in the Unit with your
colleagues. Try out the techniques, (for example, CBT techniques) to help
your students or colleagues. Ask for feed back and improve your professional
knowledge and skills.
3) Discuss the TA perspective of personality. In small group, identify and
analyze the behavior of the members as originating from different ego states.
4) Identify contamination of your Adult by your Parent and Adult by your
Child.
5) Recall the behavior of people you have known and identify anyone who
seems to be operating from one ego state to the exclusion of others. Similarly
locate in your behavior occasions when you have operated from one ego
state to the exclusion of others.

8.10 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS


Beck, A. T. (1976). Cognitive therapy and emotional disorders. New York:
internationalUniversities Press.
Berne, E. (1961). Transactional analysis in psychotherapy. New York: Grove
press.
Burns, D. (1980). Feeling good: The new mood therapy.New York: Avon books.
Capuzzi, D. and Gross, D. R. (2013). Introduction to the counsellingprofession.
New York: Routledge.
Egan, G. (1994). The skilled helper: A model for systematic helping and
interpersonal relating(5th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole publishing
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company.
Ellis, A. (1970). Rational emotive therapy and its application to emotional Techniques of Counselling
education.New York:Institute for rational living.
Hand Book on Vocational Guidance, Published by CIRTES, Ministry of Labour,
New Delhi.
Hill, C. E. (2014). Helping skills. Washington: American
PsychologicalAssociation.
Hutchinson, D. (2015). The essential counsellor. New Delhi: Sage.
IGNOU. (2003). Life enrichment and self development-1. MES-002. NewDelhi.
IGNOU. (2011). Introduction to counselling psychology-2. Group-1,BPCE-017.
New Delhi.
IGNOU. (2011). Interventions in counselling-2. Group B, MPCE-023. New Delhi.
IGNOU. (2011). Counselling psychology-2. Group B, MPCE-021. New Delhi.
Jayaswal,M.(1968): Guidance and Counselling, Prakashan Kendra, Lucknow.
Kochhar, S.K., (1980): Guidance & Counselling, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi.
Kottler, J. A. and Kottler, E. (2007). Counselling skills for teachers. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Manual for Guidance Counsellor, NCERT, New Delhi.
Milner, P. (1980). Counselling in education.London: P. Milner.
NCERT. (2016). The counselling process and strategies, module 2. Delhi.
Occupational Information in Guidance, NCERT, New Delhi.
Occupational Information in Guidance, NCERT, New Delhi.
Occupational Literature, An Annotated Bibliography, NCERT, New Delhi.
Ramachandra, C. (1985). Readings for career teachers. National Council of
Educational Research and Training, New Delhi.
Rogers, C.R. (1957). The necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic
personality changes. Journal of consulting psychology, 21, 95-103.
Summerton, O. (1994). Becoming ok: Transactional analysis basic concepts.
Mumbai: Alfreruby publications.

8.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS


Unit 5
1) • Rating Scale is an observational technique, an error in understanding
the purpose of the rating of the responses by the observer may be
possible.
• It requires necessary expertise and understanding on the part of the
observers and any one is not suited for this job.
• Inter-rater variability.
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Techniques and Procedures 2) Four types:
– Descriptive rating scales
– Graphic rating scales
– Forced choice method rating scales
– The paired comparison rating scales
3) The form should be short and informal.
– Reports should be of some significant episodes.
– The anecdotes should be written about all students and not just about
the stereotypes.
– It should be the reports of the actual observations and written just after
the events.
4) – The physical, socio-economic and cultural environment.
– The history and present status of the family.
– The individuals self development and present status.
5) – indicates the relationship of scholastic attainment and the mental
abilities.
– In classifying pupils in accordance with scholastic aptitudes and mental
abilities.
– Helps in identification of students who need individual attention,
remedial teaching, enrichment teaching, etc.
– Helps the teachers in writing reports about individual students.
6) Refer Section 5.4
7) • special aptitude tests
• Vocational aptitude batteries
• Scholastic aptitude test
8) Refer to sub-section 5.5.2
9) Advantages
• Well adapted to vocational counselling.
• Help counsellor in dealing with many other student problems.
Limitations
• Many students fail to show through their responses to interest
inventories, strong likes and dislikes or clearly defined preferences.
• Vocational choices cannot be predicted on the basis of even clearly
defined patterns shown by the inventories alone.
10) • helps the students in proper educational and vocational choice.
• Help the teacher and the counsellor to give the appropriate information
and help the student on the basis of this informations.
• Interview, observation, checklists, projective technique, daily diary.

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Unit 6 Techniques of Counselling

1) A guidance programme constitutes a cluster of activities that help the student


to solve his/her educational, vocational, personal and social problems at all
phases of development.
2) Orientation Service
Counselling Service
Occupational Service
Pupil Inventory Service
Placement Service
Follow-up Service
3) a) d b) c c) a d) b
4) Follow-up Service
5) Pupil Inventory Service
6) F
7) T
8) F
9) Placement Follow-up
1) Objective: Is to find placement 2) Is to check the effectiveness
for the out-going students both of the guidance programme.
in academic courses and job
placement.
10) F
11) Orientation Service
a) Visit to school by students
b) Visit to school by parents
Pupil Inventory Service
a) Obtains personal data
b) Conduct various psychological tests
12) Occupational Information
13) Planning of guidance programme
– conduct survey to identify the needs
– survey the staff members to identify their attitudes
– statement of objectives
– determine the functions
– assign and define the duties
– define the working relationships
14) • conduct sessions to develop self-confidence in students
• conduct role playing sessions on “attending interview”.

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Techniques and Procedures 15) Determine the effectiveness
– quality
– feasibility
– adaptiveness
16) – identification of objectives
– Development of evaluation plan
– Implementation of the plan
– Utilization of the findings
17) Survey method
18) F
Unit 7
1) i) F ii) T iii) T iv) T
2) i) Group Guidance
ii) Instructional
3) i) T ii) F iii) T iv) F
4) i) Orientation, career talks, conferences, plant tours.
ii) Effective study habits, importance of homework
iii) Career in Chartered Accountancy
Career in Company Secretaryship
Law as a Career
iv) a) The topic should be of general interest.
b) Criticising, leg pulling should not be encouraged.
v) In phycho drama, greater emphasis is upon the private and personalized
world of individual whereas in socio drama a problem common to
many is taken.
vi) a) The topic should be according to the level and interest of students.
b) It should be presented in simple term taking examples from the
daily life.
5) i) Orientation
6) i) F ii) F iii) F iv) F v) F vi) F
7) i) Some students may feel hesitant to come out with the personal problem
in group.
ii) These activities are not taken seriously by some students.
8) i) Lack of co-operation on part of the teacher.
ii) A rigid unhelping type of administration is a major cause of trouble.
Unit 8
1) Active listening, Attending, Paraphrasing, Empathy, Asking questions,
Immediacy, Self-disclosure, Summarizing, Goal Setting, Ending sessions
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and follow-up, and Termination of counselling.
2) S – Facing the client squarely indicates total attention to the client. Techniques of Counselling

O – Open posture; crossed arms/legs may indicate less involvement of the


counselor.
L – Leaning towards the client shows the counsellor’s interest.
E – Eye contact with the client.
R – Relaxed state of the counselor which acts as social modeling for the
client to achieve relaxation.
3) This is restating or rewording the content (what is said by the client) back to
the client. This should not be mere parroting the words back to the client.
Paraphrasing involves reflection of the content and feelings of the client.
Paraphrasing and reflection help in confirming with the client if the counselor
has understood the problem as narrated by the client.
4) After assessing the problem, the counselor works with the client to set
realistic goals or behavioural changes the client wants to accomplish. It is
important to set goals that are achievable. Goals are set depending on the
nature of the problem and the client’s ability to engage in the helping process.
Time bound specific goals give a sense of purpose and accomplishment to
the client.
5) ‘A’ refers to antecedent, which means what happens prior to the problem
behavior occurs.
‘B’ refers to the problem behavior of the client.
‘C’ refers to the consequences of the behavior.
6) Systematic desensitization, In vivo desensitization, Flooding, and Implosion.
7) Constructing anxiety hierarchy, relaxation training, and desensitizing the
anxiety inducing stimulus.
8) In in vivo desensitization, the client is gradually introduced to the real life
anxiety provoking stimulus whereas in systematic desensitization the client
may not be introduced to real life situation.
9) Flooding is done in real situation whereas implosion is done using imagery.
10) This happens when people draw unjustified conclusion without adequate
evidence.
11) This refers to magnifying the intensity of the unpleasantness or negative
effect of a situation or event. And shrinking or rejecting the pleasant
experience or positive effect of the event.
12) This is automatic discounting or rejection of your positive experiences.
13) Cognitive rehearsal, validity testing, guided discovery, and writing in a
journal.
14) It is not the reality out there, rather how we perceive the reality that is causing
the emotional disturbance.
15) A is the activating external event. B is the beliefs (irrational or rational) the
client has about the event. C is the consequences (feelings and behaviors)
due to B (beliefs). The therapist helps the client to dispute (D) the beliefs
(B) and modify them. E refers to the effect due to therapy resulting in
modified behavior.
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Techniques and Procedures 16) An ego state is a set of patterns of behavior that include thinking, feeling,
decision making which are experienced internally and manifested as behavior
of the individual.
17) Three. Parent, Adult, Child.
18) Through Parent ego state we regulate and nurture our life as well as others.
19) The Parent ego state is manifested in two ways as the controlling or nurturing
behaviours. The Child ego state is manifested in the natural, adapting,
complying and rebellious behaviours. The Adult ego state is manifested as
our photographic (collecting, recording and reporting data) and combining
(analyzing and evaluating data) behviours.
20) When ego states overlap, it causes confusion, lack of clarity, and develops
blind areas in our personality. This is known as contamination of the ego
states.
21) Exclusion of ego states means missing of one or two ego states from the
personality.

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