CK12InterAlg PDF

Intermediate Algebra
Anne Gloag
Andrew Gloag
Mara Landers
Remixed by
James Sousa
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Anne Gloag
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Mara Landers
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iii
Contents www.ck12.org
Contents
1 Factoring Polynomials and Polynomial Equations 1

1.1 Polynomial Equations in Factored Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Factoring Quadratic Expressions and Solving Quadratic Equations by Factoring . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 Factoring Special Products and Solving Quadratic Equations by Factoring . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.4 Factoring Polynomials Completely and Solving Polynomial Equations by Factoring . . . . . . . 33
2 Radical Equations and Radical Functions 46

2.1 Graphs of Square Root Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.2 Radical Expressions I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.3 Radical Expressions II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.4 Radical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.5 The Pythagorean Theorem and Its Converse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.6 Distance and Midpoint Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2.7 Imaginary and Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.8 Operations on Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3 Quadratic Equations and Quadratic Functions 120

3.1 Graphs of Quadratic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.2 Quadratic Equations by Graphing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3.3 Quadratic Equations by Square Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
3.4 Solving Quadratic Equations by Completing the Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.5 Solving Quadratic Equations by the Quadratic Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
3.6 The Discriminant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
3.7 Linear and Quadratic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
3.8 Problem Solving Strategies: Choose a Function Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4 Rational Equations and Functions 225

4.1 Inverse Variation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
4.2 Graphs of Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4.3 Division of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
4.4 Rational Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
4.5 Multiplication and Division of Rational Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
4.6 Addition and Subtraction of Rational Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
4.7 Solutions of Rational Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
4.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
5 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations and Functions 304

5.1 Composite Functions and Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
5.2 Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
5.3 Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
5.4 Properties of Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
5.5 Exponential and Logarithmic Models and Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
iv
www.ck12.org Contents
5.6 Compound Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359

5.7 Growth and Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
5.8 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
v
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Factoring Polynomials and Polynomial Equations
C HAPTER
1 Factoring Polynomials and
Polynomial Equations
Chapter Outline
1.1 P OLYNOMIAL E QUATIONS IN FACTORED F ORM
1.2 FACTORING Q UADRATIC E XPRESSIONS AND S OLVING Q UADRATIC E QUATIONS
BYFACTORING
1.3 FACTORING S PECIAL P RODUCTS AND S OLVING Q UADRATIC E QUATIONS BY
FACTORING
1.4 FACTORING P OLYNOMIALS C OMPLETELY AND S OLVING P OLYNOMIAL E QUA -
TIONS BY FACTORING
1
1.1. Polynomial Equations in Factored Form www.ck12.org
1.1 Polynomial Equations in Factored Form
Learning Objectives
• Use the zero-product property

• Find greatest common monomial factor
• Solve simple polynomial equations by factoring
Introduction
In the last few sections, we learned how to multiply polynomials. We did that by using the Distributive Property. All
the terms in one polynomial must be multiplied by all terms in the other polynomial. In this section, you will start
learning how to do this process in reverse. The reverse of distribution is called factoring.
Lets look at the areas of the rectangles again: Area = length · width. The total area of the figure on the right can be
found in two ways.
Method 1 Find the areas of all the small rectangles and add them
Blue rectangle = ab
Orange rectangle = ac
Red rectangle = ad
Green rectangle = ae
Pink rectangle = 2a
Total area = ab + ac + ad + ae + 2a
Method 2 Find the area of the big rectangle all at once
2
Length = a
Width = b + c + d + e + 2
Area = a(b + c + d + e = 2)
Since the area of the rectangle is the same no matter what method you use then the answers are the same:
ab + ac + ad + ae + 2a = a(b + c + d + e + 2)
Factoring means that you take the factors that are common to all the terms in a polynomial. Then, multiply them by
a parenthesis containing all the terms that are left over when you divide out the common factors.
Use the Zero-Product Property
Polynomials can be written in expanded form or in factored form. Expanded form means that you have sums and
differences of different terms:
6x4 + 7x3 − 26x2 + 17x + 30
Notice that the degree of the polynomials is four. It is written in standard form because the terms are written in order
of decreasing power.
Factored form means that the polynomial is written as a product of different factors. The factors are also polynomials,
usually of lower degree. Here is the same polynomial in factored form.
− 1}
|x {z + 2}
x| {z 2x − 3}
| {z 3x + 5}
| {z
1st f actor 2nd f actor 3rd f actor 4th f actor
Notice that each factor in this polynomial is a binomial. Writing polynomials in factored form is very useful because
it helps us solve polynomial equations. Before we talk about how we can solve polynomial equations of degree 2 or
higher, lets review how to solve a linear equation (degree 1).
Example 1
Solve the following equations
a) x − 4 = 0
b) 3x − 5 = 0
Solution
Remember that to solve an equation you are trying to find the value of x:
a)
x −4 = 0
+4 = +4
x = 4
3
b)
3x − 5 = 0
+5 = +5
3x = 5
3x 5
=
3 3
5
x=
3
Now we are ready to think about solving equations like 2x2 + 5x = 42. Notice we can’t isolate x in any way that you
have already learned. But, we can subtract 42 on both sides to get 2x2 + 5x − 42 = 0. Now, the left hand side of this
equation can be factored!
Factoring a polynomial allows us to break up the problem into easier chunks. For example, 2x2 + 5x − 42 = (x +
6)(2x − 7). So now we want to solve: (x + 6)(2x − 7) = 0
How would we solve this? If we multiply two numbers together and their product is zero, what can we say about
these numbers? The only way a product is zero is if one or both of the terms are zero. This property is called the
Zero-product Property.
How does that help us solve the polynomial equation? Since the product equals 0, then either of the terms or factors
in the product must equal zero. We set each factor equal to zero and we solve.
(x + 6) = 0 OR (2x − 7) = 0
We can now solve each part individually and we obtain:
x+6 = 0 or 2x − 7 = 0
2x = 7
7
x = −6 or x=−
2
Notice that the solution is x = −6OR x = 27 . The OR says that either of these values of x would make the product of
the two factors equal to zero. Lets plug the solutions back into the equation and check that this is correct.
Check x = −6;
(x + 6)(2x − 7) =
(−6 + 6)(2(6) − 7) =
(0)(5) = 0
4
7
Check x =
2
(x + 6)(2x − 7) =

7 7
+6 2· −7 =
2 2

19
(7 − 7) =
2

19
(0) = 0
2
Both solutions check out. You should notice that the product equals to zero because each solution makes one of the
factors simplify to zero. Factoring a polynomial is very useful because the Zero-product Property allows us to break
up the problem into simpler separate steps.
If we are not able to factor a polynomial the problem becomes harder and we must use other methods that you will
learn later.
As a last note in this section, keep in mind that the Zero-product Property only works when a product equals to zero.
For example, if you multiplied two numbers and the answer was nine you could not say that each of the numbers
was nine. In order to use the property, you must have the factored polynomial equal to zero.
Example 2
Solve each of the polynomials
a) (x − 9)(3x + 4) = 0
b) x(5x − 4) = 0
c) 4x(x + 6)(4x − 9) = 0
Solution
Since all polynomials are in factored form, we set each factor equal to zero and solve the simpler equations separately
a) (x − 9)(3x + 4) = 0 can be split up into two linear equations
x−9 = 0 or 3x + 4 = 0
3x = −4
4
x=9 or x=−
3
b) x(5x − 4) = 0 can be split up into two linear equations
5x − 4 = 0
x=0 or 5x = 4
4
x=
5
c) 4x(x + 6)(4x − 9) = 0 can be split up into three linear equations.
5
4x = 0 4x − 9 = 0
0
x= or x+6 = 0 or 4x = 9
4
9
x=0 x = −6 x=
4
Find Greatest Common Monomial Factor
Once we get a polynomial in factored form, it is easier to solve the polynomial equation. But first, we need to learn
how to factor. There are several factoring methods you will be learning in the next few sections. In most cases,
factoring takes several steps to complete because we want to factor completely. That means that we factor until we
cannot factor anymore.
Lets start with the simplest case, finding the greatest monomial factor. When we want to factor, we always look for
common monomials first. Consider the following polynomial, written in expanded form.
ax + bx + cx + dx
A common factor can be a number, a variable or a combination of numbers and variables that appear in all terms of
the polynomial. We are looking for expressions that divide out evenly from each term in the polynomial. Notice that
in our example, the factor x appears in all terms. Therefore xis a common factor
ax + bx + cx + dx
Since x is a common factor, we factor it by writing in front of a parenthesis:
x( )
Inside the parenthesis, we write what is left over when we divide x from each term.
x(a + b + c + d)
Lets look at more examples.

Example 3
Factor
a) 2x + 8
b) 15x − 25
c) 3a + 9b + 6
Solution
a) We see that the factor 2 divides evenly from both terms.
2x + 8 = 2(x) + 2(4)
6
We factor the 2 by writing it in front of a parenthesis.

2( )
Inside the parenthesis, we write what is left from each term when we divide by 2.
2(x + 4) This is the factored form.
b) We see that the factor of 5 divides evenly from all terms.
Rewrite 15x − 25 = 5(3x) − 5(5)
Factor 5 to get 5(3x − 5)
c) We see that the factor of 3 divides evenly from all terms.
Rewrite 3a + 9b + 6 = 3(a) + 3(3b) + 3(2)
Factor 3 to get 3(a + 3b + 2)
Here are examples where different powers of the common factor appear in the polynomial
Example 4
Find the greatest common factor
a) a3 − 3a2 + 4a
b) 12a4 − 5a3 + 7a2
Solution
a) Notice that the factor a appears in all terms of a3 − 3a2 + 4a but each term has a different power of a. The common
factor is the lowest power that appears in the expression. In this case the factor is a.
Lets rewrite a3 − 3a2 + 4a = a(a2 ) + a(−3a) + a(4)
Factor a to get a(a2 − 3a + 4)
b) The factor a appears in all the term and the lowest power is a2 .
We rewrite the expression as 12a4 − 5a3 + 7a2 = 12a2 · a2 − 5a · a2 + 7 · a2
Factor a2 to get a2 (12a2 − 5a + 7)
Lets look at some examples where there is more than one common factor.
Example 5:
Factor completely
a) 3ax + 9a
b) x3 y + xy
c) 5x3 y − 15x2 y2 + 25xy3
Solution
a) Notice that 3 is common to both terms.
When we factor 3 we get 3(ax + 3a)
This is not completely factored though because if you look inside the parenthesis, we notice that a is also a common
factor.
When we factor a we get 3 · a(x + 3)
This is the answer because there are no more common factors.
A different option is to factor all common factors at once.
7
Since both 3 and a are common we factor the term 3a and get 3a(x + 3).
b) Notice that both x and y are common factors.
Lets rewrite the expression x3 y + xy = xy(x2 ) + xy(1)
When we factor xy we obtain xy(x2 + 1)
c) The common factors are 5xy.
When we factor 5xy we obtain 5xy(x2 − 3xy + 5y2 )
Solve Simple Polynomial Equations by Factoring
Now that we know the basics of factoring, we can solve some simple polynomial equations. We already saw how
we can use the Zero-product Property to solve polynomials in factored form. Here you will learn how to solve
polynomials in expanded form. These are the steps for this process.
Step 1
If necessary, re-write the equation in standard form such that:
Polynomial expression = 0
Step 2
Factor the polynomial completely
Step 3
Use the zero-product rule to set each factor equal to zero
Step 4
Solve each equation from step 3
Step 5
Check your answers by substituting your solutions into the original equation
Example 6
Solve the following polynomial equations
a) x2 − 2x = 0
b) 2x2 = 5x
c) 9x2 y − 6xy = 0
Solution:
a) x2 − 2x = 0
Rewrite this is not necessary since the equation is in the correct form.
Factor The common factor is x, so this factors as: x(x − 2) = 0.
Set each factor equal to zero.
x=0 or x−2 = 0
Solve
8
x=0 or x=2
Check Substitute each solution back into the original equation.
x=0 ⇒ (0)2 − 2(0) = 0 works out

2
x=2 ⇒ (2) − 2(2) = 4 − 4 = 0 works out
Answer x = 0, x = 2
b) 2x2 = 5x
Rewrite 2x2 = 5x ⇒ 2x2 − 5x = 0.
Factor The common factor is x, so this factors as: x(2x − 5) = 0.
Set each factor equal to zero:.
x=0 or 2x − 5 = 0
Solve
x=0 or 2x = 5
5
x=
2
x = 0 ⇒ 2(0)2 = 5(0) ⇒ 0 = 0 works out

2
5 5 5 25 25 25 25
x= ⇒2 = 5· ⇒ 2· = ⇒ = works out
2 2 2 4 2 2 2
5
Answer x = 0, x = 2
c) 9x2 y − 6xy = 0
Rewrite Not necessary
Factor The common factor is 3xy, so this factors as 3xy(3x − 2) = 0.
3 = 0 is never true, so this part does not give a solution
x=0 or y=0 or 3x − 2 = 0
Solve
9
x=0 or y=0 or 3x = 2
2
amp; x =
3
x = 0 ⇒ 9(0)y − 6(0)y = 0 − 0 = 0 works out

2
y = 0 ⇒ 9x (0) − 6x = 0 − 0 = 0 works out
2
2 2 2 4
⇒ 9· y − 6 · y = 9 · y − 4y = 4y − 4y = 0 works out
3 3 3 9
2
Answer x = 0, y = 0, x = 3
Review Questions
Factor the common factor in the following polynomials.
1. 3x3 − 21x
2. 5x6 + 15x4
3. 4x3 + 10x2 − 2x
4. −10x6 + 12x5 − 4x4
5. 12xy + 24xy2 + 36xy3
6. 5a3 − 7a
7. 45y12 + 30y10
8. 16xy2z + 4x3 y
Solve the following polynomial equations.

9. x(x + 12) = 0
10. (2x + 1)(2x − 1) = 0
11. (x − 5)(2x + 7)(3x − 4) = 0
12. 2x(x + 9)(7x − 20) = 0
13. 18y − 3y2 = 0
14. 9x2 = 27x
15. 4a2 + a = 0
5
16. b2 − 3b =0
Review Answers
1. 3x(x2 − 7)
2. 5x4 (x2 + 3)
3. 2x(2x2 + 5x − 1)
4. 2x4 (−5x2 + 6x − 2)
5. 12xy(1 + 2y + 3y2 )
10
6. a(5a2 − 7)
7. 15y10 (3y2 + 2)
8. 4xy(4yz + x2 )
9. x = 0, x = −12
10. x = − 21 , x = 12
11. x = 5, x = − 27 , x = 34
12. x = 0, x = −9, x = 20 7
13. y = 0, y = 6
14. x = 0, x = 3
15. a = 0, a = − 14
16. b = 0, b = 35
11
1.2. Factoring Quadratic Expressions and Solving Quadratic Equations by Factoring www.ck12.org
1.2 Factoring Quadratic Expressions and Solv-

ing Quadratic Equations by Factoring
Learning Objectives
• Write quadratic equations in standard form.

• Factor quadratic expressions for different coefficient values.
• Factor when a = −1.
• Solve polynomial equations by factoring
Write Quadratic Expressions in Standard Form
Quadratic polynomials are polynomials of 2nd degree. The standard form of a quadratic polynomial is written as
ax2 + bx + c
Here a, b, and c stand for constant numbers. Factoring these polynomials depends on the values of these constants.
In this section, we will learn how to factor quadratic polynomials for different values of a, b, and c. In the last
section, we factored common monomials, so you already know how to factor quadratic polynomials where c = 0.
For example for the quadratic ax2 + bx, the common factor is x and this expression is factored as x(ax + b). When
all the coefficients are not zero these expressions are also called Quadratic Trinomials, since they are polynomials
with three terms.
Factor when a = 1, b is Positive, and c is Positive
Lets first consider the case where a = 1, b is positive and c is positive. The quadratic trinomials will take the following
form.
x2 + bx + c
You know from multiplying binomials that when you multiply two factors (x + m)(x + n) you obtain a quadratic
polynomial. Lets multiply this and see what happens. We use The Distributive Property.
(x + m)(x + n) = x2 + nx + mx + mn
To simplify this polynomial we would combine the like terms in the middle by adding them.
(x + m)(x + n) = x2 + (n + m)x + mn
To factor we need to do this process in reverse.
12
We see that x2 + (n + m)x + mn

Is the same form as x2 + bx + c
This means that we need to find two numbers m and n where
n+m = b and mn = c
To factor x2 + bx + c, the answer is the product of two parentheses.

(x + m)(x + n)
so that n + m = b and mn = c
Lets try some specific examples.
Example 1
Factor x2 + 5x + 6
Solution We are looking for an answer that is a product of two binomials in parentheses.
(x + )(x + )
To fill in the blanks, we want two numbers m and n that multiply to 6 and add to 5. A good strategy is to list the
possible ways we can multiply two numbers to give us 6 and then see which of these pairs of numbers add to 5. The
number six can be written as the product of.
6 = 1·6 and 1+6 = 7

6 = 2·3 and 2+3 = 5 ← This is the correct choice.
So the answer is (x + 2)(x + 3).

We can check to see if this is correct by multiplying (x + 2)(x + 3).
x +2
x +3
3x + 6
2
x + 2x
x2 + 5x + 9
The answer checks out.

Example 2
Factor x2 + 7x + 12
Solution
We are looking for an answer that is a product of two parentheses (x + )(x + ).
13
The number 12 can be written as the product of the following numbers.
12 = 1 · 12 and 1 + 12 = 13
12 = 2 · 6 and 2+6 = 8
12 = 3 · 4 and 3+4 = 7 ← This is the correct choice.
The answer is (x + 3)(x + 4).

Example 3
Factor x2 + 8x + 12.
Solution
We are looking for an answer that is a product of the two parentheses (x + )(x + ).
12 = 1 · 12 and 1 + 12 = 13
12 = 3 · 4 and 3+4 = 7

Example 4
Factor x2 + 12x + 36.
Solution
36 = 1 · 36 and 1 + 36 = 37
36 = 2 · 18 and 2 + 18 = 20
36 = 3 · 12 and 3 + 12 = 15
36 = 4 · 9 and 4 + 9 = 13
36 = 6 · 6 and 6 + 6 = 12 ← This is the correct choice
Factor when a = 1, b is Negative and c is Positive
Now lets see how this method works if the middle coefficient (b) is negative.
Example 5
Factor x2 − 6x + 8.
Solution
14

8 = 1 · 8 and 1 + 8 = 9 Notice that these are two different choices.
But also,
8 = (−1) · (−8) and − 1 + (−8) = −9 Notice that these are two different choices.
8 = 2·4 and 2+4 = 6
But also,
8 = (−2) · (−4) and −2 + (−4) = −6 ← This is the correct choice.
The answer is (x − 2)(x − 4)

We can check to see if this is correct by multiplying (x − 2)(x − 4).
x −2
x −4
− 4x + 8
2
x − 2x
x2 − 6x + 8

Example 6
Factor x − 17x + 16
Solution
We are looking for an answer that is a product of two parentheses: (x ± )(x ± ).
The number 16 can be written as the product of the following numbers:
16 = 1 · 16 and 1 + 16 = 17
16 = (−1) · (−16) and − 1 + (−16) = −17 ← This is the correct choice.
16 = 2 · 8 and 2 + 8 = 10
16 = (−2) · (−8) and − 2 + (−8) = −10
16 = 4 · 4 and 4+4 = 8
16 = (−4) · (−4) and − 4 + (−4) = −8
The answer is (x − 1)(x − 16).
Factor when a = 1 and c is Negative
Now lets see how this method works if the constant term is negative.
Example 7
15
Factor x2 + 2x − 15
Solution
We are looking for an answer that is a product of two parentheses (x ± )(x ± ).
In this case, we must take the negative sign into account. The number -15 can be written as the product of the
following numbers.
−15 = −1 · 15 and −1 + 15 = 14 Notice that these are two different choices.
And also,
−15 = 1 · (−15) and 1 + (−15) = −14 Notice that these are two different choices.
− 15 = −3 · 5 and −3+5 = 2 ← This is the correct choice.

− 15 = 3 · (−5) and 3 + (−5) = −2
The answer is (x − 3)(x + 5).

We can check to see if this is correct by multiplying (x − 3)(x + 5).
x −3
x +5
5x − 15
2
x − 3x
x2 + 2x − 15

Example 8
Factor x2 − 10x − 24
Solution
We are looking for an answer that is a product of two parentheses (x ± )(x ± ).
The number -24 can be written as the product of the following numbers.
− 24 = −1 · 24 and − 1 + 24 = 23
− 24 = 1 · (−24) and 1 + (−24) = −23
− 24 = −2 · 12 and − 2 + 12 = 10
− 24 = 2 · (−12) and 2 + (−12) = −10 ← This is the correct choice.
− 24 = −3 · 8 and −3+8 = 5
− 24 = 3 · (−8) and 3 + (−8) = −5
− 24 = −4 · 6 and −4+6 = 2
− 24 = 4 · (−6) and 4 + (−6) = −2
16

Example 9
Factor x2 + 34x − 35
Solution
We are looking for an answer that is a product of two parentheses (x ± )(x ± )
The number -35 can be written as the product of the following numbers:
− 35 = −1 · 35 and − 1 + 35 = 34 ← This is the correct choice.

− 35 = 1 · (−35) and 1 + (−35) = −34
− 35 = −5 · 7 and −5+7 = 2
− 35 = 5 · (−7) and 5 + (−7) = −2
Factor when a = - 1
When a = −1, the best strategy is to factor the common factor of -1 from all the terms in the quadratic polynomial.
Then, you can apply the methods you have learned so far in this section to find the missing factors.
Example 10
Factor −x2 + x + 6.
Solution
First factor the common factor of -1 from each term in the trinomial. Factoring -1 changes the signs of each term in
the expression.
−x2 + x + 6 = −(x2 − x − 6)
We are looking for an answer that is a product of two parentheses (x ± )(x ± )

Now our job is to factor x2 − x − 6.
The number -6 can be written as the product of the following numbers.
− 6 = −1 · 6 and −1+6 = 5
− 6 = 1 · (−6) and 1 + (−6) = −5
− 6 = −2 · 3 and −2+3 = 1
The answer is −(x − 3)(x + 2).
Solve Quadratic Equations by Factoring
17
Step 1
Step 2
Factor the quadratic completely
Step 3
Step 4
Step 5
Example 11
a) x2 − 2x − 15 = 0
b) x2 = 5x + 6
c) −x2 = 8 − 6x
Solution:
a) x2 − 2x − 15 = 0
Factor (x − 5)(x + 3) = 0.
x−5 = 0 or x+3 = 0
Solve
x=5 or x = −3
x=5 ⇒ (5)2 − 2(5) − 15 = 0 works out

2
x = −3 ⇒ (−3) − 2(−3) − 15 = 0 works out
Answer x = 5, x = −3
b) x2 = 5x + 6
Rewrite x2 − 5x − 6 = 0.
Factor (x − 6)(x + 1) = 0.
18
x−6 = 0 or x+1 = 0
Solve
x=6 or x = −1
x = 6 ⇒ (6)2 − 5(6) − 6 = 0 works out

2
x = −1 ⇒ (−1) − 5(−1) − 6 = 0 works out
c) −x2 = 8 − 6x
Rewrite −x2 + 6x − 8 = 0
Factor
−x2 + 6x − 8 = 0 ⇒ −1(x2 − 6x + 8) = 0 ⇒ −1(x − 4)(x − 2) = 0
.
x−4 = 0 or x−2 = 0
Solve
x=4 or x=2
x = 4 ⇒ −(4)2 + 6(4) − 8 = 0 works out

2
x = 2 ⇒ −(2) + 6(2) − 8 = 0 works out
Answer x = 4, x = 2
To Summarize,
A quadratic of the form x + bx + c factors as a product of two parenthesis (x + m)(x + n).
• If b and c are positive then both m and nare positive

– Example x2 + 8x + 12 factors as (x + 6)(x + 2).
• If b is negative and c is positive then both m and nare negative.
19
– Example x2 − 6x + 8 factors as (x − 2)(x − 4).

• If c is negative then either m is positive and nis negative or vice-versa
– Example x2 + 2x − 15 factors as (x + 5)(x − 3).
– Example x2 + 34x − 35 factors as (x + 35)(x − 1).
• If a = −1, factor a common factor of -1 from each term in the trinomial and then factor as usual. The answer
will have the form −(x + m)(x + n).
– Example −x2 + x + 6 factors as −(x − 3)(x + 2).
Review Questions
Factor the following quadratic polynomials.
1. x2 + 10x + 9
2. x2 + 15x + 50
3. x2 + 10x + 21
4. x2 + 16x + 48
5. x2 − 11x + 24
6. x2 − 13x + 42
7. x2 − 14x + 33
8. x2 − 9x + 20
9. x2 + 5x − 14
10. x2 + 6x − 27
11. x2 + 7x − 78
12. x2 + 4x − 32
13. x2 − 12x − 45
14. x2 − 5x − 50
15. x2 − 3x − 40
16. x2 − x − 56
17. −x2 − 2x − 1
18. −x2 − 5x + 24
19. −x2 + 18x − 72
20. −x2 + 25x − 150
21. x2 + 21x + 108
22. −x2 + 11x − 30
23. x2 + 12x − 64
24. x2 − 17x − 60
Solve.
25. x2 + 12x − 28 = 0
26. x2 − 8x + 12 = 0
27. x2 − 9x − 36 = 0
28. −x2 = x − 20
Review Answers
1. (x + 1)(x + 9)
2. (x + 5)(x + 10)
20
3. (x + 7)(x + 3)
4. (x + 12)(x + 4)
5. (x − 3)(x − 8)
6. (x − 7)(x − 6)
7. (x − 11)(x − 3)
8. (x − 5)(x − 4)
9. (x − 2)(x + 7)
10. (x − 3)(x + 9)
11. (x − 6)(x + 13)
12. (x − 4)(x + 8)
13. (x − 15)(x + 3)
14. (x − 10)(x + 5)
15. (x − 8)(x + 5)
16. (x − 8)(x + 7)
17. −(x + 1)(x + 1)
18. −(x − 3)(x + 8)
19. −(x − 6)(x − 12)
20. −(x − 15)(x − 10)
21. (x + 9)(x + 12)
22. −(x − 5)(x − 6)
23. (x − 4)(x + 16)
24. (x − 20)(x + 3)
25. x = −14, x = 2
26. x = 6, x = 2
27. x = 12, x = −3
28. x = 4, x = −5
21
1.3. Factoring Special Products and Solving Quadratic Equations by Factoring www.ck12.org
1.3 Factoring Special Products and Solving

Quadratic Equations by Factoring
Learning Objectives
• Factor the difference of two squares.

• Factor perfect square trinomials.
• Factor the sum and difference of cubes.
• Solve quadratic polynomial equation by factoring.
Introduction
When you learned how to multiply binomials we talked about two special products.
The Sum and Difference Formula a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b)

The Square of a Binomial Formula a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a + b)2
a2 − 2ab + b2 = (a − b)2
The Sum or Difference of Cubes Formula a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 )
a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 )
In this section we will learn how to recognize and factor these special products.
Factor the Difference of Two Squares
We use the sum and difference formula to factor a difference of two squares. A difference of two squares can be a
quadratic polynomial in this form.
a2 − b2
Both terms in the polynomial are perfect squares. In a case like this, the polynomial factors into the sum and
difference of the square root of each term.
a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b)
In these problems, the key is figuring out what the a and b terms are. Lets do some examples of this type.
Example 1
Factor the difference of squares.
a) x2 − 9
b) x2 − 100
c) x2 − 1
22
Solution
a) Rewrite as x2 − 9 as x2 − 32 . Now it is obvious that it is a difference of squares.
The difference of squares formula is a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b)

Lets see how our problem matches with the formula x2 − 32 = (x + 3)(x − 3)
The answer is x2 − 9 = (x + 3)(x − 3).

We can check to see if this is correct by multiplying (x + 3)(x − 3).
x +3
x −3
− 3x − 9
x2 + 3x
x2 + 0x − 9

We could factor this polynomial without recognizing that it is a difference of squares. With the methods we learned
in the last section we know that a quadratic polynomial factors into the product of two binomials.
(x ± )(x ± )
We need to find two numbers that multiply to -9 and add to 0, since the middle term is missing.
We can write -9 as the following products
− 9 = −1 · 9 and −1+9 = 8
− 9 = 1 · (−9) and 1 + (−9) = −8
− 9 = 3 · (−3) and 3 + (−3) = 0 ← This is the correct choice
We can factor x2 − 9 as (x + 3)(x − 3), which is the same answer as before.

You can always factor using methods for factoring trinomials, but it is faster if you can recognize special products
such as the difference of squares.
b) Rewrite x2 − 100 as x2 − 102 . This factors as (x + 10)(x − 10).
c) Rewrite x2 − 1 as x2 − 12 . This factors as (x + 1)(x − 1).
Example 2
a) 16x2 − 25
b) 4x2 − 81
c) 49x2 − 64
Solution
23
a) Rewrite 16x2 − 25 as (4x)2 − 52 . This factors as (4x + 5)(4x − 5).

b) Rewrite 4x2 − 81 as (2x)2 − 92 . This factors as (2x + 9)(2x − 9).
c) Rewrite 49x2 − 64 as (7x)2 − 82 . This factors as (7x + 8)(7x − 8).
Example 3
Factor the difference of squares:
a) x2 − y2
b) 9x2 − 4y2
c) x2 y2 − 1
Solution
a) x2 − y2 factors as (x + y)(x − y).
b) Rewrite 9x2 − 4y2 as (3x)2 − (2y)2 . This factors as (3x + 2y)(3x − 2y).
c) Rewrite as x2 y2 − 1 as (xy)2 − 12 . This factors as (xy + 1)(xy − 1).
Example 4
a) x4 − 25
b) 16x4 − y2
c) x2 y8 − 64z2
Solution
a) Rewrite x4 − 25 as (x2 )2 − 52 . This factors as (x2 + 5)(x2 − 5).
b) Rewrite 16x4 − y2 as (4x2 )2 − y2 . This factors as (4x2 + y)(4x2 − y)
c) Rewrite x2 y8 − 64z2 as (xy2 )2 − (8z). This factors as (xy2 + 8z)(xy2 − 8z).
Factor Perfect Square Trinomials
We use the Square of a Binomial Formula to factor perfect square trinomials. A perfect square trinomial has the
following form.
a2 + 2ab + b2 or a2 − 2ab + b2
In these special kinds of trinomials, the first and last terms are perfect squares and the middle term is twice the
product of the square roots of the first and last terms. In a case like this, the polynomial factors into perfect squares.
a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a + b)2
a2 − 2ab + b2 = (a − b)2
Example 5
Factor the following perfect square trinomials.
a) x2 + 8x + 16
24
b) x2 − 4x + 4
c) x2 + 14x + 49
Solution
a) x2 + 8x + 16
The first step is to recognize that this expression is actually perfect square trinomials.
1. Check that the first term and the last term are perfect squares. They are indeed because we can re-write:
x2 + 8x + 16 as x2 + 8x + 42 .
2. Check that the middle term is twice the product of the square roots of the first and the last terms. This is true also
since we can rewrite them.
x2 + 8x + 16 as x2 + 2 · 4 · x + 42
This means we can factor x2 + 8x + 16 as (x + 4)2 .

We can check to see if this is correct by multiplying (x + 4)(x + 4).
x + 4
x − 4
4x + 16
x2 + 4x
x2 + 8x + 16

We could factor this trinomial without recognizing it as a perfect square. With the methods we learned in the last
section we know that a trinomial factors as a product of the two binomials in parentheses.
(x ± )(x ± )
We need to find two numbers that multiply to 16 and add to 8. We can write 16 as the following products.
16 = 1 · 16 and 1 + 16 = 17
16 = 2 · 8 and 2 + 8 = 10
We can factor x2 + 8x + 16 as (x + 4)(x + 4) which is the same as (x + 4)2 .

You can always factor by the methods you have learned for factoring trinomials but it is faster if you can recognize
special products.
b) Rewrite x2 − 4x + 4 as x2 + 2 · (−2) · x + (−2)2 .
25
We notice that this is a perfect square trinomial and we can factor it as: (x − 2)2 .
c) Rewrite x2 + 14x + 49 as x2 + 2 · 7 · x + 72 .
We notice that this is a perfect square trinomial as we can factor it as: (x + 7)2 .
Example 6
a) 4x2 + 20x + 25
b) 9x2 − 24x + 16
c) x + 2xy + y2
Solution
a) Rewrite 4x2 + 20x + 25 as (2x)2 + 2.5 · (2x) + 52
We notice that this is a perfect square trinomial and we can factor it as (2x + 5)2 .
b) Rewrite 9x2 − 24x + 16 as (3x)2 + 2 · (−4) · (3x) + (−4)2 .
We notice that this is a perfect square trinomial as we can factor it as (3x − 4)2 .
We can check to see if this is correct by multiplying (3x − 4)2 = (3x − 4)(3x − 4).
3x − 4
3x − 4
− 12x + 16
9x2 − 12x
9x2 − 24x + 16

c) x + 2xy + y2
We notice that this is a perfect square trinomial as we can factor it as (x + y)2 .
Factor a Sum or Difference of Cubes
We use the Sum of Difference of Cubes Formula to factor a sum of difference of cubes. A sum of difference of
cubes has one of the following forms.
a3 + b2 or a3 − b3
In these special kinds of trinomials, the first and last terms are perfect squares and the middle term is twice the
product of the square roots of the first and last terms. In a case like this, the polynomial factors into perfect squares.
a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 )
a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 )
26
Example 7
Factor the difference of squares:
a) x3 − 8
b) 27x3 + 64y3
Solution
a) x3 − 8 = x3 − (2)3 factors as (x − 2)(x2 + 2x + 4).
b) Rewrite 27x3 + 64y3 as (3x)3 − (4y)3 . This factors as (3x + 4y)(9x2 − 12xy + 16y2 ).
Solve Quadratic Polynomial Equations by Factoring
With the methods we learned in the last two sections, we can factor many kinds of quadratic polynomials. This is
very helpful when we want to solve polynomial equations such as
ax2 + bx + c = 0
Remember that to solve polynomials in expanded form we use the following steps:
Step 1
If necessary, rewrite the equation in standard form so that
Polynomial expression = 0.
Step 2
Factor the polynomial completely.
Step 3
Use the Zero-Product rule to set each factor equal to zero.
Step 4
Solve each equation from Step 3.
Step 5
Check your answers by substituting your solutions into the original equation.
We will do a few examples that show how to solve quadratic polynomials using the factoring methods we just
learned.
Example 8
a) x2 + 7x + 6 = 0
b) x2 − 8x = −12
c) x2 = 2x + 15
Solution
a) x2 + 7x + 6 = 0
Rewrite This is not necessary since the equation is in the correct form already.
Factor We can write 6 as a product of the following numbers.
27
6 = 1·6 and 1+6 = 7 ← This is the correct choice.

6 = 2·3 and 2+3 = 5
x2 + 7x + 6 = 0 factors as (x + 1)(x + 6) = 0
Set each factor equal to zero
x+1 = 0 or x+6 = 0
Solve
x = −1 or x = −6
x = −1 (−1)2 + 7(−1) + 6 = 1 − 7 + 6 = 0 Checks out.

2
x = −6 (−6) + 7(−6) + 6 = 36 − 42 + 6 = 0 Checks out.
b) x2 − 8x = −12
Rewrite x2 − 8x = −12 is rewritten as x2 − 8x + 12 = 0.
Factor We can write 12 as a product of the following numbers.
12 = 1 · 12 and 1 + 12 = 13
12 = −1 · (−12) and − 1 + (−12) = −13
12 = 2 · 6 and 2+6 = 8
12 = −2 · (−6) and − 2 + (−6) = −8 ← This is the correct choice.
12 = 3 · 4 and 3+4 = 7
12 = −3 · (−4) and − 3 + (−4) = −7
x2 − 8x + 12 = 0 factors as (x − 2)(x − 6) = 0
x−2 = 0 or x−6 = 0
Solve.
x=2 or x=6
28
x=2 (2)2 − 8(2) = 4 − 16 = −12 Checks out.

x=2 (6)2 − 8(6) = 36 − 48 = −12 Checks out.
c) x2 = 2x + 15
Rewrite x2 = 2x + 15 is re-written as x2 − 2x − 15 = 0.
Factor We can write -15 as a product of the following numbers.
− 15 = 1 · (−15) and 1 + (−15) = −14

− 15 = −1 · (15) and − 1 + (15) = 14
− 15 = −3 · 5 and −3+5 = 2
x2 − 2x − 15 = 0 factors as (x + 3)(x − 5) = 0.
x+3 = 0 or x−5 = 0
Solve
x = −3 or x=5
x = −3 (−3)2 = 2(−3) + 15 ⇒ 9 = 0 Checks out.

2
x=5 (5) = 2(5) + 15 ⇒ 25 = 25 Checks out.
Example 8
a) x2 − 12x + 36 = 0
b) x2 − 81 = 0
c) x2 + 20x + 100 = 0
Solution
a) x2 − 12x + 36 = 0
Factor: Re-write x2 − 12x + 36 as x2 − 2 · (−6)x + (−6)2 .
We recognize this as a difference of squares. This factors as (x − 6)2 = 0 or (x − 6)(x − 6) = 0.
29
x−6 = 0 or x−6 = 0
Solve
x=6 or x=6
Notice that for a perfect square the two solutions are the same. This is called a double root.
x=6 62 − 12(6) + 36 = 36 − 72 + 36 + 0 Checks out.
b) x2 − 81 = 0
Rewrite This is not necessary since the equation is in the correct form already
Factor Rewrite x2 − 81 = 0 as x2 − 92 = 0.
We recognize this as a difference of squares. This factors as (x − 9)(x + 9) = 0.
ath = x − 9 = 0 or x+9 = 0
Solve:
ath = x = 9 or x = −9
Check: Substitute each solution back into the original equation.
ath = x = 9 92 − 81 = 81 − 81 = 0 Checks out.

2
x = −9 (−9) − 81 = 81 − 81 = 0 Checks out.
c) x2 + 20x + 100 = 0
Factor Rewrite x2 + 20x + 100 = 0 as x2 + 2 · 10 · x + 102
We recognize this as a perfect square. This factors as: (x + 10)2 = 0 or (x + 10)(x + 10) = 0.
ath = x + 10 = 0 or x + 10 = 0
Solve.
30
ath = x = −10 or x = −10 This is a double root.
ath = x = 10 (−10)2 + 20(−10) + 100 = 100 − 200 + 100 = 0 Checks out.
Review Questions
1. x2 + 8x + 16
2. x2 − 18x + 81
3. −x2 + 24x − 144
4. x2 + 14x + 49
5. 4x2 − 4x + 1
6. 25x2 + 60x + 36
7. 4x2 − 12xy + 9y2
8. x4 + 22x2 + 121
Factor the following difference of squares.

9. x2 − 4
10. x2 − 36
11. −x2 + 100
12. x2 − 400
13. 9x2 − 4
14. 25x2 − 49
15. −36x2 + 25
16. 16x2 − 81y2
Factor the following sum or difference of cubes.
17. x3 + 27
18. 8x3 − 1
19. 64x3 + 125y3
Solve the following quadratic equation using factoring.

20. x2 − 11x + 30 = 0
21. x2 + 4x = 21
22. x2 + 49 = 14x
23. x2 − 64 = 0
24. x2 − 24x + 144 = 0
25. 4x2 − 25 = 0
31
26. x2 + 26x = −169

27. −x2 − 16x − 60 = 0
Review Answers
1. (x + 4)2
2. (x − 9)2
3. −(x − 12)2
4. (x + 7)2
5. (2x − 1)2
6. (5x + 6)2
7. (2x − 3y)2
8. (x2 + 11)2
9. (x + 2)(x − 2)
10. (x + 6)(x − 6)
11. −(x + 10)(x − 10)
12. (x + 20)(x − 20)
13. (3x + 2)(3x − 2)
14. (5x + 7)(5x − 7)
15. −(6x + 5)(6x − 5)
16. (4x + 9y)(4x − 9y)
17. (x + 3)(x2 − 3x + 9)
18. (2x − 1)(4x2 + 2x + 1)
19. (4x + 5y)(16x2 − 20xy + 25y2 )
20. x = 5, x = 6
21. x = −7, x = 3
22. x=7
23. x = −8, x = 8
24. x = 12
25. x = 25 , x = − 52
26. x = −13
27. x = −10, x = −6
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1.4 Factoring Polynomials Completely and

Solving Polynomial Equations by Factor-
ing
Learning Objectives
• Factor out a common binomial.

• Factor by grouping.
• Factor a quadratic trinomial where a 6= 1.
• Solve polynomial equations by factoring.
• Solve real world problems using polynomial equations.
Introduction
We say that a polynomial is factored completely when we factor as much as we can and we cant factor any more.
Here are some suggestions that you should follow to make sure that you factor completely.
• Factor all common monomials first.

• Identify special products such as difference of squares or the square of a binomial. Factor according to their
formulas.
• If there are no special products, factor using the methods we learned in the previous sections.
• Look at each factor and see if any of these can be factored further.
Here are some examples

Example 1
Factor the following polynomials completely.
a) 6x2 − 30x + 24
b) 2x2 − 8
c) x3 + 6x2 + 9x
Solution
a) 6x2 − 30x + 24
Factor the common monomial. In this case 6 can be factored from each term.
6(x2 − 5x + 6)
There are no special products. We factor x2 − 5x + 6 as a product of two binomials (x ± )(x ± ).

The two numbers that multiply to 6 and add to -5 are -2 and -3. Let’s substitute them into the two parenthesis. The
6 is outside because it is factored out.
6(x2 − 5x + 6) = 6(x − 2)(x − 3)
If we look at each factor we see that we can’t factor anything else.
33
1.4. Factoring Polynomials Completely and Solving Polynomial Equations by Factoring www.ck12.org
The answer is 6(x − 2)(x − 3)

b) 2x2 − 8
Factor common monomials 2x2 − 8 = 2(x2 − 4).
We recognize x2 − 4 as a difference of squares. We factor as 2(x2 − 4) = 2(x + 2)(x − 2).
The answer is 2(x + 2)(x − 2).
c) x3 + 6x2 + 9x
Factor common monomials x3 + 6x2 + 9x = x(x2 + 6x + 9).
We recognize as a perfect square and factor as x(x + 3)2 .
The answer is x(x + 3)2 .
Example 2
Factor the following polynomials completely.
a) −2x4 + 162
b) x5 − 8x3 + 16x
Solution
a) −2x4 + 162
Factor the common monomial. In this case, factor -2 rather than 2. It is always easier to factor the negative number
so that the leading term is positive.
−2x4 + 162 = −2(x4 − 81)
We recognize expression in parenthesis as a difference of squares. We factor and get this result.
−2(x2 − 9)(x2 + 9)
If we look at each factor, we see that the first parenthesis is a difference of squares. We factor and get this answers.
−2(x + 3)(x − 3)(x2 + 9)
If we look at each factor, we see that we can factor no more.

The answer is −2(x + 3)(x − 3)(x2 + 9)
b) x5 − 8x3 + 16x
Factor out the common monomial x5 − 8x3 + 14x = x(x4 − 8x2 + 16).
We recognize x4 − 8x2 + 16 as a perfect square and we factor it as x(x2 − 4)2 .
We look at each term and recognize that the term in parenthesis is a difference of squares.
We factor and get: x[(x + 2)2 (x − 2)]2 = x(x + 2)2 (x − 2)2 .
We use square brackets [ and ] in this expression because x is multiplied by the expression (x + 2)2 (x − 2). When
we have nested grouping symbols we use brackets [ and ] to show the levels of nesting.
34
If we look at each factor now we see that we can’t factor anything else.
The answer is: x(x + 2)2 (x − 2)2 .
Factor out a Common Binomial
The first step in the factoring process is often factoring the common monomials from a polynomial. Sometimes
polynomials have common terms that are binomials. For example, consider the following expression.
x(3x + 2) − 5(3x + 2)
You can see that the term (3x + 2) appears in both term of the polynomial. This common term can be factored by
writing it in front of a parenthesis. Inside the parenthesis, we write all the terms that are left over when we divide
them by the common factor.
(3x + 2)(x − 5)
This expression is now completely factored.

Lets look at some more examples.
Example 3
Factor the common binomials.
a) 3x(x − 1) + 4(x − 1)
b) x(4x + 5) + (4x + 5)
Solution
a) 3x(x − 1) + 4(x − 1) has a common binomial of (x − 1).
When we factor the common binomial, we get (x − 1)(3x + 4).
b) x(4x + 5) + (4x + 5) has a common binomial of (4x + 5).
When we factor the common binomial, we get (4x + 5)(x + 1).
Factor by Grouping
It may be possible to factor a polynomial containing four or more terms by factoring common monomials from
groups of terms. This method is called factor by grouping.
The next example illustrates how this process works.
Example 4
Factor 2x + 2y + ax + ay.
Solution
There isn’t a common factor for all four terms in this example. However, there is a factor of 2 that is common to the
first two terms and there is a factor of a that is common to the last two terms. Factor 2 from the first two terms and
factor a from the last two terms.
2x + 2y + ax + ay = 2(x + y) + a(x + y)
35
Now we notice that the binomial (x + y) is common to both terms. We factor the common binomial and get.
(x + y)(2 + a)
Our polynomial is now factored completely.

Example 5
Factor 3x2 + 6x + 4x + 8.
Solution
We factor 3x from the first two terms and factor 4 from the last two terms.
3x(x + 2) + 4(x + 2)
Now factor (x + 2) from both terms.
(x + 2)(3x + 4).
Now the polynomial is factored completely.
Factor Quadratic Trinomials Where a 1
Factoring by grouping is a very useful method for factoring quadratic trinomials where a 6= 1. A quadratic polyno-
mial such as this one.
ax2 + bx + c
This does not factor as (x ± m)(x ± n), so it is not as simple as looking for two numbers that multiply to give c and
add to give b. In this case, we must take into account the coefficient that appears in the first term.
To factor a quadratic polynomial where a 6= 1, we follow the following steps.
1. We find the product ac.

2. We look for two numbers that multiply to give ac and add to give b.
3. We rewrite the middle term using the two numbers we just found.
4. We factor the expression by grouping.
Lets apply this method to the following examples.

Example 6
Factor the following quadratic trinomials by grouping.
a) 3x2 + 8x + 4
b) 6x2 − 11x + 4
c) 5x2 − 6x + 1
Solution
36
Lets follow the steps outlined above.

a) 3x2 + 8x + 4
Step 1 ac = 3 · 4 = 12
Step 2 The number 12 can be written as a product of two numbers in any of these ways:
12 = 1 · 12 and 1 + 12 = 13
12 = 2 · 6 and 2+6 = 8 This is the correct choice.
12 = 3 · 4 and 3+4 = 7
Step 3 Re-write the middle term as: 8x = 2x + 6x, so the problem becomes the following.
3x2 + 8x + 4 = 3x2 + 2x + 6x + 4
Step 4: Factor an x from the first two terms and 2 from the last two terms.
x(3x + 2) + 2(3x + 2)
Now factor the common binomial (3x + 2).
(3x + 2)(x + 2)
Our answer is (3x + 2)(x + 2).

To check if this is correct we multiply (3x + 2)(x + 2).
3x + 2
x+2
6x + 4
3x2 + 2x
3x2 + 8x + 4

b) 6x2 − 11x + 4
Step 1 ac = 6 · 4 = 24
Step 2 The number 24 can be written as a product of two numbers in any of these ways.
37
24 = 1 · 24 and 1 + 24 = 25
24 = −1 · (−24) and − 1 + (−24) = −25
24 = 2 · 12 and 2 + 12 = 14
24 = −2 · (−12) and − 2 + (−12) = −14
24 = 3 · 8 and 3 + 8 = 11
24 = −3 · (−8) and − 3 + (−8) = −11 ← This is the correct choice.
24 = 4 · 6 and 4 + 6 = 10
24 = −4 · (−6) and − 4 + (−6) = −10
Step 3 Re-write the middle term as −11x = −3x − 8x, so the problem becomes
6x2 − 11x + 4 = 6x2 − 3x − 8x + 4
Step 4 Factor by grouping. Factor a 3x from the first two terms and factor -4 from the last two terms.
3x(2x − 1) − 4(2x − 1)
Now factor the common binomial (2x − 1).
(2x − 1)(3x − 4)
Our answer is (2x − 1)(3x − 4).

c) 5x2 − 6x + 1
Step 1 ac = 5 · 1 = 5
Step 2 The number 5 can be written as a product of two numbers in any of these ways.
5 = 1·5 and 1+5 = 6

5 = −1 · (−5) and − 1 + (−5) = −6 ← This is the correct choice
Step 3 Rewrite the middle term as −6x = −x − 5x. The problem becomes
5x2 − 6x + 1 = 5x2 − x − 5x + 1
Step 4 Factor by grouping: factor an x from the first two terms and a factor of -1 from the last two terms
x(5x − 1) − 1(5x − 1)
Now factor the common binomial (5x − 1).
(5x − 1)(x − 1).
Our answer is (5x − 1)(x − 1).
38
Solve Quadratic Equations by Factoring
Step 1
Step 2
Factor the polynomial completely
Step 3
Step 4
Step 5
Example 7
a) 3x2 − 24x + 36 = 0
b) 2x2 = 50
c) 12x2 − 7x − 10 = 0
Solution:
a) 3x2 − 24x + 36 = 0
Factor 3(x2 − 8x + 12) = 0 ⇒ 3(x − 6)(x − 2) = 0
x−6 = 0 or x−2 = 0
Solve
x=6 or x=2
x=6 ⇒ 3(6)2 − 24(6) + 36 = 0 works out

2
x=2 ⇒ 3(2) − 24(2) + 36 = 0 works out
Answer x = 6, x = 2
39
b) 2x2 = 50
Rewrite 2x2 − 50 = 0.
Factor 2(x2 − 25) = 0 ⇒ 2(x + 5)(x − 5) = 0.
x−5 = 0 or x+5 = 0
Solve
x=5 or x = −5
x = 5 ⇒ 2(5)2 − 50 = 0 works out

2
x = −5 ⇒ 2(−5) − 50 = 0 works out
c) 12x2 − 7x − 10 = 0
Rewrite No needed.
Factor
(3x + 2)(4x − 5)
.
3x + 2 = 0 or 4x − 5 = 0
Solve
2 5
x=− or x=
3 4
x = −2/3 ⇒ 12(−2/3)2 − 7(−2/3) − 10 = 0 works out

2
x = 5/4 ⇒ 12(5/4) − 7(5/4) − 10 = 0 works out
Answer x = − 32 , x = 5
4
40
Solve Real-World Problems Using Polynomial Equations
Now that we know most of the factoring strategies for quadratic polynomials we can see how these methods apply
to solving real world problems.
Example 8 Pythagorean Theorem
One leg of a right triangle is 3 feet longer than the other leg. The hypotenuse is 15 feet. Find the dimensions of the
right triangle.
Solution
Let x = the length of one leg of the triangle, then the other leg will measure x + 3.
Lets draw a diagram.
Use the Pythagorean Theorem (leg1 )2 + (leg2 )2 = (hypotenuse)2 or a2 + b2 = c2 .
Here a and b are the lengths of the legs and c is the length of the hypotenuse.
Lets substitute the values from the diagram.
a2 + b2 = c2
x2 + (x + 3)2 = 152
In order to solve, we need to get the polynomial in standard form. We must first distribute, collect like terms and
re-write in the form polynomial = 0.
x2 + x2 + 6x + 9 = 225
2x2 + 6x + 9 = 225
2x2 + 6x − 216 = 0
Factor the common monomial 2(x + 3x − 108) = 0.

To factor the trinomial inside the parenthesis we need to numbers that multiply to -108 and add to 3. It would take a
long time to go through all the options so lets try some of the bigger factors.
− 108 = −12· and − 12 + 9 = −3

− 108 = 12 · (−9) and 12 + (−9) = 3 ← This is the correct choice.
We factor as: 2(x − 9)(x + 12) = 0.
41
Set each term equal to zero and solve
x−9 = 0 x + 12 = 0
or
x=9 x = −12
It makes no sense to have a negative answer for the length of a side of the triangle, so the answer must be the
following.
Answer x = 9 for one leg, and x + 3 = 12 for the other leg.
Check 92 + 122 = 81 + 144 = 225 = 152 so the answer checks.
Example 9 Number Problems
The product of two positive numbers is 60. Find the two numbers if one of the numbers is 4 more than the other.
Solution
Let x = one of the numbers and x + 4 equals the other number.
The product of these two numbers equals 60. We can write the equation.
x(x + 4) = 60
In order to solve we must write the polynomial in standard form. Distribute, collect like terms and re-write in the
form polynomial = 0.
x2 + 4x = 60
x2 + 4x − 60 = 0
Factor by finding two numbers that multiply to -60 and add to 4. List some numbers that multiply to -60:
− 60 = −4 · 15 and − 4 + 15 = 11
− 60 = 4 · (−15) and 4 + (−15) = −11
− 60 = −5 · 12 and − 5 + 12 = 7
− 60 = 5 · (−12) and 5 + (−12) = −7
− 60 = −6 · 10 and − 6 + 10 = 4 ← This is the correct choice
− 60 = 6 · (−10) and 6 + (−10) = −4
The expression factors as (x + 10)(x − 6) = 0.

Set each term equal to zero and solve.
ath = x + 10 = 0 x−6 = 0
or
x = −10 x=6
42
Since we are looking for positive numbers, the answer must be the following.
Answer x = 6 for one number, and x + 4 = 10 for the other number.
Check 6 · 10 = 60 so the answer checks.
Example 10 Area of a rectangle
A rectangle has sides of x + 5 and x − 3. What value of x gives and area of 48?
FIGURE 1.1
Solution:
Make a sketch of this situation.
Area of the rectangle = length × width
ath = (x + 5)(x − 3) = 48
In order to solve, we must write the polynomial in standard form. Distribute, collect like terms and rewrite in the
form polynomial = 0.
ath = x2 + 2x − 15 = 48
x2 + 2x − 63 = 0
Factor by finding two numbers that multiply to -63 and add to 2. List some numbers that multiply to -63.
ath = − 63 = −7 · 9 and −7+9 = 2 ← This is the correct choice

− 63 = 7 · (−9) and 7 + (−9) = −2
The expression factors as (x + 9)(x − 7) = 0.

Set each term equal to zero and solve.
ath = x + 9 = 0 x−7 = 0
or
x = −9 x=7
43
Since we are looking for positive numbers the answer must be x = 7.

Answer The width is x − 3 = 4 and the length is x + 5 = 12.
Check 4 · 12 = 48 so the answer checks out.
Review Questions
Factor completely.
1. 2x2 + 16x + 30
2. −x3 + 17x2 − 70x
3. 2x2 − 512
4. 12x3 + 12x2 + 3x
Factor by grouping.
5. 6x2 − 9x + 10x − 15
6. 5x2 − 35x + x − 7
7. 9x2 − 9x − x + 1
8. 4x2 + 32x − 5x − 40
Factor the following quadratic binomials by grouping.
9. 4x2 + 25x − 21
10. 6x2 + 7x + 1
11. 4x2 + 8x − 5
12. 3x2 + 16x + 21
Solve.
13. 3x2 + 24x + 36 = 0
14. 5x2 − 45 = 0
15. 20x2 1 − 39x + 18 = 0
16. 4x2 + 12x + 9 = 0
Solve the following application problems:

17. One leg of a right triangle is 7 feet longer than the other leg. The hypotenuse is 13 feet. Find the dimensions
of the right triangle.
18. A rectangle has sides of x + 2 and x − 1. What value of x gives and area of 108?
19. The product of two positive numbers is 120. Find the two numbers if one numbers is 7 more than the other.
20. Framing Warehouse offers a picture framing service. The cost for framing a picture is made up of two parts.
The cost of glass is $1 per square foot. The cost of the frame is $2 per linear foot. If the frame is a square, what size
picture can you get framed for $20?
Review Answers
1. 2(x + 3)(x + 5)
44
2. −x(x − 7)(x − 10)

3. 2(x − 4)(x + 4)(x2 + 16)
4. 3x(2x + 1)2
5. (2x − 3)(3x + 5)
6. (x − 7)(5x + 1)
7. (9x − 1)(x − 1)
8. (x + 8)(4x − 5)
9. (4x − 3)(x + 7)
10. (6x + 1)(x + 1)
11. (2x − 1)(2x + 5)
12. (x + 3)(3x + 7)
13. x = 6, x = 2
14. x = 3, x = −3
15. x = 34 , x = 65
16. x = − 23
17. Leg 1 = 5, Leg 2 = 12
18. x = 10
19. Numbers are 8 and 15.
20. You can frame a 2 foot × 2 foot picture.
Texas Instruments Resources
In the CK-12 Texas Instruments Algebra I FlexBook, there are graphing calculator activities designed to supple-
ment the objectives for some of the lessons in this chapter. See http://www.ck12.org/flexr/chapter/9619.
45
www.ck12.org
C HAPTER
2 Radical Equations and
Radical Functions
Chapter Outline
2.1 G RAPHS OF S QUARE R OOT F UNCTIONS
2.2 R ADICAL E XPRESSIONS I
2.3 R ADICAL E XPRESSIONS II
2.4 R ADICAL E QUATIONS
2.5 T HE P YTHAGOREAN T HEOREM AND I TS C ONVERSE
2.6 D ISTANCE AND M IDPOINT F ORMULAS
2.7 I MAGINARY AND C OMPLEX N UMBERS
2.8 O PERATIONS ON C OMPLEX N UMBERS
46
www.ck12.org Chapter 2. Radical Equations and Radical Functions
2.1 Graphs of Square Root Functions
Learning Objectives
• Graph and compare square root functions.

• Shift graphs of square root functions.
• Graph square root functions using a graphing calculator.
• Solve real-world problems using square root functions.
Introduction
In this chapter, you will be learning about a different kind of function called the square root function. You have
seen that taking the square root is very useful√in solving √ quadratic equations. For example, to solve the equation
2
x =p 2
25 we take the square root of both sides x = ± 25 and obtain x = ±5. A square root function has the form
y= f (x). In this type of function, the expression in terms of x is found inside the square root sign (also called the
“radical” sign).
Graph and Compare Square Root Functions
The square root function is the first time where you will have to consider the domain of the function before graphing.
The domain is very important because the function is undefined if the expression inside the square root sign is
negative, and as a result there will be no graph in that region.
In order to is cover how the graphs of square root function behave, we should make a table of values and plot the
points.
Example 1
√
Graph the function f (x) = x.
Solution
Before we make a table of values, we need to find the domain of this square root function. The domain is found by
realizing that the function is only defined when the expression inside the square root is greater than or equal to zero.
We find that the domain is all values of x such that x ≥ 0.
This means that when we make our table of values, we should pick values of x that are greater than or equal to zero.
It is very useful to include the value of zero as the first value in the table and include many values greater than zero.
This will help us in determining what the shape of the curve will be. It is often helpful to replace f(x) with y to
complete the table of values.
TABLE 2.1:
√
x y= √x
0 y= √0 = 0
1 y= √1 = 1
2 y= √2 = 1.4
3 y= √3 = 1.7
4 y= 4=2
47
2.1. Graphs of Square Root Functions www.ck12.org
TABLE 2.1: (continued)

√
x y= √x
5 y= √5 = 2.2
6 y= √6 = 22.4
7 y= √7 = 2.6
8 y= √8 = 2.8
9 y= 9=3
Here is what the graph of this table looks like.
The graphs of square root functions are always curved. The curve above looks like half of a parabola lying on its
side. In fact the square root function we graphed above comes from the expression y2 = x.
This is in the form of a parabola
√ but with
√the x and y switched. We see that when we solve this expression for y we
obtain two solutions y = x and y = − x. The graph above shows the positive square root of this answer.
Example 2
√
Graph the function f (x) = − x.
Solution
Once again, we must look at the domain of the function first. We see that the function is defined only for x ≥ 0. Let’s
make a table of values and calculate a few values of the function.
TABLE 2.2:
√
x y = − √x
0 y = − √0 = −0
1 y = − √1 = −1
2 y = − √2 = −1.4
3 y = − √3 = −1.7
4 y = − √4 = −2
5 y = − √5 = −2.2
6 y = − √6 = −22.4
7 y = − √7 = −2.6
8 y = − √8 = 2.8
9 y = − 9 = −3
48
Here is the graph from this table.
Notice that if we graph the two separate functions on the same coordinate axes, the combined graph is a parabola
lying on its side.
Now let’s compare square root functions that are multiples of each other.
Example 3
√ √ √ √
Graph functions f (x) = x, f (x) = 2 x, f (x) = 3 x, f (x) = 4 x on the same graph.
Solution
Here we will show just the graph without the table of values.
49
If we multiply the function by a constant bigger than one, the function increases faster the greater the constant is.
Example 4
√ √ √ √
Graph functions a. f (x) = x, b. f (x) = 2x, c. f (x) = 3x, d. f (x) = 4x on the same graph.
Solution
FIGURE 2.1
Notice that multiplying the expression inside the square root by a constant has the same effect as in the previous
example but the function increases at a slower rate because√ the entire function is effectively √
multiplied by the
square root of the constant.
√ Also note that the graph of 4x is the same as the graph of 2 2x. This makes
sense algebraically since 4 = 2.
Example 5
√ √ √ √
Graph functions f (x) = x, f (x) = 12 x, f (x) = 13 x, f (x) = 14 x on the same graph.
Solution
50
If we multiply the function by a constant between 0 and 1, the function increases at a slower rate for smaller
constants.
Example 6
√ √
Graph functions f (x) = 2 x, f (x) = −2 x on the same graph.
Solution
If we multiply the function by a negative function, the square root function is reflected about the x−axis.
Example 7
√ √
Graph functions f (x) = x, f (x) = −x on the same graph.
51
Solution
√ √
Notice that for function f (x) = x the domain is values of x ≥ 0, and for function f (x) = −x the domain is values
of x ≤ 0.
When we multiply the argument of the function by a negative constant the function is reflected about the y−axis.
Shift Graphs of Square Root Functions
Now, let’s see what happens to the square root function as we add positive and negative constants to the function.
Example 8
√ √ √
Graph the functions f (x) = x, f (x) = x + 2, f (x) = x − 2.
Solution
We see that the graph keeps the same shape, but moves up for positive constants and moves down for negative
constants.
Example 9
52
√ √ √
Graph the functions f (x) = x, f (x) = x − 2, f (x) = x + 2.
Solution
When we add constants to the argument of the function, the function shifts to the left for a positive constant and to
the right for a negative constant because the domain shifts. There can’t be a negative number inside the square root.
Now let’s graph a few more examples of square root functions.
Example 10
√
Graph the function f (x) = 2 3x − 1 + 2.
Solution
We first determine the domain of the function. The function is only defined if the expression inside the square root
is positive 3x − 1 ≥ 0 or x ≥ 13 .
Make a table for values of x greater than or equal to 31 .
TABLE 2.3:
√
x y = 2 r3x − 1 + 2
1 1
3 y = 2 3· −1+2 = 2
p 3
1 y = 2 p3(1) − 1 + 2 = 4.8
2 y = 2 p3(2) − 1 + 2 = 6.5
3 y = 2 p3(3) − 1 + 2 = 7.7
4 y = 2 p3(4) − 1 + 2 = 8.6
5 y = 2 3(5) − 1 + 2 = 9.5
Here is the graph.
53
√
You can also think of this function as a combination of shifts and stretches of the basic square root function y = x.
We know that the graph of this function looks like the one below.
√
If we multiply the argument by 3√to obtain y = 3x, this stretches the curve vertically because the value of y
increases faster by a factor of y = 3.
√
Next, when we subtract the value of 1 from the argument to obtain y = 3x − 1 this shifts the entire graph to the
left by one unit.
54
√
Multiplying the function by a factor of 2 to obtain y = 2 3x − 1 stretches the curve vertically again, and y increases
faster by a factor of 2.
√
Finally, we add the value of 2 to the function to obtain y = 3x − 1 + 2. This shifts the entire function vertically by
2 units.
This last method of graphing showed a way to graph functions without making a table of values. If we know what
the basic function looks like, we can use shifts and stretches to transform the function and get to the desired result.
Graph Square Root Functions Using a Graphing Calculator
Next, we will demonstrate how to use the graphing calculator to plot square root functions.
Example 11
Graph the following functions using a graphing calculator.
√
a) f (x) = x + 5
p
b) f (x) = 9 − x2
Solution:
In all the cases we start by pressing the [Y=button] and entering the function on the function screen of the calculator:
We then press [GRAPH] to display the results. Make sure your window is set appropriately in order to view the
function well. This is done by pressing the [WINDOW] button and choosing appropriate values for the Xmin,
Xmax, Ymin and Ymax.
a)
The window of this graph is −6 ≤ x ≤ 5; −5 ≤ y ≤ 5.

The domain of the function is x ≥ −5
b)
55
The window of this graph is −5 ≤ x ≤ 5; −5 ≤ y ≤ 5.

The domain of the function is −3 ≤ x ≤ 3
Solve Real-World Problems Using Square Root Functions
Pendulum
Mathematicians and physicists have studied the motion of a pendulum in great detail because this motion explains
many other behaviors that occur in nature. This type of motion is called simple harmonic motion and it is very
important because it describes anything that repeats periodically. Galileo was the first person to study the motion of
a pendulum around the year 1600. He found that the time it takes a pendulum to complete a swing from a starting
point back to the beginning does not depend on its mass or on its angle of swing (as long as the angle of the swing
is small). Rather, it depends only on the length of the pendulum.
The time it takes a pendulum to swing from a starting point and back to the beginning is called the period of the
pendulum.
56
√
Galileo found that the period of a pendulum is proportional to the square root of its length T = a L. The
2π
proportionality constant depends on the acceleration of gravity a = √ . At sea level on Earth the acceleration
g
of gravity is g = 9.81 m/s2 (meters per second squared). Using this value of gravity, we find a = 2.0 with units of
√s (seconds divided by the square root of meters). Up until the mid 20th century, all clocks used pendulums as
m
their central time keeping component.
Example 12
Graph the period of a pendulum of a clock swinging in a house on Earth at sea level as we change the length of the
pendulum. What does the length of the pendulum need to be for its period to be one second?
Solution
√
The function for the period of a pendulum at sea level is: T = 2 L.
We make a graph with the horizontal axis representing the length of the pendulum and with the vertical axis
representing the period of the pendulum.
We start by making a table of values.
TABLE 2.4:
√
L T = 2 √L
0 T = 2 √0 = 0
1 T = 2 √1 = 2
2 T = 2 √2 = 2.8
3 T = 2 √3 = 3.5
4 T = 2 √4 = 4
5 T = 2 5 = 4.5
Now let’s graph the function.
57
We can see from the graph that a length of approximately 14 meters gives a period of one second. We can confirm
this answer by using our function for the period and plugging in T = 1 second.
√ √
T =2 L⇒1=2 L
Square both sides of the equation: 1 = 4L

1
Solve for L : L = meters
4
Example 13
“Square” TV screens have an aspect ratio of 4:3. This means that for every four inches of length on the horizontal,
there are three inches of length on the vertical. TV sizes represent the length of the diagonal of the television screen.
Graph the length of the diagonal of a screen as a function of the area of the screen. What is the diagonal of a screen
with an area of 180 in2 ?
Solution
58
Let d = length of the diagonal, x = horizontal length
4 · vertical length = 3 · horizontal length

Or,
3
vertical length = x.
4
The area of the screen is: A = length · width or A = 34 x2

Find how the diagonal length and the horizontal length are related by using the Pythagorean theorem, a2 + b2 = c2 .
3 2

2
x + x = d2
4
9
x2 + x2 = d 2
16
25 2 16 4
x = d 2 ⇒ x2 = d 2 ⇒ x2 = d
16 25 5
3 4 2 3 16 2 12 2

A= d = · d = d
4 5 4 25 25
25 5
√
We can also find the diagonal length as a function of the area d 2 = or d = √
12 A A.
2 3
Make a graph where the horizontal axis represents the area of the television screen and the vertical axis is the length
of the diagonal. Let’s make a table of values.
59
TABLE 2.5:
5
√
A d= √ A
2 3
0 0
25 7.2
50 10.2
75 12.5
100 14.4
125 16.1
150 17.6
175 19
200 20.4
From the graph we can estimate that when the area of a TV screen is 180 in2 the length of the diagonal is approxi-
mately 19.5 inches inches. We can confirm this by substituting a = 180 into the formula that relates the diagonal to
the area.
5 √ 5 √
d= √ A= √ 180 = 19.4 inches
2 3 2 3
Review Questions
Graph the following functions on the same coordinate axes.

√ √ √
1. f (x) = √x, f (x) = 2.5 √x and f (x) = −2.5√ x
2. f (x) = √x, f (x) = 0.3
√ x and f (x) = 0.6
√ x
3. f (x) = √x, f (x) = √x − 5 and f (x) = √x + 5
4. f (x) = x, f (x) = x + 8 and f (x) = x − 8
Graph the following functions.

√
1. f (x) = √2x − 1
2. f (x) = 4x + 4
60
√
3. f (x) = √ 5−x
4. f (x) = 2 x√+ 5
5. f (x) = 3 − √ x
6. f (x) = 4 +
√ 2 x
7. f (x) = 2 2x√+ 3 + 1
8. f (x) = 4√+ 2 2 −√x
9. f (x) = x + 1 − 4x − 5
10. The acceleration of gravity can also given in feet per second squared. It is g = 32 f t/s2 at sea level. Graph the
period of a pendulum with respect to its length in feet. For what length in feet will the period of a pendulum
be two seconds?
11. The acceleration of gravity on the Moon is 1.6 m/s2 . Graph the period of a pendulum on the Moon with
respect to its length in meters. For what length, in meters, will the period of a pendulum be 10 seconds?
12. The acceleration of gravity on Mars is 3.69 m/s2 . Graph the period of a pendulum on the Mars with respect
to its length in meters. For what length, in meters, will the period of a pendulum be three seconds?
13. The acceleration of gravity on the Earth depends on the latitude and altitude of a place. The value of g
is slightly smaller for places closer to the Equator than places closer to the Poles, and the value of g is
slightly smaller for places at higher altitudes that it is for places at lower altitudes. In Helsinki, the value of
g = 9.819 m/s2 , in Los Angeles the value of g = 9.796 m/s2 and in Mexico City the value of g = 9.779 m/s2 .
Graph the period of a pendulum with respect to its length for all three cities on the same graph. Use the
formula to find the length (in meters) of a pendulum with a period of 8 seconds for each of these cities.
14. The aspect ratio of a wide-screen TV is 2.39:1. Graph the length of the diagonal of a screen as a function of
the area of the screen. What is the diagonal of a screen with area 150 in2 ?
Graph the following functions using a graphing calculator.
√
1. f (x) = 3x√− 2
2. f (x) = 4p+ 2−x
3. f (x) = √ x2 −√9
4. f (x) = x − x + 2
Review Answers
1.
61
2.
3.
4.
62
5.
6.
7.
63
8.
9.
10.
64
11.
12.
13.
65
14.
L = 3.25 f eet
15.
L = 4.05 meters
16.
L = 0.84 meters
66
17.
Note: The differences are so small that all of the lines appear to coincide on this graph. If you zoom (way) in you
can see slight differences. The period of an 8 meter pedulum in Helsinki is 1.8099 seconds, in Los Angeles it is
1.8142 seconds, and in Mexico City it is 1.8173 seconds.
1.
D = 20.5 inches
15.92 m Helsinki
15.88 m Los Angeles
15.85 m Mexico City
19.
67
Window −1 ≤ x ≤ 5; −5 ≤ y ≤ 5
20.
Window −5 ≤ x ≤ 5; 0 ≤ y ≤ 10
21.
Window −6 ≤ x ≤ 6; −1 ≤ y ≤ 10
22.
0 ≤ x ≤ 5; −3 ≤ y ≤ 1
68
2.2 Radical Expressions I
Learning objectives
• Use the product and quotient properties of radicals to simplify radicals.

• Add and subtract radical expressions.
Introduction
A radical reverses the operation of raising a number to a power. For example, to find the square of 4 we write
√
42 = 4 · 4 = 16. The reverse process is called finding the square root. The symbol for a square root is . This
symbol is also called the radical sign. When we take the square root of a number, the result is a number which when
squared gives the number under the square root sign. For example,
√
9=3 since 32 = 3 · 3 = 9
Radicals often have an index in the top left corner. The index indicates which root of the number we are seeking.
Square roots have an index of 2 but many times this index is not written.
√
2
36 = 6 since 62 = 36
The cube root of a number gives a number which when raised to the third power gives the number under the radical
sign.
√
3
64 = 4 since 43 = 4 · 4 · 4 = 64
The fourth root of number gives a number which when raised to the power four gives the number under the radical
sign.
√
4
81 = 3 since 34 = 3 · 3 · 3 · 3 = 81
Even and odd roots

Radical expressions that have even indices are called even roots and radical expressions that have odd indices are
called odd roots. There is a very important difference between even and odd roots in that they give drastically
different results when the number inside the radical sign is negative.
Any real number raised to an even power results in a positive answer. Therefore, when the index of a radical is even,
the number inside the radical sign must be non-negative in order to get a real answer.
On the other hand, a positive number raised to an odd power is positive and a negative number raised to an odd power
is negative. Thus, a negative number inside the radical sign is not a problem. It just results in a negative answer.
69
2.2. Radical Expressions I www.ck12.org
Example 1
Evaluate each radical expression.
√
a) 121
√3
b) 125
√4
c) −625
√5
d) −32
Solution
√
a) 121 = 11
√3
b) 125 = 5
√4
c) −625 is not a real number
√5
d) −32 = −2
Use the Product and Quotient Properties of Radicals

√
m n
Radicals can be rewritten as exponent with rational powers. The radical y = an is defined as a m .
Example 2
Write each expression as an exponent with a rational value for the exponent.
√
a) 5
√
b) 4 a
p
c) 3 4xy
√
6
d) x5
Solution
√ 1
a) 5 = 5 2
√ 1
b) 4 a = a 4
p 1
c) 3 4xy = (4xy) 3
√
6 5
d) x5 = x 6
√
n n
As a result of this property, for any non-negative number an = a n = a.
Since roots of numbers can be treated as powers, we can use exponent rules to simplify and evaluate radical
expressions. Let’s review the product and quotient rule of exponents.
Raising a product to a power (x · y)n = xn · yn

n
x xn
Raising a quotient to a power = n
y y
In radical notation, these properties are written as
√ √ √
Raising a product to a power m
x·y = m x· m y
r √
m
x x
Raising a quotient to a power m
= √
y m y
70
A very important application of these rules is reducing a radical expression to its simplest form. This means that we
apply the root on all the factors of the number that are perfect roots and leave all factors that are not perfect roots
inside the radical sign.
√
For example, in the expression 16, the number is a perfect square because 16 = 42 . This means that we can
simplify.
√ √
16 = 42 = 4
Thus, the square root disappears completely.

√
On the other hand, in the expression, the number 32 is not a perfect square so we cannot remove the square root.
However, we notice that 32 = 16 · 2, so we can write 32 as the product of a perfect square and another number.
√ √ √
32 = 16 · 2 = 16 · 2
If we apply the “raising a product to a power” rule we obtain
√ √ √ √
32 = 16 · 2 = 16 · 2
√ √ √ √
Since 16 = 4, we get 32 = 4 · 2 = 4 2.
Example 3
Write the following expression in the simplest radical form.
√
a) 8
√
b) 50
r
125
c)
72
Solution
The strategy is to write the number under the square root as the product of a perfect square and another number. The
goal is to find the highest perfect square possible, however, if we don’t we can repeat the procedure until we cannot
simplify any longer.
√ √
a) We can write 8 = 4 · 2 so 8 = 4 · 2
√ √ √
Use the rule for raising a product to a power 4 · 2 = 4 · 2
√ √
Finally we have, 8 = 2 2.
√ √
b) We can write 50 = 25 · 2 so 50 = 25 · 2
√ √ √
Use the rule for raising a product to a power = 25 · 2 = 5 2
c) Use the rule for raising a product to a power to separate the fraction.
r √
125 125
= √
72 72
Rewrite each radical as a product of a perfect square and another number.
71
√ √
25 · 5 5 5
= = √
9·6 3 6
The same method can be applied to reduce radicals of different indices to their simplest form.
Example 4
√
a) 40
r
4 162
b)
80
√
3
c) 135
Solution
In these cases we look for the highest possible perfect cube, fourth power, etc. as indicated by the index of the
radical.
a) Here we are looking for the product of the highest perfect cube and another number. We write
√
3
√
3
√
3
40 = 8 · 5 = 2 5
b) Here we are looking for the product of the highest perfect fourth power and another number.
r √4
4 162 162
Rewrite as the quotient of two radicals = √ 4
80 80
√4
√
4
√
4
√
4
81 · 2 81 · 2 3 2
Simplify each radical separately = √4 = √
4
√
4 = √
4
16 · 5 16 · 5 2 5
r
3 4 2
Recombine the fraction under one radical sign =
2 5
c) Here we are looking for the product of the highest perfect cube root and another number.
Often it is not very easy to identify the perfect root in the expression under the radical sign.
In this case, we can factor the number under the radical sign completely by using a factor tree.
We see that 135 = 3 · 3 · 3 · 5 = 33 · 5
72
√
3
√
3 √
3 √
3
√
3
Therefore 135 = 33 · 5 = 33 · 5 = 3 5
Here are some examples involving variables.
Example 5
p
a) 12x3 y5
s
7
4 1250x
b)
405y9
Solution
Treat constants and each variable separately and write each expression as the products of a perfect power as indicated
by the index of the radical and another number.
a)
p √ √ p
Rewrite as a product of radicals. 12x3 y5 = 12 · x3 · y5
√ √ √ √ √
Simplify each radical separately. 4·3 · x 2 · x · y4 · y = 2 3 · x x · y2 y
p
Combine all terms outside and inside the radical sign = 2xy2 3xy
b)
s √4
4 1250x7 1250x7
Rewrite as a quotient of radicals =
405y9
p4
405y9
√ 4
√
4 √
4
√
4
√4
625 · 2 · x4 · x3 5 2 · x · x3 5x 2x3
Simplify each radical separately = √ p = √4 √ = √
4
81 · 5 · 4 y4 · y4 · y 3 5·y· 4 y 3y2 4 5y
s
5x 4 2x3
Recombine fraction under one radical sign = 2
3y 5y
Add and Subtract Radical Expressions
When we add and subtract radical expressions, we can combine radical terms only when they have the same
expression under the radical sign. This is a similar procedure to combining like terms in variable expressions.
For example,
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
4 2 + 5 2 = 9 2 or 2 3 − 2 + 5 3 + 10 2 = 7 3 + 9 2
It is important to simplify all radicals to their simplest form√
in order√to make sure that we are combining all possible
like terms in the expression. For example, the expression 8 − 2 50 looks like it cannot be simplified any more
because it has no like terms. However, when we write each radical in its simplest form we have
√ √
2 2 − 10 2
This can be combined to obtain
√
−8 2
Example 6
Simplify the following expressions as much as possible.
73
√ √
a) 4 3 + 2 12
√ √
b) 10 24 − 28
Solution
a)
√ √ √ √ √ √ √
Simplify 12 to its simplest form. = 4 3 + 2 4 · 3 = 4 3 + 2 · 2 3 = 4 3 + 4 3
√
Combine like terms. = 8 3
b)
√ √ √ √ √ √
Simplify 24 and 28 to their simplest form. = 10 6 · 4 − 7 · 4 = 20 6 − 2 7
There are no like terms.

Example 7
√
3
√
3
a) 4 128 − 3 250
√ √
b) 3 x3 − 4x 9x
Solution
a)
√
3
√
3
√
3
√
3
Rewrite radicals in simplest terms. = 4 2.64 − 2.125 = 16 2 − 5 2
√
3
Combine like terms. = 11 2
b)
√ √ √ √
Rewrite radicals in simplest terms. = 3 x2 · x − 4x 9x = 3x x − 12x x
√
Combine like terms. = −9x x
Solve Real-World Problems Using Radical Expressions
Radicals often arise in problems involving areas and volumes of geometrical figures.
Example 10
The volume of a soda can is 355 cm3 . The height of the can is four times the radius of the base. Find the radius of
the base of the cylinder.
Solution
74
1. Make a sketch.
2. Let x = the radius of the cylinder base
3. Write an equation.
The volume of a cylinder is given by
V = πr2 · h
4. Solve the equation.
355 = πx2 (4x)

355 = 4πx3
355
x3 =
r4π
3 355
x= = 3.046 cm
4π
5. Check by substituting the result back into the formula.
V = πr2 · h = π(3.046)2 · (4 · 3 · 046) = 355 cm3
So the volume is 355 cm3 .

Review Questions
Evaluate each radical expression.

√
1. √ 169
4
2. √81
3
3. √−125
5
4. 1024
Write each expression as a rational exponent.

√
3
5. 14
√
4
6. √ zw
7. pa
9
8. y3
Write the following expressions in simplest radical form.

√
9. √24
10. √ 300
5
11. 96
75
r
240
12.
√ 567
3
13. √ 500
6
14. √ 64x8
3
15. s48a3 b7
3 16x5
16.
135y4

√ √
17. 3√ 8 − 6 √ 32
18. √180 + √6 405√ √
19. √ 6 − 27 +
√ 2 54 + 3 48
20. 8x 3 − 4x 98x
√ √
21. √ 48a + √27a
3 3
22. 4x3 + x 256
23. The volume of a spherical balloon is 950 cm-cubed. Find the radius of the balloon. (Volume of a sphere
= 34 πR3 ).
Review Answers
1. 13
2. not a real solution
3. -5
4. 4
1
5. 14 3
1 1
6. z4 w4
1
7. a2
1
8. y 3√
9. 2 √ 6
10. 10√ 3
5
11. 2 r3
4 15
12. 9
√ 7
3
13. 5 √ 4
6
14. 2x. q x2
3 √
15. 2ab2 6b
s
x 2
2x
16. 3y 5y
√
17. −18 √ 2
18. 15√ 5 √
19. 7 6+ √9 3
20. −26x
√ 2x
21. 7 √3a
3
22. 5x 4
23. R = 6.1 cm
76
2.3 Radical Expressions II
Learning objectives
• Multiply radical expressions.

• Rationalize the denominator.
Multiply Radical Expressions.

√ √ √
When we multiply radical expressions, we use the “raising a product to a power” rule m
x · y = m x · m y.
In this case we apply this rule in reverse. For example
√ √ √ √
6 · 8 = 6 · 8 = 48
Make sure that the answer is written in simplest radical form
√ √ √
48 = 16 · 3 = 4 3
We will also make use of the fact that
√ √ √
a · a = a2 = a.
When we multiply expressions that have numbers on both the outside and inside the radical sign, we treat the
numbers outside the radical sign and the numbers inside the radical sign separately.
For example
√ √ √
a b · c d = ac bd.
Example 1
Multiply the following expressions.
√ √ √
a) 2 3+ 5
√ √ √
b) 5 5 3 + 2 5
√ √ √
c) 2 x 3 y + x
Solution
In each case we use distribution to eliminate the parenthesis.
a)
77
2.3. Radical Expressions II www.ck12.org
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Distribute 2 inside the parenthesis. 2 3+ 5 = 2· 3+ 2· 5
√ √ √ √
Use the “raising a product to a power" rule. = 2· 3+ 2· 5
√ √
Simplify. = 6 + 10
b)
√ √ √ √ √
Distribute 5 inside the parenthesis. = 5 5· 3−2 5· 5
√ √ √ √
Use the “raising a product to a power" rule. 5 5 · 3 − 2 5 · 5 = 5 15 − 2 25
√ √
Simplify. 5 15 − 2 · 5 = 5 15 − 10
c)
√ √ √ √ √
Distribute 2 x inside the parenthesis. = (2 · 3) x· y −2· x· x
√ √
Multiply. = 6 xy − 2 x2
√
Simplify. = 6 xy − 2x
Example 2
√ √
a) 2 + 5 2 − 6
√ √
b) 2 x − 1 5 − x
Solution
In each case we use distribution to eliminate the parenthesis.
a)
√ √ √ √ √ √ √
Distribute the parenthesis. 2 + 5 2 − 6 = (2.2) − 2. 6 + 2. 5 − 5. 6 − 30
√ √
Simplify. 4 − 2 6 + 2 5 − 30
b)
√ √ √ √
Distribute. 2 x − 1 5 − x = 10 x − 2x − 5 + x
√
Simplify. 11 x − 2x − 5
Rationalize the Denominator
Often when we work with radicals, we end up with a radical expression in the denominator of a fraction. We can
simplify such expressions even further by eliminating the radical expression from the denominator of the expression.
This process is called rationalizing the denominator.
There are two cases we will examine.
Case 1 There is a single radical expression in the denominator √2 .
3
78
In this case, we multiply the numerator and denominator by a radical expression

√ that makes the expression inside
the radical into a perfect power. In the example above, we multiply by the 3.
√ √
2 3 2 3
√ · √ =
3 3 3
7
Next, let’s examine √3 .
5
In this case, we need to √ make the number inside the cube root a perfect cube. We need to multiply the numerator
3
and the denominator by 52 .
√
3 √ √
7 52 73 25 73 25
√
3 ·√
3 = √
3 =
5 52 53 5
Case 2 The expression in the denominator is a radical expression that contains more than one term.
2√
Consider the expression
2+ 3
√
In order to eliminate the radical from the denominator, we multiply it by 2 − 3 . This is a good choice because
√ √
the product 2 + 3 2 − 3 is a product of a sum and a difference which multiplies as follows.
√ √ √ 2
2 + 3 2 − 3 = 22 − 3 = 4−3 = 1
√
We multiply the numerator and denominator by 2 − 3 and get
√ √ √
2 2− 3 2 2− 3 4−2 3
√ · √ = =
2+ 3 2− 3 4−3 1
√
x−1
Now consider the expression √ √ .
x−2 y
√ √
In order to eliminate the radical expressions in the denominator, we must multiply by x + 2 y.
We obtain
√ √ √ √ √ √
x−1 x+2 y ( x − 1) x+2 y
√ √ · √ √ = √ √ √ √
x−2 y x+2 y x−2 y x+2 y
√ √ √
x + x − 2 xy − 2 y
=
x − 4y
Review Questions

√ √ √
1. 6 10 + 8
79
2.3. Radical Expressions II www.ck12.org
√ √ √ √
2. a− b a+ b
√ √
3. 2 x + 5 2 x + 5
4. √7
15
9
5. √
10
6. √2x
5x
√
7. √ 5
3y
12
√
8.
2−5
√
9. 6− √3
4− 3
10. √ x √
2+ x
11. √5y
2 y−5
Review Answers
√ √
1. 2 15 + 4 3
2. a − b √
3. 4x√+ 20 x + 25
4. 7 5 5
√
5. 9 1010
√
6. 2 55x
√
15y
7. 3y
√
8. −24 −√12 5
9. 27+10 3
√ 13
10. 2x − x
√
2−x
10y y+25y
11. 4y−25
80
2.4 Radical Equations
Learning Objectives
• Solve a radical equation.

• Solve radical equations with radicals on both sides.
• Identify extraneous solutions.
Introduction
When the variable in an equation appears inside a radical sign, the equation is called a radical equation. The first
steps in solving a radical equation are to perform operations that will eliminate the radical and change the equation
into a polynomial equation. A common method for solving radical equations is to isolate the most complicated
radical on one side of the equation and raise both sides of the equation to the power that will eliminate the radical
sign. If there are any radicals left in the equation after simplifying, we can repeat this procedure until all radical signs
are gone. Once the equation is changed into a polynomial equation, we can solve it with the methods we already
know.
We must be careful when we use this method, because whenever we raise an equation to a power, we could introduce
false solutions that are not in fact solutions to the original problem. These are called extraneous solutions. In order
to make sure we get the correct solutions, we must always check all solutions in the original radical equation.
Solve a Radical Equation
Let’s consider a few simple examples of radical equations where only one radical appears in the equation.
Example 1
√
Find the real solutions of the equation 2x − 1 = 5.
Solution
Since the radical expression is already isolated, we square both sides of the equation in order to eliminate the radical
sign
√ 2
2x − 1 = 52
√ 2
Remember that a = a so the equation simplifies to 2x − 1 = 25
Add one to both sides. 2x = 26
Divide both sides by 2. amp; x = 13
Finally, we need to plug the solution in the original equation to see if it is a valid solution.
√ p √ √
2x − 1 = 2(13) − 1 = 26 − 1 = 25 = 5
81
2.4. Radical Equations www.ck12.org

Example 2
√
3
Find the real solutions of 3 − 7x − 3 = 0.
Solution
We isolate the radical on one side of the equation.
√
3
3 − 7x = 3
Raise each side of the equation to the third power.
√ 3
3
3 − 7x = 33
Simplify.
3 − 7x = 27
Subtract 3 from each side.
−7x = 24
Divide both sides by -7.
24
x=−
7
Check
s
√ √ √

3 3 24 3 3
3 − 7x − 3 = 3−7 − − 3 = 3 + 24 − 3 = 27 − 3 = 3 − 3 = 0.
7

Example 3
p
Find the real solutions of 10 − x2 − x = 2.
Solution
82
p
We isolate the radical on one side of the equation. 10 − x2 = 2 + x
p
Square each side of the equation. 10 − x2 = (2 + x)2
Simplify. 10 − x2 = 4 + 4x + x2
Move all terms to one side of the equation. 0 = 2x2 + 4x − 6
p
−4 ± 42 − 4(2)(−6)
Solve using the quadratic formula. amp; x =
√ 6
−4 ± 64
Simplify.
4
√ −4 ± 8
Rewrite 64 in simplest form. amp; x =
4
Reduce all terms by a factor of 2. x = 1 or x = −3
Check
p √
10 − 12 − 1 = 9 − 1 = 3 − 1 = 2
q √
10 − (−3)2 − (−3) = 1 + 3 = 1 + 3 = 4 6= 2
This solution does not check out.

The equation has only one solution, x = 1. The solution x = −3 is called an extraneous solution.
Solve Radical Equations with Radicals on Both Sides
Often equations have more than one radical expression. The strategy in this case is to isolate the most complicated
radical expression and raise the equation to the appropriate power. We then repeat the process until all radical signs
are eliminated.
Example 4
√ √
Find the real roots of the equation 2x + 1 − x − 3 = 2.
Solution
Isolate one of the radical expressions
√ √
2x + 1 = 2 + x − 3
Square both sides
√ 2 √ 2
2x + 1 = 2 + x − 3
Eliminate parentheses
83
√
2x + 1 = 4 + 4 x − 3 + x − 3
Simplify.
√
x = 4 x−3
Square both sides of the equation.
√ 2
x2 = 4 x − 3
Eliminate parentheses.
x2 = 16(x − 3)
Simplify.
x2 = 16x − 48
Move all terms to one side of the equation.
x2 − 16x + 48 = 0
Factor.
(x − 12)(x − 4) = 0
Solve.
x = 12 or x = 4
Check
p √ √ √
2(12) + 1 − 12 − 3 = 25 − 9 = 5 − 3 = 2
The solution checks out.
p √ √ √
2(4) + 1 − 4 − 3 = 9 − 1 = 3 − 1 = 2

The equation has two solutions: x = 12 and x = 4.
84
Identify Extraneous Solutions to Radical Equations
We saw in Example 3 that some of the solutions that we find by solving radical equations do not check out when
we substitute (or “plug in”) those solutions back into the original radical equation. These are called extraneous
solutions. It is very important to check the answers we obtain by plugging them back into the original equation. In
this way, we can distinguish between the real and the extraneous solutions of an equation.
Example 5
√ √
Find the real roots of the equation x − 3 − x = 1.
Solution
Isolate one of the radical expressions.
√ √
x−3 = x+1
Square both sides.
√ 2 √ 2
x−3 = x+1
Remove parenthesis.
√ 2 √
x−3 = x +2 x+1
Simplify.
√
x−3 = x+2 x+1
Now isolate the remaining radical.
√
−4 = 2 x
Divide all terms by 2.
√
−2 = x
Square both sides.
x=4
Check
√ √ √
4 − 3 − 4 = 1 − 2 = 1 − 2 = −1
The solution does not check out.

The equation has no real solutions. Therefore, x = 4 is an extraneous solution.
85
Solve Real-World Problems using Radical Equations
Radical equations often appear in problems involving areas and volumes of objects.
Example 6
The area of Anita’s square vegetable garden is 21 square-feet larger that Fred’s square vegetable garden. Anita and
Fred decide to pool their money together and buy the same kind of fencing for their gardens. If they need 84 feet of
fencing, what is the size of their gardens?
Solution
1. Make a sketch
2. Define variables
Let Fred’s area be x

Anita’s area x + 21
Therefore,
√
Side length of Fred’s garden is x
√
Side length of Anita’s garden is x + 21
3. Find an equation
The amount of fencing is equal to the combined perimeters of the two squares.
√ √
4 x + 4 x + 21 = 84
4. Solve the equation

√ √
x + x + 21 = 21
Isolate one of the radical expressions.
√ √
x + 21 = 21 − x
Square both sides.
√ 2 √ 2
x + 21 = 21 − x
86
√
x + 21 = 441 − 42 x + x
Isolate the radical expression.
√
42 x = 420
Divide both sides by 42.
√
x = 10
Square both sides.
x = 100 f t 2
5. Check
√ √
4 100 + 4 100 + 21 = 40 + 44 = 84

Fred’s garden is 10 f t × 10 f t = 100 f t 2 and Anita’s garden is 11 f t × 11 f t = 121 f t 2 .
Example 7
A sphere has a volume of 456 cm3 . If the radius of the sphere is increased by 2 cm, what is the new volume of the
sphere?
Solution
1. Make a sketch. Let’s draw a sphere.

2. Define variables. Let R = the radius of the sphere.
3. Find an equation.
The volume of a sphere is given by the formula:
87
4
V = πr3
3

Plug in the value of the volume.
4
456 = πr3
3
Multiply by 3.
1368 = 4πr3
Divide by 4π.
108.92 = r3
Take the cube root of each side.
√
3
r= 108.92 ⇒ r = 4.776 cm
The new radius is 2 centimeters more.
r = 6.776 cm
The new volume is:
4
V = π(6.776)3 = 1302.5 cm3
3
5. Check
Let’s substitute in the values of the radius into the volume formula.
4 4
V = πr3 = π(4.776)3 = 456 cm3 .
3 3

Example 8
The kinetic energy of an object of mass m and velocity v is given by the formula KE = 12 mv2 . A baseball has a mass
of 145 kg and its kinetic energy is measured to be 654 Joules (1 Joule = 1 kg · m2 /s2 ) when it hits the catcher’s
glove. What is the velocity of the ball when it hits the catcher’s glove?
Solution
88
1
1. Start with the formula. KE = 2 mv2
2
2. Plug in the values for the mass and the kinetic energy. 654 kg·m
s2
= 21 (145 kg)v2
2
3. Multiply both sides by 2. 1308 kg·m
s2
= (145 kg)v2
2
4. Divide both sides by 145 kg. 9.02 ms2 = v2
r
√ m2
5. Take the square root of both sides. v = 9.02 = 3.003 m/s
s2
6. Check Plug the values for the mass and the velocity into the energy formula.
1 1
KE = mv2 = (145 kg)(3.003 m/s)2 = 654 kg · m2 /s2
2 2
Review Questions
Find the solution to each of the following radical equations. Identify extraneous solutions.
√
1. √x + 2 − 2 = 0
2. 3x − 1 = 5
√
3. 2√ 4 − 3x + 3 = 0
3
4. p x−3 = 1
4
5. √ x2 − 9 = 2
3
6. √−2 − 5x + 3 = 0
7. px = x − 6
2
8. px − 5x − 6 = 0
9. √ (x + 1)(x − 3) = x
10. √x + 6√= x + 4
11. √x = x − 9 + 1
12. √3x + 4 = −6 √
13. √ 10 − 5x + √1 − x = 7
14. √ 2x − 2 − 2 √x + 2 = 0 √
15. 2x
√ + 5 − 3√ 2x − 3 = 2 − x
16. 3 x − 9 = 2x − 14
17. The area of a triangle is 24 in2 and the height of the triangle is twice as long and the base. What are the base
and the height of the triangle?
18. The area of a circular disk is 124 in2 . What is the circumference of the disk? (Area = πr2 , Circumference =
2πr).
19. The volume of a cylinder is 245 cm3 and the height of the cylinder is one third of the diameter of the base of
the cylinder. The diameter of the cylinder is kept the same, but the height of the cylinder is increased by two
centimeters. What is the volume of the new cylinder? (Volume = πr2 · h)
20. The height of a golf ball as it travels through the air is given by the equation h = −16t 2 + 256. Find the time
when the ball is at a height of 120 feet.
Review Answers
1. x=2
2. x = 26
3
7
3. No real solution, extraneous solution x = 12
4. x=4
5. x = 5 or x = −5
89
6. x=5
7. x = 9, extraneous solution x = 4
8. x = 9 or x = −4
9. No real solution, extraneous solution x = − 32
10. x = −2, extraneous solution x = −5
11. x = 25
12. No real solution, extraneous solution x = 32
3
13. x = −3, extraneous solution x = − 117
4
14. x = 9, x = 1
15. x = 2, x = 62
33
16. x = 25, extraneous solution x = 361
49
17. Base = 4.9 in, Height = 9.8 in
18. Circumference = 39.46 in
19. Volume = 394.94 cm3
20. Time = 2.9 seconds
90
2.5 The Pythagorean Theorem and Its Con-

verse
Learning Objectives
• Use the Pythagorean Theorem.

• Use the converse of the Pythagorean Theorem.
• Solve real-world problems using the Pythagorean Theorem and its converse.
Introduction
The Pythagorean Theorem is a statement of how the lengths of the sides of a right triangle are related to each other.
A right triangle is one that contains a 90 degree angle. The side of the triangle opposite the 90 degree angle is called
the hypotenuse and the sides of the triangle adjacent to the 90 degree angle are called the legs.
If we let a and b represent the legs of the right triangle and c represent the hypotenuse, then the Pythagorean Theorem
can be stated as:
In a right triangle, the square of the length of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths
of the legs.
That is,
(leg1 )2 + (leg2 )2 = (hypotenuse)2
Or using the labels given in the triangle to the right
a2 + b2 = c2
This theorem is very useful because if we know the lengths of the legs of a right triangle, we can find the length of
the hypotenuse. Conversely, if we know the length of the hypotenuse and the length of a leg, we can calculate the
length of the missing leg of the triangle. When you use the Pythagorean Theorem, it does not matter which leg you
call a and which leg you call b, but the hypotenuse is always called c.
Although nowadays we use the Pythagorean Theorem as a statement about the relationship between distances and
lengths, originally the theorem made a statement about areas. If we build squares on each side of a right triangle, the
91
2.5. The Pythagorean Theorem and Its Converse www.ck12.org
Pythagorean Theorem says that the area of the square whose side is the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the areas
of the squares formed by the legs of the triangle.
Use the Pythagorean Theorem and Its Converse
The Pythagorean Theorem can be used to verify that a triangle is a right triangle. If you can show that the three sides
of a triangle make the equation (leg1 )2 + (leg2 )2 = (hypotenuse)2 true, then you know that the triangle is a right
triangle. This is called the Converse of the Pythagorean Theorem.
Note: When you use the Converse of the Pythagorean Theorem, you must make sure that you substitute the correct
values for the legs and the hypotenuse. One way to check is that the hypotenuse must be the longest side. The other
two sides are the legs and the order in which you use them is not important.
Example 1
Determine if a triangle with sides 5, 12 and 13 is a right triangle.
Solution
The triangle is right if its sides satisfy the Pythagorean Theorem.
First of all, the longest side would have to be the hypotenuse so we designate c = 13.
We then designate the shorter sides as a = 5 and b = 12.
We plug these values into the Pythagorean Theorem.
a2 + b2 = c2 ⇒ 52 + 122 = c2
25 + 144 = 169 = c2 ⇒ 169 = 169
The sides of the triangle satisfy the Pythagorean Theorem, thus the triangle is a right triangle.
Example 2
√ √
Determine if a triangle with sides 10, 15 and 5 is a right triangle.
Solution
We designate the hypotenuse c = 5 because this is the longest side.
92
√ √
We designate the shorter sides as a = 10 and b = 15.
We plug these values into the Pythagorean Theorem.
√ 2 √ 2
a2 + b2 = c2 ⇒ 10 + 15 = c2
10 + 15 = 25 = (5)2
The sides of the triangle satisfy the Pythagorean Theorem, thus the triangle is a right triangle.
Pythagorean Theorem can also be used to find the missing hypotenuse of a right triangle if we know the legs of the
triangle.
Example 3
In a right triangle one leg has length 4 and the other has length 3. Find the length of the hypotenuse.
Solution
Start with the Pythagorean Theorem. amp; a2 + b2 = c2

Plug in the known values of the legs. 32 + 42 = c2
Simplify. 9 + 16 = c2
25 = c2
Take the square root of both sides. amp; c = 5
Use the Pythagorean Theorem with Variables
Example 4
Determine the values of the missing sides. You may assume that each triangle is a right triangle.
a)
b)
93
c)
Solution
Apply the Pythagorean Theorem.
a)
a2 + b2 = c2
x2 + 152 = 212
x2 + 225 = 441
x2 = 216 ⇒
√ √
x = 216 = 6 6
b)
a2 + b2 = c2
y2 + 32 = 72
y2 + 9 = 49
y2 = 40 ⇒
√ √
y = 40 = 2 10
c)
a2 + b2 = c2
182 + 152 = z2
324 + 225 = z2
z2 = 216 ⇒
√ √
x = 549 = 3 61
94
Example 5
One leg of a right triangle is 5 more than the other leg. The hypotenuse is one more than twice the size of the short
leg. Find the dimensions of the triangle.
Solution
Let x = length of the short leg.
Then, x + 5 = length of the long leg

And, 2x + 1 = length of the hypotenuse.
The sides of the triangle must satisfy the Pythagorean Theorem,
Therefore amp; x2 + (x + 5)2 = (2x + 1)

Eliminate the parenthesis. amp; x2 + x2 + 10x + 25 = 4x2 + 4x + 1
Move all terms to the right hand side of the equation. 0 = 2x2 − 6x − 24
Divide all terms by 2. 0 = x2 − 3x − 12
√ √
3 ± 9 + 48 3 ± 57
Solve using the quadratic formula. x= =
2 2
x ≈ 5.27 or x ≈ −2.27
Answer
We can discard the negative solution since it does not make sense in the geometric context of this problem. Hence,
we use x = 5.27 and we get short - leg = 5.27, long - leg = 10.27 and hypotenuse = 11.54.
Solve Real-World Problems Using the Pythagorean Theorem and Its Converse
The Pythagorean Theorem and its converse have many applications for finding lengths and distances.
Example 6
Maria has a rectangular cookie sheet that measures 10 inches × 14 inches. Find the length of the diagonal of the
cookie sheet.
Solution
95
1. Draw a sketch.
2. Define variables.
Let c = length of the diagonal.
3. Write a formula. Use the Pythagorean Theorem
a2 + b2 = c2
102 + 142 = c2
100 + 196 = c2
√ √
c2 = 296 ⇒ c = 296 ⇒ c = 4 74 or c ≈ 17.2 inches
5. Check
102 + 142 = 100 + 196 and c2 = 17.22 ≈ 296.
Example 7
Find the area of the shaded region in the following diagram.
Solution:
1. Diagram
Draw the diagonal of the square on the figure.
Notice that the diagonal of the square is also the diameter of the circle.
2. Define variables
Let c = diameter of the circle.
96
3. Write the formula

Use the Pythagorean Theorem: a2 + b2 = c2
4. Solve the equation:
22 + 22 = c2
4 + 4 = c2
√ √
c2 = 8 ⇒ c = 8⇒c=2 2
√ √
The diameter of the circle is 2 2. Therefore, the radius is r = 2.
√ 2
Area of a circle is A = πr2 = π 2 = 2π.
Area of the shaded region is therefore 2π − 4 ≈ 2.28
Example 8
In a right triangle, one leg is twice as long as the other and the perimeter is 28. What are the measures of the sides
of the triangle?
Solution
1. Make a sketch. Let’s draw a right triangle.
Let: a = length of the short leg
2a = length of the long leg
c = length of the hypotenuse
3. Write formulas.
The sides of the triangle are related in two different ways.
1. The perimeter is 28, a + 2a + c = 28 ⇒ 3a + c = 28
2. This a right triangle, so the measures of the sides must satisfy the Pythagorean Theorem.
a2 + (2a)2 = c2 ⇒ a2 + 4a2 = c2 ⇒ 5a2 = c2

or
√
c = a 5 ≈ 2.236a

Use the value of c we just obtained to plug into the perimeter equation 3a + c = 28.
97
3a + 2.236a = 28 ⇒ 5.236a = 28 ⇒ a = 5.35
The short leg is:s a ≈ 5.35.

The long leg is: 2a ≈ 10.70.
The hypotenuse is: c ≈ 11.95.
5. Check The legs of the triangle should satisfy the Pythagorean Theorem
a2 + b2 = 5.352 + 10.702 = 143.1, c2 = 11.952 = 142.80
The results are approximately the same.

The perimeter of the triangle should be 28.
a + b + c = 5.35 + 10.70 + 11.95 = 28

Example 9
Mike is loading a moving van by walking up a ramp. The ramp is 10 feet long and the bed of the van is 2.5 feet
above the ground. How far does the ramp extend past the back of the van?
Solution
1. Make a sketch.
2. Define Variables.
Let x = how far the ramp extends past the back of the van.
3. Write a formula. Use the Pythagorean Theorem:
x2 + 2.52 = 102
x2 + 6.25 = 100
x2 = 93.5
√
x = 93.5 ≈ 9.7 f t
98
5. Check. Plug the result in the Pythagorean Theorem.
9.72 + 2.52 = 94.09 + 6.25 = 100.36 ≈ 100.
The ramp is 10 feet long.

Review Questions
Verify that each triangle is a right triangle.
1. a = 12, b = 9, c = 15
√
2. a = 6, b = 6,√
c=6 2
3. a = 8, b = 8 3, c = 16
Find the missing length of each right triangle.
4. a = 12, b = 16, c =?
5. a =? , b = 20, c = 30
6. a = 4, b =? , c = 11
7.
8.
9.
10. One leg of a right triangle is 4 feet less than the hypotenuse. The other leg is 12 feet. Find the lengths of the
three sides of the triangle.
11. One leg of a right triangle is 3 more than twice the length of the other. The hypotenuse is 3 times the length
of the short leg. Find the lengths of the three legs of the triangle.
12. A regulation baseball diamond is a square with 90 feet between bases. How far is second base from home
plate?
13. Emanuel has a cardboard box that measures 20 cm × 10 cm × 8 cm (length × width × height). What is the
length of the diagonal from a bottom corner to the opposite top corner?
14. Samuel places a ladder against his house. The base of the ladder is 6 feet from the house and the ladder is 10
feet long. How high above the ground does the ladder touch the wall of the house?
99
15. Find the area of the triangle if area of a triangle is defined as A = 12 base × height.
16. Instead of walking along the two sides of a rectangular field, Mario decided to cut across the diagonal. He
saves a distance that is half of the long side of the field. Find the length of the long side of the field given that
the short side is 123 feet.
17. Marcus sails due north and Sandra sails due east from the same starting point. In two hours, Marcus’ boat is
35 miles from the starting point and Sandra’s boat is 28 miles from the starting point. How far are the boats
from each other?
18. Determine the area of the circle.
Review Answers
1. 122 + 92 = 225
152 = 225
2. 62 + 62= 72
√ 2
6 2 = 72
√ 2
3. 82 + 8 3 = 256
162 = 256
4. c = 20 √
5. a = 10
√ 5
6. b = √ 105
7. c = 130
8. a = 28 √
9. b = 12 3
10. 12, 16, 20
11. 3.62, 10.24, 10.86
12. 127.3 ft
13. 23.75 cm
14. 8 feet
15. 32.24
16. 164 feet
17. 44.82 miles
18. 83.25
100
2.6 Distance and Midpoint Formulas
Learning Objectives
• Find the distance between two points in the coordinate plane.

• Find the missing coordinate of a point given the distance from another known point.
• Find the midpoint of a line segment.
• Solve real-world problems using distance and midpoint formulas.
Introduction
In the last section, we saw how to use the Pythagorean Theorem in order to find lengths. In this section, you will
learn how to use the Pythagorean Theorem to find the distance between two coordinate points.
Example 1
Find distance between points A = (1, 4) and B = (5, 2).
Solution
Plot the two points on the coordinate plane. In order to get from point A = (1, 4) to point B = (5, 2), we need to
move 4 units to the right and 2 units down.
To find the distance between A and B we find the value of d using the Pythagorean Theorem.
d 2 = 22 + 42 = 20
√ √
d = 20 = 2 5 = 4.47
Example 2: Find the distance between points C = (2, 1) and D = (−3, −4).
Solution: We plot the two points on the graph above.
101
2.6. Distance and Midpoint Formulas www.ck12.org
In order to get from point C to point D, we need to move 3 units down and 5 units to the left.
We find the distance from C to D by finding the length of d with the Pythagorean Theorem.
d 2 = 32 + 52 = 34
√
d = 34 = 5.83
The Distance Formula
This procedure can be generalized by using the Pythagorean Theorem to derive a formula for the distance between
two points on the coordinate plane.
Let’s find the distance between two general points A = (x1 , y1 ) and B = (x2 , y2 ).
Start by plotting the points on the coordinate plane.
In order to move from point A to point B in the coordinate plane, we move x2 − x1 units to the right and y2 − y1 units
up. We can find the length d by using the Pythagorean Theorem.
d 2 = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 .
This equation leads us to the Distance Formula.

Given two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) the distance between them is:
q
d= (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 .
We can use this formula to find the distance between two points on the coordinate plane. Notice that the distance
is the same if you are going from point A to point B as if you are going from point B to point A. Thus, it does not
matter which order you plug the points into the distance formula.
Find the Distance Between Two Points in the Coordinate Plane
Let’s now apply the distance formula to the following examples.
102
Example 2
Find the distance between the following points.
a) (-3, 5) and (4, -2)
b) (12, 16) and (19, 21)
c) (11.5, 2.3) and (-4.2, -3.9)
Solution
Plug the values of the two points into the distance formula. Be sure to simplify if possible.
q q √ √ √
a) d = (−3 − 4)2 + (5 − (−2))2 = (−7)2 + (7)2 = 49 + 49 = 98 = 7 2
q q √ √
b) d = (12 − 19)2 + (16 − 21)2 = (−7)2 + (−5)2 = 49 + 25 = 74
q q √
c) d = (11.5 + 4.2) + (2.3 + 3.9) = (15.7)2 + (6.2)2 = 284.93 = 16.88
2 2
Example 3
Show that point P = (2, 6) is equidistant for A = (−4, 3) and B = (5, 0).
Solution
To show that the point P is equidistant from points A and B, we need to show that the distance from P to A is equal
to the distance from P to B.
Before we apply the distance formula, let’s graph the three points on the coordinate plane to get a visual representa-
tion of the problem.
From the graph we see that to get from point P to point A, we move 6 units to the left and 3 units down. To move
from point P to point B, we move 6 units down and 3 units to the left. From this information, we should expect P to
be equidistant from A and B.
Now, let’s apply the distance formula for find the lengths PA and PB.
103
q q √ √
PA = (2 + 4) + (6 − 3) = (6)2 + (3)2 = 39 + 9 = 45
2 2
q q √ √
PA = (2 − 5) + (6 − 0) = (−3)2 + (6)2 = 9 + 36 = 45
2 2
PA = PB, so P is equidistant from points A and B.
Find the Missing Coordinate of a Point Given Distance From Another Known Point
Example 4
Point A = (6, −4) and point B = (2, k). What is the value of k such that the distance between the two points is 5?
Solution
Let’s use the distance formula.
q q
d= (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2 ⇒ 5 = (6 − 2)2 + (−4 − k)2
q 2
2 2 2
Square both sides of the equation. 5 = (6 − 2) + (−4 − k)
Simplify. 25 = 16 + (−4 − k)2

Eliminate the parentheses. 0 = −9 + k2 + 8k + 16
Simplify. 0 = k2 + 8k + 7
√ √
−8 ± 64 − 28 −8 ± 36 −8 ± 6
Find k using the quadratic formula. amp; k = = =
2 2 2
Answer k = −7 or k = −1.
Therefore, there are two possibilities for the value of k. Let’s graph the points to get a visual representation of our
results.
104
From the figure, we can see that both answers make sense because they are both equidistant from point A.
Example 5
Find all points on line y = 2 that are a distance of 8 units away from point (-3, 7).
Solution
Let’s make a sketch of the given situation. Draw line segments from point (-3, 7) to the line y = 2. Let k be the
missing value of x we are seeking. Let’s use the distance formula.
q
8= (−3 − k)2 + (7 − 2)2
Now let’s solve using the distance formula.
Square both sides of the equation 64 = (−3 − k)2 + 25

Therefore. 0 = 9 + 6k + k2 − 39
Or 0 = k2 + 6k − 30
√ √
−6 ± 36 + 120 −6 ± 156
Use the quadratic formula. amp; k = =
2 2
Therefore. amp; k ≈ 3.24 or k ≈ −9.24
Answer The points are (-9.24, 2) and (3.24, 2)
Find the Midpoint of a Line Segment
Example 6
Find the coordinates of the point that is in the middle of the line segment connecting points A = (−7, −2) and
B = (3, −8).
105
Solution
Let’s start by graphing the two points.
We see that to get from point A to point B we move 6 units down and 10 units to the right.
In order to get to the point that is half-way between the two points, it makes sense that we should move half the
vertical and half the horizontal distance, that is 3 units down and 5 units to the right from point A.
The midpoint is M = (−7 + 5, −2 − 3) = (−2, −5)
The Midpoint Formula:
We now want to generalize this method in order to find a formula for the midpoint of a line segment.
Let’s take two general points A = (x1 , y1 ) and B = (x2 , y2 ) and mark them on the coordinate plane.
106
We see that to get from A to B, we move x2 − x1 units to the right and y2 − y1 up.
In order to get to the half-way point, we need to move
x2 −x1 y2 −y1
2 units to the right and 2 up from point A.
x1 + 2 , y1 + y2 −y
x2 −x1 1

Thus the midpoint, M = 2 .
x2 +x1 y2 +y1

This simplifies to: M = 2 , 2 . This is the Midpoint Formula.
It should hopefully make sense that the midpoint of a line is found by taking the average values of the x and y−values
of the endpoints.
Midpoint Formula
The midpoint of the segment connecting points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) has coordinates

x2 + x1 y2 + y1
M= , .
2 2
Example 7
Find the midpoint between the following points.
a) (-10, 2) and (3, 5)
b) (3, 6) and (7, 6)
c) (4, -5) and (-4, 5)
Solution
Let’s apply the Midpoint Formula.

x2 + x1 y2 + y1
M= ,
2 2
−10+3 2+5
= −7 7

a) The midpoint of (-10, 2) and (3, 5) is 2 , 2 2 , 2 = (−3.5, 3.5).
b) The midpoint of (3, 6) and (7, 6) is 3+7 6+6

= 10 12

2 , 2 2 , 2 = (5, 6).
−5+5
c) The midpoint of (4, -5) and (-4, 5) is 4−4 = 20 , 02 = (0, 0).

2 , 2
Example 8
A line segment whose midpoint is (2, -6) has an endpoint of (9, -2). What is the other endpoint?
Solution
In this problem we know the midpoint and we are looking for the missing endpoint.
The midpoint is (2, -6).
One endpoint is (x1 , y1 ) = (9, −2)
Let’s call the missing point (x, y).
We know that the x−coordinate of the midpoint is 2, so
9 + x2
2= ⇒ 4 = 9 + x2 ⇒ x2 = −5
2
We know that the y−coordinate of the midpoint is -6, so
107
−2 + y2
−6 = ⇒ −12 = −2 + y2 ⇒ y2 = −10
2
Answer The missing endpoint is (-5, -10).
Solve Real-World Problems Using Distance and Midpoint Formulas
The distance and midpoint formula are applicable in geometry situations where we desire to find the distance between
two points of the point halfway between two points.
Example 9
Plot the points A = (4, −2), B = (5, 5), and C = (−1, 3) and connect them to make a triangle. Show 4ABC is
isosceles.
Solution
Let’s start by plotting the three points on the coordinate plane and making a triangle.
We use the distance formula three times to find the lengths of the three sides of the triangle.
q q √ √ √
AB = (4 − 5)2 + (−2 − 5)2 = (−1)2 + (−7)2 = 1 + 49 = 50 = 5 2
q q √ √ √
BC = (5 + 1)2 + (5 − 3)2 = (6)2 + (2)2 = 36 + 4 = 40 = 2 10
q q √ √ √
AC = (4 + 1)2 + (−2 − 3)2 = (5)2 + (−5)2 = 25 + 25 = 50 = 5 2
Notice that AB = AC, therefore 4ABC is isosceles.

Example 10
At 8 AM one day, Amir decides to walk in a straight line on the beach. After two hours of making no turns and
traveling at a steady rate, Amir was two mile east and four miles north of his starting point. How far did Amir walk
and what was his walking speed?
108
Solution
Let’s start by plotting Amir’s route on a coordinate graph. We can place his starting point at the origin A = (0, 0).
Then, his ending point will be at point B = (2, 4). The distance can be found with the distance formula.
q q √ √
d= (2 − 0)2 + (4 − 0)2 = (2)2 + (4)2 = 4 + 16 = 20
d = 4.47 miles.
Since Amir walked 4.47 miles in 2 hours, his speed is
4.47 miles
Speed = = 2.24 mi/h
2 hours
Review Questions
Find the distance between the two points.
1. (3, -4) and (6, 0)

2. (-1, 0) and (4, 2)
3. (-3, 2) and (6, 2)
4. (0.5, -2.5) and (4, -4)
5. (12, -10) and (0, -6)
6. (2.3, 4.5) and (-3.4, -5.2)
7. Find all points having an x coordinate of -4 and whose distance from point (4, 2) is 10.
8. Find all points having a y coordinate of 3 and whose distance from point (-2, 5) is 8.
Find the midpoint of the line segment joining the two points.
9. (3, -4) and (6, 1)

10. (2, -3) and (2, 4)
11. (4, -5) and (8, 2)
12. (1.8, -3.4) and (-0.4, 1.4)
13. (5, -1) and (-4, 0)
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14. (10, 2) and (2, -4)

15. An endpoint of a line segment is (4, 5) and the midpoint of the line segment is (3, -2). Find the other endpoint.
16. An endpoint of a line segment is (-10, -2) and the midpoint of the line segment is (0, 4). Find the other
endpoint.
17. Plot the points A = (1, 0), B = (6, 4),C = (9, −2) and D = (−6, −4), E = (−1, 0), F = (2, −6). Prove that
triangles ABC and DEF are congruent.
18. Plot the points A = (4, −3), B = (3, 4),C = (−2, −1), D = (−1, −8). Show that ABCD is a rhombus (all sides
are equal).
19. Plot points A = (−5, 3), B = (6, 0),C = (5, 5). Find the length of each side. Show that it is a right triangle.
Find the area.
20. Find the area of the circle with center (-5, 4) and the point on the circle (3, 2).
21. Michelle decides to ride her bike one day. First she rides her bike due south for 12 miles, then the direction
of the bike trail changes and she rides in the new direction for a while longer. When she stops, Michelle is 2
miles south and 10 miles west from her starting point. Find the total distance that Michelle covered from her
starting point.
Review Answers
1. 5√
2. 29
3. 9
4. 3.81
√
5. 4 10
6. 11.25
7. (-4, -4) and (-4, 8)
8. (-9.75, 3) and (5.75, 3)
9. (4.5, -1.5)
10. (2, 0.5)
11. (6, -1.5)
12. (.7, -1)
13. (0.5, -0.5)
14. (6, -1)
15. (2, -9)
16. (10, 10)
17. AB = DE = 6.4, AC = DF = 8.25, BC = EF = 6.71
18. AB = BC = CD = DA = 7.07
√ √ √ √ 2 √ 2 √ 2
19. AB = 130, AC = 104, BC = 26 and 26 + 104 = 130 . Right triangle.
√
20. Radius = 2 17, Area = 68π
21. 26.14 miles
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2.7 Imaginary and Complex Numbers
Learning Objectives
• Write square roots with negative radicands in terms of i

• Recognize and write complex numbers in standard form
• Describe the relationship between the sets of integers, rational numbers, real numbers and complex numbers
• Plot z = a + bi in the complex number plane
Introduction
While working with quadratic equations, you may have solved an equation such as:
(x − 1)2 + 4 = 0.
No matter which method of solving quadratics you √ used, the solutions to that equation are not real numbers, and you
find that they are 1 + 2i and 1 - 2i. (Recall that −1 = i). These solutions combine imaginary and real numbers,
and are called complex numbers.
The use of the word imaginary does not mean these numbers are useless. For a long period in the history of
mathematics, it was thought that the square root of a negative number was in fact only within the mathematical
imagination without real-world significance hence, imaginary. That has changed. Mathematicians now consider the
imaginary number as another set of numbers that have real significance, but do not fit on what is called the number
line—and engineers, scientists, and others solve real world problems using complex numbers!
Recognize
√ √ √
Recognize i = −1, −x = i x
√
Where did complex numbers come from? If you solve the equation x2 + 1 = 0, you get x = ± −1. But there is
no real number that, when multiplied by itself, yields -1. To fix this problem, mathematicians defined the imaginary
constant, i. by definition,
√
i = −1
or squaring both sides,
i2 = −1
√ √
Recall
√ √ that you
√ can simplify radicals by factoring out perfect squares in the radicand. For instance, 8 = 4·2 =
4 2 = 2 2. The same procedure √ works with i. If you have a negative number in the radicand, you can factor out
the -1 and use the identity i = −1 to simplify.
√
Example: Simplify −5
Solution:
√ p
−5 = (−1) · (5)
√ √
= −1 5
√
=i 5
This also works in combination with the other method of factoring out perfect squares. See the following example.
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2.7. Imaginary and Complex Numbers www.ck12.org
√
Example: Simplify −72
Solution:
√ p
−72 = (−1) · (72)
√ √
= −1 72
√
= i 72
But, we’re not done yet. 72 = 36·2, so
√ √ √
i 72 = i 36 2
√
= i(6) 2
√
= 6i 2
Standard Form of Complex Numbers (a bi)
Sometimes when you solve a quadratic equation, the solution has both a real part and an imaginary part. For example,
if you want to solve
(x − 1)2 + 4 = 0
then
(x − 1)2 = −4
√
x − 1 = ± −4
√ √
x − 1 = ± −1 4
x − 1 = ±2i
x = 1 ± 2i
x = 1 ± 2i or 1 − 2i
Notice that these two solutions involve a real part, 1, and an imaginary part, ±2i
z = a + bi is the standard or rectangular form of a complex number.
A complex number is a number that has a real part (in this case a) and an imaginary part, that is, the imaginary
number i with a coefficient b.
Set of Complex Numbers (complex, real, irrational, rational, etc.)
The complex numbers are a superset of the real numbers. Given z = a + bi, if b = 0 then z is a real number. Every
real number can be written as a complex number (just let it equal a), but there are many more complex numbers than
real numbers. Hence the complex numbers are a superset of the real numbers.
When you were first introduced to mathematics, you probably used positive whole numbers, that is 1, 2, 3, 4,. . .
Later, negative whole numbers are investigated. The set of all whole numbers, both positive and negative, including
the number zero, is known as integers: . . . - 2, - 1, 0, 1, 2,. . .
Later, students are introduced to fractions. The set of all numbers that CAN be expressed as a quotient of two
integers (where the denominator is not zero) is called the set of Rational Numbers. Rational Numbers can also
be expressed as a terminating or repeating decimal. Some rational numbers are −1, 35 , − 37 , 1, 000, 002, 0. Of course
there are an infinite number of rational numbers between any two whole numbers, so listing all rational numbers
neatly is difficult (but it is possible–can you think of a way to do it?).
Notice, that all integers are in the set of rational numbers (for example, 5 CAN be written as the quotient of 10 and
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2 since 5 = 102 ), so the integers are a subset of the rational numbers. Finally, when working with circles students
encounter a number that can be approximated as a quotient of two integers but cannot be expressed EXACTLY as
that quotient, that is the number π. Recall that π was often expressed as APPROXIMATELY 22 7 or 3.14, BUT NOT
EXACTLY THOSE VALUES.
When first
√ exploring using the√Pythagorean Theorem to find the length of a diagonal of a square whose side is 1, the
number 2 was introduced.
√ 2 often was approximated as 1.4 or 1.414, but again you can’t possibly write out all
of the decimals in 2. These two numbers are examples of IRRATIONAL numbers, that is numbers that cannot be
expressed as a quotient of two integers, and therefore CANNOT be expressed as a terminating or repeating decimal.
The set of all rational and irrational numbers together is called REAL numbers.
Finally, when working again with the Pythagorean Theorem in the coordinate plane (where “negative distances” are
possible), negative values appeared within the square root! But what number times itself can result in a negative
number?
Historically, when this occurred, mathematicians thought that this was only an oddity of the theorem and not
something that can actually exist. They therefore called such numbers imaginary. But, some real-world problems
can be solved with imaginary numbers.
The set of all real numbers AND imaginary numbers is called the set of Complex numbers.
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Complex Number Plane
In standard form z = a + bi, a complex number can be graphed using rectangular coordinates (a, b). a represents
the x - coordinate, while b represents the y - coordinate. Alternatively, the x - coordinate represents “real number”
values, while they - coordinate represents the “imaginary” values.
For example, given the complex number in standard form: z = 2 + 2i, you can graph this number in the coordinate
plane To graph this point, the coordinate (2, 2) is graphed as shown below:
Lesson Summary
When graphing a complex number using rectangular coordinates, the x-axis plots the real number, while the y-axis
plots the coefficient of the imaginary number.
Points to Consider
Given a point in a rectangular coordinate system that represents a complex number, multiply that complex number
by i and graph this new complex number. If the points that represent the original complex number and the new
complex number have a line drawn from the origin to each point- note the angle between the two lines. Multiply
the second complex number by i and plot this third point. Draw a line from the origin to this point. Note the angle
between the second line and the third line. What appears to happen when a complex number is multiplied by i?
Review Questions
Using rectangular coordinate system, graph
1. Simplify
√ the following radicals
a. √−9
b. √−12
c. √−17
d. 140 − 108
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2. Solve each equation and express it as a complex number. (Note: If the imaginary part is 0, you can still express
the solution as a + bi, but you will have b = 0
a. x2 + 24 = 0
b. 2x2 - 4x + 7 = 0
3. Plot each of the following complex numbers:
a. (4 + 2i)
b. (-3 + i)
c. (3 - 4i)
d. 3i
Review Answers
1. a. 3i √
b. 2i√ 3
c. i√ 17 √
d. 32 = √ 6 2
2. a. x = ±2 √ 6i
b. x = 1 ± 2 3i
3.
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2.8 Operations on Complex Numbers
Learning Objectives
• Add and subtract complex numbers

• Find the complex conjugate of a complex number
• Multiply and divide complex numbers
• Use your calculator to add, subtract, multiply, and divide complex numbers
Sums and Differences of Complex Numbers
Recall that a complex number is given in the form a + bi where a and b are real numbers and i is the imaginary
constant, i2 = -1.
When adding (or subtracting) two or more complex numbers the fastest method will be to add (or subtract) the real
components to obtain the sum of the real numbers, and then separately add (or subtract) the imaginary coefficients
to obtain the sum of the imaginary numbers or:
(a + bi) + (c + di) = [a + c] + [b + d]i
Example: Perform the Indicated Operation:
(6 + 3i) + (-5 + 2i) = (6 + -5) + (3 + 2) i = 1 + 5i
(3 – 2i) – (2 – 4i) = (3 - 2) + (-2 - ( -4)) i = 1 + 2i
(6) + (4 – 3i) = (6 + 4) + (0 + (-3)) i = 10 – 3i
Products and Quotients of Complex Numbers (conjugates)
Multiplying Complex Numbers:

When multiplying complex numbers in rectangular form, recall the method for multiplying two binomials (some-
times called FOIL): (m + n)(x + y) = mx + my + nx + ny. We use the same procedure for multiplying complex
numbers:
(a + bi) + (c + di) = ac + adi + bci + bdi2
But, unlike the algebraic expression, the above expression contains the number, i.
Recall that i2 = -1, so bdi2 = bd(-1) = -bd and
adi + bci can be combined and then factored as (ad + bc)i. Thus we have the general result,
(a + bi) + (c + di) = (ac - bd) + (ad + bd)i
Example: Multiply: (6 + 3i)(2 - 3i)
(6 + 3i)(2 − 3i) = 12 − 18i + 6i − 9i2
= 21 − 12i
(Combining like terms -9i2 reduces to -9(-1) or 9)
Example: Multiply: (5 - 7i)(5 + 7i)
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(5 − 7i)(5 + 7i) = 25 + 35i − 35i − 49i2

or
= 25 + 0 − 49(−1)
= 74
Note: The product of the complex number (5 - 7i) and the complex number (5 + 7i) is a real number. When a
complex number is multiplied by another complex number to produce a real number, the two complex numbers are
called complex conjugates.
Example: Multiply i(6 - 2i)
6i − 2i2 = 6i − 2(−1)
= 6i + 2
But, the real part of a complex number is generally written first, so we can write this as
= 2 + 6i
Dividing Complex Numbers
To divide two complex numbers is similar to dividing two irrational numbers. Recall that in that problem, the
procedure was to find the irrational conjugate of the denominator and then multiply both the numerator and the
denominator by this conjugate
3√
Divide:
1+ 2
√
First find the irrational conjugate of the denominator: 1 − 2, then multiply both the numerator and the denominator
by this value:
√ √
3√ 1− √2 3−3 2
× = 1−2
1+ 2 1− 2
this reduces to
√
3−3 2
= −1
or
√
= −3 + 3 2
In this case since you are interested in eliminating the complex numbers from the denominator, find the complex
conjugate of the denominator and multiply BOTH the numerator AND the denominator by it.
You find the complex conjugate in the same way you found the conjugate of irrational numbers, change the sign of
the imaginary part. For instance, the complex conjugate of 4 + 3i is 4 – 3i
A complex number multiplied by its complex conjugate will yield a real number. By recalling (a + b)(a - b) = a2 -
b2 the complex conjugate can be found:
The conjugate of 4 + 3i is found by retaining the real part (4) and reversing only the sign of the imaginary part
(that is, 3i becomes -3i) (4 + 3i)(4 - 3i) = 16 - 12i + 12i - 9i2 Notice that -12i and 12i cancel. Also recall that
i2 = -1 16 + 9 = 25 (4 + 3i)(4 – 3i) = 25
The product of this complex number and its conjugate is 25.

When multiplying complex numbers sometimes intuition about the nature of the product can mislead.
For example in (a + b)(a + b), where all of the terms are real numbers, no terms of each of the four products will
cancel. Some of the terms may be combined. However in (1 + i)(1 - i), where some terms are real numbers and some
terms are imaginary numbers, this is no longer true. Two of these terms cancel: the first product yields 1 while the
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2.8. Operations on Complex Numbers www.ck12.org
last product yields i2 or -1, and those terms cancel!

6−3i
Example: Find the quotient: 4+3i
First, observe that the complex conjugate of the denominator is 4 – 3i
Multiply both the numerator and the denominator by 4 – 3i:
6−3i 24−18i+12i+9i2
4+3i × 4−3i
4−3i = 16−12i+12i−9i2
15−6i
= 25
6−3i 15−6i
4+3i = 25
15 6i
This number can also be written as 25 − 25 or 0.6 – 0.24 i
Applications, Technological Tools
A graphing calculator can perform operations with complex numbers. Press mode. Scroll down until: real a + bi re^
θi is seen, then select a + bi. Press Quit. Now the calculator is able to perform operations with complex numbers in
a + bi form.
When the calculator is in complex number mode, be sure to use parenthesis to group the parts of the complex
numbers. For example, enter 1 + 3i as (1 + 3i). Try doing some of the calculations from this section on your
calculator to verify that complex mode works.
Lesson Summary
When adding and subtracting complex numbers add/subtract the real numbers and then add/subtract the imaginary
numbers.
When multiplying complex numbers use the FOIL method of multiplication. Be sure to substitute i2 = -1 when
appropriate.
When dividing complex numbers, write the problem as a fraction and then multiply both numerator and denominator
by the conjugate of the denominator. If this process is done successfully, there will be only a real number in the
denominator.
Points to Consider
Complex numbers- that is numbers that have a real and an imaginary part, also known as components, have
characteristics similar to working with two unlike terms. However, they also have major differences such as not
having as a final answer to a question, a denominator with an imaginary component or being sure to reduce i2 to -1.
Review Questions
Perform the indicated operations:
1. a. (-8 - 2i) + (5 - 2i)

b. (6 + i) - (5 - 2i)
c. (-3i) - (2 - 3i)
d. (3 + 2i)(5 - i)
e. (0 + 4i)(3 - 1)
f. (5 - 3i)2
g. 6−i
4+i
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h. (5 - 2i) ÷ (-2 + 3i)
Review Answers
1. a. (3 - 4i)
b. (1 + 3i)
c. (-2 + 0i)
d. (17 + 7i)
e. (4 + 12i)
f. (16 - 30i)
g. 23−10i
17
h. −16−11i
13
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www.ck12.org
C HAPTER
3 Quadratic Equations and
Quadratic Functions
Chapter Outline
3.1 G RAPHS OF Q UADRATIC F UNCTIONS
3.2 Q UADRATIC E QUATIONS BY G RAPHING
3.3 Q UADRATIC E QUATIONS BY S QUARE R OOTS
3.4 S OLVING Q UADRATIC E QUATIONS BY C OMPLETING THE S QUARE
3.5 S OLVING Q UADRATIC E QUATIONS BY THE Q UADRATIC F ORMULA
3.6 T HE D ISCRIMINANT
3.7 L INEAR AND Q UADRATIC M ODELS
3.8 P ROBLEM S OLVING S TRATEGIES : C HOOSE A F UNCTION M ODEL
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3.1 Graphs of Quadratic Functions
Learning Objectives
• Graph quadratic functions.

• Compare graphs of quadratic functions.
• Graph quadratic functions in intercept form.
• Analyze graphs of real-world quadratic functions.
Introduction
The graphs of quadratic functions are curved lines called parabolas. You don’t have to look hard to find parabolic
shapes around you. Here are a few examples.
• The path that a ball or a rocket takes through the air.

• Water flowing out of a drinking fountain.
• The shape of a satellite dish.
• The shape of the mirror in car headlights or a flashlight.
Graph Quadratic Functions
Let’s see what a parabola looks like by graphing the simplest quadratic function, y = x2 .
We will graph this function by making a table of values. Since the graph will be curved we need to make sure that
we pick enough points to get an accurate graph.
TABLE 3.1:
x y = x2
−3 (−3)2 = 9
-2 (−2)2 = 4
-1 (−1)2 = 1
0 (0)2 = 0
1 (1)2 = 1
2 (2)2 = 4
3 (3)2 = 9
We plot these points on a coordinate graph.
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3.1. Graphs of Quadratic Functions www.ck12.org
To draw the parabola, draw a smooth curve through all the points. (Do not connect the points with straight lines).
Let’s graph a few more examples.

Example 1
Graph the following parabolas.
a) y = 2x2 + 4x + 1
b) y = −x2
c) y = x2 − 2x + 3
Solution
a) y = 2x2 + 4x + 1
Make a table of values.
TABLE 3.2:
x y = 2x2 + 4x + 1
−3 2(−3)2 + 4(−3) + 1 = 7
-2 2(−2)2 + 4(−2) + 1 = 1
-1 2(−1)2 + 4(−1) + 1 = −1
0 2(0)2 + 4(0) + 1 = 1
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x y = 2x2 + 4x + 1
1 2(1)2 + 4(1) + 1 = 7
2 2(2)2 + 4(2) + 1 = 17
3 2(3)2 + 4(3) + 1 = 31
Notice that the last two points have large y−values. We will not graph them since that will make our y−scale too
big. Now plot the remaining points and join them with a smooth curve.
b) y = −x2 + 3
TABLE 3.3:
x y = −x2 + 3
−3 −(−3)2 + 3 = −6
-2 −(−2)2 + 3 = −1
-1 −(−1)2 + 3 = 2
0 −(0)2 + 3 = 3
1 −(1)2 + 3 = 2
2 −(2)2 + 3 = −1
3 −(3)2 + 3 = −6
Plot the points and join them with a smooth curve.
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Notice that it makes an “upside down” parabola. Our equation has a negative sign in front of the x2 term. The sign
of the coefficient of the x2 term determines whether the parabola turns up or down.
If the coefficient of x2 ; is positive, then the parabola turns up.
If the coefficient of x2 ; is negative, then the parabola turns down.
c) y = x2 − 8x + 3
TABLE 3.4:
x y = x2 − 8x + 3
−3 (−3)2 − 8(−3) + 3 = 36
-2 (−2)2 − 8(−2) + 3 = 23
-1 (−1)2 − 8(−1) + 3 = 12
0 (0)2 − 8(0) + 3 = 3
1 (1)2 − 8(1) + 3 = −4
2 (2)2 − 8(2) + 3 = −9
3 (3)2 − 8(3) + 3 = −12
Let’s not graph the first two points in the table since the values are very big. Plot the points and join them with a
smooth curve.
124
This does not look like the graph of a parabola. What is happening here? If it is not clear what the graph looks like
choose more points to graph until you can see a familiar curve. For negative values of x it looks like the values of y
are getting bigger and bigger. Let’s pick more positive values of x beyond x = 3.
TABLE 3.5:
x y = x2 − 8x + 3
−1 (−1)2 − 8(−1) + 3 = 12
0 (0)2 − 8(0) + 3 = 3
1 (1)2 − 8(1) + 3 = −4
0 (0)2 − 8(0) + 3 = 3
1 (1)2 − 8(1) + 3 = −4
2 (2)2 − 8(2) + 3 = −9
3 (3)2 − 8(3) + 3 = −12
4 (4)2 − 8(4) + 3 = −13
5 (5)2 − 8(5) + 3 = −12
6 (6)2 − 8(6) + 3 = −9
7 (7)2 − 8(7) + 3 = −4
8 (8)2 − 8(8) + 3 = 3
Plot the points again and join them with a smooth curve.
We now see the familiar parabolic shape. Graphing by making a table of values can be very tedious, especially in
problems like this example. In the next few sections, we will learn some techniques that will simplify this process
greatly, but first we need to learn more about the properties of parabolas.
Compare Graphs of Quadratic Functions
The general form (or standard form) of a quadratic function is:
y = ax2 + bx + c
Here a, b and c are the coefficients. Remember a coefficient is just a number (i.e. a constant term) that goes before
a variable or it can be alone. You should know that if you have a quadratic function, its graph is always a parabola.
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While the graph of a quadratic is always the same basic shape, we have different situations where the graph could
be upside down. It could be shifted to different locations or it could be “fatter” or “skinnier”. These situations are
determined by the values of the coefficients. Let’s see how changing the coefficient changes the orientation, location
or shape of the parabola.
Orientation
Does the parabola open up or down?
The answer to that question is pretty simple:
• If a is positive, the parabola opens up.

• If a is negative, the parabola opens down.
The following plot shows the graphs of y = x2 and y = −x2 . You see that the parabola has the same shape in both
graphs, but the graph of y = x2 is right-side-up and the graph of y = −x2 is upside-down.
Dilation
Changing the value of the coefficient a makes the graph “fatter” or “skinnier”. Let’s look at how graphs compare for
2 2
2 1
2the left shows the graphs of y = −x and y = 3x . The plot on the right
different positive values of a. The plot on
shows the graphs of y = −x and y = 3 x .
Notice that the larger the value of a is, the skinnier the graph is. For example, in the first plot, the graph of y = 3x2
is skinnier than the graph of y = x2 . Also, the smaller a is (i.e. the closer to 0), the fatter the graph is. For example,
126
in the second plot, the graph of y = 13 x2 is fatter than the graph of y = x2 . This might seem counter-intuitive, but

if you think about it, it should make sense. Let’s look at a table of values of these graphs and see if we can explain
why this happens.
TABLE 3.6:
x y = x2 y = 3x2 y = 13 x2
2
−3 (−3)2 = 9 3(−3)2 = 27 (−3) 3 = 3
2
-2 (−2)2 = 4 3(−2)2 = 12 (−2) 3 = 34
2
-1 (−1)2 = 1 3(−1)2 = 3 (−1) 3 = 31
2
0 (0)2 = 0 3(0)2 = 0 (0) 3 = 0
2
1 (1)2 = 1 3(1)2 = 3 (1) 3 = 13
2
2 (2)2 = 4 3(2)2 = 12 (2) 3 = 43
2
3 (3)2 = 9 3(3)2 = 27 (3) 3 = 3
From the table, you can see that the values of y = 3x2 are bigger than the values of y = x2 . This is because each value
of y gets multiplied by 3. As a result, the parabola will be skinnier because it grows three times faster than y = x2 .
On the other hand, you can see that the values of y = 13 x2 are smaller than the values of y = x2 . This is because

each value of y gets divided by 3. As a result, the parabola will be fatter because it grows at one third the rate of
y = x2 .
Vertical Shift
Changing the value of the coefficient c (called the constant term) has the effect of moving the parabola up and down.
The following plot shows the graphs of y = x2 , y = x2 + 1, y = x2 − 1, y = x2 + 2, y = x2 − 2.
We see that if c is positive, the graph moves up by c units. If c is negative, the graph moves down by c units. In one
of the later sections we will also talk about horizontal shift (i.e. moving to the right or to the left). Before we can
do that we need to learn how to rewrite the quadratic equations in different forms.
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Graph Quadratic Functions in Intercept Form
As you saw, in order to get a good graph of a parabola, we sometimes need to pick a lot of points in our table of
values. Now, we will talk about different properties of a parabola that will make the graphing process less tedious.
Let’s look at the graph of y = x2 − 6x + 8.
There are several things that we notice.
1. The parabola crosses the x axis at two points: x = 2 and x = 4.
• These points are called the x−intercepts of the parabola.
2. The lowest point of the parabola occurs at point (3, -1).
• This point is called the vertex of the parabola.

• The vertex is the lowest point in a parabola that turns upward, and it is the highest point in a parabola that
turns downward.
• The vertex is exactly halfway between the two x−intercepts. This will always be the case and you can find the
vertex using that rule.
3. A parabola is symmetric. If you draw a vertical line through the vertex, you can see that the two halves of the
parabola are mirror images of each other. The vertical line is called the line of symmetry.
We said that the general form of a quadratic function is y = ax2 + bx + c. If we can factor the quadratic expression,
we can rewrite the function in intercept form
y = a(x − m)(x − n)
This form is very useful because it makes it easy for us to find the x−intercepts and the vertex of the parabola. The
x−intercepts are the values of x where the graph crosses the x−axis. In other words, they are the values of x when
y = 0. To find the x−intercepts from the quadratic function, we set y = 0 and solve.
128
0 = a(x − m)(x − n)
Since the equation is already factored, we use the zero-product property to set each factor equal to zero and solve
the individual linear equations.
x−m = 0 x−n = 0
or
x=m x=n
So the x−intercepts are at points (m, 0) and (n, 0).

Once we find the x−intercepts, it is simple to find the vertex. The x−coordinate of the vertex is halfway between the
two x intercepts, so we can find it by taking the average of the two values (m+n)
2 .
The y−value can be found by substituting the value of x back into the equation of the function.
Let’s do some examples that find the x−intercepts and the vertex:
Example 2
Find the x− intercepts and the vertex of the following quadratic function.
(a) y = x2 − 8x + 15
(b) y = 3x2 + 6x − 24
Solution
a) y = x2 − 8x + 15
Write the quadratic function in intercept form by factoring the right hand side of the equation.
Remember, to factor the trinomial we need two numbers whose product is 15 and whose sum is -8. These numbers
are -5 and -3.
The function in intercept form is y = (x − 5)(x − 3)
We find the x−intercepts by setting y = 0.
We have
0 = (x − 5)(x − 3)
x−5 = 0 x−3 = 0
or
x=5 x=3
The x−intercepts are (5, 0) and (3, 0).

The vertex is halfway between the two x−intercepts. We find the x value by taking the average of the two x−intercepts,
x = (5+3)
2 = 4.
We find the y value by substituting the x value we just found back into the original equation.
y = x2 − 8x + 15 ⇒ y = (4)2 − 8(4) + 15 = 16 − 32 + 15 = −1
129
The vertex is (4, -1).

b) y = 3x2 + 6x − 24
Rewrite the function in intercept form.
Factor the common term of 3 first y = 3(x2 + 2x − 8).
Then factor completely y = 3(x + 4)(x − 2)
Set y = 0 and solve: 0 = 3(x + 4)(x − 2).
x + 4 = 0 ⇒ x = −4
or
x−2 = 0 ⇒ x = 2
The x−intercepts are: (-4, 0) and (2, 0)

For the vertex,
−4+2
x= 2 = −1 and y = 3(−1)2 + 6(−1) − 24 = 3 − 6 − 24 = −27
The vertex is: (-1, -27).
When graphing, it is very useful to know the vertex and x−intercepts. Knowing the vertex, tells us where the middle
of the parabola is. When making a table of values we pick the vertex as a point in the table. Then we choose a few
smaller and larger values of x. In this way, we get an accurate graph of the quadratic function without having to have
too many points in our table.
Example 3
Find the x−intercepts and vertex. Use these points to create a table of values and graph each function.
a) y = x2 − 4
b) y = −x2 + 14x − 48
Solution
a) y = x2 − 4
Let’s find the x−intercepts and the vertex.
Factor the right-hand-side of the function to put the equation in intercept form.
y = (x − 2)(x + 2)
Set y = 0 and solve.
0 = (x − 2)(x + 2)
x−2 = 0 x+2 = 0
or
x=2 x = −2
130
x−intercepts are: (2, 0) and (-2, 0)

Find the vertex.
2−2
x= =0 y = (0)2 − 4 = −4
2
The vertex is (0, -4)

Make a table of values using the vertex as the middle point. Pick a few values of x smaller and larger than x = 0.
Include the x−intercepts in the table.
TABLE 3.7:
x y = x2 − 4
−3 y = (−3)2 − 4 = 5
x − intercept -2 y = (−2)2 − 4 = 0
-1 y = (−1)2 − 4 = −3
vertex 0 y = (0)2 − 4 = −4
1 y = (1)2 − 4 = −3
x − intercept 2 y = (2)2 − 4 = 0
3 y = (3)2 − 4 = 5
b) y = −x2 + 14x − 48
Let’s find the x−intercepts and the vertex.
Factor the right hand side of the function to put the equation in intercept form.
y = −(x2 − 14x + 48) = −(x − 6)(x − 8)

131
ath = 0 = −(x − 6)(x − 8)

x−6 = 0 x−8 = 0
or
x=6 x=8
The x−intercepts are: (6, 0) and (8, 0)

Find the vertex
6+8
ath = x = =7 y = (7)2 + 14(7) − 48 = 1
2
The vertex is (7, 1).

Make a table of values using the vertex as the middle point. Pick a few values of x smaller and larger than x = 1.
Include the x−intercepts in the table. Then graph the parabola.
TABLE 3.8:
x y = −x2 + 14x − 48
4 y = −(4)2 + 14(4) − 48 = −8
5 y = −(5)2 + 14(5) − 48 = −3
x − intercept 6 y = −(6)2 + 14(6) − 48 = 0
x − vertex 7 y = −(7)2 + 14(7) − 48 = 1
x − intercept 8 y = −(8)2 + 14(8) − 48 = 0
9 y = −(9)2 + 14(9) − 48 = −3
10 y = −(10)2 + 14(10) − 48 = −8
132
FIGURE 3.1
Analyze Graphs of Real-World Quadratic Functions.
As we mentioned at the beginning of this section, parabolic curves are common in real-world applications. Here we
will look at a few graphs that represent some examples of real-life application of quadratic functions.
Example 4 Area
Andrew has 100 feet of fence to enclose a rectangular tomato patch. He wants to find the dimensions of the rectangle
that encloses most area.
Solution
We can find an equation for the area of the rectangle by looking at a sketch of the situation.
133
FIGURE 3.2
Let x be the length of the rectangle.

50 − x is the width of the rectangle (Remember there are two widths so its not 100 − x).
Let y be the area of the rectangle.
ath = Area = length × width ⇒ y = x(50 − x)
The following graph shows how the area of the rectangle depends on the length of the rectangle
134
FIGURE 3.3
We can see from the graph that the highest value of the area occurs when the length of the rectangle is 25. The area
of the rectangle for this side length equals 625. Notice that the width is also 25, which makes the shape a square
with side length 25.
This is an example of an optimization problem.
Example 5 Projectile motion
Anne is playing golf. On the 4th tee, she hits a slow shot down the level fairway. The ball follows a parabolic path
described by the equation, y = x − 0.04x2 . This relates the height of the ball y to the horizontal distance as the ball
travels down the fairway. The distances are measured in feet. How far from the tee does the ball hit the ground? At
what distance, x from the tee, does the ball attain its maximum height? What is the maximum height?
Solution
Let’s graph the equation of the path of the ball: y = x − 0.04x2 .
135
FIGURE 3.4
y = x(1 − 0.04x) has solutions of x = 0 and x = 25

From the graph, we see that the ball hits the ground 25 feet from the tee.
We see that the maximum height is attained at 12.5 feet from the tee and the maximum height the ball reaches is
6.25 feet.
Review Questions
Rewrite the following functions in intercept form. Find the x−intercepts and the vertex.
1. f (x) = x2 − 2x − 8
2. f (x) = −x2 + 10x − 21
3. f (x) = 2x2 + 6x + 4
Does the graph of the parabola turn up or down?

4. f (x) = −2x2 − 2x − 3
5. f (x) = 3x2
6. f (x) = 16 − 4x2
The vertex of which parabola is higher?
7. f (x) = x2 or f (x) = 4x2
8. f (x) = −2x2 or f (x) = −2x2 − 2
9. f (x) = 3x2 − 3 or f (x) = 3x2 − 6
Which parabola is wider?
136
10. f (x) = x2 or f (x) = 4x2

11. f (x) = 2x2 + 4 or f (x) = 21 x2 + 4
12. f (x) = −2x2 − 2 or f (x) = −x2 − 2
Graph the following functions by making a table of values. Use the vertex and x−intercepts to help you pick values
for the table.
13. f (x) = 4x2 − 4
14. f (x) = −x2 + x + 12
15. f (x) = 2x2 + 10x + 8
16. f (x) = 12 x2 − 2x
17. f (x) = x − 2x2
18. f (x) = 4x2 − 8x + 4
19. Nadia is throwing a ball to Peter. Peter does not catch the ball and it hits the ground. The graph shows the path
of the ball as it flies through the air. The equation that describes the path of the ball is y = 4 + 2x − 0.16x2 . Here y is
the height of the ball and x is the horizontal distance from Nadia. Both distances are measured in feet. How far from
Nadia does the ball hit the ground? At what distance, x from Nadia, does the ball attain its maximum height? What
is the maximum height?
FIGURE 3.5
20. Peter wants to enclose a vegetable patch with 120 feet of fencing. He wants to put the vegetable against an
existing wall, so he only needs fence for three of the sides. The equation for the area is given by a = 120x − x2 .
From the graph find what dimensions of the rectangle would give him the greatest area.
137
FIGURE 3.6
Review Answers
1. x = −2, x = 4 Vertex (1, -9)

2. x = 3, x = 7 Vertex (5, 4)
3. x = −2, x = −1 Vertex (-3.5, 7.5)
4. Down
5. Up
6. Down
7. f (x) = x2 + 4
8. f (x) = −2x2
9. f (x) = 3x2 − 3
10. f (x) = x2
11. f (x) = 12 x2 + 4
12. f (x) = −x2 − 2
FIGURE 3.7
13.
138
FIGURE 3.8
14.
FIGURE 3.9
15.
139
FIGURE 3.10
16.
FIGURE 3.11
17.
140
FIGURE 3.12
18.
19. 14.25 feet, 6.25 feet, 10.25 feet

20. width = 30 f eet, length = 60 f eet
141
3.2. Quadratic Equations by Graphing www.ck12.org
3.2 Quadratic Equations by Graphing
Learning Objectives
• Identify the number of solutions of quadratic equations.

• Solve quadratic equations by graphing.
• Find or approximate zeros of quadratic functions.
• Analyze quadratic functions using a graphing calculators.
• Solve real-world problems by graphing quadratic functions.
Introduction
In the last, section you learned how to graph quadratic equations. You saw that finding the x−intercepts of a parabola
is important because it tells us where the graph crosses the x−axis. and it also lets us find the vertex of the parabola.
When we are asked to find the solutions of the quadratic equation in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, we are basically
asked to find the x−intercepts of the quadratic function.
Finding the x−intercepts of a parabola is also called finding the roots or zeros of the function.
Identify the Number of Solutions of Quadratic Equations
The graph of a quadratic equation is very useful in helping us identify how many solutions and what types of
solutions a function has. There are three different situations that occur when graphing a quadratic function.
Case 1 The parabola crosses the x−axis at two points.
An example of this is y = x2 + x − 6.
We can find the solutions to equation x2 + x − 6 = 0 by setting y = 0. We solve the equation by factoring (x + 3)(x −
2) = 0 so x = −3 or x = 2.
142
Another way to find the solutions is to graph the function and read the x−intercepts from the graph. We see that the
parabola crosses the x−axis at x = −3 and x = 2.
When the graph of a quadratic function crosses the x−axis at two points, we get two distinct solutions to the
quadratic equation.
Case 2 The parabola touches the x−axis at one point.

An example of this is y = x2 − 2x + 1.
We can also solve this equation by factoring. If we set y = 0 and factor, we obtain (x − 1)2 so x = 1.
Since the quadratic function is a perfect square, we obtain only one solution for the equation.
Here is what the graph of this function looks like. We see that the graph touches the x−axis at point x = 1.
When the graph of a quadratic function touches the x−axis at one point, the quadratic equation has one solution and
the solution is called a double root.
143
Case 3 The parabola does not cross or touch the x−axis.

An example of this is y = x2 + 4. If we set y = 0 we get x2 + 4 = 0. This quadratic polynomial does not factor and
the equation x2 = −4 has no real solutions. When we look at the graph of this function, we see that the parabola
does not cross or touch the x−axis.
When the graph of a quadratic function does not cross or touch the x−axis, the quadratic equation has no real
solutions.
Solve Quadratic Equations by Graphing.
So far we have found the solutions to graphing equations using factoring. However, there are very few functions in
real life that factor easily. As you just saw, graphing the function gives a lot of information about the solutions. We
can find exact or approximate solutions to quadratic equations by graphing the function associated with it.
Example 1
Find the solutions to the following quadratic equations by graphing.
a) −x2 + 3 = 0
b) 2x2 + 5x − 7 = 0
c) −x2 + x − 3 = 0
Solution
Let’s graph each equation. Unfortunately none of these functions can be rewritten in intercept form because we
cannot factor the right hand side. This means that you cannot find the x−intercept and vertex before graphing since
you have not learned methods other than factoring to do that.
a) To find the solution to −x2 + 3 = 0, we need to find the x−intercepts of y = −x2 + 3.
Let’s make a table of values so we can graph the function.
TABLE 3.9:
x y = −x2 + 3
−3 y = −(−3)2 + 3 = −6
-2 y = −(−2)2 + 3 = −1
-1 y = −(−1)2 + 3 = 2
0 y = −(0)2 + 3 = 3
1 y = −(−1)2 + 3 = 2
2 y = −(2)2 + 3 = −1
3 y = −(3)2 + 3 = −6
We plot the points and get the following graph:
144
From the graph we can read that the x−intercepts are approximately x = 1.7and x = −1.7.
These are the solutions to the equation −x2 + 3 = 0.
b) To solve the equation 2x2 + 5x − 7 = 0 we need to find the x−intercepts of y = 2x2 + 5 − 7.
TABLE 3.10:
x y = 2x2 + 5x − 7
−3 y = 2(−3)2 + 5(−3) − 7 = −4
-2 y = 2(−2)2 + 5(−2) − 7 = −9
-1 y = 2(−1)2 + 5(−1) − 7 = −10
0 y = 2(0)0 + 5(0) − 7 = −7
1 y = 2(1)2 + 5(1) − 7 = 0
2 y = 2(2)2 + 5(2) − 7 = 11
3 y = 2(3)2 + 5(3) − 7 = 26
Since we can only see one x−intercept on this graph, we need to pick more points smaller than x = −3 and re-draw
the graph.
145
TABLE 3.11:
x y = 2x2 + 5x − 7
−5 y = 2(−5)2 + 5(−5) − 7 = 18
-4 y = 2(−4)2 + 5(−4) − 7 = 5
Here is the graph again with both x−intercepts showing:
From the graph we can read that the x−intercepts are x = 1and x = −3.5.
These are the solutions to equation 2x2 + 5x − 7 = 0.
c) To solve the equation −x2 + x − 3 = 0 we need to find the x−intercepts of y = −x2 + x − 3.
TABLE 3.12:
x y = −x2 + x − 3
−3 y = −(−3)2 + (−3) − 3 = −15
-2 y = −(−2)2 + (−2) − 3 = −9
-1 y = −(−1)2 + (−1) − 3 = −5
0 y = −(0)2 + (0) − 3 = −3
1 y = −(1)2 + (1) − 3 = −3
2 y = −(−2)2 + (2) − 3 = −5
3 y = −(3)2 + (3) − 3 = −9
146
This graph has no x−intercepts, so the equation −x2 + x − 3 = 0 has no real solutions.
Find or Approximate Zeros of Quadratic Functions
From the graph of a quadratic function y = ax2 + bx + c, we can find the roots or zeros of the function. The zeros
are also the x−intercepts of the graph, and they solve the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. When the zeros of the function
are integer values, it is easy to obtain exact values from reading the graph. When the zeros are not integers we must
approximate their value.
Let’s do more examples of finding zeros of quadratic functions.
Example 2 Find the zeros of the following quadratic functions.
a) y = −x2 + 4x − 4
b) y = 3x2 − 5x
Solution
a) Graph the function y = −x2 + 4x − 4 and read the values of the x−intercepts from the graph.
Let’s make a table of values.
TABLE 3.13:
x y = −x2 + 4x − 4
−3 y = −(−3)2 + 4(−3) − 4 = −25
-2 y = −(−2)2 + 4(−2) − 4 = −16
-1 y = −(−1)2 + 4(−1) − 4 = −9
0 y = −(0)2 + 4(0) − 4 = −4
1 y = −(1)2 + 4(1) − 4 = −1
2 y = −(2)2 + 4(2) − 4 = 0
3 y = −(3)2 + 4(3) − 4 = −1
4 y = −(4)2 + 4(4) − 4 = −4
5 y = −(5)2 + 4(5) − 4 = −9
Here is the graph of this function.
147
The function has a double root at x = 2.

b) Graph the function y = 3x2 − 5x and read the x−intercepts from the graph.
Let’s make a table of values.
TABLE 3.14:
x y = 3x2 − 5x
−3 y = 3(−3)2 − 5(−3) = 42
-2 y = 3(−2)2 − 5(−2) = 22
-1 y = 3(−1)2 − 5(−1) = 8
0 y = 3(0)2 − 5(0) = 0
1 y = 3(1)2 − 5(1) = −2
2 y = 3(2)2 − 5(2) = 2
3 y = 3(3)2 − 5(3) = 12
Here is the graph of this function.
The function has two roots: x = 0and x ≈ 1.7.
148
Analyze Quadratic Functions Using a Graphing Calculator
A graphing calculator is very useful for graphing quadratic functions. Once the function is graphed, we can use the
calculator to find important information such as the roots of the function or the vertex of the function.
Example 3
Let’s use the graphing calculator to analyze the graph of y = x2 − 20x + 35.
1. Graph the function.
Press the [Y=] button and enter “X 2 − 20X + 35” next to [Y1 =].(Note, X is one of the buttons on the calculator)
Press the [GRAPH] button. This is the plot you should see. If this is not what you see change the window size. For
the graph to the right, we used window size of XMIN = −10, XMAX = 30 and YMIN = −80, YMAX = 50. To
change window size, press the [WINDOW] button.
2. Find the roots.
There are at least three ways to find the roots
Use [TRACE] to scroll over the x−intercepts. The approximate value of the roots will be shown on the screen.You
can improve your estimate by zooming in.
OR
Use [TABLE] and scroll through the values until you find values of Y equal to zero. You can change the accuracy
of the solution by setting the step size with the [TBLSET] function.
OR
Use [2nd] [TRACE] (i.e. ’calc’ button) and use option ’zero’.
Move cursor to the left of one of the roots and press [ENTER].
Move cursor to the right of the same root and press [ENTER].
Move cursor close to the root and press [ENTER].
The screen will show the value of the root. For the left side root, we obtained x = 1.9.
149
Repeat the procedure for the other root. For the right side root, we obtained x = 18.
3. Find the vertex
There are three ways to find the vertex.
Use [TRACE] to scroll over the highest or lowest point on the graph. The approximate value of the roots will be
shown on the screen.
OR
Use [TABLE] and scroll through the values until you find values the lowest or highest values of Y .
You can change the accuracy of the solution by setting the step size with the [TBLSET] function.
OR
Use [2nd] [TRACE] and use option ’maximum’ if the vertex is a maximum or option ’minimum’ if the vertex is a
minimum.
Move cursor to the left of the vertex and press [ENTER].
Move cursor to the right of the vertex and press [ENTER].
Move cursor close to the vertex and press [ENTER].
The screen will show the x and y values of the vertex.
For this example, we obtained x = 10 and x = −65.
Solve Real-World Problems by Graphing Quadratic Functions
We will now use the methods we learned so far to solve some examples of real-world problems using quadratic
functions.
Andrew is an avid archer. He launches an arrow that takes a parabolic path. Here is the equation of the height of
the ball with respect to time.
y = −4.9t 2 + 48t
Here y is the height in meters and t is the time in seconds. Find how long it takes the arrow to come back to the
ground.
Solution
Let’s graph the equation by making a table of values.
TABLE 3.15:
t y = −4.9t 2 + 48t
0 y = −4.9(0)2 + 48(0) = 0
1 y = −4.9(1)2 + 48(1) = 43.1
2 y = −4.9(2)2 + 48(2) = 76.4
3 y = −4.9(3)2 + 48(3) = 99.9
4 y = −4.9(4)2 + 48(4) = 113.6
5 y = −4.9(5)2 + 48(5) = 117.5
6 y = −4.9(6)2 + 48(6) = 111.6
7 y = −4.9(7)2 + 48(7) = 95.9
150

t y = −4.9t 2 + 48t
8 y = −4.9(8)2 + 48(8) = 70.4
9 y = −4.9(9)2 + 48(9) = 35.1
10 y = −4.9(10)2 + 48(10) = −10
Here is the graph of the function.
The roots of the function are approximately x = 0 sec and x = 9.8 sec. The first root says that at time 0 seconds the
height of the arrow is 0 meters. The second root says that it takes approximately 9.8 seconds for the arrow to return
back to the ground.
Review Questions
Find the solutions of the following equations by graphing.
1. x2 + 3x + 6 = 0
2. −2x2 + x + 4 = 0
3. x2 − 9 = 0
4. x2 + 6x + 9 = 0
5. 10x2 − 3x2 = 0
1 2
6. 2 x − 2x + 3 = 0
Find the roots of the following quadratic functions by graphing.
1. y = −3x2 + 4x − 1
2. y = 9 − 4x2
3. y = x2 + 7x + 2
4. y = −x2 − 10x − 25
5. y = 2x2 − 3x
6. y = x2 − 2x + 5Using your graphing calculator
(a) Find the roots of the quadratic polynomials.
151
(b) Find the vertex of the quadratic polynomials.
1. y = x2 + 12x + 5
2. y = x2 + 3x + 6
3. y = −x2 − 3x + 9
4. Peter throws a ball and it takes a parabolic path. Here is the equation of the height of the ball with respect to
time:
y = −16t 2 + 60t
Here y is the height in feet and t is the time in seconds. Find how long it takes the ball to come back to the
ground.
5. Use your graphing calculator to solve Ex. 5. You should get the same answers as we did graphing by hand but
a lot quicker!
Review Answers
1. No real solutions
2. x = −1.2, x = 1.87
152
3. x = −3, x = 3
4. x = −3double root
5. x = 0, x = 3.23
153
6. No real solutions.
7. x = 0.3, x = 1
154
8. x = −1.5, x = 1.5
9. x = −6.7, x = 0.3
10. x = −5double root
155
11. x = 0, x = 1.5
12. No real solutions.
156
13. x ≈ -11.6 and x ≈ -0.4. Vertex (-6, -31)

14. No real solution. Vertex (-3/2, 15/4)
15. time = 3.75 second
FIGURE 3.13
157
3.3. Quadratic Equations by Square Roots www.ck12.org
3.3 Quadratic Equations by Square Roots
Learning objectives
• Solve quadratic equations involving perfect squares.

• Approximate solutions of quadratic equations.
• Solve real-world problems using quadratic functions and square roots.
Introduction
So far you know how to solve quadratic equations by factoring. However, this method works only if a quadratic
polynomial can be factored. Unfortunately, in practice, most quadratic polynomials are not factorable. In this
section you will continue learning new methods that can be used in solving quadratic equations. In particular, we
will examine equations in which we can take the square root of both sides of the equation in order to arrive at the
result.
Solve Quadratic Equations Involving Perfect Squares
Let’s first examine quadratic equation of the type
x2 − c = 0
We can solve this equation by isolating the x2 term: x2 = c

Once the x2 term is isolated we can take the square root of both sides of the equation. Remember that when we take
the square root we get two answers: the positive square root and the negative square root:
√ √
x= c and x=− c
√
Often this is written as x = ± c.
Example 1
Solve the following quadratic equations
a) x2 − 4 = 0
b) x2 − 25 = 0
Solution
a) x2 − 4 = 0
Isolate the x2 x2 = 4
√ √
Take the square root of both sides x = 4 and x = − 4
Answer x = 2 and x = −2
b) x2 − 25 = 0
158
Isolate the x2 x2 = 25
√ √
Take the square root of both sides x = 25 and x = − 25
Another type of equation where we can find the solution using the square root is
ax2 − c = 0
We can solve this equation by isolating the x2 term
ax2 = c
c
x2 =
a
Now we can take the square root of both sides of the equation.
r r
c c
x= and x=−
a a
r
c
Often this is written as x = ± .
a
Example 2
Solve the following quadratic equations.
a) 9x2 − 16 = 0
b) 81x2 − 1 = 0
Solution
a) 9x2 − 16 = 0
Isolate the x2 . 9x2 = 16

16
x2 =
9
√
r
16
Take the square root of both sides. x = and x = − 169
9
4
Answer: x = 3 and x = − 43
b) 81x2 − 1 = 0
Isolate the x2 81x2 = 1

1
x2 =
81
159
r r
1 1
Take the square root of both sides x = and x = −
81 81
1
Answer x = 9 and x = − 91
As you have seen previously, some quadratic equations have no real solutions.
Example 3
a) x2 + 1 = 0
b) 4x2 + 9 = 0
Solution
a) x2 + 1 = 0
Isolate the x2 x2 = −1
√ √
Take the square root of both sides: x = −1 and x = − −1
Answer Square roots of negative numbers do not give real number results, so there are no real solutions to this
equation.
b) 4x2 + 9 = 0
Isolate the x2 4x2 = −9

9
x2 = −
4
r r
9 9
Take the square root of both sides x = − and x = − −
4 4
Answer There are no real solutions.
We can also use the square root function in some quadratic equations where one side of the equation is a perfect
square. This is true if an equation is of the form
(x − 2)2 = 9
Both sides of the equation are perfect squares. We take the square root of both sides.
x − 2 = 3 and x − 2 = −3
Solve both equations
Example 4
a) (x − 1)2 = 4
b) (x + 3)2 = 1
Solution
160
a) (x − 1)2 = 4
Take the square root of both sides. x − 1 = 2 and x − 1 = −2

Solve each equation. x = 3 and x = −1
b) (x + 3)2 = 1
Take the square root of both sides. x + 3 = 1 and x + 3 = −1

Solve each equation. x = −2 and x = −4
It might be necessary to factor the right hand side of the equation as a perfect square before applying the method
outlined above.
Example 5
a) x2 + 8x + 16 = 25
b) 4x2 − 40x + 25 = 9
Solution
a) x2 + 8x + 16 = 25
Factor the right hand side. x2 + 8x + 16 = (x + 4)2 so (x + 4)2 = 25

Take the square root of both sides. x + 4 = 5 and x + 4 = −5
Solve each equation. x = 1 and x = −9
b) 4x2 − 20x + 25 = 9
Factor the right hand side. 4x2 − 20x + 25 = (2x − 5)2 so (2x − 5)2 = 9
Take the square root of both sides. 2x − 5 = 3 and 2x − 5 = −3
Solve each equation. 2x = 8 and 2x = 2
Answer x = 4 and x = 1
Approximate Solutions of Quadratic Equations
We use the methods we learned so far in this section to find approximate solutions to quadratic equations. We can
get approximate solutions when taking the square root does not give an exact answer.
Example 6
a) x2 − 3 = 0
161
b) 2x2 − 9 = 0
Solution
a)
Isolate the x2 . x2 = 3
√ √
Take the square root of both sides. x = 3 and x = − 3
Answer x ≈ 1.73 and x ≈ −1.73

b)
9
Isolate the x2 . 2x2 = 9 so x2 =
r 2 r
9 9
Take the square root of both sides. x= and x = −
2 2
Answer x ≈ 2.12 and x ≈ −2.12

Example 7
a) (2x + 5)2 = 10
b) x2 − 2x + 1 = 5
Solution.
a)
√ √
Take the square root of both sides. 2x + 5 =10 and 2x + 5 = − 10
√ √
−5 + 10 −5 − 10
Solve both equations. x= and x =
2 2
Answer x ≈ −0.92 and x ≈ −4.08

b)
Factor the right hand side. (x − 1)2 = 5

√ √
Take the square root of both sides. x − 1 = 5 and x − 1 = − 5
√ √
Solve each equation. x = 1 + 5 and x = 1 − 5
Answer x ≈ 3.24 and x ≈ −1.24
Solve Real-World Problems Using Quadratic Functions and Square Roots
There are many real-world problems that require the use of quadratic equations in order to arrive at the solution.
In this section, we will examine problems about objects falling under the influence of gravity. When objects are
dropped from a height, they have no initial velocity and the force that makes them move towards the ground is due
to gravity. The acceleration of gravity on earth is given by
g = −9.8 m/s2 or g = −32 f t/s2
162
The negative sign indicates a downward direction. We can assume that gravity is constant for the problems we will
be examining, because we will be staying close to the surface of the earth. The acceleration of gravity decreases as
an object moves very far from the earth. It is also different on other celestial bodies such as the Moon.
The equation that shows the height of an object in free fall is given by
1
y = gt 2 + y0
2
The term y0 represents the initial height of the object t is time, and g is the force of gravity. There are two choices
for the equation you can use.
y = −4.9t 2 + y0 If you wish to have the height in meters.

2
y = −16t + y0 If you wish to have the height in feet.
Example 8 Free fall

How long does it take a ball to fall from a roof to the ground 25 feet below?
Solution
Since we are given the height in feet, use equation y = −16t 2 + y0

The initial height is y0 = 25 f eet, so y = −16t 2 + 25
The height when the ball hits the ground is y = 0, so 0 = −16t 2 + 25
Solve for t 16t 2 = 25
25
t2 =
16
5 5
t = or t = −
4 4
We can discard the solution t = − 45 since only positive values for time makes sense in this case,
Answer It takes the ball 1.25 seconds to fall to the ground.
Example 9 Free fall
A rock is dropped from the top of a cliff and strikes the ground 7.2 seconds later. How high is the cliff in meters?
Solution
Since we want the height in meters, use equation y = −4.9t 2 + y0

The time of flight is t = 7.2 seconds y = −4.9(7.2)2 + y0
The height when the ball hits the ground is y = 0, so 0 = −4.9(7.2)2 + y0
Simplify 0 = −254 + y0 so y0 = 254
Answer The cliff is 254 meters high.

Example 10
163
Victor drops an apple out of a window on the 10th floor which is 120 feet above ground. One second later Juan drops
an orange out of a 6th floor window which is 72 feet above the ground. Which fruit reaches the ground first? What
is the time difference between the fruits’ arrival to the ground?
Solution Let’s find the time of flight for each piece of fruit.
For the Apple we have the following.
Since we have the height in feet, use equation y = −16t 2 + y0

The initial height y0 = 120 f eet. y = −16t 2 + 120
The height when the ball hits the ground is y = 0, so 0 = −16t 2 + 120
Solve for t 16t 2 = 120
120
t2 = = 7.5
16
t = 2.74 or t = −2.74 seconds.
For the orange we have the following.
The initial height y0 = 72 f eet. 0 = −16t 2 + 72

Solve for t. 16t 2 = 72
72
t2 = = 4.5
16
t = 2.12 or t = −2.12 seconds
But, don’t forget that the orange was thrown out one second later, so add one second to the time of the orange. It hit
the ground 3.12 seconds after Victor dropped the apple.
Answer The apple hits the ground first. It hits the ground 0.38 seconds before the orange. (Hopefully nobody was
on the ground at the time of this experiment—don’t try this one at home, kids!).
Review Questions
1. x2 − 1 = 0
2. x2 − 100 = 0
3. x2 + 16 = 0
4. 9x2 − 1 = 0
5. 4x2 − 49 = 0
6. 64x2 − 9 = 0
7. x2 − 81 = 0
8. 25x2 − 36 = 0
9. x2 + 9 = 0
10. x2 − 16 = 0
11. x2 − 36 = 0
12. 16x2 − 49 = 0
13. (x − 2)2 = 1
14. (x + 5)2 = 16
164
15. (2x − 1)2 − 4 = 0

16. (3x + 4)2 = 9
17. (x − 3)2 + 25 = 0
18. x2 − 6 = 0
19. x2 − 20 = 0
20. 3x2 + 14 = 0
21. (x − 6)2 = 5
22. (4x + 1)2 − 8 = 0
23. x2 − 10x + 25 = 9
24. x2 + 18x + 81 = 1
25. 4x2 − 12x + 9 = 16
26. (x + 10)2 = 2
27. x2 + 14x + 49 = 3
28. 2(x + 3)2 = 8
29. Susan drops her camera in the river from a bridge that is 400 feet high. How long is it before she hears the
splash?
30. It takes a rock 5.3 seconds to splash in the water when it is dropped from the top of a cliff. How high is the
cliff in meters?
31. Nisha drops a rock from the roof of a building 50 feet high. Ashaan drops a quarter from the top story window,
40 feet high, exactly half a second after Nisha drops the rock. Which hits the ground first?
Review Answers
1. x = 1, x = −1
2. x = 10, x = −10
3. No real solution.
4. x = 31 , x = − 13
5. x = 27 , x = − 72
6. x = 83 , x = − 38
7. x = 9, x = −9
8. x = 65 , x = − 65
10. x = 4, x = −4
11. x = 6, x = −6
12. x = 74 , x = − 74
13. x = 3, x = 1
14. x = −1, x = −9
15. x = 32 , x = − 12
16. x = − 31 , x = − 73
18. x ≈ 2.45, x ≈ −2.45
19. x ≈ 4.47, x ≈ −4.47
21. x ≈ 8.24, x ≈ 3.76
22. x ≈ 0.46, x ≈ −0.96
23. x = 8, x = 2
24. x = −8, x = −10
25. x = 27 , x = − 12
26. x ≈ −8.59, x ≈ −11.41
27. x ≈ −5.27, x ≈ −8.73
28. x = −1, x = −5
165
29. t = 5 seconds
30. y0 = 137.6 meters
31. .
166
3.4 Solving Quadratic Equations by Complet-

ing the Square
Learning objectives
• Complete the square of a quadratic expression.

• Solve quadratic equations by completing the square.
• Solve quadratic equations in standard form.
• Graph quadratic equations in vertex form.
• Solve real-world problems using functions by completing the square.
Introduction
You saw in the last section that if you have a quadratic equation of the form
(x − 2)2 = 5
We can easily solve it by taking the square root of each side.
√ √
x − 2 = 5 and x − 2 = − 5
Then simplify and solve.
√ √
x = 2 + 5 ≈ 4.24 and x = 2 − 5 ≈ −0.24
Unfortunately, quadratic equations are not usually written in this nice form. In this section, you will learn the method
of completing the squares in which you take any quadratic equation and rewrite it in a form so that you can take
the square root of both sides.
Complete the Square of a Quadratic Expression
The purpose of the method of completing the squares is to rewrite a quadratic expression so that it contains a perfect
square trinomial that can be factored as the square of a binomial. Remember that the square of a binomial expands.
Here is an example of this.
(x + a)2 = x2 + 2ax + a2
(x − a)2 = x2 − 2ax + a2
In order to have a perfect square trinomial, we need two terms that are perfect squares and one term that is twice the
product of the square roots of the other terms.
Example 1
Complete the square for the quadratic expression x2 + 4x.
Solution To complete the square, we need a constant term that turns the expression into a perfect square trinomial.
Since the middle term in a perfect square trinomial is always two times the product of the square roots of the other
two terms, we rewrite our expression as
x2 + 2(2)(x)
167
3.4. Solving Quadratic Equations by Completing the Square www.ck12.org
We see that the constant we are seeking must be 22 .
x2 + 2(2)(x) + 22
Answer By adding 4, this can be factored as: (x + 2)2

BUT, we just changed the value of this expression x2 + 4x 6= (x + 2)2 . Later we will show how to account for this
problem. You need to add and subtract the constant term.
Also, this was a relatively easy example because a, the coefficient of the x2 term was 1. If a 6= 1, we must factor a
from the whole expression before completing the square.
Example 2
Complete the square for the quadratic expression 4x2 + 32x
Solution
Factor the coefficient of the x2 term. 4(x2 + 8x)

Now complete the square of the expression in parentheses then rewrite the expression. 4(x2 + 2(4)(x))
We complete the square by adding the constant 42 . 4(x2 + 2(4)(x) + 42 )
Factor the perfect square trinomial inside the parenthesis. 4(x + 4)2
Our answer is 4(x + 4)2 .

The expression “completing the square” comes from a geometric interpretation of this situation. Let’s revisit the
quadratic expression in Example 1.
x2 + 4x
We can think of this expression as the sum of three areas. The first term represents the area of a square of side x.
The second expression represents the areas of two rectangles with a length of 2 and a width of x:
We can combine these shapes as follows
We obtain a square that is not quite complete.

In order to complete the square, we need a square of side 2.
168
We obtain a square of side x + 2.

The area of this square is: (x + 2)2 .
You can see that completing the square has a geometric interpretation.
Finally, here is the algebraic procedure for completing the square.
x2 + bx + c = 0
x2 + bx = −c
2 2
2 b b
x + bx + = −c +
2 2
2 2
b b
x+ = −c +
2 2
Solve Quadratic Equations by Completing the Square
Let’s demonstrate the method of completing the square with an example.

Example 3
Solve the following quadratic equation x2 + 12x = 3.
Solution
The method of completing the square is as follows.
1. Rewrite as x2 + 2(6)x = 3
2. In order to have a perfect square trinomial on the right-hand-side we need to add the constant 62 . Add this constant
to both sides of the equation.
x2 + 2(6)(x) + 62 = 3 + 62
3. Factor the perfect square trinomial and simplify the right hand side of the equation.
(x + 6)2 = 39
4. Take the square root of both sides.
√ √
x+6 = 39 and x + 6 = − 39
√ √
x = −6 + 39 ≈ 0.24 and x = −6 − 39 ≈ −12.24
169
Answer x = 0.24 and x = −12.24

If the coefficient of the x2 term is not one, we must divide that number from the whole expression before completing
the square.
Example 4
Solve the following quadratic equation 3x2 − 10x = −1.
Solution:
1. Divide all terms by the coefficient of the x2 term.
10 1
x2 − x=−
3 3
2. Rewrite as

2 5 1
x −2 (x) = −
3 3
5 2

3. In order to have a perfect square trinomial on the right hand side we need to add the constant 3 . Add this
constant to both sides of the equation.
2 2
2 5 5 1 5
x −2 (x) + =− +
3 3 3 3
4. Factor the perfect square trinomial and simplify.
5 2

1 25
x− = +
3 3 9
5 2

22
x− =
3 9
r r
5 22 5 22
x− = and x− = −
3 9 3 9
r r
5 22 5 22
x= + ≈ 3.23 and x= − ≈ 0.1
3 9 3 9
Answer x = 3.23 and x = 0.1
Solve Quadratic Equations in Standard Form
An equation in standard form is written as ax2 + bx + c = 0. We solve an equation in this form by the method of
completing the square. First we move the constant term to the right hand side of the equation.
Example 5
170
Solve the following quadratic equation x2 + 15x + 12 = 0.

Solution
The method of completing the square is as follows:
1. Move the constant to the other side of the equation.
x2 + 15x = −12
2. Rewrite as

2 15
x +2 (x) = −12
2
15 2

3. Add the constant 2 to both sides of the equation
2 2
2 15 15 15
x +2 (x) + = −12 +
2 2 2
4. Factor the perfect square trinomial and simplify.
15 2

225
x+ = −12 +
2 4
2
15 177
x+ =
2 4
r r
15 177 15 177
x+ = and x+ =−
2 4 2 4
r r
15 177 15 177
x+− + ≈ −0.85 and x+− + ≈ −14.15
2 4 2 4
Answer x = −0.85 and x = −14.15
Graph Quadratic Functions in Vertex Form
Probably one of the best applications of the method of completing the square is using it to rewrite a quadratic function
in vertex form.
The vertex form of a quadratic function is y − k = a(x − h)2 .
This form is very useful for graphing because it gives the vertex of the parabola explicitly. The vertex is at point
(h, k).
It is also simple to find the x−intercepts from the vertex from by setting y = 0 and taking the square root of both
sides of the resulting equation.
171
The y−intercept can be found by setting x = 0 and simplifying.

Example 6
Find the vertex, the x−intercepts and the y−intercept of the following parabolas.
(a) y − 2 = (x − 1)2
(b) y + 8 = 2(x − 3)2
Solution
a) y − 2 = (x − 1)2
Vertex is (1, 2)
To find x−intercepts,
Set y = 0 −2 = (x − 1)2
√ √
Take the square root of both sides −2 = x − 1 and − −2 = x − 1
The solutions are not real (because you cannot take the square root of a negative number), so there are no x−intercepts.
To find y−intercept,
Set x = 0 y − 2 = (−1)2
Simplify y−2 = 1 ⇒ y = 3
b) y + 8 = 2(x − 3)2
Rewrite y − (−8) = 2(x − 3)2

Vertex is (3, −8)
To find x−intercepts,
Set y = 0 : 8 = 2(x − 3)2

Divide both sides by 2. 4 = (x − 3)2
Take the square root of both sides : 2 = x−3 and −2 = x−3
Simplify : x=5 and x=1
To find the y−intercept,
Set x = 0. y + 8 = 2(−3)2
Simplify : y + 8 = 18 ⇒ y = 10
To graph a parabola, we only need to know the following information.
• The coordinates of the vertex.
172
• The x−intercepts.
• The y−intercept.
• Whether the parabola turns up or down. Remember that if a > 0, the parabola turns up and if a < 0 then the
parabola turns down.
Example 7
Graph the parabola given by the function y + 1 = (x + 3)2 .
Solution
Rewrite. y − (−1) = (x − (−3))2

Vertex is (−3, −1)
To find the x−intercepts
Set y = 0 1 = (x + 3)2
Take the square root of both sides 1 = x+3 and −1 = x+3
Simplify x = −2 and x = −4
x−intercepts: (-2, 0) and (-4, 0)

To find the y−intercept
Set x = 0 y + 1(3)2
Simplify y=8 y − intercept : (0, 8)
Since a > 0, the parabola turns up.

Graph all the points and connect them with a smooth curve.
173
Example 8
Graph the parabola given by the function y = − 21 (x − 2)2
Solution:
1
Re-write y − (0) = − (x − 2)2
2
Vertex is (2, 0)
To find the x−intercepts,
1
Set y = 0. 0 = − (x − 2)2
2
Multiply both sides by − 2. 0 = (x − 2)2
Take the square root of both sides. 0 = x−2
Simplify. x=2
x−intercept (2, 0)
Note: there is only one x−intercept, indicating that the vertex is located at this point (2, 0).
To find the y−intercept
1
Set x = 0 y = − (−2)2
2
1
Simplify y = − (4) ⇒ y = −2
2
174
y−intercept (0, -2)

Since a < 0, the parabola turns down.
Graph all the points and connect them with a smooth curve.
Solve Real-World Problems Using Quadratic Functions by Completing the Square
Projectile motion with vertical velocity

In the last section you learned that an object that is dropped falls under the influence of gravity. The equation for its
height with respect to time is given by
1
y = gt 2 + y0
2
The term y0 represents the initial height of the object and the coefficient of gravity on earth is given by
g = −9.8 m/s2 or g = −32 f t/s2 .
On the other hand, if an object is thrown straight up or straight down in the air, it has an initial vertical velocity. This
term is usually represented by the notation v0y . Its value is positive if the object is thrown up in the air, and, it is
negative if the object is thrown down. The equation for the height of the object in this case is given by the equation
1
y = gt 2 + v0yt + y0
2
There are two choices for the equation to use in these problems.
175
y = −4.9t 2 + v0yt + y0 If you wish to have the height in meters.

y = −16t 2 + v0yt + y0 If you wish to have the height in feet.
Example 9
An arrow is shot straight up from a height of 2 meters with a velocity of 50 m/s.
a) How high will an arrow be four seconds after being shot? After eight seconds?
b) At what time will the arrow hit the ground again?
c) What is the maximum height that the arrow will reach and at what time will that happen?
Solution
Since we are given the velocity in meters per second, use the equation y = −4.9t 2 + v0yt + y0
We know v0y = 50 m/s and y0 = 2 meters so, y = −4.9t 2 + 50t + 2
a) To find how high the arrow will be 4 seconds after being shot we substitute 4 for t
y = −4.9(4)2 + 50(4) + 2
= −4.9(16) + 200 + 2 = 123.6 meters
we substitute t = 8
y = −4.9(8)2 + 50(8) + 2
= −4.9(64) + 400 + 5 = 88.4 meters
b) The height of the arrow on the ground is y = 0, so 0 = −4.9t 2 + 50t + 2
Solve for t by completing the square −4.9t 2 + 50t = −2

Factor the −4.9 − 4.9(t 2 − 10.2t) = −2
Divide both sides by −4.9t 2 − 10.2t = 0.41
Add 5.12 to both sides t 2 − 2(5.1)t + (5.1)2 = 0.41 + (5.1)2
Factor (t − 5.1)2 = 26.43
Solve t − 5.1 ≈ 5.14 and t − 5.1 ≈ −5.14
t ≈ 10.2 sec and t ≈ −0.04 sec
c) If we graph the height of the arrow with respect to time, we would get an upside down parabola (a < 0).
The maximum height and the time when this occurs is really the vertex of this parabola (t, h).
We rewrite the equation in vertex form. y = −4.9t 2 + 50t + 2

y − 2 = −4.9t 2 + 50t
y − 2 = −4.9(t 2 − 10.2t)
Complete the square inside the parenthesis. y − 2 − 4.9(5.1)2 = −4.9(t 2 − 10.2t + (5.1)2 )
y − 129.45 = −4.9(t − 5.1)2
176
The vertex is at (5.1, 129.45). In other words, when t = 5.1 seconds, the height is y = 129 meters.
Another type of application problem that can be solved using quadratic equations is one where two objects are
moving away in directions perpendicular from each other. Here is an example of this type of problem.
Example 10
Two cars leave an intersection. One car travels north; the other travels east. When the car traveling north had gone
30 miles, the distance between the cars was 10 miles more than twice the distance traveled by the car heading east.
Find the distance between the cars at that time.
Solution
Let x = the distance traveled by the car heading east.
2x + 10 = the distance between the two cars

Let’s make a sketch
We can use the Pythagorean Theorem (a2 + b2 = c2 ) to find an equation for x:
x2 + 302 = (2x + 10)2
Expand parentheses and simplify.
x2 + 900 = 4x2 + 40x + 100

800 = 3x2 + 40x
Solve by completing the square.
800 40
= x2 + x
3 3
4 3
800 20 2 20 20
+ = x +2 x+
3 3 3 3
2
2800 20
= x+
9 3
20 20
x+ ≈ 17.6 and x + ≈ −17.6
3 3
x ≈ 11 and x ≈ −24.3
Since only positive distances make sense here, the distance between the two cars is 2(11) + 10 = 32 miles.
Answer The distance between the two cars is 32 miles.
177
Review Questions
Complete the square for each expression.
1. x2 + 5x
2. x2 − 2x
3. x2 + 3x
4. x2 − 4x
5. 3x2 + 18x
6. 2x2 − 22x
7. 8x2 − 10x
8. 5x2 + 12x
Solve each quadratic equation by completing the square.

9. x2 − 4x = 5
10. x2 − 5x = 10
11. x2 + 10x + 15 = 0
12. x2 + 4x + 16 = 0
13. 2x2 − 18x = 0
14. 4x2 + 5x = −1
15. 10x2 − 30x − 8 = 0
16. 5x2 + 15x − 40 = 0
Rewrite each quadratic function in vertex form.
17. y = x2 − 6x
18. y + 1 = −2x2 − x
19. y = 9x2 + 3x − 10
20. y = 32x2 + 60x + 10 For each parabola, find
a. The vertex
b. x−intercepts
c. y−intercept
d. If it turns up or down.
e. The graph the parabola.
21. y − 4 = x2 + 8x
22. y = −4x2 + 20x − 24
23. y = 3x2 + 15x
24. y + 6 = −x2 + x
25. Sam throws an egg straight down from a height of 25 feet. The initial velocity of the egg is 16 ft/sec. How
long does it take the egg to reach the ground?
26. Amanda and Dolvin leave their house at the same time. Amanda walks south and Dolvin bikes east. Half an
hour later they are 5.5 miles away from each other and Dolvin has covered three miles more than the distance that
Amanda covered. How far did Amanda walk and how far did Dolvin bike?
178
Review Answers
5 2
x2 + 5x + 25

1. 4 = x + 2
2. x2 − 2x + 1 = (x − 1)2
2
3. x2 + 3x + 49 = x + 32
4. x2 − 4x + 4 = (x − 2)2
5. 3(x2 + 6x + 9) = 3(x + 3)2
11 2
2 x2 − 11x + 121

6. 4 = 2 x −
22
8 x2 − 54 x + 64
25
= 8 x − 58

7.
6 2
5 x2 + 12 36

8. 5 x + 25 = 5 x + 5
9. 5, −1√
5 65
10. 2± √ 2
11. −5 ± √10
12. −2 ± i 3
13. 0, 9
14. −1, −.25
15. −3.25,√−.25
16. − 32 ± 41
17. y + 9 = (x − 3)2
2
18. y + 87 = −2 x + 41
2
19. y + 10.25 = 9 x + 61
15 2
y − 305

20. 8 = −32 x − 16
21. y + 12 = (x + 4)2 ; vertex (-4, -12); x−intercepts (-7.46, 0), (-.54, 0); y−intercept (0, 4); turns up.
2
22. y − 1 = −4 x − 25 ; vertex (2.5, 1); x−intercepts (2, 0), (3, 0) y−intercept (0, -24); turns down.
23. y + 18.75 = 3(x + 2.5)2 ; vertex (-2.5, -18.75); x−intercepts (0, 0), (-5, 0); y−intercept (0, 0); turns up.
1 2
y + 23

24. 4 = − x − 2 ; vertex (0.5, -5.75); x−intercepts none; y−intercept (0, -6); turns down.
25. 0.85 seconds
26. Amanda 2.1 miles, Dolvin 5.1 miles
179
3.5. Solving Quadratic Equations by the Quadratic Formula www.ck12.org
3.5 Solving Quadratic Equations by the

Quadratic Formula
Learning objectives
• Solve quadratic equations using the quadratic formula.

• Identify and choose methods for solving quadratic equations.
• Solve real-world problems using functions by completing the square.
Introduction
In this section, you will solve quadratic equations using the Quadratic Formula. Most of you are already familiar
with this formula from previous mathematics courses. It is probably the most used method for solving quadratic
equations. For a quadratic equation in standard form
ax2 + bx + c = 0
The solutions are found using the following formula.
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
We will start by explaining where this formula comes from and then show how it is applied. This formula is derived
by solving a general quadratic equation using the method of completing the square that you learned in the previous
section.
180
We start with a general quadratic equation. ax2 + bx + c = 0

Subtract the constant term from both sides. ax2 + bx = −c
b c
Divide by the coefficient of the x2 term. x2 + x = −
a a
b c
Rewrite. x2 + 2 x=−
2a a
2 2
b2

b 2 b b c
Add the constant to both sides. x +2 x+ =− + 2
2a 2a 2a a 4a
2
b2

b 4ac
Factor the perfect square trinomial. x+ =− 2 + 2
2a 4a 4a
2
b2 − 4ac

b
Simplify. x+ =
2a 4a2
r r
b b2 − 4ac b b2 − 4ac
Take the square root of both sides. x+ = and x + = −
2a r 4a2 2a r 4a
2
b b2 − 4ac b b2 − 4ac
Simplify. x+ = and x + =−
2a 2ar 2a 2a
b b2 − 4ac
x=− +
2a r 2a
b b2 − 4ac
x=− −
2a √ 2a
−b + b2 − 4ac
x=
√2a
−b − b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
√
This can be written more compactly as x = −b± b2 − 4ac .
2a
You can see that the familiar formula comes directly from applying the method of completing the square. Applying
the method of completing the square to solve quadratic equations can be tedious. The quadratic formula is a more
straightforward way of finding the solutions.
Solve Quadratic Equations Using the Quadratic Formula
Applying the quadratic formula basically amounts to plugging the values of a, b and c into the quadratic formula.
Example 1
Solve the following quadratic equation using the quadratic formula.
a) 2x2 + 3x + 1 = 0
b) x2 − 6x + 5 = 0
c) −4x2 + x + 1 = 0
Solution
Start with the quadratic formula and plug in the values of a, b and c.
181
a)
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
Quadratic formula x=
p2a
−3 ± (3)2 − 4(2)(1)
Plug in the values a = 2, b = 3, c = 1. x=
2(2)
√ √
−3 ± 9 − 8 −3 ± 1
Simplify. x= =
4 4
−3 + 1 −3 − 1
Separate the two options. x= and x =
4 4
−2 1 −4
Solve. x= = − and x = = −1
4 2 4
Answer x = − 21 and x = −1
b)
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
Quadratic formula. x=
2a p
−(−6) ± (−6)2 − 4(1)(5)
Plug in the values a = 1, b = −6, c = 5. x=
2(1)
√ √
6 ± 36 − 20 6 ± 16
Simplify. x= =
2 2
6+4 6−4
2 2
10 2
Solve x= = 5 and x = = 1
2 2
Answer x = 5 and x = 1
c)
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
2a
p
−1 ± (1)2 − 4(−4)(1)
Plug in the values a = −4, b = 1, c = 1. x=
2(−4)
√ √
−1 ± 1 + 16 −1 ± 17
Simplify. x= =
−8 −8
√ √
−1 + 17 −1 − 17
−8 −8
Solve. x ≈ −.39 and x ≈ .64
Answer x ≈ −.39 and x ≈ .64

Often when we plug the values of the coefficients into the quadratic formula, we obtain a negative number inside the
square root. Since the square root of a negative number does not give real answers, we say that the equation has no
real solutions. In more advanced mathematics classes, you will learn how to work with “complex” (or “imaginary”)
solutions to quadratic equations.
Example 2
Solve the following quadratic equation using the quadratic formula x2 + 2x + 7 = 0
Solution:
182
a)
√
b± b2 − 4ac
2a
p
−2 ± (2)2 − 4(1)(7)
2(1)
√ √
−2 ± 4 − 28 −2 ± −24
Simplify. x= =
2 2
Answer There are no real solutions.

To apply the quadratic formula, we must make sure that the equation is written in standard form. For some problems,
we must rewrite the equation before we apply the quadratic formula.
Example 3
Solve the following quadratic equation using the quadratic formula.
a) x2 − 6x = 10
b) 8x2 = 5x + 6
Solution:
a)
Rewrite the equation in standard form. x2 − 6x − 10 = 0

√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
2a p
−(−6) ± (−6)2 − 4(1)(−10)
Plug in the values a = 1, b = −6, c = −10. x=
2(1)
√ √
6 ± 36 + 40 6 ± 76
Simplify. x= =
√2 2√
6 + 76 6 − 76
2 2
Solve. x ≈ 7.36 and x ≈ −1.36
Answer x ≈ 7.36 and x ≈ −1.36

b)
Rewrite the equation in standard form. 8x2 + 5x + 6 = 0

√
−b ±b2 − 4ac
p2a
−5 ± (5)2 − 4(8)(6)
2(8)
√ √
−5 ± 25 − 192 −5 ± −167
Simplify. x= =
16 16
Answer no real solutions

Multimedia Link For more examples of solving quadratic equations using the quadratic formula, see KhanAca
demyEquation Part 2 (9:14)
183
MEDIA
Click image to the left for more content.
. This video is not necessarily different from the examples above, but it does help reinforce the procedure of using
the quadratic formula to solve equations.
Finding the Vertex of a Parabola with the Quadratic Formula
Sometimes you get more information from a formula beyond what you were originally seeking. In this case, the
quadratic formula also gives us an easy way to locate the vertex of a parabola.
First, recall that the quadratic formula tells us the roots or solutions of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. Those roots
are
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= .
2a
We can rewrite the fraction in the quadratic formula as
√
b b2 − 4ac
x=− ± .
2a 2a
Recall that the roots are symmetric about the vertex. In the form above,√we can see that the roots of a quadratic
2
equation are symmetric around the x−coordinate − b because they move b − 4ac units to the left and right (recall
2a 2a
b
the ± sign) from the vertical line x = − 2a . The image to the right illustrates this for the equation x2 − 2x − 3 = 0.
The roots, -1 and 3 are both 2 units from the vertical line x = 1.
184
Identify and Choose Methods for Solving Quadratic Equations.
In mathematics, you will need to solve quadratic equations that describe application problems or that are part of
more complicated problems. You learned four ways of solving a quadratic equation.
• Factoring.
• Taking the square root.
• Completing the square.
• Quadratic formula.
Usually you will not be told which method to use. You will have to make that decision yourself. However, here are
some guidelines to which methods are better in different situations.
Factoring is always best if the quadratic expression is easily factorable. It is always worthwhile to check if you can
factor because this is the fastest method. Many expressions are not factorable so this method is not used very often
in practice.
Taking the square root is best used when there is no x term in the equation.
Completing the square can be used to solve any quadratic equation. This is usually not any better than using
the quadratic formula (in terms of difficult computations), however it is a very important method for re-writing a
quadratic function in vertex form. It is also be used to re-write the equations of circles, ellipses and hyperbolas in
standard form (something you will do in algebra II, trigonometry, physics, calculus, and beyond. . . ).
Quadratic formula is the method that is used most often for solving a quadratic equation. When solving directly
by taking square root and factoring does not work, this is the method that most people prefer to use.
If you are using factoring or the quadratic formula make sure that the equation is in standard form.
Example 4
Solve each quadratic equation
a) x2 − 4x − 5 = 0
b) x2 = 8
c) −4x2 + x = 2
d) 25x2 − 9 = 0
e) 3x2 = 8x
Solution
a) This expression if easily factorable so we can factor and apply the zero-product property:
Factor. (x − 5)(x + 1) = 0
Apply zero-product property. x − 5 = 0 and x + 1 = 0
Solve. x = 5 and x = −1
b) Since the expression is missing the x term we can take the square root:
√ √
Take the square root of both sides. x= 8 and x = − 8
Answer x = 2.83 and x = −2.83
185
c) Rewrite the equation in standard form.

It is not apparent right away if the expression is factorable, so we will use the quadratic formula.
√
−b ±b2 − 4ac
p2a
−1 ± 12 − 4(−4)(−2)
Plug in the values a = −4, b = 1, c = −2. x=
2(−4)
√ √
−1 ± 1 − 32 −1 ± −31
Simplify. x= =
−8 −8
Answer no real solution

d) This problem can be solved easily either with factoring or taking the square root. Let’s take the square root in this
case.
Add 9 to both sides of the equation. 25x2 = 9

9
Divide both sides by 25. x2 =
25
r r
9 9
Take the square root of both sides. x= and x = −
25 25
3 3
Simplify. x = and x = −
5 5
3
Answer x = 5 and x = − 53
e)
Rewrite the equation in standard form 3x2 − 8x = 0

Factor out common x term. x(3x − 8) = 0
Set both terms to zero. x = 0 and 3x = 8
8
Solve. x = 0 and x = = 2.67
3
Answer x = 0 and x = 2.67
Solve Real-World Problems Using Quadratic Functions by any Method
Here are some application problems that arise from number relationships and geometry applications.
Example 5
The product of two positive consecutive integers is 156. Find the integers.
Solution
For two consecutive integers, one integer is one more than the other one.
Define
Let x = the smaller integer
x + 1 = the next integer
186
Translate
The product of the two numbers is 156. We can write the equation:
x(x + 1) = 156
Solve
x2 + x = 156
x2 + x − 156 = 0
Apply the quadratic formula with a = 1, b = 1, c = −156
p
−1 ± 12 − 4(1)(−156)
x=
2(1)
√
−1 ± 625 −1 ± 25
x= =
2 2
−1 + 25 −1 − 25
x= and x =
2 2
24 −26
x= = 12 and x = = −13
2 2
Since we are looking for positive integers take, x = 12

Answer 12 and 13
Check 12 × 13 = 156. The answer checks out.
Example 6
The length of a rectangular pool is 10 meters more than its width. The area of the pool is 875 square/meters. Find
the dimensions of the pool.
Solution:
Draw a sketch
Define
Let x = the width of the pool
x + 10 = the length of the pool
Translate
The area of a rectangle is A = length × width, so
187
x(x + 10) = 875
Solve
x2 + 10x = 875
x2 + 10x − 875 = 0
Apply the quadratic formula with a = 1, b = 10 and c = −875
p
−10 ± (10)2 − 4(1)(−875)
x=
2(1)
√
−10 ± 100 + 3500
x=
√2
−10 ± 3600 −10 ± 60
x= =
2 2
−10 + 60 −10 − 60
x= and x =
2 2
50 −70
x= = 25 and x = = −35
2 2
Since the dimensions of the pools should be positive, then x = 25 meters.

Answer The pool is 25 meters × 35 meters.
Check 25 × 35 = 875 m2 . The answer checks out.
Example 7
Suzie wants to build a garden that has three separate rectangular sections. She wants to fence around the whole
garden and between each section as shown. The plot is twice as long as it is wide and the total area is 200 f t 2 . How
much fencing does Suzie need?
Solution
Draw a Sketch
Define
Let x = the width of the plot
2x = the length of the plot
Translate
188
Area of a rectangle is A = length × width, so
x(2x) = 200
Solve
2x2 = 200
Solve by taking the square root.
x2 = 100
√ √
x = 100 and x = − 100
x = 10 and x = −10
We take x = 10 since only positive dimensions make sense.

The plot of land is 10 f eet × 20 f eet.
To fence the garden the way Suzie wants, we need 2 lengths and 4 widths = 2(20) + 4(10) = 80 f eet of fence.
Answer: The fence is 80 feet.
Check 10 × 20 = 200 f t 2 and 2(20) + 4(10) = 80 f eet. The answer checks out.
Example 8
An isosceles triangle is enclosed in a square so that its base coincides with one of the sides of the square and the
tip of the triangle touches the opposite side of the square. If the area of the triangle is 20 in2 what is the area of the
square?
Solution:
Draw a sketch.
Define
Let x = base of the triangle
x = height of the triangle
Translate
Area of a triangle is 12 × base × height, so
189
1
· x · x = 20
2
Solve
1
ath = x2 = 20
2
Solve by taking the square root.
ath = x2 = 40
√ √ √ √
x = 40 = 2 10 and x = − 40 = −2 10
x ≈ 6.32 and x ≈ −6.32
The side of the square is 6.32 inches.

The area of the square is (6.32)2 = 40 in2 , twice as big as the area of the triangle.
Answer: Area of the triangle is 40 in2
Check: It makes sense that the area of the square will be twice that of the triangle. If you look at the figure you can
see that you can fit two triangles inside the square.
FIGURE 3.14
he answer checks out.
Review Questions
Solve the following quadratic equations using the quadratic formula.
190
1. x2 + 4x − 21 = 0
2. x2 − 6x = 12
3. 3x2 − 21 x = 38
4. 2x2 + x − 3 = 0
5. −x2 − 7x + 12 = 0
6. −3x2 + 5x = 0
7. 4x2 = 0
8. x2 + 2x + 6 = 0
Solve the following quadratic equations using the method of your choice.
9. x2 − x = 6
10. x2 − 12 = 0
11. −2x2 + 5x − 3 = 0
12. x2 + 7x − 18 = 0
13. 3x2 + 6x = −10
14. −4x2 + 4000x = 0
15. −3x2 + 12x + 1 = 0
16. x2 + 6x + 9 = 0
17. 81x2 + 1 = 0
18. −4x2 + 4x = 9
19. 36x2 − 21 = 0
20. x2 − 2x − 3 = 0
21. The product of two consecutive integers is 72. Find the two numbers.
22. The product of two consecutive odd integers is 1 less than 3 times their sum. Find the integers.
23. The length of a rectangle exceeds its width by 3 inches. The area of the rectangle is 70 square inches, find its
dimensions.
24. Angel wants to cut off a square piece from the corner of a rectangular piece of plywood. The larger piece of
wood is 4 f eet × 8 f eet and the cut off part is 31 of the total area of the plywood sheet. What is the length of the side
of the square?
191
25. Mike wants to fence three sides of a rectangular patio that is adjacent the back of his house. The area of the
patio is 192 f t 2 and the length is 4 feet longer than the width. Find how much fencing Mike will need.
Review Answers
1. x = −7, x√= 3
2. x = 3 ± √ 21
3. x = 1 ± 19
12 12
4. x = −1.5,√x = 1
5. x = 7 ± 97
2 2
6. x = 1, x = 23
7. x = 0, x = 14
√
8. −1 ± i 5
9. x = −2,√ x=3
10. x = ±2 3
11. x = 1, x = 1.5
12. x = −9, x =√2
13. x = −1 ± i 321
14. x = 0, x =
√1000
15. x = 2 ± 39 3
16. x = −3
17. x = ± 19 i
√
18. 12 ± i 2
√
19. x = ± 21 6
20. x = −1, x = 3
21. 8 and 9
22. 5 and 7
23. 7 in and 10 in
24. side = 3.27 f t
25. 40 feet of fencing.
192
3.6 The Discriminant
Learning Objectives
• Find the discriminant of a quadratic equation.

• Interpret the discriminant of a quadratic equation.
• Solve real-world problems using quadratic functions and interpreting the discriminant.
Introduction
The quadratic equation is ax2 + bx + c = 0.

√
It can be solved using the quadratic formula x = −b± b2 − 4ac .
2a
The expression inside the square root is called the discriminant, D = b2 − 4ac. The discriminant can be used to
analyze the types of solutions of quadratic equations without actually solving the equation. Here are some guidelines.
• If b2 − 4ac > 0, we obtain two separate real solutions.

• If b2 − 4ac < 0, we obtain non-real solutions.
• If b2 − 4ac = 0, we obtain one real solution, a double root.
Find the Discriminant of a Quadratic Equation
To find the discriminant of a quadratic equation, we calculate D = b2 − 4ac.

Example 1
Find the discriminant of each quadratic equation. Then tell how many solutions there will be to the quadratic
equation without solving.
a) x2 − 5x + 3 = 0
b) 4x2 − 4x + 1 = 0
c) −2x2 + x = 4
Solution:
a) Substitute a = 1, b = −5 and c = 3 into the discriminant formula D = (−5)2 − 4(1)(3) = 13.
There are two real solutions because D > 0.
b) Substitute a = 4, b = −4 and c = 1 into the discriminant formula D = (−4)2 − 4(4)(1) = 0.
There is one real solution because D = 0.
c) Rewrite the equation in standard form −2x2 + x − 4 = 0.
Substitute a = −2, b = 1 and c = −4 into the discriminant formula: D = (1)2 − 4(−2)(−4) = −31.
There are no real solutions because D < 0.
193
3.6. The Discriminant www.ck12.org
Interpret the Discriminant of a Quadratic Equation
The sign of the discriminant tells us the nature of the solutions (or roots) of a quadratic equation. We can obtain two
distinct real solutions if D > 0, no real solutions if D < 0 or one solution (called a “double root”) if D = 0. Recall
that the number of solutions of a quadratic equation tell us how many times a parabola crosses the x−axis.
194
Example 2
Determine the nature of solutions of each quadratic equation.
a) 4x2 − 1 = 0
b) 10x2 − 3x = −4
c) x2 − 10x + 25 = 0
Solution
Use the value of the discriminant to determine the nature of the solutions to the quadratic equation.
a) Substitute a = 4, b = 0 and c = −1 into the discriminant formula D = (0)2 − 4(4)(−1) = 16.
The discriminant is positive, so the equation has two distinct real solutions.
√
The solutions to the equation are: 0± 8 16 = ± 84 = ± 12 .
b) Rewrite the equation in standard form 10x2 − 3x + 4 = 0.
Substitute a = 10, b = −3 and c = 4 into the discriminant formula D = (−3)2 − 4(10)(4) = −151.
The discriminant is negative, so the equation has two non-real solutions.
c) Substitute a = 1, b = −10 and c = 25 into the discriminant formula D = (−10)2 − 4(1)(25) = 0.
The discriminant is 0, so the equation has a double root.
√
10± 0
The solution to the equation is 2 = 10
2 = 5.
If the discriminant is a perfect square, then the solutions to the equation are rational numbers.
Example 3
Determine the nature of the solutions to each quadratic equation.
a) 2x2 + x − 3 = 0
b) −x2 − 5x + 14 = 0
Solution
Use the discriminant to determine the nature of the solutions.
195
a) Substitute a = 2, b = 1 and c = −3 into the discriminant formula D = (1)2 − 4(2)(−3) = 25.

The discriminant is a positive perfect square so the solutions are two real rational numbers.
√
−1± 25
The solutions to the equation are 4 = −1±5
4 so, x = 1 and x = − 32 .
b) Substitute a = −1, b = −5 and c = 14 into the discriminant formula: D = (−5)2 − 4(−1)(14) = 81.
The discriminant is a positive perfect square so the solutions are two real rational numbers.
√
The solutions to the equation are 5± −281 = 5±9
−2 so, x = −7 and x = 2.
If the discriminant is not a perfect square, then the solutions to the equation are irrational numbers.
Example 4
Determine the nature of the solutions to each quadratic equation.
a) −3x2 + 4x + 1 = 0
b) 5x2 − x − 1 = 0
Solution
Use the discriminant to determine the nature of the solutions.
a) Substitute a = −3, b = 2 and c = 1 into the discriminant formula D = (4)2 − 4(−3)(1) = 28.
The discriminant is a positive perfect square, so the solutions are two real irrational numbers.
√
−2± 28
The solutions to the equation are −6 so, x ≈ −0.55 and x ≈ 1.22.
b) Substitute a = 5, b = −1 and c = −1 into the discriminant formula D = (−1)2 − 4(5)(−1) = 21.
The discriminant is a positive perfect square so the solutions are two real irrational numbers.
√
1± 20
The solutions to the equation are 10 so, x ≈ 0.56 and x ≈ −0.36.
Solve Real-World Problems Using Quadratic Functions and Interpreting the Discriminant
You saw that calculating the discriminant shows what types of solutions a quadratic equation possesses. Knowing
the types of solutions is very useful in applied problems. Consider the following situation.
Example 5
32 2
Marcus kicks a football in order to score a field goal. The height of the ball is given by the equation y = − 6400 x +x
where y is the height and x is the horizontal distance the ball travels. We want to know if he kicked the ball hard
enough to go over the goal post which is 10 feet high.
Solution
Define
Let y = height of the ball in feet
x = distance from the ball to the goalpost.
Translate We want to know if it is possible for the height of the ball to equal 10 feet at some real distance from the
goalpost.
32 2
10 = − x +x
6400
Solve
196
32 2
Write the equation in standard form. − x + x − 10 = 0
6400
Simplify. − 0.005x2 + x − 10 = 0
Find the discriminant. D = (1)2 − 4(−0.005)(−10) = 0.8
Since the discriminant is positive, we know that it is possible for the ball to go over the goal post, if Marcus kicks
it from an acceptable distance x from the goal post. From what distance can he score a field goal? See the next
example.
Example 6 (continuation)
What is the farthest distance that he can kick the ball from and still make it over the goal post?
Solution
We need to solve for the value of x by using the quadratic formula.
√
−1 ± 0.8
x= ≈ 10.6 or 189.4
−0.01
This means that Marcus has to be closer that 189.4 feet or further than 10.6 feet to make the goal. (Why are there
two solutions to this equation? Think about the path of a ball after it is kicked).
Example 7
Emma and Bradon own a factory that produces bike helmets. Their accountant says that their profit per year is given
by the function
P = 0.003x2 + 12x + 27760
In this equation x is the number of helmets produced. Their goal is to make a profit of $40,000 this year. Is this
possible?
Solution
We want to know if it is possible for the profit to equal $40,000.
40000 = −0.003x2 + 12x + 27760
Solve
Write the equation in standard form − 0.003x2 + 12x − 12240 = 0

Find the discriminant. D = (12)2 − 4(−0.003)(−12240) = −2.88
Since the discriminant is negative, we know that there are no real solutions to this equation. Thus, it is not possible
for Emma and Bradon to make a profit of $40,000 this year no matter how many helmets they make.
197
Review Questions
Find the discriminant of each quadratic equation.
1. 2x2 − 4x + 5 = 0
2. x2 − 5x = 8
3. 4x2 − 12x + 9 = 0
4. x2 + 3x + 2 = 0
5. x2 − 16x = 32
6. −5x2 + 5x − 6 = 0
Determine the nature of the solutions of each quadratic equation.
7. −x2 + 3x − 6 = 0
8. 5x2 = 6x
9. 41x2 − 31x − 52 = 0
10. x2 − 8x + 16 = 0
11. −x2 + 3x − 10 = 0
12. x2 − 64 = 0
Without solving the equation, determine whether the solutions will be rational or irrational.
13. x2 = −4x + 20
14. x2 + 2x − 3 = 0
15. 3x2 − 11x = 10
1 2 2
16. 2 x + 2x + 3 = 0
17. 2
x − 10x + 25 = 0
18. x2 = 5x
19. Marty is outside his apartment building. He needs to give Yolanda her cell phone but he does not have time to
run upstairs to the third floor to give it to her. He throws it straight up with a vertical velocity of 55 feet/second.
Will the phone reach her if she is 36 feet up?
(Hint: The equation for the height is given by y = −32t 2 + 55t + 4.)
20. Bryson owns a business that manufactures and sells tires. The revenue from selling the tires in the month of
July is given by the function R = x(200 − 0.4x) where x is the number of tires sold. Can Bryson’s business
generate revenue of $20,000 in the month of July?
Review Answers
1. D = −24
2. D = 57
3. D=0
4. D=1
5. D = 384
6. D = −95
7. D = −15 no real solutions
8. D = 36 two real solutions
10. D = 0 one real solutions
11. D = −31 no real solutions
13. D = 96 two real irrational solutions
198
14. D = 16 two real rational solutions

17. D = 0 one real rational solution
18. D = 25 two real rational solutions
19. no
20. yes
199
3.7. Linear and Quadratic Models www.ck12.org
3.7 Linear and Quadratic Models
Learning Objectives
• Identify functions using differences and ratios.

• Write equations for functions.
• Perform exponential and quadratic regressions with a graphing calculator.
• Solve real-world problems by comparing function models.
Introduction
In this course you have learned about three types of functions, linear, quadratic and exponential.
Linear functions take the form y = mx = b or f (x) = mx + b.
Quadratic functions take the form y = ax2 + bx + c or f (x) = ax2 + bx + c.
In real-world applications, the function that describes some physical situation is not given. Finding the function is
an important part of solving problems. For example, scientific data such as observations of planetary motion are
often collected as a set of measurements given in a table. One job for the scientist is to figure out which function
best fits the data. In this section, you will learn some methods that are used to identify which function describes the
relationship between the dependent and independent variables in a problem.
Identify Functions Using Differences or Ratios.
One method for identifying functions is to look at the difference or the ratio of different values of the dependent
variable.
We use differences to identify linear functions.
If the difference between values of the dependent variable is the same each time we change the independent
variable by the same amount, then the function is linear.
Example 1
Determine if the function represented by the following table of values is linear.
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If we take the difference between consecutive y−values, we see that each time the x−value increases by one, the
y−value always increases by 3.
Since the difference is always the same, the function is linear.
When we look at the difference of the y−values, we must make sure that we examine entries for which the x−values
increase by the same amount.
For example, examine the values in the following table.
At first glance, this function might not look linear because the difference in the y−values is not always the same.
However, we see that the difference in y−values is 5 when we increase the x−values by 1, and it is 10 when we
increase the x−values by 2. This means that the difference in y−values is always 5 when we increase the x−values
by 1. Therefore, the function is linear. The key to this observation is that the ratio of the differences is constant.
This function is f (x) = 5x + 5.
In mathematical notation, we can write the linear property as follows.
−y1
If xy22 −x 1
is always the same for values of the dependent and independent variables, then the points are on a line.
Notice that the expression we wrote is the definition of the slope of a line.
Differences can also be used to identify quadratic functions. For a quadratic function, when we increase the x−values
by the same amount,
the difference between y−values will not be the same. However, the difference of the differences of the y−values
will be the same.
Here are some examples of quadratic relationships represented by tables of values.
a)
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In this quadratic function, f (x) = x2 , when we increase the x−value by one, the value of y increases by different
values. However, the increase is constant: the difference of the difference is always 2.
b)
In this quadratic function, f (x) = x2 − 3x + 1, when we increase the x−value by one, the value of y increases by
different values. However, the increase is constant: the difference of the difference is always 4.
We use ratios to identify exponential functions.
Write Equations for Functions.
Once we identify which type of function fits the given values, we can write an equation for the function by starting
with the general form for that type of function.
Example 2
Determine what type of function represents the values in the following table.
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TABLE 3.16:
x y
0 3
1 1
2 -3
3 -7
4 -11
Solution
Let’s first check the difference of consecutive values of y.
y−value always decreases by 4. Since the difference is always the same, the function is linear.
To find the equation for the function that represents these values, we start with the general form of a linear function.
f (x) = mx + b
Here m is the slope of the line and is defined as the quantity by which y increases every time the value of x increases
by one. The constant b is the value of the function when x = 0. Therefore, the function is
f (x) = −4x + 5
Example 3
Determine what type of function represents the values in the following table.
TABLE 3.17:
x y
0 0
1 5
203

x y
2 20
3 45
4 80
5 125
6 180
Solution
Let’s first check the difference of consecutive values of y.
y−value does not remain constant. Since the difference is not the same, the function is not linear.
Now, let’s check the difference of the differences in the values of y.
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When we increase the x−value by one, the value of y increases by different values. However, the increase is constant.
The difference of the differences is always 10 when we increase the x−value by one.
The function describing these set of values is quadratic. To find the equation for the function that represents these
values, we start with the general form of a quadratic function.
f (x) = ax2 + bx + c
We need to use the values in the table to find the values of the constants a, b and c.
The value of c represents the value of the function when x = 0, so c = 0.
Then y = ax2 + bx
Plug in the point (1, 5). 5 = a+b
Plug in the point (2, 20). 20 = 4a + 2b ⇒ 10 = 2a + b
To find a and b, we solve the system of equations 5 = a+b
10 = 2a + b
Solve the first equation for b. 5 = a+b ⇒ b = 5−a
Plug the first equation into the second. 10 = 2a + 5 − a
Solve for a and b. a = 5 and b = 0
Therefore the equation of the quadratic function is
y = 5x2
Perform Quadratic Regressions with a Graphing Calculator.
Earlier you learned how to perform linear regression with a graphing calculator to find the equation of a straight line
that fits a linear data set. In this section, you will learn how to perform exponential and quadratic regression to find
equations for functions that describe non-linear relationships between the variables in a problem.
Example 4
Find the quadratic function that is a best fit for the data in the following table. The following table shows how many
miles per gallon a car gets at different speeds.
TABLE 3.18:
Speed (mi/h) Miles Per Gallon
30 18
35 20
40 23
45 25
50 28
55 30
60 29
65 25
70 25
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Using a graphing calculator.

a) Draw the scatterplot of the data.
b) Find the quadratic function of best fit.
c) Draw the quadratic function of best fit on the scatterplot.
d) Find the speed that maximizes the miles per gallon.
e) Predict the miles per gallon of the car if you drive at a speed of 48 miles per gallon.
Solution
Step 1 Input the data
Press [STAT] and choose the [EDIT]option.
Input the values of x in the first column (L1 ) and the values of y in the second column (L2 ).
Note: In order to clear a list, move the cursor to the top so that L1 or L2 is highlighted. Then press [CLEAR] button
and then [ENTER].
Step 2 Draw the scatter plot.
First press [Y=] and clear any function on the screen by pressing [CLEAR] when the old function is highlighted.
Press [STATPLOT] [STAT] and [Y=] and choose option 1.
Choose the ON option, after TYPE, choose the first graph type (scatterplot) and make sure that the Xlist and Ylist
names match the names on top of the columns in the input table.
Press [GRAPH] and make sure that the window is set so you see all the points in the scatterplot. In this case
30 ≤ x ≤ 80 and 0 ≤ y ≤ 40.
You can set the window size by pressing on the [WINDOW] key at top.
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Step 3 Perform quadratic regression.

Press [STAT] and use right arrow to choose [CALC].
Choose Option 5 (QuadReg) and press [ENTER]. You will see “QuadReg” on the screen.
Type in L1 , L2 after ’QuadReg’ and Press [ENTER]. The calculator shows the quadratic function.
Function f (x) = −0.017x2 + 1.9x − 25
Step 4: Graph the function.
Press [Y=] and input the function you just found.
Press [GRAPH] and you will see the curve fit drawn over the data points.
To find the speed that maximizes the miles per gallons, use [TRACE] and move the cursor to the top of the parabola.
You can also use [CALC] [2nd] [TRACE] and option 4 Maximum, for a more accurate answer. The speed that
maximizes miles per gallons = 56 mi/h
Plug x = 56 into the equation you found: f (56) = −0.017(56)2 = 1.9(56) − 25 = 28 miles per gallon
Note: The image to the right shows our data points from the table and the function plotted on the same graph. One
thing that is clear from this graph is that predictions made with this function will not make sense for all values of
x. For example, if x < 15, this graph predicts that we will get negative mileage, something that is impossible. Thus,
part of the skill of using regression on your calculator is being aware of the strengths and limitations of this method
of fitting functions to data.
Solve Real-World Problems by Comparing Function Models
Example 7
The following table shows the number of students enrolled in public elementary schools in the US (source: US
Census Bureau). Make a scatterplot with the number of students as the dependent variable, and the number of years
since 1990 as the independent variable. Find which curve fits this data the best and predict the school enrollment in
the year 2007.
TABLE 3.19:
Year Number of Students (millions)
1990 26.6
1991 26.6
1992 27.1
1993 27.7
1994 28.1
1995 28.4
1996 28.1
1997 29.1
1998 29.3
2003 32.5
Solution
We will perform linear and quadratic regression on this data set and see which function represents the values in the
table the best.
Step 1 Input the data.
Input the values of x in the first column (L1 ) and the values of y in the second column (L2 ).
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Step 2 Draw the scatter plot.

Set the window size: 0 ≤ x ≤ 10 and 20 ≤ y ≤ 40.
Here is the scatter plot.
Step 3 Perform Regression.

Linear Regression
The function of the line of best fit is f (x) = 0.44x + 26.1.
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Here is the graph of the function on the scatter plot.

Quadratic Regression
The quadratic function of best fit is f (x) = 0.064x2 − .067x + 26.84.
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Here is the graph of the function on the scatter plot.
Review Questions
Determine whether the data in the following tables can be represented by a linear function.
TABLE 3.20:
x y
−4 10
-3 7
-2 4
-1 1
0 -2
1 -5
TABLE 3.21:
x y
−2 4
-1 3
0 2
1 3
2 6
3 11
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TABLE 3.22:
x y
0 50
1 75
2 100
3 125
4 150
5 175
Determine whether the data in the following tables can be represented by a quadratic function:
TABLE 3.23:
x y
−10 10
-5 2.5
0 0
5 2.5
10 10
15 22.5
TABLE 3.24:
x y
1 4
2 6
3 6
4 4
5 0
6 -6
TABLE 3.25:
x y
−3 -27
-2 -8
-1 -1
0 0
1 1
2 8
3 27
Determine what type of function represents the values in the following table and find the equation of the function.
TABLE 3.26:
x y
−9 -3
-7 -2
-5 -1
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x y
-3 0
-1 1
1 2
TABLE 3.27:
x y
−3 14
-2 4
-1 -2
0 -4
1 -2
2 4
3 14
9. As a ball bounces up and down, the maximum height that the ball reaches continually decreases from one bounce
to the next. For a given bounce, the table shows the height of the ball with respect to time.
TABLE 3.28:
Time (seconds) Height (inches)
2 2
2.2 16
2.4 24
2.6 33
2.8 38
3.0 42
3.2 36
3.4 30
3.6 28
3.8 14
4.0 6
Using a graphing calculator
1. Draw the scatter plot of the data.

2. Find the quadratic function of best fit.
3. Draw the quadratic function of best fit on the scatter plot.
4. Find the maximum height the ball reaches on the bounce.
5. Predict how high the ball is at time t = 2.5 seconds.
10. The following table shows the rate of pregnancies (per 1000) for US women aged 15 to 19. (source: US Census
Bureau). Make a scatterplot with the rate of pregnancies as the dependent variable and the number of years since
1990 as the independent variable. Find which curve fits this data the best and predict the rate of teen pregnancies in
the year 2010.
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TABLE 3.29:
Year Rate of Pregnancy (per 1000)
1990 116.9
1991 115.3
1992 111.0
1993 108.0
1994 104.6
1995 99.6
1996 95.6
1997 91.4
1998 88.7
1999 85.7
2000 83.6
2001 79.5
2002 75.4
Review Answers
1. Linear common difference = −3

2. Not Linear
3. Linear common difference = 25
4. Quadratic difference of difference = 5
5. Quadratic difference of difference = −2
6. Not Quadratic
Linear f (x) = 12 x + 32

7.
8. Quadratic f (x) = 2x2 − 4
9. (a)
(b) f (x) = −35.4x2 + 213.3x − 282.4;
(c) Maximum height = 38.9 inches.
(d) t = 2.5 sec, height = 29.6 inches.
10. linear function is best fit: f (x) = −3.54x + 117.8 In year 2010, x = 20, rate of teen pregnancies = 47 per 1000
213
3.8. Problem Solving Strategies: Choose a Function Model www.ck12.org
3.8 Problem Solving Strategies: Choose a

Function Model
Learning Objectives
• Read and understand given problem situations

• Develop and use the strategy: Choose a Function
• Develop and use the strategy: Make a Model
• Plan and compare alternative approaches to solving problems
• Solve real-world problems using selected strategies as part of a plan
Introduction
As you learn more and more mathematical methods and skills, it is important to think about the purpose of mathe-
matics and how it works as part of a bigger picture. Mathematics is used to solve problems which often arise from
real-life situations. Mathematical modeling is a process by which we start with a real-life situation and arrive at a
quantitative solution. Modeling involves creating a set of mathematical equations that describes a situation, solving
those equations and using them to understand the real-life problem. Often the model needs to be adjusted because it
does not describe the situation as well as we wish.
A mathematical model can be used to gain understanding of a real-life situation by learning how the system works,
which variables are important in the system and how they are related to each other. Models can also be used to
predict and forecast what a system will do in the future or for different values of a parameter. Lastly, a model can be
used to estimate quantities that are difficult to evaluate exactly.
Mathematical models are like other types of models. The goal is not to produce an exact copy of the “real” object
but rather to give a representation of some aspect of the real thing. The modeling process can be summarized as
follows.
Notice that the modeling process is very similar to the problem solving format we have been using throughout this
book. In this section, we will focus mostly on the assumptions we make and the validity of the model. Functions are
an integral part of the modeling process because they are used to describe the mathematical relationship in a system.
One of the most difficult parts of the modeling process is determining which function best describes a situation.
We often find that the function we chose is not appropriate. Then, we must choose a different one, or we findthat a
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function model is good for one set of parameters but we need to use another function for a different set of parameters.
Often, for certain parameters, more than one function describes the situation well and using the simplest function is
most practical.
Here we present some mathematical models arising from real-world applications.
Example 1 Stretching springs beyond the “elastic limit”
A spring is stretched as you attach more weight at the bottom of the spring. The following table shows the length of
the spring in inches for different weights in ounces.
Weight (oz) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Length (in) 2 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.5 3.9 4.1 4.4 4.6 4.7 4.8
a) Find the length of the spring as a function of the weight attached to it.
b) Find the length of the spring when you attach 5 ounces.
c) Find the length of the spring when you attach 19 ounces.
Solution
Step 1 Understand the problem
Define x = weight in ounces on the spring
y = length in inches of the spring
Step 2 Devise a plan
Springs usually have a linear relationship between the weight on the spring and the stretched length of the spring.
If we make a scatter plot, we notice that for lighter weights the points do seem to fit on a straight line (see graph).
Assume that the function relating the length of the spring to the weight is linear.
Step 3 Solve
Find the equation of the line using points describing lighter weights:
(0, 2) and (4, 2.8).
215
.8
The slope is m = 4 = 0.2
Using y = mx + b
a) We obtain the function y = .2x + 2.
b) To find the length of the spring when the weight is 5 ounces, we plug in x = 5.
y = .2(5) + 2 = 3 inches
c) To find the length of the spring when the weight is 19 ounces, we plug in x = 19.
y = .2(19) + 2 = 5.8 inches
Step 4 Check
To check the validity of the solutions lets plot the answers to b) and c) on the scatter plot. We see that the answer to
b) is close to the rest of the data, but the answer to c) does not seem to follow the trend.
We can conclude that for small weights, the relationship between the length of the spring and the weight is a linear
function.
For larger weights, the spring does not seem to stretch as much for each added ounces. We must change our
assumption. There must be a non-linear relationship between the length and the weight.
Step 5 Solve with New Assumptions
Let’s find the equation of the function by cubic regression with a graphing calculator.
a) We obtain the function y = −.000145x3 − .000221x2 + .202x + 2.002.
b) To find the length of the spring when the weight is 5 ounces, we plug in x = 5.
y = −.000145(5)3 − .000221(5)2 + .202(5) + 2.002 = 3 inches
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c) To find the length of the spring when the weight is 19 ounces, we plug in x = 19.
y = −.000145(19)3 − .000221(19)2 + .202(19) + 2.002 = 4.77 inches
Step 6 Check
To check the validity of the solutions lets plot the answers to b) and c) on the scatter plot. We see that the answer to
both b) and c) are close to the rest of the data.
We conclude that a cubic function represents the stretching of the spring more accurately than a linear function.
However, for small weights the linear function is an equally good representation, and it is much easier to use in most
cases. In fact, the linear approximation usually allows us to easily solve many problems that would be very difficult
to solve by using the cubic function.
Example 2 Water flow
A thin cylinder is filled with water to a height of 50 centimeters. The cylinder has a hole at the bottom which is
covered with a stopper. The stopper is released at time t = 0 seconds and allowed to empty. The following data
shows the height of the water in the cylinder at different times.
Time(sec) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Height(cm) 50 42.5 35.7 29.5 23.8 18.8 14.3 10.5 7.2 4.6 2.5 1.1 0.2
a) Find the height (in centimeters) of water in the cylinder as a function of time in seconds.
b) Find the height of the water when t = 5 seconds.
c) Find the height of the water when t = 13 seconds.
Solution:
Define x = the time in seconds
y = height of the water in centimeters
217

Let’s make a scatter plot of our data with the time on the horizontal axis and the height of water on the vertical axis.
Notice that most of the points seem to fit on a straight line when the water level is high. Assume that a function
relating the height of the water to the time is linear.
Step 3 Solve
Find the equation of the line using points describing lighter weights:
(0, 50) and (4, 35.7).
−14.3
The slope is m = 4 = −3.58
Using y = mx + b
a) We obtain the function: y = −3.58x + 50
b) The height of the water when t = 5 seconds is
y = −3.58(5) + 50 = 32.1 centimeters
c) The height of the water when t = 13 seconds is
y = −3.58(13) + 50 = 3.46 centimeters
Step 4 Check
To check the validity of the solutions, let’s plot the answers to b) and c) on the scatter plot. We see that the answer
to b) is close to the rest of the data, but the answer to c) does not seem to follow the trend.
218
We can conclude that when the water level is high, the relationship between the height of the water and the time
is a linear function. When the water level is low, we must change our assumption. There must be a non-linear
relationship between the height and the time.
Step 5 Solve with new assumptions
Let’s assume the relationship is quadratic and let’s find the equation of the function by quadratic regression with a
graphing calculator.
a) We obtain the function y = .075x2 − 3.87x + 50
b) The height of the water when t = 5 seconds is
y = .075(5)2 − 3.87(5) + 50 = 32.53 centimeters
c) The height of the water when t = 13 seconds is
y = .075(13)2 − 3.87(13) + 50 = 12.37 centimeters
Step 6: Check
To check the validity of the solutions lets plot the answers to b) and c) on the scatterplot. We see that the answer to
both b) and c) are close to the rest of the data.
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We conclude that a quadratic function represents the situation more accurately than a linear function. However, for
high water levels the linear function is an equally good representation.
A golf ball is hit down a straight fairway. The following table shows the height of the ball with respect to time. The
ball is hit at an angle of 70 degrees with the horizontal with a speed of 40 meters/sec.
Time (sec) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0
Height (meters) 0 17.2 31.5 42.9 51.6 57.7 61.2 62.3 61.0 57.2 51.0 42.6 31.9 19.0 4.1
a) Find the height of the ball as a function of time.

b) Find the height of the ball when t = 2.4 seconds.
c) Find the height of the ball when t = 6.2 seconds.
Solution
Define x = the time in seconds
y = height of the ball in meters
Let’s make a scatter plot of our data with the time on the horizontal axis and the height of the ball on the vertical
axis. We know that a projectile follows a parabolic path, so we assume that the function relating height to time is
quadratic.
Step 3 Solve
Let’s find the equation of the function by quadratic regression with a graphing calculator.
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a) We obtain the function y = −4.92x2 + 34.7x + 1.2

b) The height of the ball when t = 2.4 seconds is:
y = −4.92(2.4)2 + 34.7(2.4) + 1.2 = 56.1 meters
c) The height of the ball when t = 6.2 seconds is:
y = −4.92(6.2)2 + 34.7(6.2) + 1.2 = 27.2 meters
Step 4 Check
To check the validity of the solutions lets plot the answers to b) and c) on the scatterplot. We see that the answer to
both b) and c) follow the trend very closely. The quadratic function is a very good model for this problem
Example 4 Population growth
A scientist counts two thousand fish in a lake. The fish population increases at a rate of 1.5 fish per generation but
the lake has space and food for only 2,000,000 fish. The following table gives the number of fish (in thousands) in
each generation.
Generation 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
Number (thousands) 2 15 75 343 1139 1864 1990 1999
a) Find the number of fish as a function of generation.

b) Find the number of fish in generation 10.
c) Find the number of fish in generation 25.
Solution:
Define x = the generation number y = the number of fish in the lake
221

Let’s make a scatterplot of our data with the generation number on the horizontal axis and the number of fish in the
lake on the vertical axis. We know that a population can increase exponentially. So, we assume that we can use an
exponential function to describe the relationship between the generation number and the number of fish.
Step 3 Solve
a) Since the population increases at a rate of 1.5 per generation, assume the function y = 2(1.5)x
b) The number of fish in generation 10 is: y = 2(1.5)10 = 115 thousand fish
c) The number of fish in generation 25 is: y = 2(1.5)25 = 50502 thousand fish
Step 4 Check
to b) fits the data well but the answer to c) does not seem to follow the trend very closely. The result is not even on
our graph!
When the population of fish is high, the fish compete for space and resources so they do not increase as fast. We
must change our assumptions.
Step 5 Solve with new assumptions
When we try different regressions with the graphing calculator, we find that logistic regression fits the data the best.
2023.6
a) We obtain the function y − 1+1706.3(2.71)−484x
2023.6
b) The number of fish in generation 10 is y = 1+1706.3(2.71)−.484(10)
= 139.6 thousand fish
2023.6
c) The number of fish in generation 25 is y = 1+1706.3(2.71)−.484(25)
= 2005 thousand fish
Step 6 Check
to both b) and c) are close to the rest of the data.
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We conclude that a logistic function represents the situation more accurately than an exponential function. However,
for small populations the exponential function is an equally good representation, and it is much easier to use in most
cases.
Review Questions
1. In Example 1, evaluate the length of the spring for weight = 3 ounces by

(a) Using the linear function
(b) Using the cubic function
(c) Figuring out which function is best to use in this situation.
2. In Example 1, evaluate the length of the spring for weight = 15 ounces by
(b) Using the cubic function
3. In Example 2, evaluate the height of the water in the cylinder when t = 4.2 seconds by
(b) Using the quadratic function
4. In Example 2, evaluate the height of the water in the cylinder when t = 19 seconds by
(b) Using the quadratic function
5. In Example 3, evaluate the height of the ball when t = 5.2 seconds. Find when the ball is at its highest point.
6. In Example 4, evaluate the number of fish in generation 8 by
(a) Using the exponential function
(b) Using the logistic function
7. In Example 4, evaluate the number of fish in generation 18 by
(a) Using the exponential function
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(b) Using the logistic function

Review Answers
1. (a) 2.6 inches

(b) 2.6 inches
(c) Both functions give the same result. The linear function is best because it is easier to use.
2. (a) 5 inches
(b) 4.5 inches
(c) The two functions give different answers. The cubic function is better because it gives a more accurate
answer.
3. (a) 34.96 cm
(b) 35.07 cm
(c) The results from both functions are almost the same. The linear function is best because it is easier to
use.
4. (a) -18.02 cm
(b) 3.5 cm
(c) The two function give different results. The quadratic function is better because it gives a more accurate
answer.
5. (a) 48.6 meters
(b) 3.7 seconds
6. (a) 51,000
(b) 55,000
(c) The results from both functions are almost the same. The linear function is best because it is easier to
use.
7. (a) 2,956,000
(b) 1,571,000
(c) the two functions give different results; the logistic function is better because it gives a more accurate
answer.
Texas Instruments Resources
In the CK-12 Texas Instruments Algebra I FlexBook, there are graphing calculator activities designed to supple-
ment the objectives for some of the lessons in this chapter. See http://www.ck12.org/flexr/chapter/9620.
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www.ck12.org Chapter 4. Rational Equations and Functions
C HAPTER
4 Rational Equations and
Functions
Chapter Outline
4.1 I NVERSE VARIATION M ODELS
4.2 G RAPHS OF R ATIONAL F UNCTIONS
4.3 D IVISION OF P OLYNOMIALS
4.4 R ATIONAL E XPRESSIONS
4.5 M ULTIPLICATION AND D IVISION OF R ATIONAL E XPRESSIONS
4.6 A DDITION AND S UBTRACTION OF R ATIONAL E XPRESSIONS
4.7 S OLUTIONS OF R ATIONAL E QUATIONS
4.8 R EFERENCES
225
4.1. Inverse Variation Models www.ck12.org
4.1 Inverse Variation Models
Learning Objectives
• Distinguish direct and inverse variation.

• Graph inverse variation equations.
• Write inverse variation equations.
• Solve real-world problems using inverse variation equations.
Introduction
Many variables in real-world problems are related to each other by variations. A variation is an equation that relates
a variable to one or more variables by the operations of multiplication and division. There are three different kinds
of variation problems: direct variation, inverse variation and joint variation.
Distinguish Direct and Inverse Variation
In direct variation relationships, the related variables will either increase together or decrease together at a steady
rate. For instance, consider a person walking at three miles per hour. As time increases, the distance covered by the
person walking also increases at the rate of three miles each hour. The distance and time are related to each other by
a direct variation.
distance = rate × time
Since the speed is a constant 3 miles per hour, we can write: d = 3t.
Direct Variation
The general equation for a direct variation is
y = kx.
k is called the constant of proportionality

You can see from the equation that a direct variation is a linear equation with a y−intercept of zero. The graph
of a direct variation relationship is a straight line passing through the origin whose slope is k the constant of
proportionality.
226
A second type of variation is inverse variation. When two quantities are related to each other inversely, as one
quantitiy increases, the other one decreases and vice-versa.
For instance, if we look at the formula distance = speed × time again and solve for time, we obtain:
distance
time =
rate
If we keep the distance constant, we see that as the speed of an object increases, then the time it takes to cover
that distance decreases. Consider a car traveling a distance of 90 miles, then the formula relating time and speed is
t = 90
s .
Inverse Variation
The general equation for inverse variation is
k
y=
x
where k is called the constant of proportionality.
In this chapter, we will investigate how the graph of these relationships behave.
Another type variation is a joint variation. In this type of relationship, one variable may vary as a product of two or
more variables.
For example, the volume of a cylinder is given by:
V = πr2 · h
In this formula, the volume varies directly as the product of the square of the radius of the base and the height of the
cylinder. The constant of proportionality here is the number π.
In many application problems, the relationship between the variables is a combination of variations. For instance
Newtons Law of Gravitation states that the force of attraction between two spherical bodies varies jointly as the
masses of the objects and inversely as the square of the distance between them
227
m1 m2
F =G
d2
In this example the constant of proportionality, G, is called the gravitational constant and its value is given by
G = 6.673 × 10−11 N · m2 /kg2 .
Graph Inverse Variation Equations
We saw that the general equation for inverse variation is given by the formula y = kx , where k is a constant of

proportionality. We will now show how the graphs of such relationships behave. We start by making a table of
values. In most applications, x and y are positive. So in our table, we will choose only positive values of x.
Example 1
Graph an inverse variation relationship with the proportionality constant k = 1.
Solution
TABLE 4.1:
1
x y= x
1
0 y= 0 = undefined
1 1
4 y= 1 =4
4
1 1
2 y= 1 =2
2
3 1
4 y= 3 = 1.33
4
1
1 y= 1 =1
3 1
2 y= 3 = 0.67
2
1
2 y= 2 = 0.5
1
3 y= 3 = 0.33
1
4 y= 4 = 0.25
1
5 y= 5 = 0.2
1
10 y= 10 = 0.1
Here is a graph showing these points connected with a smooth curve.
228
Both the table and the graph demonstrate the relationship between variables in an inverse variation. As one variable
increases, the other variable decreases and vice-versa. Notice that when x = 0, the value of y is undefined. The graph
shows that when the value of x is very small, the value of y is very big and it approaches infinity as x gets closer and
closer to zero.
Similarly, as the value of x gets very large, the value of y gets smaller and smaller, but never reaches the value of
zero. We will investigate this behavior in detail throughout this chapter
Write Inverse Variation Equations
As we saw an inverse variation fulfills the equation: y = kx . In general, we need to know the value of y at a

particular value of x in order to find the proportionality constant. After the proportionality constant is known, we
can find the value of y for any given value of x.
Example 2
If y is inversely proportional to x and y = 10 when x = 5. Find y when x = 2.
Solution
Since y is inversely proportional to x,

k
then the general relationship tells us y=
x
k
Plug in the values y = 10 and x = 5. 10 =
5
Solve for k by multiplying both sides of the equation by 5. k = 50
Now we put k back into the general equation.
50
The inverse relationship is given by y=
x
50
When x = 2 y= or y = 25
2
229
Answer y = 25
Example 3
If p is inversely proportional to the square of q, and p = 64 when q = 3. Find p when q = 5.
Solution:
Since p is inversely proportional to q2 ,

k
then the general equation is p=
q2
k k
Plug in the values p = 64 and q = 3. 64 = 2 or 64 =
3 9
Solve for k by multiplying both sides of the equation by 9. k = 576
576
The inverse relationship is given by p= 2
q
576
When q = 5 p= or p = 23.04
25
Answer p = 23.04.
Solve Real-World Problems Using Inverse Variation Equations
Many formulas in physics are described by variations. In this section we will investigate some problems that are
described by inverse variations.
Example 4
The frequency, f , of sound varies inversely with wavelength, λ. A sound signal that has a wavelength of 34 meters
has a frequency of 10 hertz. What frequency does a sound signal of 120 meters have?
Solution
k
The inverse variation relationship is f=
λ
k
Plug in the values λ = 34 and f = 10. 10 =
34
Multiply both sides by 34. k = 340
340
Thus, the relationship is given by f=
λ
340
Plug in λ = 120 meters. f= ⇒ f = 2.83
120
Answer f = 2.83 Hertz

Example 5
Electrostatic force is the force
of attraction or repulsion between two charges. The electrostatic force is given by
Kq1 q2
the formula: F = d2
where q1 and q2 are the charges of the charged particles, d 0 is the distance between
the charges and k is proportionality constant. The charges do not change and are, thus, constants and can then
be combined with the other constant k to form a new constant K. The equation is rewritten as F = dK2 . If the
electrostatic force is F = 740 Newtons when the distance between charges is 5.3 × 10−11 meters, what is F when
d = 2.0 × 10−10 meters?
230
Solution
k
The inverse variation relationship is f=
d2
k
Plug in the values F = 740 and d = 5.3 × 10−11 . 740 =
(5.3 × 10−11 )2
2
Multiply both sides by (5.3 × 10−11 )2 . K = 740 5.3 × 10−11
2.08 × 10−18
The electrostatic force is given by F=
d2
2.08 × 10−18
When d = 2.0 × 10−10 F=
(2.0 × 10−10 )2
2.08 ∗ 10(−18)
Enter 2 into a calculator. F = 52
2.0 ∗ 10(−10)
Answer F = 52 Newtons
2.08×10−18
Note: In the last example, you can also compute F = 2 by hand.
(2.0×10−10 )
2.08 × 10−18
F=
(2.0 × 10−10 )2
2.08 × 10−18
=
4.0 × 10−20
2.08 × 1020
=
4.0 × 1018
2.08
102

=
4.0
= 0.52(100)
= 52
This illustrates the usefulness of scientific notation.
Review Questions
Graph the following inverse variation relationships.
1. y = 3x
2. y = 10x
1
3. y = 4x
5
4. y = 6x
5. If z is inversely proportional to w and z = 81 when w = 9, find w when z = 24.
6. If y is inversely proportional to x and y = 2 when x = 8, find y when x = 12.
7. If a is inversely proportional to the square root of b, and a = 32 when b = 9, find b when a = 6.
8. If w is inversely proportional to the square of u and w = 4 when u = 2, find w when u = 8.
9. If x is proportional to y and inversely proportional to z, and x = 2, when y = 10 and z = 25. Find x when y = 8
and z = 35.
10. If a varies directly with b and inversely with the square of c and a = 10 when b = 5 and c = 2. Find the value
of a when b = 3 and c = 6.
231
11. The intensity of light is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the light source and the
object being illuminated. A light meter that is 10 meters from a light source registers 35 lux. What intensity
would it register 25 meters from the light source?
12. Ohms Law states that current flowing in a wire is inversely proportional to the resistance of the wire. If the
current is 2.5 Amperes when the resistance is 20 ohms, find the resistance when the current is 5 Amperes.
13. The volume of a gas varies directly to its temperature and inversely to its pressure. At 273 degrees Kelvin and
pressure of 2 atmospheres, the volume of the gas is 24 Liters. Find the volume of the gas when the temperature
is 220 kelvin and the pressure is 1.2 atmospheres.
14. The volume of a square pyramid varies jointly as the height and the square of the length of the base. A cone
whose height is 4 inches and whose base has a side length of 3 inches has a volume of 12 in3 . Find the volume
of a square pyramid that has a height of 9 inches and whose base has a side length of 5 inches.
Review Answers
1.
232
2.
3.
233
4.
5. W = 2438
6. y = 34
7. b = 256
8. w = 41
9. x = 87
10. a = 23
11. I = 5.6 lux
12. R = 10 ohms
13. V = 32.2 L
14. V = 75 in3
234
4.2 Graphs of Rational Functions
Learning Objectives
• Compare graphs of inverse variation equations.

• Graph rational functions.
• Solve real-world problems using rational functions.
Introduction
In this section, you will learn how to graph rational functions. Graphs of rational functions are very distinctive.
These functions are characterized by the fact that the function gets closer and closer to certain values but never
reaches those values. In addition, because rational functions may contain values of x where the function does not
exit, the function can take values very close to the excluded values but never cross through these values. This
behavior is called asymptotic behavior and we will see that rational functions can have horizontal asymptotes,
vertical asymptotes or oblique (or slant) asymptotes.
Compare Graphs of Inverse Variation Equations
Inverse variation problems are the simplest example of rational functions. We saw that an inverse variation has the
general equation: y = kx or f (x) = kx . In most real-world problems, the x and y values take only positive values.
Below, we will show graphs of three inverse variation functions.
Example 1
On the same coordinate grid, graph an inverse variation relationships with the proportionality constants k = 1, k = 2,
and k = 21 .
Solution
We will not show the table of values for this problem, but rather we can show the graphs of the three functions on
the same coordinate axes. We notice that for larger constants of proportionality, the curve decreases at a slower rate
than for smaller constants of proportionality. This makes sense because, basically the value of y is related directly to
the proportionality constants so we should expect larger values of y for larger values of k.
235
4.2. Graphs of Rational Functions www.ck12.org
Graph Rational Functions
We will now extend the domain and range of rational equations to include negative values of x and y. We will first
plot a few rational functions by using a table of values, and then we will talk about distinguishing characteristics of
rational functions that will help us make better graphs.
Recall that one of the basic rules of arithmetic is that you cannot divide by 0.
0
=0
5
while
5
= Undefined.
0
As we graph rational functions, we need to always pay attention to values of x that will cause us to divide by 0.
Example 2
Graph the function f (x) = 1x .
Solution
Before we make a table of values, we should notice that the function is not defined for x = 0. This means that the
graph of the function will not have a value at that point. Since the value of x = 0 is special, we should make sure
to pick enough values close to x = 0 in order to get a good idea how the graph behaves. Lets make two tables: one
for x−values smaller than zero and one for x−values larger than zero. For the table of values it may be helpful to
replace f(x) with y.
236
TABLE 4.2:
1
x y= x
1
−5 y= −5 = −0.2
1
-4 y= −4 = −0.25
1
-3 y= −3 = −0.33
1
-2 y= −2 = −0.5
1
-1 y= −1 = −1
1
-0.5 y= −0.5 = −2
1
-0.4 y= −0.4 = −2.5
1
-0.3 y= −0.3 = −3.3
1
-0.2 y= −0.2 = −5
1
-0.1 y= −0.1 = −10
TABLE 4.3:
1
x y= x
1
0.1 y= 0.1 = 10
1
0.2 y= 0.2 = 5
1
0.3 y= 0.3 = 3.3
1
0.4 y= 0.4 = 2.5
1
0.5 y= 0.5 = 2
1
1 y= 1 =1
1
2 y= 2 = 0.5
1
3 y= 3 = 0.33
1
4 y= 4 = 0.25
1
5 y= 5 = 0.2
We can see in the table that as we pick positive values of x closer and closer to zero, y becomes increasing large. As
we pick negative values of x closer and close to zero, y becomes increasingly small (or more and more negative).
closer and closer to the vertical line x = 0.

Notice on the graph that for values of x near 0, the points on the graph get
The line x = 0 is called a vertical asymptote of the function f (x) = 1x .
237
We also notice that as x gets larger in the positive direction or in the negative direction, the value of y gets closer
1

and closer to, but it will never actually equal zero. Why? Since f (x) = x , there are no values of x that will make
numerator must equal zero. The horizontal line y = 0 is called a
the fraction zero. For a fraction to equal zero, the
horizontal asymptote of the function f (x) = 1x .
Asymptotes are usually denoted as dashed lines on a graph. They are not part of the function. A vertical asymptote
shows that the function cannot take the value of x represented by the asymptote. A horizontal asymptote shows the
value of y that the function approaches for large absolute values of x.
Here we show the graph of our function with the vertical and horizontal asymptotes drawn on the graph.
Next we will show the graph of a rational function that has a vertical asymptote at a non-zero value of x.
Example 3
1
Graph the function f (x) = (x−2)2
.
Solution
Before we make a table of values we can see that the function is not defined for x = 2 because that will cause division
by 0. This tells us that there should be a vertical asymptote at x = 2. We start graphing the function by drawing the
vertical asymptote.
238
Now lets make a table of values.
TABLE 4.4:
1
x y = (x−2) 2
0 y = (0−2)2 = 41
1
1
1 y = (1−2) 2 = 1
1
1.5 y = (1.5−2)2 = 4
2 undefined
1
2.5 y = (2.5−2) 2 = 4
1
3 y = (3−2)2 = 1
1 1
4 y = (4−2) 2 = 4
Here is the resulting graph
239
Notice that we did not pick as many values for our table this time. This is because we should have a good idea what
happens near the vertical asymptote. We also know that for large values of x, both positive and negative, the value
of y could approach a constant value.
In this case, that constant value is y = 0. This is the horizontal asymptote.
A rational function does not need to have a vertical or horizontal asymptote. The next example shows a rational
function with no vertical asymptotes.
Example 4
x2
Graph the function f (x) = x2 +1
.
Solution
We can see that this function will have no vertical asymptotes because the denominator of the function will never
be zero. Lets make a table of values to see if the value of y approaches a particular value for large values of x, both
positive and negative.
TABLE 4.5:
x2
x y= x2 +1
(−3)2 9
−3 y= (−3)2 +1
= 10 = 0.9
(−2) 2
-2 y= (−2)2 +1
= 54 = 0.8
(−1) 2
-1 y= (−1)2 +1
= 21 = 0.5
(0)2
0 y= (0)2 +1
= 10 = 0
(1)2
1 y= (1)2 +1
= 21 = 0.5
(2)2
2 y= (2)2 +1
= 54 = 0.8
(3)2 9
2 y= (3)2 +1
= 10 = 0.9
Below is the graph of this function.
The function has no vertical asymptote. However, we can see that as the values of |x| get larger the value of y get
240
closer and closer to 1, so the function has a horizontal asymptote at y = 1.

More on Horizontal Asymptotes
We said that a horizontal asymptote is the value of y that the function approaches for large values of |x|. When we
plug in large values of x in our function, higher powers of x get larger more quickly than lower powers of x. For
example,
2x2 + x − 1
f (x) =
3x2 − 4x + 3
If we plug in a large value of x, say x = 100, we obtain:
2(100)2 + (100) − 1 20000 + 100 − 1

y= 2
=
3(100) − 4(100) + 3 30000 − 400 + 2
We can see that the first terms in the numerator and denominator are much bigger that the other terms in each
expression. One way to find the horizontal asymptote of a rational function is to ignore all terms in the numerator
and denominator except for the highest powers.
2x2
In this example the horizontal asymptote is f (x) = 3x2
which simplifies to y = 32 .
In the function above, the highest power of x was the same in the numerator as in the denominator. Now consider a
function where the power in the numerator is less than the power in the denominator.
x
f (x) =
x2 + 3
As before, we ignore all but the terms except the highest power of x in the numerator and the denominator.
x 1
Horizontal asymptote y = x2
which simplifies to y = x
For large values of x, the value of y gets closer and closer to zero. Therefore the horizontal asymptote in this case is
y = 0.
To Summarize
• Find vertical asymptotes by setting the denominator equal to zero and solving for x.
• For horizontal asymptotes, we must consider several cases for finding horizontal asymptotes.
– If the highest power of x in the numerator is less than the highest power of x in the denominator, then the
horizontal asymptote is at y = 0.
– If the highest power of x in the numerator is the same as the highest power of x in the denominator, then
coefficient of highest power of x
the horizontal asymptote is at y = coefficient of highest power of x
– If the highest power of x in the numerator is greater than the highest power of x in the denominator, then
we dont have a horizontal asymptote, we could have what is called an oblique (slant) asymptote or no
asymptote at all.
Example 5
Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes for the following functions.
1
a) f (x) = x−1
3x
b) f (x) = 4x+2
241
x2 −2
c) f (x) = 2x2 +3
x3
d) f (x) = x2 −3x+2
Solution
a) Vertical asymptotes
Set the denominator equal to zero. x − 1 = 0 ⇒ x = 1 is the vertical asymptote.
Horizontal asymptote
1
Keep only highest powers of x. y = x ⇒ y = 0 is the horizontal asymptote.
b) vertical asymptotes
Set the denominator equal to zero. 4x + 2 = 0 ⇒ x = − 12 is the vertical asymptote.
3x 3
Keep only highest powers of x. y = 4x ⇒y= 4 is the horizontal asymptote.
c) Vertical asymptotes
Set the denominator equal to zero. 2x2 + 3 = 0 ⇒ 2x2 = −3 ⇒ x2 = − 23 Since there are no solutions to this equation
therre is no vertical asymptote.
x2 1
Keep only highest powers of x. y = 2x2
⇒y= 2 is the horizontal asymptote.
d) Vertical asymptotes
Set the denominator equal to zero. x2 − 3x + 2 = 0
Factor. (x − 2)(x − 1) = 0
Solve. x = 2 and x = 1 vertical asymptotes
Horizontal asymptote. There is no horizontal asymptote because power of numerator is larger than the power of
the denominator
Notice the function in part d of Example 5 had more than one vertical asymptote. Here is an example of another
function with two vertical asymptotes.
Example 6
−x2
Graph the function f (x) = x2 −4
.
Solution
We start by finding where the function is undefined.
Lets set the denominator equal to zero. x2 − 4 = 0
Factor. (x − 2)(x − 2) = 0
Solve. x = 2, x = −2
We find that the function is undefined for x = 2 and x = −2, so we know that there are vertical asymptotes at these
values of x.
We can also find the horizontal asymptote by the method we outlined above.
−x2
Horizontal asymptote is at y = x2
or y = −1.
Start plotting the function by drawing the vertical and horizontal asymptotes on the graph.
Now, lets make a table of values. Because our function has a lot of detail we must make sure that we pick enough
values for our table to determine the behavior of the function accurately. We must make sure especially that we pick
242
values close to the vertical asymptotes.
TABLE 4.6:
−x2
x y= x2 −4
−(−5)2
−5 y= (−5)2 −4
= −25
21 = −1.19
−(−4) 2
−16
-4 y= (−4)2 −4
= 12 = −1.33
−(−3)2
-3 y= (−3)2 −4
= −9
5 = −1.8
−(−2.5)2
-2.5 y= (−2.5)2 −4
= −6.25
2.25 = −2.8
−(−1.5) 2
−2.25
-1.5 y= (−1.5)2 −4
= −1.75 = 1.3
−(−1) 2
−1
-1 y= (−1)2 −4
= −3 = 0.33
(−0)2 0
-0 y= (−0)2 −4
= −4 =0
−1 2 −1
1 y= (1)2 −4
= −3 = 0.33
−1.52 −2.25
1.5 y= (1.5)2 −4
= −1.75 = 1.3
−2.5 2
2.5 y= (2.5)2 −4
= −6.25
2.25 = −2.8
−3 2 −9
3 y= (−3)2 −4
= 5 = −1.8
−42
4 y= (−4)2 −4
= −16
12 = −1.33
−5 2
5 y= (−5)2 −4
= −25
21 = −1.19
Here is the resulting graph.
Solve Real-World Problems Using Rational Functions
Electrical Circuits
Electrical circuits are commonplace is everyday life. For instance, they are present in all electrical appliances in
your home. The figure below shows an example of a simple electrical circuit. It consists of a battery which provides
a voltage (V , measured in Volts, V ), a resistor (R, measured in ohms, Ω) which resists the flow of electricity, and an
ammeter that measures the current (I, measured in amperes, A) in the circuit.
243
Ohms Law gives a relationship between current, voltage and resistance. It states that
V
I=
R
Your light bulb, toaster and hairdryer are all basically simple resistors. In addition, resistors are used in an electrical
circuit to control the amount of current flowing through a circuit and to regulate voltage levels. One important reason
to do this is to prevent sensitive electrical components from burning out due to too much current or too high a voltage
level. Resistors can be arranges in series or in parallel.
For resistors placed in a series, the total resistance is just the sum of the resistances of the individual resistors.
Rtot = R1 + R2
For resistors placed in parallel, the reciprocal of the total resistance is the sum of the reciprocals of the resistance of
the individual resistors.
1 1
Rc = R1 + R12
Example 7
Find the quantity labeled x in the following circuit.
Solution
We use the formula that relates voltage, current and resistance I = VR
244
12
Plug in the known values I = 2A,V = 12V : 2 = R
Multiply both sides by R. 2R = 12
Divide both sides by 2. R = 6 Ω
Answer 6 Ω
Example 8
Solution
Vtotal
Ohms Law also says Itotal = Rtotal
Plug in the values we know, I = 2.5 A and E = 9V .
9
2.5 = Rtotal
Multiply both sides by Rtotal . 2.5Rtotal = 9
Divide both sides by 2.5. Rtot = 3.6 Ω
Since the resistors are placed in parallel, the total resistance is given by
1 1 1
= +
Rtotal x 20
1 1 1
⇒ = +
3.6 x 20
1
Multiply all terms by 72X. 3.6 (72x) = 1x (72x) + 20
1
(72x)
Cancel common factors. 20x = 72 + 3.6X
Solve. 16.4x = 72
Divide both sides by 16.4.x = 4.39 Ω
Answer x = 4.39 Ω
Review Questions
Find all the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the following rational functions.
4
1. f (x) = x+2
5x−1
2. f (x) = 2x−6
10
3. f (x) = x
4x2
4. f (x) = 4x2 +1
2x
5. f (x) = x2 −9
245
3x2
6. f (x) = x2 −4
1
7. f (x) = x2 +4x+3
2x+5
8. f (x) = x2 −2x−8
Graph the following rational functions. Draw dashed vertical and horizontal lines on the graph to denote asymptotes.
y
9. f (x) = 2−x3
3
10. f (x) = x2
x
11. f (x) = x−1
2x
12. f (x) = x+1
−1
13. f (x) = x2 +2
x
14. f (x) = x2 +9
x2
15. f (x) = x2 +1
1
16. f (x) = x2 −1
2x
17. f (x) = x2 −9
x2
18. f (x) = x2 −16
3
19. f (x) = x2 −4x+4
x
20. f (x) = x2 −x−6
21.
FIGURE 4.1
22.
23.
24.
Review Answers
1. vertical x = −2; horizontal y = 0
246
FIGURE 4.2
FIGURE 4.3
FIGURE 4.4
247
2. vertical x = 3; horizontal y = 25
3. vertical x = 0; horizontal y = 0
4. no vertical; horizontal y = 1
5. vertical x = 3, x = −3; horizontal y = 0
7. vertical x = −1, x = −3; horizontal y = 0
FIGURE 4.5
9.
248
FIGURE 4.6
10.
FIGURE 4.7
11.
249
FIGURE 4.8
12.
FIGURE 4.9
13.
250
FIGURE 4.10
14.
FIGURE 4.11
15.
251
FIGURE 4.12
16.
FIGURE 4.13
17.
252
FIGURE 4.14
18.
FIGURE 4.15
19.
253
FIGURE 4.16
20.
21. 18 V
22. 12.5 ohms
23. 2.5 Amperes
24. 10 ohms
254
4.3 Division of Polynomials
Learning Objectives
• Divide a polynomials by a monomial.

• Divide a polynomial by a binomial.
• Rewrite and graph rational functions.
Introduction
A rational expression is formed by taking the quotient of two polynomials.

Some examples of rational expressions are
2x
a) x2 −1
4x2 −3x+4
b) 2x
9x2 +4x−5
c) x2 +5x−1
2x3
d) 2x+3
Just as with rational numbers, the expression on the top is called the numerator and the expression on the bottom
is called the denominator. In special cases we can simplify a rational expression by dividing the numerator by the
denominator.
Divide a Polynomial by a Monomial
We start by dividing a polynomial by a monomial. To do this, we divide each term of the polynomial by the
monomial. When the numerator has different terms, the term on the bottom of the fraction serves as common
denominator to all the terms in the numerator.
Example 1
Divide.
8x2 −4x+16
a) 2
3x3 −6x−1
b) x
−3x2 −18x+6
c) 9x
Solution
8x2 − 4x + 16 8x2 4x 16
= − + = 4x2 − 2x + 8
2 2 2 2
3x3 − 6x − 1 3x3 6x 1 1
= + − = 3x2 + 6 −
x x x x x
−3x2 − 18x + 6 3x2 18x 6 x 2
= − + = − −2+
9x 9x 9x 9x 3 3x
255
4.3. Division of Polynomials www.ck12.org
A common error is to cancel the denominator with just one term in the numerator.
3x+4
Consider the quotient 4
Remember that the denominator of 4 is common to both the terms in the numerator. In other words we are dividing
both of the terms in the numerator by the number 4.
The correct way to simplify is
3x + 4 3x 4 3x
= + = +1
4 4 4 4
A common mistake is to cross out the number 4 from the numerator and the denominator
3x +
Z 4

= 3x
Z
4ZZ
This is incorrect because the term 3x does not get divided by 4 as it should be.
Example 2
5x3 −10x2 +x−25
Divide −5x2
.
Solution
5x3 − 10x2 + x − 25 5x3 10x2 x 25

2
= 2
− 2
+ 2
−
−5x −5x −5x −5x −5x2
The negative sign in the denominator changes all the signs of the fractions:
5x3 10x2 x 25 1 5
− + 2 − 2 + 2 = −x + 2 − + 2
5x2 5x 5x 5x 5x x
Divide a Polynomial by a Binomial
We divide polynomials in a similar way that we perform long division with numbers. We will explain the method by
doing an example.
Example 3
x2 +4x+5
Divide x+3 .
Solution: When we perform division, the expression in the numerator is called the dividend and the expression in
the denominator is called the divisor.
To start the division we rewrite the problem in the following form.
x2
We start by dividing the first term in the dividend by the first term in the divisor x = x.
We place the answer on the line above the x term.
256
Next, we multiply the x term in the answer by each of the x + 3 in the divisor and place the result under the divided
matching like terms.
Now subtract x2 + 3x from x2 + 4x + 5. It is useful to change the signs of the terms of x2 + 3x to −x2 − 3x and add
like terms vertically.
Now, bring down 5, the next term in the dividend.
We repeat the procedure.

x

First divide the first term of x + 5 by the first term of the divisor x = 1.
Place this answer on the line above the constant term of the dividend,
Multiply 1 by the divisor x + 3 and write the answer below x + 5 matching like terms.
257
Subtract x + 3 from x + 5 by changing the signs of x + 3 to −x − 3 and adding like terms.
Since there are no more terms from the dividend to bring down, we are done.
The answer is x + 1 with a remainder of 2.
Remember that for a division with a remainder the answer is quotient + remainder
divisor
We write our answer as.
x2 + 4x + 5 2
= x+1+
x+3 x+3
Check
To check the answer to a long division problem we use the fact that:
divisor · qiotient + remainder = divisor
For the problem above here is the check of our solution.
(x + 3)(x + 1) + 2 = x2 + 4x + 3 + 2
= x2 + 4x + 5

Example 4
4x2 −25x−21
Divide x−7 .
Solution
258
4x2 −25x−21
Answer x−7 = 4x + 3
Check (4x + 3)(x − 7) + 0 = 4x2 − 25x − 21. The answer checks out.
Rewrite and Graph Rational Functions
In the last section we saw how to find vertical and horizontal asymptotes. Remember that the horizontal asymptote
shows the value of y that the function approaches for large values of x. Lets review the method for finding horizontal
asymptotes and see how it is related to polynomial division.
We can look at different types of rational functions.
Case 1 The polynomial in the numerator has a lower degree than the polynomial in the denominator. Take for
2
example, f (x) = x−1
We see that we cannot divide 2 by x − 1 and y approaches zero because the number in the denominator is bigger than
the number in the numerator for large values of x.
The horizontal asymptote is y = 0.
Case 2 The polynomial in the numerator has the same degree as the polynomial in the denominator. Take for
example, f (x) = 3x+2
x−1
In this case, we can divide the two polynomials and obtain.
5
The quotient is f (x) = 3 + x−1 .
Because the number in the denominator of the remainder is bigger than the number in the numerator of the remainder,
the reminder will approach zero for large values of x leaving only the 3, thus y will approach the value of 3 for large
values of x.
The horizontal asymptote is y = 3.
Case 3 The polynomial in the numerator has a degree that is one more than the polynomial in the denominator. Take
2 +3x+2
for example, f (x) = 4x x−1 .
9
The quotient is: y = 4x + 7 + x−1 .
The remainder approaches the value of zero for large values of x and the function y approaches the straight line
y = 4x + 7.When the rational function approaches a straight line for large values of x, we say that the rational
259
function has an oblique asymptote. (Sometimes oblique asymptotes are also called slant asymptotes). The oblique
asymptote is y = 4x + 7.
Case 4 The polynomial in the numerator has a degree that in two or more than the degree in the denominator. For
x3
example, f (x) = x−1 .
In this case the polynomial has no horizontal or oblique asymptotes.
Example 5
Find the horizontal or oblique asymptotes of the following rational functions.
3x2
a) f (x) = x2 +4
x−1
b) f (x) = 3x2 −6
x4 +1
c) f (x) = x−5
x3 −3x2 +4x−1
d) f (x) = x2 −2
Solution
a) We can perform the division
The answer to the division is y = 3 − x212

+4
There is a horizontal asymptote at y = 3.
b) We cannot divide the two polynomials.
There is a horizontal asymptote at y = 0.
c) The power of the numerator is 3 more than the power of the denominator. There are no horizontal or oblique
asymptotes.
d) We can perform the division
The answer to the division is y = x − 3 + 6x−7

x2 −2
There is an oblique asymptote at y = x − 3.
Notice that a rational function will either have a horizontal asymptote, an oblique asymptote or neither kind. In other
words horizontal or oblique asymptotes cannot exist together for the same rational function. As x gets large, y values
can approach a horizontal line or an oblique line but not both. On the other hand, a rational function can have any
number of vertical asymptotes at the same time that it has horizontal or oblique asymptotes.
260
Review Questions
Divide the following polynomials:

2x+4
1. 2
x−4
2. x
5x−35
3. 5x
x2 +2x−5
4. x
4x2 +12x−36
5. −4x
2x2 +10x+7
6. 2x2
x3 −x
7. −2x2
5x4 −9
8. 3x
x3 −12x2 +3x−4
9. 12x2
3−6x+x3
10. −9x3
x2 +3x+6
11. x+1
x2 −9x+6
12. x−1
x2 +5x+4
13. x+4
x2 −10x+25
14. x−5
x2 −20x+12
15. x−3
3x2 −x+5
16. x−2
9x2 +2x−8
17. x+4
3x2 −4
18. 3x+1
5x2 +2x−9
19. 2x−1
x2 −6x−12
20. 5x+4
Find all asymptotes of the following rational functions:

x2
21. f (x) = x−2
1
22. f (x) = x+4
x2 −1
23. f (x) = x2 +1
x−4
24. f (x) = x2 −9
x2 +2x+1
25. f (x) = 3x+4
x3 +1
26. f (x) = 4x−1
x−x3
27. f (x) = x2 −6x−7
x4 −2x
28. f (x) = 8x+24
Graph the following rational functions. Indicate all asymptotes on the graph:
x2
29. f (x) = x+2
x3 −1
30. f (x) = x2 −4
x2 +1
31. f (x) = 2x−4
x−x2
32. f (x) = 3x+2
Review Answers
1. x + 2
261
2. 1 − 4x
3. 1 − 7x
4. x + 2 − 5x
5. −x − 3 + 9x
6. 1 + 5x + 2x72
1
7. − 2x + 2x
5x 3 3
8. 3 −x
x 1 1
9. 12 − 1 + 4x − 3x2
10. − 3x13 + 3x22 − 19
4
11. x + 2 + x+1
2
12. x − 8 − x−1
13. x+1
14. x−5
39
15. x − 17 − x−3
15
16. 3x + 5 + x−2
128
17. 9x − 34 + x+4
18. x − 13 − 3(3x+1)
11
5 9 27
19. 2x+ 4 − 4(2x−1)
1 34 164
20. 5x− 25 − 25(5x+4)
21. vertical: x = 2, oblique: y = x
22. vertical: x = −4, horizontal: y = 0
23. horizontal: y = 1
24. vertical: x = 3, x = −3, horizontal: y = 0
25. vertical: x = −4 x 2
3 , oblique: y = 3 + 9
26. vertical: x = 41
27. vertical: x = 7, x = −1, oblique: y = −x − 6
28. vertical: x = −3
29.
30.
262
31.
32.
263
4.4. Rational Expressions www.ck12.org
4.4 Rational Expressions
Learning Objectives
• Simplify rational expressions.

• Find excluded values of rational expressions.
• Simplify rational models of real-world situations.
Introduction
A rational expression is reduced to lowest terms by factoring the numerator and denominator completely and
canceling common factors. For example, the expression
x · z x
=
y · z y
simplifies to simplest form by canceling the common factor z.
Simplify Rational Expressions.
To simplify rational expressions means that the numerator and denominator of the rational expression have no
common factors. In order to simplify to lowest terms, we factor the numerator and denominator as much as we
can and cancel common factors from the numerator and the denominator of the fraction.
Example 1
Reduce each rational expression to simplest terms.
4x−2
a) 2x2 +x−1
x2 −2x+1
b) 8x−8
2−4
c) x2x−5x+6
Solution
2(2x−1)
a) Factor the numerator and denominator completely. (2x−1)(x+1)
2
Cancel the common term (2x − 1). x+1 Answer
(x−1)(x−1)
b)Factor the numerator and denominator completely. 8(x−1)
x−1
Cancel the common term (x − 1). 8 Answer
(x−2)(x+2)
c) Factor the numerator and denominator completely. (x−2)(x−3)
x+2
Cancel the common term (x − 2). x−3 Answer
Common mistakes in reducing fractions:
When reducing fractions, you are only allowed to cancel common factors from the denominator but NOT common
terms. For example, in the expression
264
(x + 1).(x − 3)
(x + 2).(x − 3)
(x−3)
we can cross out the (x − 3) factor because (x−3) = 1.
We write
x−
(x + 1) · ( 3) (x + 1)
=
x − 3) (x + 2)
(x + 2) · (
However, dont make the mistake of canceling out common terms in the numerator and denominator. For instance,
in the expression.
x2 + 1
x2 − 5
we cannot cross out the x2 terms.
x2 + 1 x2 + 1
6=
x2 − 5 x2 − 5
When we cross out terms that are part of a sum or a difference we are violating the order of operations (PEMDAS).
We must remember that the fraction sign means division. When we perform the operation
(x2 + 1)
(x2 − 5)
we are dividing the numerator by the denominator
(x2 + 1) ÷ (x2 − 5)
The order of operations says that we must perform the operations inside the parenthesis before we can perform the
division.
Try this with numbers:
9 + 1 10 9 + 1 1
= = 2.5 But if we cancel incorrectly we obtain the following = − = −0.2.
9−5 4 9 − 5 5
CORRECT INCORRECT
Find Excluded Values of Rational Expressions
Whenever a variable expression is present in the denominator of a fraction, we must be aware of the possibility that
the denominator could be zero. Since division by zero is undefined, certain values of the variable must be excluded.
265
2

These values are the vertical asymptotes (i.e. values that cannot exist for x). For example, in the expression x−3 ,
the value of x = 3 must be excluded.
To find the excluded values we simply set the denominator equal to zero and solve the resulting equation.
Example 2
Find the excluded values of the following expressions.
x
a) x+4
2x+1
b) x2 −x−6
4
c) x2 −5x
Solution
a) When we set the denominator equal to zero we obtain. x + 4 = 0 ⇒ x = −4 is the excluded value
b) When we set the denominator equal to zero we obtain. x2 − x − 6 = 0
Solve by factoring. (x − 3)(x + 2) = 0
⇒ x = 3 and x = −2 are the excluded values.
c) When we set the denominator equal to zero we obtain. x2 − 5x = 0
Solve by factoring. x(x − 5) = 0
⇒ x = 0 and x = 5 are the excluded values.
Removable Zeros
Notice that in the expressions in Example 1, we removed a division by zero when we simplified the problem. For
instance,
4x − 2
2x2 + x − 1
was rewritten as
2(2x − 1)
.
(2x − 1)(x + 1)
1
This expression experiences division by zero when x = 2 and x = −1.
2
However, when we cancel common factors, we simplify the expression to x+1 . The reduced form allows the value
1
x = 2 . We thus removed a division by zero and the reduced expression has only x = −1 as the excluded value.
Technically the original expression and the simplified expression are not the same. When we simplify to simplest
form we should specify the removed excluded value. Thus,
4x − 2 2 1
= , x 6=
2x2 + x − 1 x + 1 2
The expression from Example 1, part b reduces to
x2 − 2x + 1 x − 1
= , x 6= 1
8x − 8 8
266
The expression from Example 1, part c reduces to
x2 − 4 x+2
= , x 6= 2
x2 − 5x + 6 x − 3
Simplify Rational Models of Real-World Situations
Many real world situations involve expressions that contain rational coefficients or expressions where the variable
appears in the denominator.
Example 3
The gravitational force between two objects in given by the formula F = G (m(d1 m2 )2 ) . if the gravitation constant is given
by G = 6.67 × 10−11 (N · m2 /kg2 ). The force of attraction between the Earth and the Moon is F = 2.0 × 1020 N
(with masses of m1 = 5.97 × 1024 kg for the Earth and m2 = 7.36 × 1022 kg for the Moon).
What is the distance between the Earth and the Moon?
Solution
m1 m2
Let’s start with the Law of Gravitation formula. F =G
d2
N · m2 (5.97 × 1024 kg)(7.36 × 1022 kg)
Now plug in the known values. 2.0 × 1020 N = 6.67 × 10−11 .
kg2 d2
N · m2 4.39 × 1047 kg2
Multiply the masses together. 2.0 × 1020 N = 6.67 × 10−11 .
kg2 d2
N · m2 4.39 × 1047 2
kg
Cancel the kg2 units. 2 · 0 × 1020 N = 6.67 × 10−11 ·
kg

2 d2
2.93 × 1037
Multiply the numbers in the numerator. 2.0 × 1020 N = N · m2
d2
2.93 × 1037 2
Multiply both sides by d 2 . 2.0 × 1020 N · d 2 = · d · N · m2
d2
2.93 × 1037 2
Cancel common factors. 2 · 0 × 1020 N · d 2 = · d · N · m2
d2
Simplify. 2.0 × 1020 N · d 2 = 2.93 × 1037 N · m2
2.93 × 1037 N · m2
Divide both sides by 2.0 × 1020 N. d2 =
2.0 × 1020 N
Simplify. d = 1.465 × 1017 m2
2
Take the square root of both sides. d = 3.84 × 108 m Answer
This is indeed the distance between the Earth and the Moon.
Example 4
The area of a circle is given by A = πr2 and the circumference of a circle is given by C = 2πr. Find the ratio of the
circumference and area of the circle.
Solution
2πr
The ratio of the circumference and area of the circle is: πr2
We cancel common factors from the numerator and denominator. 2 R

π
πR 2
R
267
Simplify. 2r Answer
Example 5
The height of a cylinder is 2 units more than its radius. Find the ratio of the surface area of the cylinder to its volume.
Solution
Define variables.
Let R = the radius of the base of the cylinder.
Then, R + 2 = the height of the cylinder
To find the surface area of a cylinder, we need to add the areas of the top and bottom circle and the area of the curved
surface.
The volume of the cylinder is V = πR2 (R + 2)

2πR2 + 2πR(R + 2)
The ratio of the surface area of the cylinder to its volume is
πR2 (R + 2)
2πR2 + 2πR2 + 4πR
Eliminate the parentheses in the numerator.
πR2 (R + 2)
2
4πR + 4πR
Combine like terms in the numerator.
πR2 (R + 2)
4πR(R + 1)
Factor common terms in the numerator.
πR2 (R + 2)
4R(R + 1)
π
Cancel common terms in the numerator and denominator.
2
πR R (R + 2)

4(R + 1)
Simplify. Answer
R(R + 2)
Review Questions
Reduce each fraction to lowest terms.
268
4
1. 2x−8
x2 +2x
2. x
9x+3
3. 12x+4
6x2 +2x
4. 4x
x−2
5. x2 −4x+4
x2 −9
6. 5x+15
x2 +6x+8
7. x2 +4x
2x2 +10x
8. x2 +10x+25
x2 +6x+5
9. x2 −x−2
x2 −16
10. x2 +2x−8
3x2 +3x−18
11. 2x2 +5x−3
x3 +x2 −20x
12. 6x2 +6x−120
Find the excluded values for each rational expression.

2
13. x
4
14. x+2
2x−1
15. (x−1)2
3x+1
16. x2 −4
x2
17. x2 +9
2x2 +3x−1
18. x2 −3x−28
5x3 −4
19. x2 +3x
9
20. x3 +11x2 +30x
4x−1
21. x2 +3x−5
5x+11
22. 3x2 −2x−4
x2 −1
23. 2x2 +x+3
12
24. x2 +6x+1
25. In an electrical circuit with resistors placed in parallel, the reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to the sum
of the reciprocals of each resistance. R1c = R11 + R12 . If R1 = 25 Ω and the total resistance is Rc = 10 Ω, what is
the resistance R2 ?
26. Suppose that two objects attract each other with a gravitational force of 20 Newtons. If the distance between
the two objects is doubled, what is the new force of attraction between the two objects?
27. Suppose that two objects attract each other with a gravitational force of 36 Newtons. If the mass of both
objects was doubled, and if the distance between the objects was doubled, then what would be the new force
of attraction between the two objects?
28. A sphere with radius r has a volume of 34 πr3 and a surface area of 4πr2 . Find the ratio the surface area to the
volume of a sphere.
29. The side of a cube is increased by a factor of two. Find the ratio of the old volume to the new volume.
30. The radius of a sphere is decreased by four units. Find the ratio of the old volume to the new volume.
Review Answers
2
1. x−4
2. x + 2, x 6= 0
3. 34 , x 6= − 13
4. 3x+12 , x 6= 0
1
5. x−2
269
x−3
6. 5 , x 6= −3
x+2
7. x , x 6= −4
2x
8. x+5
x+5
9. x−2 , x 6= −1
x−4
10. x−2 , x 6= −4
3x−6
11. 2x−1 , x 6= −3
12. .
13. x=0
14. x = −2
15. x=1
16. x = 2, x = −2
17. none
18. x = −4, x = 7
19. x = 0, x = −3
20. x = 0, x = −5, x = −6
21. x = 1.19, x = −4.19
22. x = 1.54, x = −0.87
23. none
24. x = −0.17, x = −5.83
25. Rc = 16 23 Ω
26. 5 Newtons
27. 36 Newtons
3
28. R
1
29. 8
R3
30. (R−4)3
270
4.5 Multiplication and Division of Rational Ex-

pressions
Learning Objectives
• Multiply rational expressions involving monomials.

• Multiply rational expressions involving polynomials.
• Multiply a rational expression by a polynomial.
• Divide rational expressions involving polynomials.
• Divide a rational expression by a polynomial.
• Solve real-world problems involving multiplication and division of rational. expressions
Introduction
The rules for multiplying and dividing rational expressions are the same as the rules for multiplying and dividing
rational numbers. Lets start by reviewing multiplication and division of fractions. When we multiply two fractions
we multiply the numerators and denominators separately
a c a·c
· =
b d b·d
When we divide two fractions we first change the operation to multiplication. Remember that division is the
reciprocal operation of multiplication or you can think that division is the same as multiplication by the reciprocal
of the number.
a c a d
÷ = ·
b d b c
a·d
The problem is completed by multiplying the numerators and denominators separately b·c .
Multiply Rational Expressions Involving Monomials
Example 1
Multiply 45 · 15
8.
Solution
We follow the multiplication rule and multiply the numerators and the denominators separately.
4 15 4 · 15 60
· = =
5 8 5·8 40
Notice that the answer is not in simplest form. We can cancel a common factor of 20 from the numerator and
denominator of the answer.
271
4.5. Multiplication and Division of Rational Expressions www.ck12.org
60 3
=
40 2
We could have obtained the same answer a different way: by reducing common factors before multiplying.
4 15 4 · 15
· =
5 8 5·8
We can cancel a factor of 4 from the numerator and denominator:
1
4 15 4 · 15
· =
5 8 5 · 82
We can also cancel a factor of 5 from the numerator and denominator:
1 15 1 · 3
15 1·3 3
· = = =
5 2 51 · 2 1·2 2
Answer The final answer is 23 , no matter which you you go to arrive at it.
Multiplying rational expressions follows the same procedure.
• Cancel common factors from the numerators and denominators of the fractions.
• Multiply the leftover factors in the numerator and denominator.
Example 2
3
Multiply the following a
16b8
· 4b
5a2
.
Solution
Cancel common factors from the numerator and denominator.
1 1
a1 4 · b3
·
4 · b8 b5
16
2
5a
a
When we multiply the left-over factors, we get
1
Answer
4ab5
Example 3
4y2
Multiply 9x2 · 21x 4.
Solution
Rewrite the problem as a product of two fractions.
272
9x2 4y2
·
1 21x4
Cancel common factors from the numerator and denominator
93 x2 4y2
·
1 7 x4 x2
21
We multiply the left-over factors and get
12y2
Answer
7x2
Multiply Rational Expressions Involving Polynomials
When multiplying rational expressions involving polynomials, the first step involves factoring all polynomials
expressions as much as we can. We then follow the same procedure as before.
Example 4
4x+12
Multiply 3x2
· x2x−9 .
Solution
Factor all polynomial expression when possible.
4(x + 3) x
2
·
3x (x + 3)(x − 3)
Cancel common factors in the numerator and denominator of the fractions:
(x
4 +3)

x
· − 3)
3x2 x (x
+3)(x
Multiply the left-over factors.
4 4
= 2 Answer
3x(x − 3) 3x − 9x
Example 5
12x2 −x−6 2
+7x+6
Multiply x2 −1
· 4xx2 −27x+18 .
Solution
Factor all polynomial expression when possible.
(3x + 2)(4x − 3) (x + 1)(x + 6)

·
(x + 1)(x − 1) (4x − 3)(x − 6)
273
Cancel common factors in the numerator and denominator of the fractions.
(3x + 2) −
(4x (x
3) +
+ 6)
1)(x
− 1) (4x·
(x+1)(x − 3)(x − 6)

Multiply the remaining factors.
(3x + 2)(x + 6) 3x2 + 20x + 12

= Answer
(x − 1)(x − 6) x2 − 7x + 6
Multiply a Rational Expression by a Polynomial
When we multiply a rational expression by a whole number or a polynomial, we must remember that we can write
the whole number (or polynomial) as a fraction with denominator equal to one. We then proceed the same way as in
the previous examples.
Example 6
3x+18
Multiply 4x2 +19x−5
· x2 + 3x − 10.
Solution
Rewrite the expression as a product of fractions.
3x + 18 x2 + 3x − 10
·
4x+ 19x − 5 1
Factor all polynomials possible and cancel common factors.
3x(x + 6) (x − 2)
(x
+5)

·
(x
+5)(4x
− 1) 1
(3x + 18)(x − 2) 3x2 + 12x − 36

=
4x − 1 4x − 1
Divide Rational Expressions Involving Polynomials
Since division is the reciprocal of the multiplication operation, we first rewrite the division problem as a multiplica-
tion problem and then proceed with the multiplication as outlined in the previous example.
Note: Remember that ab ÷ dc = ab · dc . The first fraction remains the same and you take the reciprical of the second
fraction. Do not fall in the common trap of flipping the first fraction.
Example 7
4x2
Divide 15 ÷ 6x
5.
Solution
274
First convert into a multiplication problem by flipping what we are dividing by and then simplify as usual.
2 x 2
4 x2 5 2 · x · 1 2x
· = =
15
6x
1
3 ·3·1 9
Example 8
3x2 −15x 2−25
Divide 2x2 +3x−14
÷ 2x2x+13x+21 .
Solution
First convert into a multiplication problem by flipping what we are dividing by and then simplify as usual.
3x2 − 15x 2x2 + 13x + 21

·
2x2 + 3x − 14 x2 − 25
Factor all polynomials and cancel common factors.
3x −
(x 5)
(2x
+ − 2)
7)(x
·
− 2) (x
(2x
+ −
7)(x + 5)
5)(x

3x(x + 3) 3x2 + 9x
= 2 Answer.
(x − 2)(x + 5) x + 3x − 10
Divide a Rational Expression by a Polynomial
When we divide a rational expression by a whole number or a polynomial, we must remember that we can write the
whole number (or polynomial) as a fraction with denominator equal to one. We then proceed the same way as in the
previous examples.
Example 9
9x2 −4
Divide 2x−2 ÷ 21x2 − 2x − 8.
Solution
Rewrite the expression as a division of fractions.
9x2 − 4 21x2 − 2x − 8
÷
2x − 2 1
Convert into a multiplication problem by taking the reciprocal of the divisor (i.e. what we are dividing by).
9x2 − 4 1
· 2
2x − 2 21x − 2x − 8
Factor all polynomials and cancel common factors.
275
−
(3x 2)(3x
+ 2) 1

·
2(x − 1) −
(3x 2)(7x
+ 4)
3x + 2
.
14x2 − 6x − 8
Solve Real-World Problems Involving Multiplication and Division of Rational Expressions
Example 10
Suppose Marciel is training for a running race. Marciels speed (in miles per hour) of his training run each morning
is given by the function x3 − 9x, where x is the number of bowls of cereal he had for breakfast (1 ≤ x ≤ 6). Marciels
training distance (in miles), if he eats x bowls of cereal, is 3x2 − 9x. What is the function for Marciels time and how
long does it take Marciel to do his training run if he eats five bowls of cereal on Tuesday morning?
Solution
distance
time =
speed
3x2 − 9x 3x(x − 3) (x
3x −3)

time = 3 = =
x − 9x x(x2 − 9) x(x + 3) −
(x 3)

3
time =
x+3
If x = 5, then
3 3
time = =
5+3 8
3
Answer Marciel will run for 8 of an hour.
Review Questions
Perform the indicated operation and reduce the answer to lowest terms
2
x3
1. 2y3
· 2yx
2
2. 2xy ÷ 2xy
2x 4y
3. y2
· 5x
2
4. 2xy · 2y
x3
4y2 −1 y−3
5. ·
y2 −9 2y−1
6ab a3 b
6. ·
a2 3b2
x2 x
7. x−1 ÷ x2 +x−2
33a 2 20
8. −5 · 11a3
276
a2 +2ab+b2
9. ab2 −a2 b
÷ (a + b)
2x2 +2x−24 x2 +x−6
10. x2 +3x
· x+4
3−x x2 −9
11. 3x−5 ÷ 2x2 −8x−10
x2 −25
12. x+3 ÷ (x − 5)
2x+1 4x2 −1
13. 2x−1 ÷ 1−2x
x x2 −8x+15
14. x−5 · x2 −3x
3x2 +5x−12
15. x2 −9
÷ 3x−4
3x+4
2
5x +16x+3
16. · (6x 2 + 5x)
2
36x −25
2
x +7x+10 2 −3x
17. x2 −9
· 3xx2 +4x−4
x2 +x−12
18. x2 +4x+4
÷ x−3
x+2
x4 −16 x2 +4
19. x2 −9
÷ x2 +6x+9
x2 +8x+16
20. 7x2 +9x+2
÷ x7x+2
2 +4x
21. Marias recipe asks for 2 12 times more flour than sugar. How many cups of flour should she mix in if she uses
3 13 cups of sugar?
22. George drives from San Diego to Los Angeles. On the return trip, he increases his driving speed by 15 miles
per hour. In terms of his initial speed, by what factor is the driving time decreased on the return trip?
23. Ohms Law states that in an electrical circuit I = RVc . The total resistance for resistors placed in parallel is given
by R1tot = R11 + R12 . Write the formula for the electric current in term of the component resistances: R1 and R2 .
Review Answers
x2
1. y
y2
2. x
8
3. 5y
473
4. x2
2y+1
5. y+3
6. 2a2
7. x2 + 2x
8. −12
a
9. aba+b
2 −a2 b
2
10. 2x −10x+12
x
2 +8x+10
11. −2x
3x2 +4x−15
12. x+5
x+3
1
13. 1−2x
14. 1
15. 3x+4
x−3
5x3 +16x2 +3x
16. (6x−5)
x2 +5x
17. 3x2 −11x+6
x+4
18. x+2
x2 −4
19. x2 −9
x+4
20. x2 +x
21. 8 13 cups
s
22. s+15
23. I = RE1 + RE2
277
4.6. Addition and Subtraction of Rational Expressions www.ck12.org
4.6 Addition and Subtraction of Rational Ex-

pressions
Learning Objectives
• Add and subtract rational expressions with the same denominator.

• Find the least common denominator of rational expressions.
• Add and subtract rational expressions with different denominators.
• Solve real-world problems involving addition and subtraction of rational expressions.
Introduction
Like fractions, rational expressions represent a portion of a quantity. Remember that when we add or subtract frac-
tions we must first make sure that they have the same denominator. Once the fractions have the same denominator,
we combine the different portions by adding or subtracting the numerators and writing that answer over the common
denominator.
Add and Subtract Rational Expressions with the Same Denominator
Fractions with common denominators combine in the following manner.
a b a+b a b a−b
+ = and − =
c c c c c c
Example 1
Simplify.
a) 87 − 27 + 47
4x2 −3 2 −1
b) x+5 + 2xx+5
x2 −2x+1 2
−3x+5
c) 2x+3 − 3x 2x+3
Solution
a) Since the denominators are the same we combine the numerators.
8 2 4 8 − 2 + 4 10
− + = = Answer
7 7 7 7 7
b) Since the denominators are the same we combine the numerators.
4x2 − 3 + 2x2 − 1
x+5
Simplify by collecting like terms.
278
6x2 − 4
Answer
x+5
c) Since the denominators are the same we combine the numerators. Make sure the subtraction sign is distributed to
all terms in the second expression.
x2 − 2x + 1 − (3x2 − 3x + 5)
2x + 3
x2 − 2x + 1 − 3x2 + 3x − 5
=
2x + 3
2
−2x + x − 4
= Answer
2x + 3
Find the Least common Denominator of Rational Expressions
To add and subtract fractions with different denominators, we must first rewrite all fractions so that they have
the same denominator. In general, we want to find the least common denominator. To find the least common
denominator, we find the least common multiple (LCM) of the expressions in the denominators of the different
fractions. Remember that the least common multiple of two or more integers is the least positive integer having each
as a factor.
Consider the integers 234, 126 and 273.
To find the least common multiple of these numbers we write each integer as a product of its prime factors.
Here we present a systematic way to find the prime factorization of a number.
• Try the prime numbers, in order, as factors.

• Use repeatedly until it is no longer a factor.
• Then try the next prime:
234 = 2 · 117
= 2 · 3 · 39
= 2 · 3 · 3 · 13
234 = 2 · 32 · 13
126 = 2 · 63
= 2 · 3 · 21
= 2·3·3·7
126 = 2 · 32 · 7
273 = 3 · 91
= 3 · 7 · 13
279
Once we have the prime factorization of each number, the least common multiple of the numbers is the product of
all the different factors taken to the highest power that they appear in any of the prime factorizations. In this case,
the factor of two appears at most once, the factor of three appears at most twice, the factor of seven appears at most
once, the factor of 13 appears at most once. Therefore,
LCM = 2 · 32 · 7 · 13 = 1638 Answer
If we have integers that have no common factors, the least common multiple is just the product of the integers.
Consider the integers 12 and 25.
12 = 22 · 3 and 25 = 52
The LCM = 22 · 3 · 52 = 300, which is just the product of 12 and 25.

The procedure for finding the lowest common multiple of polynomials is similar. We rewrite each polynomial in
factored form and we form the LCM by taken each factor to the highest power it appears in any of the separate
expressions.
Example 2
Find the LCM of 48x2 y and 60xy3 z.
Solution
First rewrite the integers in their prime factorization.
48 = 24 · 3
60 = 22 · 3 · 5
Therefore, the two expressions can be written as
48x2 y = 24 · 3 · x2 · y
60xy3 z = 22 · 3 · 5 · x · y3 · z
The LCM is found by taking each factor to the highest power that it appears in either expression.
LCM = 24 · 3 · 5 · x2 · y3 · z = 240x2 y3 z.
Example 3
Find the LCM of 2x2 + 8x + 8 and x3 − 4x2 − 12x.
Solution
Factor the polynomials completely.
2x2 + 8x + 8 = 2(x2 + 4x + 4) = 2(x + 2)2

x3 − 4x2 − 12x = x(x2 − 4x − 12) = x(x − 6)(x + 2)
280
The LCM is found by taking each factor to the highest power that it appears in either expression.
LCM = 2x(x + 2)2 (x − 6) Answer
It is customary to leave the LCM in factored form because this form is useful in simplifying rational expressions and
finding any excluded values.
Example 4
Find the LCM of x2 − 25 and x2 + 3x + 2.
Solution
Factor the polynomials completely:
x2 − 25 = (x + 5)(x − 5)
x2 + 3x + 2 = (x + 2)(x + 1)
Since the two expressions have no common factors, the LCM is just the product of the two expressions.
LCM = (x + 5)(x − 5)(x + 2)(x + 1) Answer
Add and Subtract Rational Expressions with Different Denominators
Now we are ready to add and subtract rational expressions. We use the following procedure.
1. Find the least common denominator (LCD) of the fractions.

2. Express each fraction as an equivalent fraction with the LCD as the denominator.
3. Add or subtract and simplify the result.
Example 5
4 5
Add 12 + 18 .
Solution
We can write the denominators in their prime factorization 12 = 22 ·3 and 18 = 2·32 . The least common denominator
of the fractions is the LCM of the two numbers: 22 · 32 = 36. Now we need to rewrite each fraction as an equivalent
fraction with the LCD as the denominator.
For the first fraction. 12 needs to be multiplied by a factor of 3 in order to change it into the LCD, so we multiply
the numerator and the denominator by 3.
4 3 12
· =
12 3 36
For the section fraction. 18 needs to be multiplied by a factor of 2 in order to change it into the LCD, so we
multiply the numerator and the denominator by 2.
5 2 10
· =
18 2 36
281
Once the denominators of the two fractions are the same we can add the numerators.
12 10 22
+ =
36 36 36
The answer can be reduced by canceling a common factor of 2.
12 10 22 11
+ = = Answer
36 36 36 18
Example 6
Perform the following operation and simplify.
2 3
−
x + 2 2x − 5
Solution
The denominators cannot be factored any further, so the LCD is just the product of the separate denominators.
LCD = (x + 2)(2x − 5)
The first fraction needs to be multiplied by the factor (2x − 5) and the second fraction needs to be multiplied by the
factor (x + 2).
2 (2x − 5) 3 (x + 2)
· − ·
x + 2 (2x − 5) 2x − 5 (x + 2)
We combine the numerators and simplify.
2(2x − 5) − 3(x + 2) 4x − 10 − 3x − 6
=
(x + 2)(2x − 5) (x + 2)(2x − 5)
x − 16
Answer
(x + 2)(2x − 5)
Example 8
4x 3x
−
x−5 5−x
282
Solution
Notice that the denominators are almost the same. They differ by a factor of -1.
Factor (a − 1) from the second denominator.
4x 3x
−
x − 5 −(x − 5)
The two negative signs in the second fraction cancel.
4x 3x
+
x − 5 (x − 5)
Since the denominators are the same we combine the numerators.
7x
Answer
x−5
Example 9
2x − 1 3x + 4
−
x2 − 6x + 9 x2 − 9
Solution
We factor the denominators.
2x − 1 3x + 4
2
−
(x − 3) (x + 3)(x − 3)
The LCD is the product of all the different factors taken to the highest power they have in either denominator.
LCD = (x − 3)2 (x + 3).
The first fraction needs to be multiplied by a factor of (x + 3) and the second fraction needs to be multiplied by a
factor of (x − 3).
2x − 1 (x + 3) 3x + 4 (x − 3)
2
· − ·
(x − 3) (x + 3) (x + 3)(x − 3) (x − 3)
Combine the numerators.
(2x − 1)(x + 3) − (3x + 4)(x − 3)

(x − 3)2 (x + 3)
Eliminate all parentheses in the numerator.
283
2x2 + 5x − 3 − (3x2 − 5x − 12)

(x − 3)2 (x + 3)
Distribute the negative sign in the second parenthesis.
2x2 + 5x − 3 − 3x2 + 5x + 12
(x − 3)2 (x + 3)
−x2 + 10x + 9
Answer
(x − 3)2 (x + 3)
Solve Real-World Problems Involving Addition and Subtraction of Rational Expressions
Example 9
In an electrical circuit with two resistors placed in parallel, the reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to the sum
of the reciprocals of each resistance R1tot = R11 + R12 . Find an expression for the total resistance in a circuit with two
resistors wired in parallel.
Solution
The expression for the relationship between total resistance and resistances placed in parallel says that the reciprocal
of the total resistance is the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.
1
Lets simplify the expression R1 + R12 .
The lowest common denominator is
= R1 R2
R2 R1
Multiply the first fraction by R2 and the second fraction by R1 .
R2 1 R1 1
· + ·
R2 R1 R1 R2
Simplify.
R2 + R1
R1 R2
Therefore, the total resistance is the reciprocal of this expression.
R1 R2
Rc = Answer
R1 + R2
284
Number Problems
These problems express the relationship between two numbers.
Example 11
53
The sum of a number and its reciprocal is 14 . Find the numbers.
Solution
Let x = a number
1
Then, x is the reciprocal of the number
2. Set up an equation.
The equation that describes the relationship between the numbers is: x + 1x = 53
14
Find the lowest common denominator.
LCM = 14x
Multiply all terms by 14x
1 53
14x · x + 14x · = 14x ·
x 14
Cancel common factors in each term.
1 53
14x · x + 14x · ·
=
14x
x 14

Simplify.
14x2 + 14 = 53x
Write all terms on one side of the equation.
14x2 − 53x + 14 = 0
Factor.
(7x − 2)(2x − 7) = 0
2 7
x = and x =
7 2
Notice there are two answers for x, but they are really the same. One answer represents the number and the other
answer represents its reciprocal.
285
2
4. Check. 7 + 72 = 4+49
14 = 53
14 . The answer checks out.
Work Problems
These are problems where two people or two machines work together to complete a job. Work problems often
contain rational expressions. Typically we set up such problems by looking at the part of the task completed by each
person or machine. The completed task is the sum of the parts of the tasks completed by each individual or each
machine.
Part of task completed by first person + Part of task completed by second person = One completed task
To determine the part of the task completed by each person or machine we use the following fact.
Part of the task completed = rate of work time spent on the task
In general, it is very useful to set up a table where we can list all the known and unknown variables for each person
or machine and then combine the parts of the task completed by each person or machine at the end.
Example 12
Mary can paint a house by herself in 12 hours. John can paint a house by himself in 16 hours. How long would it
take them to paint the house if they worked together?
Solution:
Let t = the time it takes Mary and John to paint the house together.
2. Construct a table.
1
Since Mary takes 12 hours to paint the house by herself, in one hour she paints 12 of the house.
1
Since John takes 16 hours to pain the house by himself, in one hour he paints 16 of the house.
Mary and John work together for t hours to paint the house together. Using,
Part of the task completed = rate of work • time spent on the task
t t
We can write that Mary completed 12 of the house and John completed 16 of the house in this time.
This information is nicely summarized in the table below:
TABLE 4.7:
Painter Rate of work (per hour) Time worked Part of Task
1 t
Mary 12 t 12
1 1
John 16 t 16
t t
Since Mary completed 12 of the house and John completed 16 and together they paint the whole house in t hours,
we can write the equation.
t t
+ = 1.
12 16

LCM = 48
286
Multiply all terms in the equation by the LCM.
t t
48 · + 48 · = 48 · 1
12 16
t t
4 .
48
3.
+
48. = 48.1
12

16

Simplify.
4t + 3t = 48
48
7t = 48 ⇒ t = = 6.86 hours Answer
7
Check
The answer is reasonable. We expect the job to take more than half the time Mary takes but less than half the time
John takes since Mary works faster than John.
Example 12
Suzie and Mike take two hours to mow a lawn when they work together. It takes Suzie 3.5 hours to mow the same
lawn if she works by herself. How long would it take Mike to mow the same lawn if he worked alone?
Solution
Let t = the time it takes Mike to mow the lawn by himself.
TABLE 4.8:
Painter Rate of Work (per Hour) Time Worked Part of Task
1 2 4
Suzie 3.5 = 7 2 7
1 2
Mike t 2 t
Since Suzie completed 47 of the lawn and Mike completed 2
t of the lawn and together they mow the lawn in 2 hours,
we can write the equation: 74 + 2t = 1.
LCM = 7t
287
4 2
7t · + 7t · = 7t · 1
7 t
4 2
7t. + 7t. = 7t.1
7 t
Simplify.
4t + 14 = 7t
14 2
3t = 14 ⇒ t = = 4 hours Answer
3 3
Check.
The answer is reasonable. We expect Mike to work slower than Suzie because working by herself it takes her less
than twice the time it takes them to work together.
Review Questions
Perform the indicated operation and simplify. Leave the denominator in factored form.
5 7
1. 24 − 24
10 9
2. 21 + 35
5 3
3. 2x+3 + 2x+3
3x−1 4x+3
4. x+9 − x+9
4x+7 3x−4
5. 2x2
− 2x2
x2 25
6. x+5 − x+5
2x x
7. x−4 + 4−x
10 7
8. 3x−1 − 1−3x
5
9. 2x+3 − 3
5x+1
10. x+4 + 2
1 2
11. x + 3x
4
12. 5x2
− 7x23
4x 2
13. x+1 − 2(x+1)
10 2
14. x+5 + x+2
2x 3x
15. x−3 − x+4
4x−3 x+2
16. 2x+1 + x−9
x2 3x2
17. x+4 − 4x−1
2 x+1
18. 5x+2 − x2
x+4 2
19. 2x + 9x
5x+3
20. x2 +x
+ 2x+1x
4 5
21. (x+1)(x−1) − (x+1)(x+2)
2x 7x
22. (x+2)(3x−4) + (3x−4)2
3x+5 9x−1
23. x(x−1) − (x−1)2
288
1 4
24. (x−2)(x−3) + (2x+5)(x−6)
3x−2 1
25. x−2 + x2 −4x+4
−x2
26. x2 −7x+6
+x−4
2x 3x
27. x2 +10x+25
− 2x2 +7x−15
1 2
28. x2 −9
+ x2 +5x+6
−x+4 x
29. 2x2 −x−15
+ 4x2 +8x−5
4 1
30. 9x2 −49
− 3x2 +5x−28
31. One number is 5 less than another. The sum of their reciprocals is 13 36 . Find the two numbers.
32. One number is 8 times more than another. The difference in their reciprocals is 21 20 . Find the two numbers.
33. A pipe can fill a tank full of oil in 4 hours and another pipe can empty the tank in 8 hours. If the valves to both
pipes are open, how long would it take to fill the tank?
34. Stefan could wash the cars by himself in 6 hours and Misha could wash the cars by himself in 5 hours. Stefan
starts washing the cars by himself, but he needs to go to his football game after 2.5 hours. Misha continues
the task. How long did it take Misha to finish washing the cars?
35. Amanda and her sister Chyna are shoveling snow to clear their driveway. Amanda can clear the snow by
herself in three hours and Chyna can clear the snow by herself in four hours. After Amanda has been working
by herself for one hour, Chyna joins her and they finish the job together. How long does it take to clear the
snow from the driveway?
36. At a soda bottling plant one bottling machine can fulfill the daily quota in 10 hours, and a second machine
can fill the daily quota in 14 hours. The two machines start working together but after four hours the slower
machine broke and the faster machine had to complete the job by itself. How many hours does the fast machine
works by itself?
Review Answers
1
1. − 12
11
2. 15
8
3. 2x+3
4. −x−4
x+9
5. x=11
2x2
6. x − 5
x
7. x−4
17
8. 3x−1
9. −6x−4
2x+3
10. 7x+9
x+4
5
11. 3x
12. 28x−10
35x3
13. 4x−1
x+1
12x+30
14. (x+5)(x+2)
−x2 +17x
15. (x−3)(x+4)
6x2 −34x+19
16. (2x+1)(x−9)
x3 −13x2
17. (x+4)(4x−1)
2 +7x+2
18. − 3xx2 (5x+2)
9x+40
19. 18x
2x2 +8x+4
20. x(x+1)
−x+13
21. (x+1)(x−1)(x+2)
289
13x2 +6x
22. (x+2)(3x−4)2
−6x2 +3x−5
23. x(x−1)2
6x2 −17x−6
24. (x−2)(x−3)(2x+5)(x−6)
3x2 −8x+5
25. (x−2)2
−11x2 =34x−24
26. (x−6)(x−1)
x2 −21x
27. (2x−3)(x+5)2
3x−4
28. (x−3)(x+3)(x+2)
−x2 +4x=4
29. (2x+5)(x−3)(2x−1)
x+9
30. (3x+7)(3x−7)(x+4)
45 20
31. x = 4, x + 5 = 4 or x = − 13 ,x+5 = 13
5 20
32. x = 6 , 8x = 3
33. 8 hours
34. 2 hours and 55 minutes
35. 1 71 hours, or 1 hour 9 minutes
36. 3 17 hours
290
4.7 Solutions of Rational Equations
Learning Objectives
• Solve rational equations using cross products.

• Solve rational equations using lowest common denominators.
• Solve real-world problems with rational equations.
Introduction
A rational equation is one that contains rational expressions. It can be an equation that contains rational coefficients
or an equation that contains rational terms where the variable appears in the denominator.
An example of the first kind of equation is 35 x + 12 = 4.
x 4
An example of the second kind of equation is x−1 +1 = 2x+3 .
The first aim in solving a rational equation is to eliminate all denominators. In this way, we can change a rational
equation to a polynomial equation which we can solve with the methods we have learned this far.
Solve Rational Equations Using Cross Products
A rational equation that contains two terms is easily solved by the method of cross products or cross multiplication.
Consider the following equation.
x x+1
=
5 2
Our first goal is to eliminate the denominators of both rational expressions. In order to remove the five from the
denominator of the first fraction, we multiply both sides of the equation by five:
x x+1
5 · = ·5
5 2
Now, we remove the 2 from the denominator of the second fraction by multiplying both sides of the equation by two.
5(x + 1)
2·x = 2
2
The equation simplifies to 2x = 5(x + 1).
5
2x = 5x+ ⇒ x = − Answer
3
Notice that when we remove the denominators from the rational expressions we end up multiplying the numerator
on one side of the equal sign with the denominator of the opposite fraction.
291
4.7. Solutions of Rational Equations www.ck12.org
Once again, we obtain the simplified equation: 2x = 5(x + 1), whose solution is x = − 35
We check the answer by plugging the answer back into the original equation.
Check
On the left-hand side, if x = − 35 , then we have
−5
x 1
= 3 =−
5 5 3
On the right hand side, we have
−5
−2
x+1 1
= 3+1 = 3 = −
2 2 2 3
Since the two expressions are equal, the answer checks out.
Example 1
2 3
Solve the equation x−2 = x+3 .
Solution
Use cross-multiplication to eliminate the denominators of both fractions.
The equation simplifies to
2(x + 3) = 3(x − 2)
Simplify.
2x + 6 = 3x − 6
x = 12
Check.
2 2 2 1
= = =
x − 2 12 − 2 10 5
3 3 3 1
= = =
x + 3 12 + 3 15 5
292
Example 2
23
Solve the equation x+4 = 5x .
Solution
Cross-multiply.
2x2 = 5(x + 4)
Simplify.
2x2 = 5x + 20
2x2 − 5x − 20 = 0
Notice that this equation has a degree of two, that is, it is a quadratic equation. We can solve it using the quadratic
formula.
√
5± 185
x= 4 ⇒ x ≈ −2.15 or x ≈ 4.65
Answer
It is important to check the answer in the original equation when the variable appears in any denominator of the
equation because the answer might be an excluded value of any of the rational expression. If the answer obtained
makes any denominator equal to zero, that value is not a solution to the equation.
Check:
First we check x = −2.15 by substituting it in the original equations. On the left hand side we get the following.
2x 2(−2.15) −4.30
= = −2.3
x + 4 −2.15 + 4 1.85
Now, check on the right hand side.
5 5
= = −2.3
x −2.15
Thus, 2.15 checks out.

For x = 4.65 we repeat the procedure.
293
2x 2(4.65)
= = 1.08.
x + 4 4.65 + 4
5 5
= = 1.08.
x 4.65
4.65 also checks out.
Solve Rational Equations Using the Lowest Common Denominators
An alternate way of eliminating the denominators in a rational equation is to multiply all terms in the equation by
the lowest common denominator. This method is suitable even when there are more than two terms in the equation.
Example 3
3x x2 1
Solve 35 = 5 − 21 .
Solution
Find the lowest common denominator:
LCM = 105
Multiply each term by the LCD.
3x x2 1
105 · = 105 · − 105 ·
35 5 21
Cancel common factors.
2 5
3 . 3x =
105
21 . x −
105 1
105.
35
5 21

9x = 21x2 − 5
21x2 − 9x − 5 = 0
Solve using the quadratic formula.
√
9± 501
x=
42
x ≈ −0.32 or x ≈ 0.75 Answer

Check
294
We use the substitution x = −0.32.
3x 3(−0.32)
= = −0.27
35 35
x2 1 (−0.32)2 1
− = − = −.027. The answer checks out.
5 24 5 21
Now we check the solution x = 0.75.
3x 3(0.75)
= = 0.64
35 35
x2 1 (0.75)2 1
− − = .064. The answer checks out.
5 21 5 21
Example 4
3 4 2
Solve x+2 − x=5 = x2 −3x−10
.
Solution
Factor all denominators.
3 4 2
− −
x + 2 x − 5 (x + 2)(x − 5)
LCM = (x + 2)(x − 5)
3 4 2
(x + 2)(x − 5) · − (x + 2)(x − 5) · = (x + 2)(x − 5) ·
x+2 x−5 (x + 2)(x − 5)
Cancel the common terms.
− 5) · 3 · 4 = (x 2
(x
+2)(x − (x + 2) −
(x 5) + −
(x
2) ·
5)
x−5 −

x+2

(x + 2)
(x 5)

3(x − 5) − 4(x + 2) = 2
Simplify.
3x − 15 − 4x − 8 = 2
x = −25 Answer
295
Check.
3 4 3 4
− = − = 0.003
x + 2 x − 5 −25 + 2 −25 − 5
2 2
2
= 2
= 0.003
x − 3x − 10 (−25) − 3(−25) − 10

Example 5
2x x
Solve 2x+1 + x+4 = 1.
Solution
LCM = (2x + 1)(x + 4)
2x x
(2x + 1)(x + 4) · + (2x + 1)(x + 4) · = (2x + 1)(x + 4)
2x + 1 x+4
Cancel all common terms.
+ 4) · 2x · x = (2x + 1)(x + 4)
(2x
+1)(x + (2x + 1)
(x
+4)
2x + 1 x+ 4

The simplified equation is
2x(x + 4) + x(2x + 1) = (2x + 1)(x + 4)
2x2 + 8x + 2x2 + x = 2x2 + 9x + 4
Collect like terms.
2x2 = 4
√
x2 = 2 ⇒ x = ± 2 Answer
Check.
√ √
2x x 2 2 2
+ = √ + √ ≈ 0.739 + 0.261 = 1. The answer checks out.
2x + 1 x + 4 2 2 + 1 2+4
√
2 − 2 √
2x x − 2
+ = + √ ≈ 1.547 + 0.547 = 1. The answer checks out.
2x + 1 x + 4 2 − √2 + 1 − 2 + 4

296
Solve Real-World Problems Using Rational Equations
Motion Problems
A motion problem with no acceleration is described by the formula distance = speed × time.
These problems can involve the addition and subtraction of rational expressions.
Example 6
Last weekend Nadia went canoeing on the Snake River. The current of the river is three miles per hour. It took Nadia
the same amount of time to travel 12 miles downstream as three miles upstream. Determine the speed at which
Nadias canoe would travel in still water.
Solution
1. Define variables
Let s = speed of the canoe in still water
Then, s + 3 = the speed of the canoe traveling downstream
s − 3 = the speed of the canoe traveling upstream
We make a table that displays the information we have in a clear manner:
TABLE 4.9:
Direction Distance (miles) Rate Time
Downstream 12 s+3 t
Upstream 3 s−3 t
Since distance = rate × time, we can say that: time = distance
rate .
The time to go downstream is
12
t=
s+3
The time to go upstream is
3
t=
s−3
3 12
Since the time it takes to go upstream and downstream are the same then: s−3 = s+3
Cross-multiply.
3(s + 3) = 12(s − 3)
Simplify.
297
3s + 9 = 12s − 36
Solve.
s = 5 mi/hr Answer
5. Check
12
Upstream: t = 8 = 1 12 hour; Downstream: t = 3
2 = 1 12 hour. The answer checks out.
Example 8
Peter rides his bicycle. When he pedals uphill he averages a speed of eight miles per hour, when he pedals downhill
he averages 14 miles per hour. If the total distance he travels is 40 miles and the total time he rides is four hours,
how long did he ride at each speed?
Solution
Let t1 = time Peter bikes uphill, t2 = time Peter bikes downhill, and d = distance he rides uphill.
2. Construct a table
TABLE 4.10:
Direction Distance (miles) Rate (mph) Time (hours)
Uphill d 8 t1
Downhill 40 − d 14 t2
3. Write an equation
We know that
distance
time =
rate
The time to go uphill is
d
t1 =
8
The time to go downhill is
40 − d
t2 =
14
We also know that the total time is 4 hours.
298
d 40 − d
+ =4
8 14

Find the lowest common denominator:
LCM = 56
Multiply all terms by the common denominator:
d 40 − d
56 · + 56 · = 4 · 56
8 14
7d + 160 − 4d = 224
3d = 64
Solve.
d = 21.3 miles Answer
5. Check.
21.3 40−21.3
Uphill: t = 8 = 2.67 hours; Downhill: t = 14 = 1.33 hours. The answer checks out.
Shares
Example 8
A group of friends decided to pool together and buy a birthday gift that cost $200. Later 12 of the friends decided
not to participate any more. This meant that each person paid $15 more than the original share. How many people
were in the group to start?
Solution
Let x = the number of friends in the original group
2. Make a table.
TABLE 4.11:
Number of People Gift Price Share Amount
200
Original group x 200 x
200
Later group x − 12 200 x
Since each persons share went up by $15 after 2 people refused to pay, we write the equation:
200 200
= + 15
x − 12 x
299

LCM = x(x − 12)
Multiply all terms by the LCM.
200 200
x(x − 12) · = x(x − 12) · + x(x − 12) · 15
x − 12 x
Cancel common factors in each term:
200 200
−
(x
x ·
12) = x(x − 12) · + x(x − 12) · 15
x−
12

x
Simplify.
200x = 200(x − 12) + 15x(x − 12)
200x = 200x − 2400 + 15x2 − 180x
Collect all terms on one side of the equation.
0 = 15x2 − 180x − 2400
0 = x2 − 12x − 160
Factor.
0 = (x − 20)(x + 8)
Solve.
x = 20, x = −8
The answer is x = 20 people. We discard the negative solution since it does not make sense in the context of this
problem.
5. Check.
Originally $200 shared among 20 people is $10 each. After 12 people leave, $200 shared among 8 people is $25
each. So each person pays $15 more.
300
Review Questions
Solve the following equations.

Solve the following equations.
2x+1 x−3
4 = 10
4x 5
x+2 = 9
5 2
3x−4 = x+1
7x x+3
x−5 = x
2 1
x+3 − x+4 =0
3x2 +2x−1
x2 −1
= −2
x + 1x = 2
1 2
−3 + x+1 = x
1 x
x − x−2 =2
3 2
2x−1 + x+4 =2
2x x
x−1 − 3x+4 =3
x+1
x−1 + x−4
x+4 = 3
x x 1
x−2 + x+3 = x2 +x−6
2
x2 +4x+3
= 2 + x−2
x+3
1 1 1−x
x+5 − x−5 = x+5
x 1 1
x2 −36
+ x−6 = x+6
2x 1 2
3x+3 − 4x+4 = x+1
−x
x−2 + 3x−1
x+4 =
1
x2 +2x−8
Juan jogs a certain distance and then walks a certain distance. When he jogs he averages 7 miles/hour. When he
walks, he averages 3.5 miles/hour. If he walks and jogs a total of 6 miles in a total of 7 hours, how far does he jog
and how far does he walk?
A boat travels 60 miles downstream in the same time as it takes it to travel 40 miles upstream. The boat’s speed in
still water is 20 miles/hour. Find the speed of the current.
Paul leaves San Diego driving at 50 miles/hour. Two hours later, his mother realizes that he forgot something and
drives in the same direction at 70 miles/hour. How long does it take her to catch up to Paul?
On a trip, an airplane flies at a steady speed against the wind. On the return trip the airplane flies with the wind. The
airplane takes the same amount of time to fly 300 miles against the wind as it takes to fly 420 miles with the wind.
The wind is blowing at 30 miles/hour. What is the speed of the airplane when there is no wind?
A debt of $420 is shared equally by a group of friends. When five of the friends decide not to pay, the share of the
other friends goes up by $25. How many friends were in the group originally?
A non-profit organization collected $2250 in equal donations from their members to share the cost of improving a
park. If there were thirty more members, then each member could contribute $20 less. How many members does
this organization have?
301
Review Answers
1. x = − 118
2. x = 10
31
3. x = 13
4. no real solution
5. x = −5
6. x = 35
7. x=1
8. x = 13
9. x = 1, x = 23
10. x = −3.17, x = 1.42
11. x = −1.14, x = 2.64
12. x = −10.84, x = 1.84
13. x = −1, x = 21
14. x = −2, x = − 13
15. x = −.74, x = 6.74
16. x = −12
17. x = 278
18. x = .092, x = 5.41
19. jogs 3.6 miles and walks 2.4 miles
20. 4 miles/hour
21. 5 hours
22. 180 miles/hour
23. 12 friends
24. 45 members
302
4.8 References
1. CK-12 Foundation. . CCSA

303
www.ck12.org
C HAPTER
5 Exponential and
Logarithmic Equations and Functions
Chapter Outline
5.1 C OMPOSITE F UNCTIONS AND I NVERSE F UNCTIONS
5.2 E XPONENTIAL F UNCTIONS
5.3 L OGARITHMIC F UNCTIONS
5.4 P ROPERTIES OF L OGARITHMS
5.5 E XPONENTIAL AND L OGARITHMIC M ODELS AND E QUATIONS
5.6 C OMPOUND I NTEREST
5.7 G ROWTH AND D ECAY
5.8 A PPLICATIONS
304
www.ck12.org Chapter 5. Exponential and Logarithmic Equations and Functions
5.1 Composite Functions and Inverse Func-

tions
Learning objectives
• Evaluate and find composite functions.

• Find the inverse of a function
• Determine if a function is invertible
• State the domain and range for a function and its inverse
• Graph functions and their inverses
• Use composition to verify if two functions are inverses.
Introduction
In this chapter, we will focus on two related functions: exponential functions,and logarithmic functions. These
two functions have a special relationship with one another: they are inverses of each other. In this first lesson we
will develop the idea of inverses, both algebraically and graphically, as background for studying these two types of
functions in depth. We will begin with a familiar, every-day example of two functions that are inverses.
Composite Functions
A composite function or composition of functions is a function made up of more than one function. A composite
function can be thought of as a function inside another function. The notation used for composition of functions is:
( f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
To calculate a composite function, we evaluate the inner function and then substitute the result into the outer function.
We can say the output of the inner function becomes the input into the outer function.
Sometimes we find composite function values if the intial intial input is a given value or real number. In this case
the composite function value is a real number. However, if the intial input is a variable or variable expression, the
composite function is another function. Let’s look at examples of both cases.
Example 1: Find the composite function values ( f ◦ g)(3) and (g ◦ f )(3), given f (x) = x2 − 2x + 1 and g(x) = x − 5.
a) ( f ◦ g)(3) = f (g(3))
We start by determining the inner function value, g(3).
g(3) = 3 − 5 = −2
Now substitute −2 for g(3) in the composite function.
f (g(3)) = f (−2)
Now we find the function value f (−2).
305
5.1. Composite Functions and Inverse Functions www.ck12.org
f (−2) = (−2)2 − 2(−2) + 1 = 4 + 4 + 1 = 9
Therefore, f (g(3)) = 9
b) (g ◦ f )(3) = g( f (3))
We start by determining the inner function value, f (3).
f (3) = (3)2 − 2(3) + 1 = 9 − 6 + 1 = 4
Now substitute 4 for f (3) in the composite function.
g( f (3)) = g(4)
Now we find the function value g(4).
g(4) = 4 − 5 = −1
Therefore, g( f (3)) = −1
Notice the result is a real number value.
Now we will look at a composition of functions that results in another function.
Example 2: Find the composite functions ( f ◦ g)(x) and (g ◦ f )(x), given f (x) = x2 − 2x + 1 and g(x) = x − 5.
a) ( f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
Notice we can not evaluate g(x) because we are not given an input for g(x). As a result, the input
into f (x) is g(x).
f (g(x)) = f (x − 5) = (x − 5)2 − 2(x − 5) + 1 = x2 − 10x + 25 − 2x + 10 + 1 = x2 − 12x + 36
f (g(x)) = x2 − 12x + 36
Notice the composite function is another function.

b) (g ◦ f )(x) = g( f (x))
Notice we can not evaluate f (x) because we are not given an input for f (x). As a result, the input
into g(x) is f (x).
g( f (x)) = g(x2 − 2x + 1) = x2 − 2x + 1 − 5 = x2 − 2x − 4
g( f (x)) = x2 − 2x − 4
Notice the composite function is another function.
306
Functions and inverses
In the United States, we measure temperature using the Fahrenheit scale. In other countries, people use the Celsius
scale. The equation C = 5/9 (F - 32) can be used to find C, the Celsius temperature, given F, the Fahrenheit
temperature. If we write this equation using function notation, we have t(x) = 59 (x − 32). The input of the function is
a Fahrenheit temperature, and the output is a Celsius temperature. For example, the freezing point on the Fahrenheit
scale is 32 degrees. We can find the corresponding Celsius temperature using the function:
t(32) = 95 (32 − 32) = 59 · 0 = 0
This function allows us to convert a Fahrenheit temperature into Celsius, but what if we want to convert from Celsius
to Fahrenheit?
Consider again the equation above: C = 59 (F − 32). We can solve this equation to isolate F:
TABLE 5.1:
C = 59 (F − 32)
9 9 5
5 C = 5 × 9 (F − 32)
9
5 C = F − 32
9
5 C + 32 = F
If we write this equation using function notation, we get f (x) = 95 x + 32. For this function, the input is the Celsius
temperature, and the output is the Fahrenheit temperature. For example, if x = 0, f (0) = 95 (0) + 32 = 0 + 32 = 32.
Now consider the functions t(x) = 59 (x − 32) and f (x) = 59 x + 32 together. The input of one function is the output of
the other. This is an informal way of saying that these functions are inverses. Formally, the inverse of a function is
defined as follows:
Inverse Function
Functions f (x) and g(x) are inverses if

f (g(x)) = g( f (x)) = x which can also be written f ◦ g = g ◦ f = x.
The following notation is used to indicate inverse functions:

If f (x) and g(x) are inverses, then
f (x) = g−1 (x) and g(x) = f −1 (x) with can also be written f = g−1 and g = f −1 .
Note: f −1 (x) does not equal 1

f (x) .
Informally, we define the inverse of a function as the relation we obtain by switching the domain and range of the
function. Because of this definition, you can find an inverse by switching the roles of x and y in an equation. For
example, consider the function g(x) = 2x. This is the line y = 2x. If we switch x and y, we get the equation x =
2y. Dividing both sides by 2, we get y = 1/2 x. Therefore the functions g(x) = 2x and y = 1/2 x are inverses. Using
function notation, we can write y = 1/2 x as g−1 (x) = 1/2 x.
Example 3: Find the inverse of each function.
a. f (x) = 5x − 8
b. f (x) = x3
a. First write the function using y = notation, then interchange x and y:Solution:
307
f (x) = 5x − 8 ⇒ y = 5x − 8
So the inverse is: x = 5y − 8
Then isolate y:
x = 5y − 8 (Add 8 to both sides.)
x + 8 = 5y (Divide both sides by 5.)
y = 51 x + 85
f −1 (x) = 51 x + 85 (Written using inverse function notation)
b.First write the function using y = notation, the interchagne x and y.
f (x) = x3 ⇒ y = x3
So the inverse is: x = y3
Then isolate y:
√
y = 3 x (Cube root both sides.)
√
y= 3 x
√
f −1 (x) = 3 x (Written using inverse function notation)
Because of the definition of inverse, the graphs of inverses are reflections across the line y = x. The graph below
shows t(x) = 59 (x − 32) and f (x) = 95 x + 32 on the same graph, along with the reflection line y = x.
A note about graphing with software or a graphing calculator: if you look at the graph above, you can see that the
lines are reflections over the line y = x. However, if you do not view the graph in a window that shows equal scales
of the x- and y-axes, the graph might not look like this.
FIGURE 5.1
Before continuing, there are two other important things to note about inverses. First, remember that the ’ -1’ is not
an exponent, but a symbol that represents an inverse. Second, not every function has an inverse that is a function.
308
In the examples we have considered so far, we inverted a function, and the resulting relation was also a function.
However, some functions are not invertible; that is, following the process of "inverting" them does not produce a
relation that is a function. We will return to this issue below when we examine domain and range of functions and
their inverses. First we will look at a set of functions that are invertible.
Inverses of 1-to-1 functions

√
Consider again example 1 above. We began with the function f (x) = x3 , and we found the inverse f −1 (x) = 3
x.
The graphs of these functions are show below.
The function f (x) = x3 is an example of a one-to-one function, which is defined as follows:
309
TABLE 5.2:
One to one
A function is one-to-one if and only if every element of its domain corresponds to exactly one element of its
range.
The linear functions we examined above are also one-to-one. The function y = x2 , however, is not one-to-one. The
graph of this function is shown below.
You may recall that you can identify a relation as a function if you draw a vertical line through the graph, and the
line touches only one point. Notice then that if we draw a horizontal line through y = x2 , the line touches more than
one point. Therefore if we inverted the function, the resulting graph would be a reflection over the line y = x, and
the inverse would not be a function. It fails the vertical line test.
310
The function y = x2 is therefore not a one-to-one function. A function that is one-to-one will be invertible. You can
determine this graphically by drawing a horizontal line through the graph of the function. For example, if you draw
a horizontal line through the graph of f (x) = x3 , the line will only touch one point on the graph, no matter where you
draw the line.
Example 4: Graph the function f (x) = 31 x + 2. Use a horizontal line test to verify that the function is invertible.
Solution: The graph below shows that this function is invertible. We can draw a horizontal line at any y value, and
the line will only cross f (x) = 31 x + 2 once.
In sum, a one-to-one function is invertible. That is, if we invert a one-to-one function, its inverse is also a function.
Now that we have established what it means for a function to be invertible, we will focus on the domain and range
of inverse functions.
Domain and range of functions and their inverses
Because of the definition of inverse, a functions domain is its inverses range, and the inverses domain is the functions
range. This statement may seem confusing without a specific example.
Example 3: State the domain and range of the function and its inverse:
Function: (1, 2), (2, 5), (3, 7)
Solution: the inverse of this function is the set of points (2, 1), (5, 2), (7, 3)
The domain of the function is {1, 2, 3}. This is also the range of the inverse. The range of the function is {2,
5, 7}. This is also the domain of the inverse.
The linear functions we examined previously, as well as f (x) = x3 , all had domain and range both equal to the set of
all real numbers. Therefore the inverses also had domain and range equal to the set of all real numbers. Because the
domain and range were the same for these functions, switching them maintained that relationship.
Also, as we found above, the function y = x2 is not one-to-one, and hence it is not invertible. That is, if we invert
it, the resulting relation is not a function. We can change this situation if we define the domain of the function in a
311
= x2 , with domain limited to real numbers 0. Then

more limited way. Let f (x) be a function defined as follows: f (x) √
the inverse of the function is the square root function: f −1 (x) = x
Example 5: Define the domain for the function f (x) = (x - 2)2 so that f is invertible.
Solution: The graph of this function is a parabola. We need to limit the domain to one side of the parabola.
Conventionally in cases like these we choose the positive side; therefore, the domain is limited to real numbers 2.
Inverse functions and composition
In the examples we have considered so far, we have taken a function and found its inverse. We can also analyze two
functions and determine whether or not they are inverses. Recall the formal definition from above:
Two functions f (x) and g(x) are inverses if and only if f(g(x)) = g(f(x)) = x.
This definition is perhaps easier to understand if we look at a specific example. Lets use two functions that we have
established as inverses: f (x) = 2x and g(x) = 1/2 x. Lets also consider a specific x value. Let x = 8. Then we have
f (g(8)) = f (1/2 8) = f (4) = 2(4) = 8. Similarly we could establish that g(f(8)) = 8. Notice that there is nothing special
about x = 8. For any x value we input into f, the same value will be output by the composed functions:
f (g(x)) = f 21 x = 2 12 x = x

g( f (x)) = g(2x) = 12 (2x) = x
Example 6: Use composition of functions to determine if f (x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = 3x - 2 are inverses.
Solution: The functions are not inverses.
We only need to check one of the compositions: f (g(x)) = f (3x − 2) = 2(3x − 2) + 3 = 6x − 4 + 3 =
6x − 1 6= x
Lesson Summary
In this lesson we have defined the concept of inverse, and we have examined functions and their inverses, both
algebraically and graphically. We established that functions that are one-to-one are invertible, while other functions
312
are not necessarily invertible. (However, we can redefine the domain of a function such that it is invertible.) In the
remainder of the chapter we will examine two families of functions whose members are inverses.
Points to Consider
1. Can a function be its own inverse? If so, how?

2. Consider the other function families you learned about in chapter 1. What do their inverses look like?
3. How is the rate of change of a function related to the rate of change of the functions inverse?
Review Questions
1. Find the inverse of the function f (x) = 21 x − 7.

2. Use the horizontal line test to determine if the function f (x) = x + 1x is invertible or not.
3. Use composition of functions to determine if the functions are inverses: g(x) = 2x − 6 and h(x) = 21 x + 3.
4. Use composition of functions to determine if the functions are inverses: f (x) = x + 2 and p(x) = x − 12 .
5. Given the function f (x) = (x + 1)2 , how should the domain be restricted so that the function is invertible?
6. Consider the function f (x) = 32 x + 4.
a. Find the inverse of the function.
b. State the slope of the function and its inverse. What do you notice?
7. Given the function (0, 5), (1, 7), (2, 13), (3, 19)
a. Find the inverse of the function.
b. State the domain and range of the function.
c. State the domain and range of the inverse.
8. Consider the function a(x) =
9. Consider the function f(x) = c, where c is a real number. What is the inverse? Is f invertible? Explain.
10. A store sells fabric by the length. Red velvet goes on sale after Valentines day for $4.00 per foot.
a. Write a function to model the cost of x feet of red velvet.
b. What is the inverse of this function?
c. What does the inverse represent?
Review Answers
1. y = 2x + 14
313
2.
The function is not invertible.
3. The functions are inverses.
g(h(x)) = g 12 x + 3 = 2 12 x + 3 − 6 = x + 6 − 6 = x

h(g(x)) = h(2x − 6) = 21 (2x − 6) + 3 = x − 3 + 3 = x

4. The functions are not inverses.
f (p(x)) = (x − 21 ) + 2 = x + 32 6= x
5. x ≥ −1
6. a. y = 23 x − 83
b. The slope of the function is 3/2 and the slope of the inverse is 2/3. The slopes are reciprocals.
7. a. (5, 0), (7, 1), (13, 2), (19, 3)
b. Domain: {0, 1, 2, 3} and Range: {5, 7, 13, 19}
c. Domain: {5, 7, 13, 19} and Range: {0, 1, 2, 3
8. }
9. a.
314
b. The function is not invertible. Several ways to justify: the inverse fails the vertical line test; the original
function fails the horizontal line test.
10. The function f is a horizontal line with equation y = c. The domain is the set of all real numbers, and the range
is the single value c. Therefore the inverse would be a function whose domain is c and the range is all real
numbers. This is the vertical line x = c. This is not a function. So f (x) = c is not invertible.
11. a. C(x) = 4x
b. C−1 x = 14 x
c. The inverse function tells you the number of feet you bought, given the amount of money you spent.
Vocabulary
Inverse The inverse of a function is the relation obtained by interchanging the domain and range of a function.
Invertible A function is invertible if its inverse is a function.
One-to-one A function is one-to-one if every element of its domain is paired with exactly one element of its range.
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5.2. Exponential Functions www.ck12.org
5.2 Exponential Functions
Learning objectives
• Evaluate exponential expressions

• Identify the domain and range of exponential functions
• Graph exponential functions by hand and using a graphing utility
• Solve basic exponential equations
Introduction
In this lesson you will learn about exponential functions, a family of functions we have not studied in chapter 1 or
chapter 2. In terms of the form of the equation, exponential functions are different from the other function families
because the variable x is in the exponent. For example, the functions f (x) = 2x and g(x) = 100(2)5x are exponential
functions. This kind of function can be used to model real situations, such as population growth, compound interest,
or the decay of radioactive materials. In this lesson we will look at basic examples of these functions, and we
will graph and solve exponential equations. This introduction to exponential functions will prepare you to study
applications of exponential functions later in this chapter.
Evaluating Exponential Functions
Consider the function f (x) = 2x . When we input a value for x, we find the function value by raising 2 to the exponent
of x. For example, if x = 3, we have f (3) = 23 = 8. If we choose larger values of x, we will get larger function values,
as the function values will be larger powers of 2. For example, f (10) = 210 = 1,024.
3
Now lets consider smaller x values. If x = 0, we have f (0) = 20 = 1. If x = -3, we have f (−3) = 2−3 = 21 = 18 . If
we choose smaller and smaller x values, the function values will be smaller and smaller fractions. For example, if x
10
= -10, we have f (−10) = 2−10 = 12 1
= 1024 . Notice that none of the x values we choose will result in a function
value of 0. (This is the case because the numerator of the fraction will always be 1.) This tells us that while the
domain of this function is the set of all real numbers, the range is limited to the set of positive real numbers. In the
following example, you will examine the values of a similar function.
Example 1: For the function g(x) = 3x , find g(2), g(4), g(0), g(-2), g(-4).
Solution:
g(2) = 32 = 9
g(4) = 34 = 81
g(0) = 30 = 1
g(−2) = 3−2 = 1
32
= 1
9
g(−4) = 3−4 = 1
34
= 1
81
The values of the function g(x) = 3x behave much like those of f (x) = 2x : if we choose larger values, we get larger
and larger function values. If x = 0, the function value is 1. And, if we choose smaller and smaller x values, the
function values will be smaller and smaller fractions. Also, the range of g(x) is limited to positive values.
In general, if we have a function of the form f (x) = ax , where a is a positive real number, the domain of the function
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is the set of all real numbers, and the range is limited to the set of positive real numbers. This restricted domain will
result in a specific shape of the graph.
Graphing basic exponential functions
Lets now consider the graph of f (x) = 2x . Above we found several function values, and we began to analyze the
function in terms of large and small values of x. The graph below shows this function, with several points marked in
blue.
Notice that as x approaches ∞, the function grows without bound. That is, limx→∞ (2x ) = ∞. However, if x approaches
−∞, the function values get closer and close to 0. That is, limx→−∞ (2x ) = 0. Therefore the function is asymptotic to
the x-axis. This is the graphical result of the fact that the range of the function is limited to positive y values. Now
lets consider the graph of g(x) = 3x and h(x) = 4x .
Example 2: Use a graphing utility to graph f (x) = 2x , g(x) = 3x and h(x) = 4x . How are the graphs the same, and how
are they different?
Solution: f (x) = 2x , g(x) = 3x and h(x) = 4x are shown together below.
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The graphs of the three functions have the same overall shape: they have the same end behavior, and they all contain
the point (0, 1). The difference lies in their rate of growth. Notice that for positive x values, h(x) = 4x grows the
fastest and f (x) = 2x grows the slowest. The function values for h(x) = 4x are highest and the function values for f (x)
= 2x are the lowest for any given value of x. For negative x values, the relationship changes: f (x) = 2x has the highest
function values of the three functions.
Now that we have examined these three parent graphs, we will graph using shifts, reflections, stretches and com-
pressions.
Graphing exponential functions using transformations.
Above we graphed the function f (x) = 2x . Now lets consider a related function: g(x) = 2x + 3. Every function value
will be a power of 2, plus 3. The table below shows several values for the function:
TABLE 5.3:
x g(x) = 2x + 3
−2 2−2 + 3 = 14 + 3 = 3 14
−1 2−1 + 3 = 12 + 3 = 3 12
0 20 + 3 = 1 + 3 = 4
1 21 + 3 = 2 + 3 = 5
2 22 + 3 = 4 + 3 = 7
3 23 + 3 = 8 + 3 = 11
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The function values follow the same kind of pattern as the values for f (x) = 2x . However, because every function
value is 3 more than a power of 2, the horizontal asymptote of the function is the line y = 3. The graph of this
function and the horizontal asymptote are shown below.
From your study of transformation of functions in chapter 1, you should recognize the graph of g(x) = 2x + 3 as a
vertical shift of the graph of f (x) = 2x . In general, we can produce a graph of an exponential function with base 2 if
we analyze the equation of the function in terms of transformations. The table below summarizes the different kinds
of transformations of f (x) = 2x . The issue of stretching will be discussed further below the table.
TABLE 5.4:
Equation Relationship to f (x)=2x Range
x
g(x) = 22a = 2x−a , for a > 0 Obtain a graph of g by shifting the y >0
graph of f a units to the right.
g(x) = 2a · 2x = 2a+x , for a > 0 Obtain a graph of g by shifting the y >0
graph of f a units to the left.
g(x) = 2x + a, for a > 0 Obtain a graph of g by shifting the y >a
graph of f up a units.
g(x) = 2x − a, for a > 0 Obtain a graph of g by shifting the y >a
graph of f down a units.
g(x) = a(2x ), for a > 0 Obtain a graph of g by vertically y >0
stretching the graph of f by a factor
of a.
g(x) = 2ax , for a > 0 Obtain a graph of g by horizontally y >0
compressing the graph of f by a
factor of a.
g(x) = −2x Obtain a graph of g by reflecting the y >0
graph of f over the x-axis.
g(x) = 2−x Obtain a graph of g by reflecting the y >0
graph of f over the y-axis.
As was discussed in chapter 1, a stretched graph can also be seen as a compressed graph. This is not the case for
exponential functions because of the x in the exponent. Consider the function s(x) = 2(2x ) and c(x) = 23x . The first
function represents a vertical stretch of f (x) = 2x by a factor of 2. The second function represents a compression of
f (x) = 2x by a factor of 3. The function c(x) is actually the same as another parent function: c(x) = 23x = (23 )x = 8x .
The function s(x) is actually the same as a shift of f (x) = 2x : s(x) = 2(2x ) = 21 2x = 2x +1 . The graphs of s and c are
shown below. Notice that the graph of c has a y-intercept of 1, while the graph of s has a y-intercept of 2:
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Example 3: Use transformations to graph the functions (a) a(x) = 3x +2 and (b) b(x) = -3x + 4
Solution:
a. a(x) = 3x +2
This graph represents a shift of y = 3x two units to the left. The graph below shows this relationship between the
graphs of these two functions:
b. b(x) = -3x + 4
This graph represents a reflection over the y-axis and a vertical shift of 4 units. You can produce a graph of b(x)
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using three steps: sketch y = 3x , reflect the graph over the x-axis, and then shift the graph up 4 units. The graph
below shows this process:
While you can always quickly create a graph using a graphing utility, using transformations will allow you to sketch
a graph relatively quickly on your own. If we start with a parent function such as y=3x , you can quickly plot several
points: (0, 1), (2, 9), (-1, 1/3), etc. Then you can transform the graph, as we did in the previous example.
Notice that when we sketch a graph, we choose x values, and then use the equation to find y values. But what if we
wanted to find an x value, given a y value? This requires solving exponential equations.
Solving exponential equations
Solving an exponential equation means determining the value of x for a given function value. For example, if we
have the equation 2x = 8, the solution to the equation is the value of x that makes the equation a true statement. Here,
the solution is x = 3, as 23 = 8.
Consider a slightly more complicated equation 3 (2x +1 ) = 24. We can solve this equation by writing both sides of
the equation as a power of 2:
3(2x+1 ) = 24
3(2x+1 ) 24
3 = 3
2x+1 = 8
2x+1 = 23
To solve the equation now, recall a property of exponents: if bx = by , then x = y. That is, if two powers of the same
base are equal, the exponents must be equal. This property tells us how to solve:
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2x+1 = 23
⇒ x+1 = 3
x=2
Example 4: Solve the equation 56x +10 = 25x −1

Solution: Use the same technique as shown above:
56x +10 = 25x −1
56x +10 = (52 )x −1
56x +10 = 52x −2
⇒ 6 x + 10 = 2x - 2
4x + 10 = -2
4x = -12
x = -3
In both of the examples of solving equations, it was possible to solve because we could write both sides of the
equations as a power of the same exponent. But what if that is not possible?
Consider for example the equation 3x = 12. If you try to figure out the value of x by considering powers of 3, you will
quickly discover that the solution is not a whole number. Later in the chapter we will study techniques for solving
more complicated exponential equations. Here we will solve such equations using graphs.
Consider the function y = 3x . We can find the solution to the equation 3x = 12 by finding the intersection of y = 3x
and the horizontal line y = 12. Using a graphing calculators intersection capability, you should find that the solution
is approximately x = 2.26.
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Example 5: Use a graphing utility to solve each equation:
TABLE 5.5:
a. 23x −1 = 7 b. 6−4x = 28x −5
Solution:
a. 23x −1 = 7
Graph the function y = 23x −1 and find the point where the graph intersects the horizontal line y = 7. The
solution is x 1.27
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b. 6−4x = 28x −5
Graph the functions y = 6−4x and y = 28x −5 and find their intersection point.
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The solution is approximately x 0.27. (Your graphing calculator should show 9 digits: 0.272630365.)
In the examples we have considered so far, the bases of the functions have been positive integers. Now we will
examine a sub-family of exponential functions with a special base: the number e.
The number e and the function y = ex
In your previous studies of math, you have likely encountered the number . The number e is much like . First, both
are irrational numbers: they cannot be expressed as fractions. Second, both numbers are transcendental: they are
not the solution of any polynomial with rational coefficients.
Like , mathematicians found e to be a natural constant in the world. One way to discover e is to consider the function
1 x

f (x) = 1 + x . The graph of this function is shown below.
Notice that as x approaches infinity, the graph of the function approaches a horizontal asymptote around y = 2.7. If
you examine several function values, you will see that the limit is not exactly 2.7:
TABLE 5.6:
x y
0 (not defined)
1 2
2 2.25
5 2.48832
10 2.5937424601
50 2.69158802907
100 2.70481382942
1000 2.71692393224
5000 2.7180100501
10,000 2.71814592683
50,000 2.7181825464614
Around x = 100, the function values pass 2.7, but they will never reach 2.8. The limit of the function as x approaches
infinity is the constant e. The value of e is approximately 2.71828182845904523536. Again, like , we have to
approximate the value of e because it is irrational.
The number e is used as the base of functions that can be used to model situations that involve growth or decay. For
example, as you will learn later in the chapter, one method of calculating interest on a bank account or investment
uses this number. Here we will examine the function y = ex in order to verify that its graph is similar to the other
exponential functions we have graphed.
The graph below shows y = ex , along with y = 2x and y = 3x .
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The graph of y = ex (in green) has the same shape as the graphs of the other exponential functions. It sits in between
the graphs of the other two functions, and notice that the graph is closer to y = 3x than to y = 2x . All three graphs have
the same y-intercept: (0, 1). Thus the graph of this function is clearly a member of the same family, even though the
base of the function is an irrational number.
Lesson Summary
This lesson has introduced the family of exponential functions. We have examined values of functions, towards
understanding the behavior of graphs. In general, exponential functions have a horizontal asymptote, though one
end of the function increases (or decreases, if it is a reflection) without bound.
In this lesson we have graphed these functions, solved certain exponential equations using our knowledge of ex-
ponents, and solved more complicated equations using graphing utilities. We have also examined the function y =
ex , which is a special member of the exponential family. In the coming lessons you will continue to learn about
exponential functions, including the inverses of these functions, applications of these functions, and solving more
complicated exponential equations using algebraic techniques.
Points to Consider
1. Why do exponential functions have horizontal asymptotes and not vertical asymptotes?
2. What would the graph of the inverse of an exponential function look like? What would its domain and range
be?
3. How could you solve or approximate a solution to an exponential equation without using a graphing calcula-
tor?
Review Questions
1. For the function f (x) = 23x −1 , find f (0), f (2), and f (-2).
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2. Graph the functions f (x) = 3x and g(x) = 3x +5 -1. State the domain and range of each function.
3. Graph the functions a(x) = 4x and b(x) = 4−x . State the domain and range of each function.
4. Graph the function h(x) = -2x −1 using transformations. How is h related to y = 2x ?
5. Solve the equation: 52x +1 = 253x
6. Solve the equation: 4x2 + 1 = 16x
7. Use a graph to find an approximate solution to the equation 3x = 14
8. Use a graph to find an approximate solution to the equation 2−x = 72x +9
9. Sketch a graph of the function f (x) = 3x and its inverse. (Hint: You can graph the inverse by reflecting a
function across the line y=x.) Is f one-to-one?
10. Consider the following situation: you inherited a collection of 125 stamps from a relative. You decided to
continue to build the collection, and you vowed to double the size of the collection every year.
a. Write an exponential function to model the situation. (The input of the function is the number of years since
you began building the collection, and the output is the size of the collection.)
b. Use your model to determine how long it will take to have a collection of 10,000 stamps.
Review Answers
1. f(0)=1/2 , f(2)= 32, f(-2)= 1/128

2. The domain if both functions is the set of all real numbers.
The range of f is the set of all real numbers 0.
The range of g is the set of all real numbers -1
3. The domain of both functions is the set of all real numbers.

The range of both functions is the set of all real numbers 0.
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4. The function h represents a reflection over the y axis, and a horizontal shift 1 unit to the right.
5. 52x +1 = 253x
52x +1 = 56x
⇒ 2 x+ 1 = 6x
4x = 1
x = 1/4
6. 4x2 + 1 = 16x
4x2 + 1 = 42x
⇒ x2 + 1 = 2x
x2 - 2x + 1 = 0
(x - 1) (x - 1) = 0
x=1
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7. x 2.4
8.
x -3.8
9. f is a one-to-one function.
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10. a. S(t) = 125 (2t )

b. About 6.35 years
Vocabulary
e The number e is a transcendental number, often referred to as Eulers constant. Several mathematicians are
credited with early work on e. Euler was the first to use this
x letter to represent the constant. The value of e is
approximately 2.71828. The exact value is limx→∞ 1 + 1x .
Exponential Function An exponential function is a function for which the input variable x is in the exponent of
some base b, where b is a real number.
Irrational number An irrational number is a number that cannot be expressed as a fraction of two integers.
Transcendental number A transcendental number is a number that is not a solution to any non-zero polynomial
with rational roots.
The number is a transcendental number. It is the ratio of the circumference to the diameter in any circle.
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5.3 Logarithmic Functions
Learning objectives
• Translate numerical and algebraic expressions between exponential and logarithmic form.
• Evaluate logarithmic functions.
• Determine the domain of logarithmic functions.
• Graph logarithmic functions.
• Solve logarithmic equations.
Introduction
In the previous lesson we examined exponential expressions and functions. Now we will consider another represen-
tation for the same relationships involved in exponential expressions and functions.
Consider the function y= 2x . Every x-value of this function is an exponent. Every y-value is a power of 2. As you
learned in lesson 1, functions that are one-to-one have inverses that are functions. This is the case with exponential
functions. If we take the inverse of y = 2x (by interchanging the domain and range) we obtain this equation: x = 2y .
In order to write this equation such that y is expressed as a function of x, we need a different notation.
The solution to this problem is found in the logarithm. John Napier originally introduced the logarithm to 17th
century mathematicians as a technique for simplifying complicated calculations. While todays technology allows us
to do most any calculations we could imagine, logarithmic functions continue to be a focus of study in mathematics,
as a useful way to work with exponential expressions and functions.
Changing Between Exponential and Logarithmic Expressions
Every exponential expression can be written in logarithmic form. For example, the equation x=2y is written as
follows: y=log2 x. In general, the equation logb n = a is equivalent to the equation ba =n. That is, b is the base, a is
the exponent, and n is the power, or the result you obtain by raising b to the power of a. Notice that the exponential
form of an expression emphasizes the power, while the logarithmic form emphasizes the exponent. More simply
put, a logarithm (or log for short) is an exponent.
We can write any exponential expression in logarithmic form.

Example 1: Rewrite each exponential expression as a log expression.
TABLE 5.7:
a.34 =81 b.b4x =52
Solution:
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5.3. Logarithmic Functions www.ck12.org
a. In order to rewrite an expression, you must identify its base, its exponent, and its power. The 3 is the
base, so it is placed as the subscript in the log expression. The 81 is the power, and so it is placed after
the log. Thus we have: 34 =81 is the same as log3 81=4 .To read this expression, we say the logarithm
base 3 of 81 equals 4. This is equivalent to saying 3 to the 4th power equals 81.
b. The b is the base, and the expression 4x is the exponent, so we have:logb 52=4x . We say, log base b of 52,
equals 4x.
We can also express a logarithmic statement in exponential form.

Example 2: Rewrite the logarithmic expressions in exponential form.
TABLE 5.8:
a. log10 100=2 b. logb w=5
Solution:
a. The base is 10, and the exponent is 2, so we have: 102 =100 b. The base is b, and the exponent is 5, so we
have: b5 =w .
Perhaps the most common example of a logarithm is the Richter scale, which measures the magnitude of an
earthquake. The magnitude is actually the logarithm base 10 of the amplitude of the quake. That is, m=log10 A .
This means that, for example, an earthquake of magnitude 4 is 10 times as strong as an earthquake with magnitude 3.
We can see why this is true of we look at the logarithmic and exponential forms of the expressions: An earthquake
of magnitude 3 means 3=log10 A. The exponential form of this expression is 103 =A. Thus the amplitude of the quake
is 1,000. Similarly, a quake with magnitude 4 has amplitude 104 =10,000. We will return to this example in lesson
3.8.
Evaluating Logarithmic Functions
As noted above, a logarithmic function is the inverse of an exponential function. Consider again the function y=2x
and its inverse x=2y . Above, we rewrote the inverse as y=log2 x. If we want to emphasize the fact that the log equation
represents a function, we can write the equation as f (x)=log2 x. To evaluate this function, we choose values of x and
then determine the corresponding y values, or function values.
Example 3: Evaluate the function f (x)=log2 x for the values:
TABLE 5.9:
a.x=2 b.x=1 c.x=-2
Solution:
a. If x=2 , we have:
TABLE 5.10:
f (x)=log2 x
f (2)=log2 2
To determine the value of log2 2, you can ask yourself: 2 to what power equals 2? Answering this
question is often easy if you consider the exponential form: 2? =2
The missing exponent is 1. So we have f (2)-log2 2=1
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b. If x=1 , we have:
TABLE 5.11:
f (x)=log2 x
f (1)=log2 1
As we did in (a), we can consider the exponential form: 2? =1. The missing exponent is 0. So we have
f (1)=log2 1=0.
c. If x=-2, we have:
TABLE 5.12:
f (x) =log2 x
f (-2) = log2 -2
Again, consider the exponential form: 2? =-2. There is no such exponent. Therefore f (-2)=log2 -2 does
not exist.
Example 3c illustrates an important point: there are restrictions on the domain of a logarithmic function. For the
function f (x)=log2 x, x cannot be a negative number. Therefore we can state the domain of this function as: the set
of all real numbers greater than 0. Formally, we can write it as a set: {x ∈ |x > 0}. In general, the domain of a
logarithmic function is restricted to those values that will make the argument of the logarithm non-negative.
For example, consider the function f (x)=log3 (x-4). If you attempt to evaluate the function for x values of 4 or less,
you will find that the function values do not exist. Therefore the domain of the function is {x ∈ |x > 4}. The domain
of a logarithmic function is one of several key issues to consider when graphing.
Graphing Logarithmic Functions
Because the function f (x)=log2 x is the inverse of the function g(x)=2x , the graphs of these functions are reflections
over the line y = x. The figure below shows the graphs of these two functions:
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We can see that the functions are inverses by looking at the graph. For example, the graph of g(x)=2x contains the
point (1, 2), while the graph of f (x)=log2 x contains the point (2, 1).
Also, note that while that the graph of g(x)=2x is asymptotic to the x-axis, the graph of f (x)=log2 x is asymptotic to
the y-axis. This behavior of the graphs gives us a visual interpretation of the restricted range of g and the restricted
domain of f.
When graphing log functions, it is important to consider x- values across the domain of the function. In particular,
we should look at the behavior of the graph as it gets closer and closer to the asymptote. Consider f (x)=log2 x for
values of x between 0 and 1.
If x=1/2, then f (1/2)=log2 (1/2)=-1 because 2−1 =1/2 If x=1/4, then f (1/4)=log_2(1/4)=-2 because 2−2 =1/4 If
x=1/8}, then f (1/8)=log2 (1/8)=-3 because 2−3 =1/8
From these values you can see that if we choose x values that are closer and closer to 0, the y values decrease
(heading towards −∞!). In terms of the graph, these values show us that the graph gets closer and closer to the
y-axis. Formally we say that the vertical asymptote of the graph is x = 0.
Example 4: Graph the function f (x)=log4 x and state the domain and range of the function.
Solution: The function f (x)=log4 x is the inverse of the function g(x) = 4x . We can sketch a graph of f (x) by evaluating
the function for several values of x, or by reflecting the graph of g over the line y = x.
If we choose to plot points, it is helpful to organize the points in a table:
TABLE 5.13:
x y=log4 x
1/4
1 0
4 1
16 2
The graph is asymptotic to the y-axis, so the domain of f is the set of all real numbers that are greater than 0. We
can write this as a set:{x ∈ |x > 0} . While the graph might look as if it has a horizontal asymptote, it does in fact
continue to rise. The range is .
A note about graphing calculators: You can use a graphing calculator to graph logarithmic functions, but many
calculators will only allow you to use base 10 or base e. However, after the next lesson you will be able to rewrite
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any log as a log with base 10 or base e.

In this section we have looked at graphs of logarithmic functions of the form f (x)=logb x. Now we will consider the
graphs of other forms of logarithmic equations.
Graphing Logarithmic Functions Using Transformations
As you saw in the previous lesson, you can graph exponential functions by considering the relationships between
equations. For example, you can use the graph of f (x)=2x to sketch a graph of g(x)=2x + 3. Every y value of g(x) is
the same as a y value of f (x), plus 3. Therefore we can shift the graph of f (x) up 3 units to obtain a graph of g(x).
We can use the same relationships to efficiently graph log functions. Consider again the log function f (x)=log2 x.
The table below summarizes how we can use the graph of this function to graph other related function.
TABLE 5.14:
Equation Relationship to f (x)=log2 x Domain
g(x)=log2 (x - a), for a >0 Obtain a graph of g by shifting the x >a
graph of f a units to the right.
g(x) = log2 (x+a) for a >0 Obtain a graph of g by shifting the x >-a
graph of f a units to the left.
g(x)=log2 (x) + a for a >0 Obtain a graph of g by shifting the x >0
graph of f up a units.
g(x)=log2 (x)-a for a >0 Obtain a graph of g by shifting the x >0
graph of f down a units.
g(x)=alog2 (x) for a >0 Obtain a graph of g by vertically x >0
of a.
g(x)=-alog2 (x) , for a >0 Obtain a graph of g by vertically x >0
of a, and by reflecting the graph
over the x-axis.
g(x)=log2 (-x) Obtain a graph of g by reflecting the x <0
graph of f over the y-axis.
Example 5: Graph the functions f (x)=log2 (x),g(x) = log2 (x) + 3, and h(x) = log2 (x + 3)
Solution: The graph below shows these three functions together:
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Notice that the location of the 3 in the equation makes a difference! When the 3 is added to log2 x , the shift is
vertical. When the 3 is added to the x, the shift is horizontal. It is also important to remember that adding 3 to the x
is a horizontal shift to the left. This makes sense if you consider the function value when x = -3:
h(-3)=log2 (-3 + 3)=log2 0 = undefined
This is the vertical asymptote! To graph these functions, we evaluated them for certain values of x. But what if we
want to know what the x value is for a particular y value? This means that we need to solve a logarithmic equation.
Solving Logarithmic Equations
In general, to solve an equation means to find the value(s) of the variable that makes the equation a true statement.
To solve log equations, we have to think about what log means.
Consider the equation log2 x=5 . What is the exponential form of this equation? The equation log2 x=5 means
that 25 = x . So the solution to the equation is x = 25 = 32.
We can use this strategy to solve many logarithmic equations.

Example 6: Solve each equation for x:
TABLE 5.15:
a.log4 x = 3 b. log5 (x + 1) = 2 c. 1 + 2log3 (x - 5) =
7
Solution: a. Writing the equation in exponential form gives us the solution: x = 43 = 64.
b. Writing the equation in exponential form gives us a new equation: 52 = x + 1.We can solve this
equation for x:
TABLE 5.16:
52 =x+1
25 =x+1
x = 24
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c. First we have to isolate the log expression:
TABLE 5.17:
1 + 2log3 (x-5) =7
2log3 (x - 5) =6
log3 (x-5) =3
Now we can solve the equation by rewriting it in exponential form:
TABLE 5.18:
log3 (x-5) =3
33 =x-5
27 =x-5
x = 32
We can also solve equations in which both sides of the equation contain logs. For example, consider the equation
log2 (3x-1)=log2 (5x - 7). Because the logarithms have the same base (2), the arguments of the log (the expressions
3x - 1 and 5x - 7) must be equal. So we can solve as follows:
TABLE 5.19:
log3 (3x-1) = log2 (5x - 7)
3x - 1 = 5x - 7
+7 |+7
3x + 6 = 5x
-3x
6 = 2x
x =3
Example 7: Solve for x: log2 (9x)=log2 (3x + 8)

Solution: The log equation implies that the expressions 9x and 3x + 8 are equal:
TABLE 5.20:
log2 (9x) = log2 (3x + 8)
9x = 3x + 8
−3x −3x
6x =8
x = 86
x = 43
Lesson Summary
In this lesson we have defined the logarithmic function as the inverse of the exponential function. When working
with logarithms, it helps to keep in mind that a logarithm is an exponent. For example, 3 = log2 8 and 23 = 8 are
two forms of the same numerical relationship among the three numbers 2, 3, and 8. The 2 is the base, the 3 is the
exponent, and 8 is the 3rd power of 2.
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Because logarithmic functions are the inverses of exponential functions, we can use our knowledge of exponential
functions to graph logarithmic functions. You can graph a log function either by reflecting an exponential function
over the line y = x, or by evaluating the function and plotting points. In this lesson you learned how to graph parent
graphs such as y =log2 x and y = log4 x , as well as how to use these parent graphs to graph more complicated log
functions. When graphing, it is important to keep in mind that logarithmic functions have restricted domains. Each
graph will have a vertical asymptote.
We can also use our knowledge of exponential relationships to solve logarithmic equations. In this lesson we solved
2 kinds of logarithmic equations. First, we solved equations by rewriting the equations in exponential form. Second,
we solved equations in which both sides of the equation contained a log. To solve these equations, we used the
following rule:
logb f (x)=logb g(x) f (x) = g(x) .
Points to Consider
1. What methods can you use to graph logarithmic functions?

2. What methods can you use to solve logarithmic equations?
3. What forms of log equations can you solve using the methods in this lesson? Can you write an equation that
cannot be solved using these methods?
Review Questions
Write the exponential statement in logarithmic form.
1. 32 = 9
2. z4 = 10
3. Write the logarithmic statement in exponential form.
4. log5 25 = 2
5. log4 61 = −1
6. Complete the table of values for the function f (x) = log3 x
TABLE 5.21:
x y = f(x)
1/9
1/3
1
3
9
7.
8. Use the table above to graph f (x)=log3 x. State the domain and range of the function.
9. Consider g(x) = -log3 (x - 2)
a. How is the graph of g(x) related to the graph of f (x) = log3 x?
b. Graph g(x) by transforming the graph of f (x).
10. Solve each logarithmic equation:
a. log3 9x = 4
b. 7 + log2 x = 11 (Hint: subtract 7 from both sides first.)
11. Solve each logarithmic equation:
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TABLE 5.22:
a. log5 6x = -1 b. log5 6x = log5 (2x + 16) c. log5 6x = log5 (3x - 10)
12.
13. Explain why the equation in 9c has no solution.
Review Answer
1. 32 = 9
2. z4 =10
3. 52 = 25
4. 6−1 = 16
TABLE 5.23:
x y = f(x)
1/9
1/3
1 0
3 1
9 2
5.
6.
D: All real numbers >0
R: All real numbers.
7. a. The graph of g(x) can be obtained by shifting the graph of f(x) 2 units to the right, and reflecting it over the
x- axis.
b.
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8. The solutions are:
TABLE 5.24:
a. x = 9 b. x = 16
9.
10. The solutions are:
TABLE 5.25:
a. x = 1/30 b. x = 4 c. no solution
11.
12. When we solve 6x=3x-10 we find that x=-10/3, a value outside of the domain. Because there is no other x
value that satisfies the equation, there is no solution.
Vocabulary
Argument The expression inside a logarithmic expression. The argument represents the power in the exponential
relationship.
Asymptote An asymptote is line whose distance to a given curve tends to zero. An asymptote may or may not
intersect its associated curve.
Domain The domain of a function is the set of all values of the independent variable (x) for which the function is
defined.
Evaluate To evaluate a function is to identify a function value (y) for a given value of the independent variable
(x).
Function A function is a relation between a domain (set of x values) and range (set of y values) in which every
element of the domain is paired with one and only one element of the range. A function that is one to one is a
function in which every element of the domain is paired with exactly one y value.
Logarithm The exponent of the power to which a base number must be raised to equal a given number.
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Range The range of a function is the set of all function values, or values of the dependent variable (y).
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5.4. Properties of Logarithms www.ck12.org
5.4 Properties of Logarithms
Learning objectives
• Use properties of logarithms to write logarithmic expressions in different forms.

• Evaluate common logarithms and natural logarithms.
• Use the change of base formula and a scientific calculator to find the values of logs with any bases.
Introduction
In the previous lesson we defined the logarithmic function as the inverse of an exponential function, and we evaluated
log expressions in order to identify values of these functions. In this lesson we will work with more complicated log
expressions. We will develop properties of logs that we can use to write a log expression as the sum or difference
of several expressions, or to write several expressions as a single log expression. We will also work with logs with
base 10 and base e, which are the bases most often used in applications of logarithmic functions.
Properties of Logarithms
Because a logarithm is an exponent, the properties of logs are the same as the properties of exponents. Here we will
prove several important properties of logarithms.
Property 1: logb (xy) = logb x + logb y
Proof: Let logb x = n and logb y = m.
Rewrite both log expressions in exponential form:logb x = n bn = x
logb y = m bm = y
Now multiply x and y: xy = bn bm = bn+m Therefore we have an exponential statement: bn+m = xy. The log
form of the statement is: logb xy = n + m. Now recall how we defined n and m:
logb xy = n + m = logb x + logb y.

x
Property 2: logb y = logb x − logb y
We can prove property 2 analogously to the way we proved property 1.
Proof: Let logb x = n and logb y = m.
Rewrite both log expressions in exponential form:logb x = n bn = x
logb y = m bm = y
x n
Now divide x by y: y= bbm = bn−m Therefore we have an exponential statement: bn−m = xy . The log form of

the statement is: logb xy = n − m.Now recall how we defined n and m:

logb xy = n − m = logb x − logb y.
Property 3: logb xn = n logb x

The proof of the third property relies on another property of logs that we can derive by thinking about the definition
of a log. Consider the expression log2 213 . What does this expression mean?
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The exponential form of log2 213 = ? is 2? = 213 . Looking at the exponential form should convince you that the
missing exponent is 13. That is, log2 213 = 13. In general, logb bn = n. This property will be used in the proof of
property 3.
Proof (of Property 3):
Let logb x = w. The exponential form of this log statement is bw = x. If we raise both sides of this equation to
the power of n, we have (bw )n = xn .
Using the power property of exponents, this equation simplifies to bwn = xn If two expressions are equal, then
the logs of both expressions are equal:
logb bwn = logb xn

Now consider the value of the left side of the equation: logb bwn = wn. Above, we showed that bwn = xn . By
substitution, we have logb xn = wn. Above, we defined w: logb x = w. By substitution, we have
logb xn = (logb x) n = nlogb x.
We can use these properties to rewrite log expressions.
Expanding expressions
Using the properties we have derived above, we can write a log expression as the sum or difference of simpler
expressions. Consider the following examples:
1. log2 8x = log2 8 + log2 x = 3 + log2 x

2
2. log3 x3 = log3 x2 − log3 3 = 2log3 x − 1
Using the log properties in this way is often referred to as "expanding". In the first example, expanding the log
allowed us to simplify, as log2 8 = 3. Similarly, in the second example, we simplified using the log properties, and
the fact that log3 3 = 1.
Example 1: Expand each expression:
TABLE 5.26:
100x
a. log5 25x2 y

b. log10 9b
Solution:
a. log5 25x2 y = log5 25 + log5 x2 + log5 y = 2 + 2 log5 x + log5 y b.
TABLE 5.27:
100x

log10 9b = log10 100x − log10 9b
= log10 100 + log10 x − [log10 9 + log10 b]
= 2 + log10 x − log10 9 − log10 b
Just as we can write a single log expression as a sum and difference of expressions, we can also write expanded
expressions as a single expression.
Condensing expressions
To condense a log expression, we will use the same properties we used to expand expressions. Consider the
expression log6 8 + log6 27. Alone, each of these expressions does not have an integer value. The value of log6 8 is
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between 1 and 2; the value of log6 27 is also between 1 and 2. If we condense the expression, we get:
log6 8 + log6 27 = log6 (8 27) = log6 216 = 3
We can also condense algebraic expressions. This will be useful later for solving logarithmic equations.
Example 2: Condense each expression:
TABLE 5.28:
a. 2log3 x + log3 5x - log3 (x + 1) b. log2 (x2 - 4) - log2 (x + 2)
Solution:
a. 2log3 x + log3 5x − log3 (x + 1) = log3 x2 + log3 5x − log3 (x + 1)
= log3 (x2 (5x)) − log3 (x + 1)
3
5x
= log3 x+1

x2 −4
b. log2 (x2 − 4) − log2 (x + 2) = log2 x+2

(x+2)(x−2)
= log2 x+2
= log2 (x − 2)
It is important to keep in mind that a log expression may not be defined for certain values of x. First, the argument
of the log must be positive. For example, the expressions in example 2b above are not defined for x 2 (which allows
us to "cancel" (x+2) without worrying about the condition x -2).
3
5x
Second, the argument must be defined. For example, in example 2a above, the expression x+1 is undefined if x =
-1.
The log properties apply to logs with any real base. Next we will examine logs with base 10 and base e, which are
the most common bases for logs (though only one is actually called common).
Common logarithms and natural logs
A common logarithm is a log with base 10. We can evaluate a common log just as we evaluate any other log. A
common log is usually written without a base.
Example 3: Evaluate each log
TABLE 5.29:
√
a. log 1 b. log 10 c. log 10
Solution: √ √
1
a. log 1 = 0, as 100 = 1. b. log 10 = 1, as 101 = 10 c. log 10 = 2 because 10 = 101/2
As noted in lesson 3, logarithms were introduced in order to simplify calculations. After Napier introduced the
logarithm, another mathematician, Henry Briggs, proposed that the base of a logarithm be standardized as 10. Just
as Napier had labored to compile tables of log values (though his version of the logarithm is somewhat different
from what we use today), Briggs was the first person to publish a table of common logs. This was in 1617!
Until recently, tables of common logs were included in the back of math textbooks. Publishers discontinued this
practice when scientific calculators became readily available. A scientific calculator will calculate the value of a
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common log to 8 or 9 digits. Most calculators have a button that says LOG. For example, if you have TI graphing
calculator, you can simply press LOG, and then a number, and the calculator will give you a log value up to 8 or 9
decimal places. For example, if you enter LOG(7), the calculator returns .84509804. This means that 10.84509804 7.
If we want to judge the reasonableness of this value, we need to think about powers of 10. Because 101 = 10, log(7)
should be less than 1.
Example 4: For each log value, determine two integers between which the log value should lie. Then use a calculator
to find the value of the log.
TABLE 5.30:
a. log 50 b. log 818
Solution:
a. log 50The value of this log should be between 1 and 2, as 101 = 10, and 102 = 100. Using a calculator,
you should find that log 50 1.698970004.
b. log 818
The value of this log should be between 2 and 3, as 102 = 100, and 103 = 1000.
Using a calculator, you should find that log 818 2.912753304.
The calculators ability to produce log values is an example of the huge benefit that technology can provide. Only
a few years ago, the calculations in the previous example would have each taken several minutes, while now they
only take several seconds. While most people might not calculate log values in their every day lives, scientists and
engineers are grateful to have such tools to make their work faster and more efficient.
Along with the LOG key on your calculator, you will find another logarithm key that says LN. This is the abbreviation
for the natural log, the log with base e. Natural logs are written using ln instead of log. That is, we write the
expression loge x as In x. How you evaluate a natural log depends on the argument of the log. You can evaluate
some natural log expressions without a calculator. For example, ln e = 1, as e1 = e. To evaluate other natural log
expressions requires a calculator. Consider for example ln 7. Recall that e 2.7. This tells us that ln 7 should be
slightly less than 2, as (2.7)2 = 7.29. Using a calculator, you should find that ln 7 1.945910149.
Example 5: Find the value of each natural log.
TABLE 5.31:
√
a. ln100 b. ln e
Solution:
a. ln 100 is between 4 and 5. You can estimate this by considering powers of 2.7, or powers of 3: 34 =
81, and 35 = 243.Using a calculator, you should find that ln 100 4.605171086.
√
b. Recall that a square root is the same as an exponent of 1/2. Therefore ln e = ln(e1/2 ) = 1/2
You may have noticed that the common log and the natural log are the only log buttons on your calculator. We can
use either the common log or the natural log to find the values of logs with other bases.
Change of Base
Consider the log expression log3 35. The value of this expression is approximately 3 because 33 = 27. In order to
find a more exact value of log3 35, we can rewrite this expression in terms of a common log or natural log. Then we
can use a calculator.
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Lets consider a general log expression, logb x = y. This means that by = x. Recall that if two expressions are equal,
then the logs of the expressions are equal. We can use this fact, and the power property of logs, to write logb x in
terms of common logs.
TABLE 5.32:
by = x ⇒ logby = logx The logs of the expressions are equal
TABLE 5.33:
⇒ ylogb = logx Use the power property of logs
logx
⇒ y = logb Divide both sides by logb
logx
⇒ logb x = logb Substitute logb x = y
logx
The final equation, logb x = logb , is called the change of base formula. Notice that the proof did not rely on the fact
that the base of the log is 10. We could have used a natural log. Thus another form of the change of base formula is
lnx
logb x = lnb .
Note that we could have used a log with any base, but we use the common log and the natural log so that we can use
a calculator to find the value of an expression. Consider again log3 35. If we use the change of base formula, and
then a calculator, we find that
log3 35 = log35
log3 = 3.23621727.
Example 6: Estimate the value, and then use the change of base formula to find the value of log2 17.
Solution: log2 17 is close to 4 because 24 = 16 and 25 = 32. Using the change of base formula, we have log2 17 =
log17
log2 . Using a calculator, you should find that the approximate value of this expression is 4.087462841.
Lesson Summary
In this lesson we have developed and used properties of logarithms, including a formula that allows us to calculate
the value of a log expression with any base. Out of context, it may seem difficult to understand the value of these
kind of calculations. However, as you will see in later lessons in this chapter, we can use exponential and logarithmic
functions to model a variety of phenomena.
Points to Consider
1. Why is the common log called common? Why 10?

2. Why would you want to estimate the value of a log before using a calculator to find its exact value?
3. What kind of situations might be modeled with a logarithmic function?
Review Questions
1. Expand the expression: logb 5x2

2. Expand the expression: log3 81x5
3. Condense the expression: log(x + 1) + log(x - 1)
4. Condense the expression: 3ln(x) + 2ln (y) - ln(5x - 2)
5. Evaluate the expressions:
a. log 1000
b. log 0.01
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6. Evaluate the expressions:

a. ln e4
b. ln e19
7. Use the change of base formula to find the value of log5 100.
8. What is the difference between logb xn and (logb x)n ?
9. Condense the expression in order to simplify: 3 log 2 + log 125
10. Is this equation true for any values of x and y? log2 (x + y) = log2 x + log2 y
If so, give the values. If not, explain why not.
Review Answers
1. logb 5 + 2 logb x
2. 4 + 5 log3 x
3. log(x2 -1)
x 3 y2
4. ln 5x−2
5. a. 3
b. -2
6. a. 4
b. -9
log100
7. log5 ≈ 2.86
8. The first expression is equivalent to n logb x. The second expression is the nth power of the log.
9. log 1000 = 3
10. log2 (x + y) = log2 x + log2 y if and only if x + y = xy. The solutions to this equation are the possible values of
x and y. For example, x = 3 and y = 1.5
Vocabulary
Common logarithm A common logarithm is a log with base 10k. The log is usually written without the base.
Natural logarithm A natural log is a log with base e. The natural log is written as ln.
Scientific calculator A scientific calculator is an electronic, handheld calculator that will do calculations beyond
the four operations (+, −, ×, ÷), such as square roots and logarithms. Graphing calculators will do scientific
operations, as well as graphing and equation solving operations.
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5.5. Exponential and Logarithmic Models and Equations www.ck12.org
5.5 Exponential and Logarithmic Models and

Equations
Learning objectives
• Analyze data to determine if it can be represented by an exponential or logarithmic model.

• Use a graphing calculator to find an exponential or logarithmic model, and use a model to answer questions
about a situation.
• Solve exponential and logarithmic equations using properties of exponents and logarithms.
• Find approximate solutions to equations using a graphing calculator.
Introduction
So far in this chapter we have evaluated exponential and logarithm expressions, and we have graphed exponential
and logarithmic functions. In this lesson you will extend what you have learned in two ways. First, we will introduce
the idea of modeling real phenomena with logarithmic and exponential functions. Second, we will solve logarithmic
and exponential equations. While you have already solved some equations in previous lessons, now you will be
able to solve more complicated equations. This lesson will provide you with further tools for the applications of
logarithmic and exponential functions that will be the focus of the remainder of the chapter.
Exponential Models
Consider the following example: the population of a small town was 2,000 in the year 1950. The population
increased over time, as shown by the values in the table:
TABLE 5.34:
Year (1950 = 0) Population
0 2000
5 2980
10 4450
20 9900
30 22,000
40 50,000
If you plot these data points, you will see that the growth pattern is non-linear:
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In many situations, population growth can be modeled with an exponential function (this is because population
grows as a percentage of the current population, i.e. 8% per year). In lesson 7, you will learn how to create such
models using information from a given situation. Here, we will focus on creating models using data and a graphing
calculator.
The population data from the example above can be modeled with an exponential function, but the function is not
unique. That is, there is more than one way to write a function to model this data. In the steps below you will see
how to use a graphing calculator to find a function of the form y = a(bx ) that fits the data in the table.
Technology Note Using a TI-83/84 graphing calculator to find an exponential function that best fits a
set of data 1. Entering the dataa. Data must be entered into lists. The calculator has six named lists, L1,
L2, . . . L6. We will enter the x values in L1 and the y values in L2. One way to do this is shown below:
Press <TI font_2nd>[{] and then enter the numbers separated by commas, and close by pressing the following:
<TI font_2nd>[{]<TI font_STO><TI font_2nd>[L1]. The top three lines of the figure below show the entry
into list L1, followed by the entry of the y values into list L2.
Now press <TI font_STAT>, and move to the right to the CALC menu. Scroll down to option 10, ExpReg.
Press <TI font_ENTER>, and you will return to the home screen. You should see ExpReg on the screen. As
long as the numbers are in L1 and L2, the calculator will proceed to find an exponential function to fit the data
you listed in List L1 and List L2. You should see on the home screen the values for a and b in the exponential
function (See figure below). Therefore the function y = 1992.7(1.0837)x is an approximate model for the data.
2. Plotting the data and the equation To view plots of the data points and the equation on the same screen,
do the following.
a. First, press <TI font_Y=>and clear any equations.
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You can type in the equation above, or to get the equation from the calculator, do the following:
b. Enter the above rounded-off equation in Y1, or use the following procedure to get the full
equation from the calculator: put the cursor in Y1, press <TI font_VARS>, 5, EQ, and 1. This
should place the equation in Y1 (see figure below).
c. Now press <TI font_2nd>[STAT PLOT] and complete the items as shown in the figure below.
d. Now set your window. (Hint: use the range of the data to choose the window the figure below shows
our choices.)
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e. Press <TI font GRAPH>and you will to see the function and the data points as shown in the figure
below.
3. Comparing the real data with the modeled results It looks as if the data points lie on the function. However,
using the TRACE function you can determine how close the modeled points are to the real data. Press <TI
font_TRACE>to enter the TRACE mode. Then press the right arrow to move from one data point to another.
Do this until you land on the point with value Y=22000. To see the corresponding modeled value, press the
up or down arrow. See the figure below. The modeled value is approximately 22197, which is quite close to
the actual data. You can verify any of the other data points using the same method.
Now that we have the equation y = 1992.7(1.0837)x to model the situation, we can estimate the population for any
years that were not in the original data set. If we choose x values between 0 and 40, it is called interpolation. If
we choose other x values outside of this domain, it is called extrapolation. Interpolation is, in a sense, a safer way
of estimating population, because it is within the data points that we have, and does not require that we think about
the end behavior of the function. For example, if we extrapolate to the year 1930, this means x = -20. The function
value is 399. However, if the town was founded in 1940, then this data value does not make any sense. Similarly, if
we extrapolate to the year 2000, we have x = 50. The function value is 110,711. However, if the towns pattern of
population growth shifted (perhaps due to some economic change), this estimation could be highly inaccurate. As
noted above, you will study exponential growth, as well as other exponential models, in the next two lessons. Now
we turn to logarithmic models.
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Logarithmic Models
Consider another example of population growth:

Table 2
TABLE 5.35:
Year Population
1 2000
5 4200
10 6500
20 8800
30 10500
40 12500
If we plot this data, we see that the growth is not quite linear, and it is not exponential either.
Just as we found an exponential model in the previous example, here we can find a logarithmic function to model
this data. First enter the data in the table in L1 and L2. Then press STAT to get to the CALC menu. This time
choose option 9. You should get the function y = 930.4954615 + 2780.218173 ln x. If you view the graph and the
data points together, as described in the Technology Note above, you will see that the graph of the function does not
touch the data points, but models the general trend of the data.
Note about technology: you can also do this using an Excel spreadsheet. Enter the data in a worksheet, and create
a scatterplot by inserting a chart. After you create the chart, from the chart menu, choose add trendline. You will
then be able to choose the type of function. Note that if you want to use a logarithmic function, the domain of your
data set must be positive numbers. The chart menu will actually not allow you to choose a logarithmic trendline if
your data include zero or negative x values. See below:
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Solve Exponential Equations
Given an exponential model of some phenomena, such as population growth, you may want to determine a particular
input value that would produce a given function value. Lets say that a function P(x) = 2000(1.05)x models the
population growth for a town. What if we want to know when the population reaches 20,000?
To answer this equation, we must solve the equation 2000(1.05)x = 20,000. We can solve this equation by isolating
the power (1.05)x and then using one of the log properties:
TABLE 5.36:
2000(1.05)x = 20, 000 Divide both sides of the equation by 2000
(1.05)x = 10 Take the common log of both sides
log(1.05)x = log10 Use the power property of logs
xlog(1.05) = log10 Evaluate log10
xlog(1.05) = 1
1
x = log(1.05) ≈ 47 Divide both sides by log(1.05)
Use a calculator to estimate log(1.05)
We can use these same techniques to solve any exponential equation.

Example 1: Solve each exponential equation
TABLE 5.37:
a. 2x + 7 = 19 b. 35x−1 = 16
Solution:
a. 2x + 7 = 19
−7 − 7
2x = 12
log2x = log12
xlog2 = log12
log12
x= log2 ≈ 3.58
b. 35x−1 = 16
log35x−1 = log16
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(5x − 1)log3 = log16

log16
5x − 1 = log3
log16
5x = log3 +1
log16
log3 +1
x= 5
x ≈ 0.705
Solve Logarithmic Equations
In the previous lesson we solved two forms of log equations. Now we can solve more complicated equations, using
our knowledge of log properties. For example, consider the equation log2 (x) + log2 (x - 2) = 3. We can solve this
equation using a log property.
TABLE 5.38:
log2 (x) + log2 (x - 2) = 3
log2 (x(x - 2)) = 3 logb x + logb y = logb (xy)
log2 (x2 - 2x) = 3 ⇒ write the equation in exponential form.
23 = x2 - 2x
x2 - 2x - 8 = 0 Solve the resulting quadratic
(x - 4) (x + 2) = 0
x = -2, 4
The resulting quadratic has two solutions. However, only x = 4 is a solution to our original equataion, as log2 (-2) is
undefined. We refer to x = -2 as an extraneous solution.
Example 2: Solve each equation
TABLE 5.39:
a. log (x + 2) + log 3 = 2 b. ln (x + 2) - ln (x) = 1
Solution:
a. log (x + 2) + log 3 = 2
TABLE 5.40:
log (3(x + 2)) = 2 logb x + logb y = logb (xy)
log (3x + 6) = 2 Simplify the expression 3(x+2)
102 = 3x + 6 Write the log expression in exponential form
100 = 3x + 6
3x = 94 Solve the linear equation
x = 94/3
b. ln (x + 2) - ln (x) = 1
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TABLE 5.41:

x+2 x

ln x = 1 logb x − logb y = logb y
1 x+2
e = x Write the log expression in exponential form.
ex = x + 2 Multiply both sides by x.
ex − x = 2 Factor out x.
x(e − 1) = 2 Isolate x.
2
x = e−1
The solution above is an exact solution. If we want a decimal approximation, we can use a calculator to find that x
1.16. We can also use a graphing calculator to find an approximate solution, as we did in lesson 2 with exponential
equations. Consider again the equation ln (x + 2) - ln (x) = 1. We can solve this equation by solving a system:
(
y = ln(x + 2) − ln(x)
y=1
If you graph the system on your graphing calculator, as we did in lesson 2, you should see that the curve and
the horizontal line intersection at one point. Using the INTERSECT function on the CALC menu (press <TI
font_2nd>[CALC]), you should find that the x coordinate of the intersection point is approximately 1.16. This
method will allow you to find approximate solutions for more complicated log equations.
Example 3. Use a graphing calculator to solve each equation:
TABLE 5.42:
a. log(5 - x) + 1 = log x b. log2 (3x + 8) + 1 = log3 (10 - x)
Solution:
a. log(5 - x) + 1 = log x
The graphs of y = log (5 - x) + 1 and y = log x intersect at x 4.5454545
Therefore the solution of the equation is x 4.54.
b. log2 (3x + 8) + 1 = log3 (10 - x)

First, in order to graph the equations, you must rewrite them in terms of a common log or a natural log. The
resulting equations are: y = log(3x+8)
log2 + 1 and y = log(10−x)
log3 . The graphs of these functions intersect at x -1.87.
This value is the approximate solution to the equation.
Lesson Summary
This lesson has introduced the idea of modeling a situation using an exponential or logarithmic function. When a
population or other quantity has a steep increase over time, it may be modeled with an exponential function. When
a population has a steep increase, but then slower growth, it may be modeled with a logarithmic function. (In a
later lesson you will learn about a third option.) We have also examined techniques of solving exponential and
logarithmic equations, based on our knowledge of properties of logarithms. The key property to remember is the
power property:
logb xn = n logb x
Using this property allows us to turn an exponential function into a linear function, which we can then solve in order
to solve the original exponential function.
In the remaining lessons in this chapter, you will learn about several different real phenomena that are modeled with
exponential and logarithmic equations. In these lessons you will also use the techniques of equation solving learned
here in order to answer questions about these phenomena.
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Points to Consider
1. What kinds of situations might be modeled with exponential functions or logarithmic functions?
2. What restrictions are there on the domain and range of data if we use these functions as models?
3. When might an exponential or logarithmic equation have no solution?
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a graphing calculator to solve exponential and logarithmic
equations?
Review Questions
For questions 1 - 5, solve each equation using algebraic methods. Give an exact solution.
1. 2 (5x −4 ) + 7 = 43
2. 4x = 73x −5
3. log(5x + 200) + log 2 = 3
4. log3 (4x + 5) - log3 x = 2
5. ln (4x + 1) - ln (2x) = 3
6. Use a graphing utility to solve the equation in #4.
7. Use a graphing utility to solve the equation log(x2 -3) = log (x + 5)
8. In example 3b, the solution to the log equation log2 (3x + 8) + 1 = log3 (10 - x) was found to be x - 1.87. One
student read this example, and wondered how the value of x could be negative, given that you cannot take a
log of a negative number. How would you explain to this student why the solution is valid?
9. The data set below represents a hypothetical situation: You invest $2000 in a money market account, and you
do not invest more money or withdraw any from the account.
Table 3
TABLE 5.43:
Time since you invested (in years) Amount in account
0 2,000
2 2200
5 2500
10 3300
20 4500
10.
11. a. Use a graphing utility to find an exponential model for the data. b. Use your model to estimate the value of
the account after the 8
12. th
13. year. c. At this rate, much money would be in the account after 30 years? d. Explain how your estimate in
part c might be inaccurate. (What might happen after 20 years?)
14. The data set below represents the growth of a plant.
Table 4
TABLE 5.44:
Time since planting (days) Height of plant (inches)
1 .2
4 .5
5 .57
10 1.2
12 1.3
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Time since planting (days) Height of plant (inches)
14 1.4
15.
16. a. Use a graphing utility to find a logarithmic equation to model the data. b. Use your model to estimate the
height of the plant after 15 days. Compare this estimate to the trend in the data. c. Give an example of an
17. x
18. value for which the model does not make sense.
19. In the lesson, the equation log(5 - x) + 1 = log x was solved using a graph. Solve this equation algebraically in
order to (a) verify the approximate solution found in the lesson and (b) give an exact solution.
Review Answers
log18
1. log5 18 + 4 or log5 +4
−5log7
2. log4−3log7
3. x = 60
4. x=1
5. x = 2e31−4
6. The function y = log3 (4x + 5) - log3 x intersects the line y = 2 at the point (1, 2)
7. The graphs intersect twice, giving 2 solutions: x -2.37, x 3.37
8. The value of can be negative as long as the argument of the log is positive. In this equation, the arguments are
3x+8 and 10-x. Neither expression takes on a negative value for x -1.87
9. a. y = 2045.405(1.042)x
b. About $2840
c. About $7003
d. After that much time, you may decide to withdraw the money to spend or to invest in something with more
potential for growth.
10. a. y = 0.0313 + .4780 ln x
b. The model gives 1.32 inches. The data would suggest the plant is at least 1.4 inches tall.
c. The model does not make sense for negative x values. Also, at some point the plant could die. This reality
puts an upper bound on x.
11. log (5 - x) + 1 = log x
log (5 - x) - log x + 1 = 0
log(5 - x) - log x = -1
log 5−x x = −1
−1
10 = x 5−x
0.1 = 5−x x
0.1 x = 5 - x
1.1 x = 5
5
x = 1.1 = 50 6
11 = 4 11 = 5.54
Vocabulary
Extraneous solution An extraneous solution is a solution to an equation used to solve an initial equation that is
not a solution to the initial equation. Extraneous solutions occur when solving certain kinds of equations, such
as log equations, or square root equations.
Extrapolation To extrapolate from data is to create new data points, or to predict, outside of the domain of the
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data set.
Interpolation To interpolate is to create new data points, or to predict, within the domain of the data set, but for
points not in the original data set.
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5.6 Compound Interest
Learning objectives
• Calculate compound interest, including continuous compounding.

• Compare compound interest situations.
• Determine algebraically and graphically the time it takes for an account to reach a particular value.
Introduction
In the previous lesson, you learned about modeling growth using an exponential function. In this lesson we will
focus on a specific example of exponential growth: compounding of interest. We will begin with the case of simple
interest, which refers to interest that is based only on the principal, or initial amount of an investment or loan. Then
we will look at what it means for interest to compound. In the simplest terms, compounding means that interest
accrues (you gain interest on an investment, or owe more on a loan) based on the principal you invested, as well
as on interest you have already accrued. As you will soon see, compound interest is a case of exponential growth.
In this lesson we will look at specific examples of compound interest, and we will write equations to model these
specific situations.
Simple interest over time
As noted above, simple interest means that interest accrues based on the principal of an investment or loan. The
simple interest is calculated as a percent of the principal. The formula for simple interest is, in fact, simple:
The variable P represents the principal amount, r represents the interest rate, and t represents the amount of time the
interest has been accruing. For example, say you borrow $2,000 from a family member, and you insist on repaying
with interest. You agree to pay 5% interest, and to pay the money back in 3 years. The interest you will owe will be
2000(0.05)(3) = $300. This means that when you repay your loan, you will pay $2300. Note that the interest you
pay after 3 years is not 5% of the original loan, but 15%, as you paid 5% of $2000 each year for 3 years.
Now lets consider an example in which interest is compounded. Say that you invest $2000 in a bank account, and it
earns 5% interest annually. How much is in the account after 3 years?
In order to determine how much money is in the account after three years, we have to determine the amount of
money in the account after each year. The table below shows the calculations for one, two, and three years of this
investment:
TABLE 5.45:
Year Principal + interest
After one year 2000 + 2000(0.05) = 2000 + 100 = $2100
After 2 years 2100 + 2100(0.05) = 2100 + 105 = $2205
After 3 years 2205 + 2205(0.05) = 2205 + 110.25 = $2315.25
Therefore, after three years, you will have $2315.25 in the account, which means that you will have earned $315.25
in interest. With simple interest, you would have earned $300 in interest. Compounding results in more interest
because the principal on which the interest is calculated increased each year. For example, in the second year shown
in the table above, you earned 5% of 2100, not 5% of 2000, as would be the case of simple interest. The main
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5.6. Compound Interest www.ck12.org
idea here is that compounding creates more interest because you are earning interest on interest, and not just on the
principal.
But how much more?
You might look at the above example and say, its only $15.25. Remember that we have only looked at one example,
and this example is a small one: in the grand scheme of investing, $2000 is a small amount of money, and we have
only looked at the growth of the investment for a short period of time. For example, if you are saving for retirement,
you could invest for a period of 30 years or more, and you might invest several thousand dollars each year.
The formulas and methods for calculating retirement investments are more complicated than what we will do here.
However, we can use the above example to derive a formula that will allow us to calculate compound interest for
any number of years.
The compound interest formula
To derive the formula for compound interest, we need to look at a more general example. Lets return to the previous
example, but instead of assuming the investment is $2000, let the principal of the investment be P dollars. The key
idea is that each year you have 100% of the principal, plus 5% of the previous balance. The table below shows the
calculations of this more general investment.
TABLE 5.46:
Year Principal + interest New principal
1 P + P .05 = 1.00P + .05P = 1.05P
2 1.05P + .05 (1.05P) = 1.05P [1+ .05] (1.05)2 P
= 1.05P 1.05 =
3 (1.05)2 P + .05 (1.05)2 P = (1.05)2 P (1.05)3 P
[1 + .05] = (1.05)2 P [1.05] =
Notice that at the end of every year, the amount of money in the investment is a power of 1.05, times P, and that the
power corresponds to the number of years. Given this pattern, you might hypothesize that after 4 years, the amount
of money is (1.05)4 P.
We can generalize this pattern to a formula. As above, we let P represent the principal of the investment. Now,
let t represent the number of years, and r represent the interest rate. Keep in mind that 1.05 = 1+0.05. So we can
generalize:
A(t) = P(1 + r)t
This function will allow us to calculate the amount of money in an investment, if the interest is compounded each
year for t years.
Example 1: Use the formula above to determine the amount of money in an investment after 20 years, if you invest
$2000, and the interest rate is 5% compounded annually.
Solution: The investment will be worth $5306.60
A(t) = P(1 + r)t
A(20) = 2000(1.05)20
A(20) = $5306.60
In the above example, we found the value of this investment after a particular number of years. If we graph the
function A(t) = 2000(1.05)t , we can see the values for any number of years.
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If you graph this function using a graphing calculator, you can determine the value of the investment by tracing
along the function, or by pressing <TI font_TRACE>on your graphing calculator and then entering an x value. You
can also choose an investment value you would like to reach, and then determine the number of years it would take
to reach that amount. For example, how long will it take for the investment to reach $7,000?
As we did earlier in the chapter, we can find the intersection of the exponential function with the line y = 7000.
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You can see from Figure 2 that the line and the curve intersect at a little less than x = 26. Therefore it would take
almost 26 years for the investment to reach $7000.
You can also solve for an exact value:
TABLE 5.47:
2000(1.05)t = 7000
(1.05)t = 7000
2000 Divide both sides by 2000 and simplify the right side of
the equation.
(1.05)t = 3.5 Take the ln of both sides (you can use any log, but ln or
log base 10 will allow you to use a calculator.)
ln(1.05)t = ln3.5
t[ln(1.05)] = ln3.5 Use the power property of logs
ln3.5
t = ln1.05 ≈ 25.68 Divide both sides by ln 1.05
The examples we have seen so far are examples of annual compounding. In reality, interest is often compounded
more frequently, for example, on a monthly basis. In this case, the interest rate is divided amongst the 12 months.
The formula for calculating the balance of the account is then slightly different:
r 12t

A(t) = P 1 + 12
Notice that the interest rate is divided by 12 because 1/12th of the rate is applied each month. The variable t in the
exponent is multiplied by 12 because the interest is calculated 12 times per year.
In general, if interest is compounded n times per year, the formula is:
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nt
A(t) = P 1 + nr
Example 2: Determine the value of each investment.

a. You invest $5000 in an account that gives 6% interest, compounded monthly. How much money do you
have after 10 years? b. You invest $10,000 in an account that gives 2.5% interest, compounded quarterly. How
much money do you have after 10 years?
Solution: nt
a. $5000, invested for 10 years at 6% interest, compounded monthly.A(t) = P 1 + nr A(10) =
12·10
5000 1 + .06
12 A(10) = 5000 (1.005)120 A(10) ≈ $9096.98
b. $10000, invested for 10 years at 2.5% interest, compounded quarterly.

Quarterly compounding means that interest is compounded four times per year. So in the equation, n =
4.
nt 4·10
A(t) = P 1 + nr A(10) = 6000 1 + .025
4 A(10) = 6000(1.00625)40 A(10) ≈ $12, 830.30
In each example, the value of the investment after 10 years depends on three quantities: the principal of the
investment, the number of compoundings per year, and the interest rate. Next we will look at an example of one
investment, but we will vary each of these quantities.
The power of compound interest
Consider the investment in example 1: $2000 was invested at an annual interest rate of 5%. We modeled this situation
with the equation A(t) = 2000(1.05)t . We can use this equation to determine the amount of money in the account
after any number of years. As we saw above, the value of the account grows exponentially. You can see how fast the
investment grows if we compare it to linear growth. For example, if the same investment earned simple interest, the
value of the investment after t years could be modeled with the function B(t) = 2000 + 2000(.05)t. We can simplify
this to be: B(t) = 100t + 2000. The exponential function and this linear function are shown here.
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Notice that if we look at these investments over a long period of time (30 years are shown in the graph), the values
look very close together for x values less than 10. For example, after 5 years, the compound interest investment
is worth $2552.60, and the simple interest investment is worth $2500. But, after 20 years, the compound interest
investment is worth $5306.60, and the simple interest investment is worth $4,000. After 20 years, simple interest
has doubled the amount of money, while compound interest has resulted in 2.65 times the amount of money.
The main idea here is that an exponential function grows faster than a linear one, which you can see from the graphs
above. But what happens to the investment if we change the interest rate, or the number of times we compound per
year?
Example 3: Compare the values of the investments shown in the table. If everything else is held constant, how does
the interest rate influence the value of the investment?
TABLE 5.48:
Principal r n t
a. $4,000 .02 12 8
b. $4,000 .05 12 8
c. $4,000 .10 12 8
d. $4,000 .15 12 8
e. $4,000 .22 12 8
nt
Solution: Using the compound interest formula A(t) = P 1 + nr , we can calculate the value of each investment.
r 12·8

In all cases, we have A(8) = 4000 1 + 12 .
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TABLE 5.49:
Principal r n t A
a. $4,000 .02 12 8 $4693.42
b. $4,000 .05 12 8 $5962.34
c. $4,000 .10 12 8 $8872.70
$4,000 .15 12 8 $13182.05
e. $4,000 .22 12 8 $22882.11
As we increase the interest rate, the value of the investment increases. It is part of every day life to want to find
the highest interest rate possible for a bank account (and the lowest possible rate for a loan!). Lets look at just
how fast the value of the account grows. Remember that each calculation in the table above started with A(8) =
r 12·8

4000 1 + 12 . Notice that this is a function of r, the interest rate. We can write this equation in a more standard
x 96

form: f (x) = 4000 1 + 12 . The graph of this function is shown below:
Notice that while this function is not exponential, it does grow quite fast. As we increase the interest rate, the value
of the account increases very quickly.
Example 4: Compare the values of the investments shown in the table. If everything else is held constant, how does
the compounding influence the value of the investment?
TABLE 5.50:
Principal r n t
a. $4,000 .05 1 (annual) 8
b. $4,000 .05 4 (quarterly) 8
c. $4,000 .05 12 (monthly) 8
d. $4,000 .05 365 (daily) 8
e. $4,000 .05 8760 (hourly) 8
Solution: Again, we use the compound interest formula. For this example, the n is the quantity that changes:
8n
A(8) = 4000 1 + .05
n
TABLE 5.51:
Principal r n t A
a. $4,000 .05 1 (annual) 8 $5909.82
b. $4,000 .05 4 (quarterly) 8 $5952.52
c. $4,000 .05 12 (monthly) 8 $5962.34
d. $4,000 .05 365 (daily) 8 $5967.14
e. $4,000 .05 8760 (hourly) 8 $5967.29
365
In contrast to the changing interest rate, in this example, increasing the number of compoundings per year does not
seem to dramatically increase the value of the investment. We can see why this is the case of we look at the function
8n 8x
A(8) = 4000 1 + .05 n . A graph of the function f (x) = 4000 1 + .05
x is shown below:
The graph seems to indicate that the function has a horizontal asymptote at $6000. However, if we zoom in, we can
see that the horizontal asymptote is closer to 5967.
What does this mean? This means that for the investment of $4000, at 5% interest, for 8 years, compounding more
and more frequently will never result in more than about $5968.00.
8x
Another way to say this is that the function f (x) = 4000 1 + .05
x has a limit as x approaches infinity. Next we will
look at this kind of limit to define a special form of compounding.
Continuous compounding
Consider a hypothetical example: you invest $1.00, at 100% interest, for 1 year. For this situation, the amount of
money you have at the end ofntthe year depends on how often the interest is compounded:
A(t) = P 1 + nr
ln
A(t) = 1 1 + 1n
n
A = 1 + n1
Now lets consider different compoundings:
TABLE 5.52:
Compounding N A≈
Annual 1 2
Quarterly 4 2.44140625
Monthly 12 2.61303529022
Daily 365 2.71456748202
Hourly 8,760 2.71812669063
By the minute 525,600 2.7182792154
By the second 31,536,000 2.71828247254
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The values of A in the table have a limit, which might look familiar: its the number e. In fact, one of the definitions
1 n
of e is limn→∞ 1 + n .
n
A related limit is one that will lead us to a special kind of compound interest: limn→∞ 1 + nx = ex . (The proof of
this limit requires calculus. However, in one of the review questions, you will examine this limit more closely.)
Now we can define what is known as continuous compounding. If interest is compounded t n times per year, the
nt
equation we use is: A(t) = P 1 + nr . We can also write the function as A(t) = P (1 + nr )n . If we compound more
n
and more often, we are looking at what happens to this function as n → ∞. Recall the limit above: limn→∞ 1 + nx =
n t
ex . Here, this means limn→∞ 1 + nr = er . So as n approaches ∞, (1 + nr )n approaches P(er )t = Pert .
The function A(t) = Pert is the formula we use to calculate the amount of money when interest is continuously
compounded, rather than interest that is compounded at discrete intervals, such as monthly or quarterly. For example,
consider again the investment in example 1 above: what is the value of an investment after 20 years, if you invest
$2000, and the interest rate is 5% compounded continuously?
A(t) = Pert A(20) = 2000e.05(20) A(20) = 2000e1 A(20) = $5436.56
Just as we did with the standard compound interest formula, we can also determine the time it takes for an account
to reach a particular value if the interest is compounded continuously.
Example 5: How long will it take $2000 to grow to $25,000 in the previous example?
Solution: It will take about 50 years:
TABLE 5.53:
A(t) = Pert
25,000 = 2000e.05(t)
12.5 = e.05(t) Divide both sides by 2000
ln 12.5 = ln e.05(t ) Take the ln of both sides
ln 12.5 = .05t ln e Use the power property of logs
ln 12.5 = .05t 1 lne = 1
ln 12.5 = 0.5t Isolate t
t = ln12.5
.05 ≈ 50.5
Lesson Summary
In this lesson we have developed formulas to calculate the amount of money in a bank account or an investment
when interest is compounded, either a discrete number of times per year, or compounded continuously. We have
found the value of accounts or investments, and we have found the time it takes to reach a particular value. We have
solved these problems algebraically and graphically, using our knowledge of functions in general, and logarithms in
particular.
In general, the examples we have seen are conservative in the larger scheme of investing. Given all of the information
available today about investments, you may look at the examples and think that the return on these investments seems
low. For example, in the last example, 50 years probably seems like a long time to wait!
It is important to keep in mind that these calculations are based on an initial investment only. In reality, if you
invest money long term, you will invest on a regular basis. For example, if an employer offers a retirement plan,
you may invest a set amount of money from every paycheck, and your employer may contribute a set amount as
well. As noted above, the calculations for the growth of a retirement investment are more complicated. However,
the exponential functions you have studied in this lesson are the basis for the calculations you would need to do. The
examples here are meant to illustrate an application of exponential functions, and the power of compound interest.
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Points to Consider
1. Why is compound interest modeled with an exponential function?

2. What is the difference between compounding and continuous compounding?
3. How are logarithms useful in solving compound interest problems?
Review Questions
1. You put $3500 in a bank account that earns 5.5% interest, compounded monthly. How much is in your account
after 2 years? After 5 years?
2. You put $2000 in a bank account that earns 7% interest, compounded quarterly. How much is in your account
after 10 years?
3. Solve an exponential equation in order to answer the question: given the investment in question 2, how many
years will it take for the account to reach $10,000?
4. Use a graph to verify your answer to question 3.
5. Consider two investments:
(1) $2000, invested at 6% interest, compounded monthly
(2) $3000, invested at 4.5% interest, compounded monthly
Use a graph to determine when the 2 investments have equal value.
6. You invest $3000 in an account that pays 6% interest, compounded monthly. How long does it take to double
your investment?
7. Explain why the answer to #6 does not depend on the amount of the initial investment
8. You invest $4,000 in an account that pays 3.2% interest, compounded continuously. What is the value of the
account after 5 years?
9. You invest $6,000 in an account that pays 5% interest, compounded continuously. What is the value of the
account after 10 years?
10. Consider the investment in example 8. How many years will n it take the investment to reach $20,000?
11. In this lesson, we introduced this limit: lim n → ∞ 1 + nr = er
We noted in the lesson that the proof of this limit requires calculus. Here, we will examine a few specific cases
in order to see how this limit is true.
Using a graphing calculator, estimate the value of this limit for the given values of x. Do the limits seem to
match the value of ex ? Do these calculations suffice as a proof of the limit? Why or why not?
Hint: Graph each limit expression as a function, where x represents n.
TABLE 5.54:
n
r limn→∞ 1 + nr = er er
0
1
2
3
4
5
10
12.
Review Answers
1. After 2 years: $3905.99. After 5 years: $4604.96.

2. $4003.20
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ln5
3. t = 4ln1.0175 ≈ 23.19 years.
4.
The functions cross at x ≈ 23.19
5.
It takes about 27 years for the two investments to have the same value.
ln2
6. t = 12ln1.005 ≈ 11.58 years.
7. When solving for t, the 6000 is divided by 3000, resulting in a 2 on the left side of the equation. (Hence the ln
2.) This would be the same, no matter what the initial investment was.
8. $4694.03
9. $9892.36
10. It will take about 50 years.
TABLE 5.55:
n
0 1 1
369

n
1 e e
2 ≈ 7.389 ≈ 7.389
3 ≈ 20.086 ≈ 20.086
4 ≈ 54.598 ≈ 54.598
5 ≈ 148.413 ≈ 148.413
10 ≈ 22026.466 ≈ 22026.466
11.
12. The values in the table match, but this does not count as a proof. A proof needs to show that the values match
for ALL values of
13. r
14. .
Vocabulary
Accrue To accrue is to increase in amount or value over time. If interest accrues on a bank account, you will have
more money in your account. If interest accrues on a loan, you will owe more money to your lender.
Compound interest Compound interest is interest based on a principal and on previous interest earned.
Continuous compounding Interest that is based on continuous compounding is calculated according to the equa-
tion A(t)=Pert , where P is the principal, r is the interest rate, t is the length of the investment, and A is the
value of the account or investment after t years.
Principal The principal is the initial amount of an investment or a loan.
Simple interest Simple interest is interest that is calculated as a percent of the principal, as a function of time.
370
5.7 Growth and Decay
Learning objectives
• Model situations using exponential and logistic functions.

• Solve problems involving these models, using your knowledge of properties of logarithms, and using a
graphing calculator.
Introduction
In lesson 5 you learned about modeling phenomena with exponential and logarithmic functions. In the examples
in lesson 5, you used a graphing calculator to find a line that fits a given set of data. Here we will use algebraic
techniques to develop models, and you will learn about another kind of function, the logistic function, that can be
used to model growth.
Exponential growth
In general, if you have enough information about a situation, you can write an exponential function to model growth
in the situation. Lets start with a straightforward example:
Example 1: A social networking website is started by a group of 10 friends. They advertise their site before they
launch, and membership grows fast: the membership doubles every day. At this rate, what will the membership be
in a week? When will the membership reach 100,000?
Solution: To model this situation, lets look at how the membership changes each day:
TABLE 5.56:
Time (in days) Membership
0 10
1 2 10 = 20
2 2 2 10 = 40
3 2 2 2 10 = 80
4 2 2 2 2 10 = 160
Notice that the membership on day x is 10(2x ). Therefore we can model membership with the function M(x) =
10(2x ). In seven days, the membership will be M(7) = 10(27 ) = 1280.
We can solve an exponential equation to find out when the membership will reach 100,000:
4
10(2x ) = 100, 000 2x = 10, 000 log2x = log10, 000 xlog2 = 4 x = log2 ≈ 13.3
At this rate, the membership will reach 100,000 in less than two weeks. This result may seem unreasonable. Thats
very fast growth!
So lets consider a slower rate of doubling. Lets say that the membership doubles every 7 days.
371
5.7. Growth and Decay www.ck12.org
TABLE 5.57:
Time (in days) Membership
0 10
7 2 10 = 20
14 2 2 10 = 40
21 2 2 2 10 = 80
28 2 2 2 2 10 = 160
We can no longer use the function M(x) = 10(2x ). However, we can use this function to find another function to
model this new situation. Looking at one data point will help. Consider for example the fact that M(21) = 10(23 ).
This is the case because 21 days results in 3 periods of doubling. Inorder for x = 21 to produce 23 in the equation,
x
the exponent in the function must be x/7. So we have M(x) = 10 2 7 . Lets verify that this equation makes sense for
the data in the table: 7 14
0
M(0) = 10 2 7 = 10(1) = 10 M(7) = 10 2 7 = 10(2) = 20 M(14) = 10 2 7 = 10(22 ) = 10(4) =
21 28
40 M(21) = 10 2 7 = 10(23 ) = 10(8) = 80 M(28) = 10 2 7 = 10(24 ) = 10(16) = 160
Notice that each x value represents one more event of doubling, and in order for the function to have the correct
power of 2, the exponent must be (x/7).
x
With the new function M(x) = 10 2 7 , the membership doubles to 20 in one week, and reaches 100,000 in about 3
months:
x x x 28
10 2 7 = 100, 000 2 7 = 100, 000 log2 7 = log100, 000 7x log2 = 4 xlog2 = 28 x = log2 ≈ 93
The previous two examples of exponential growth have specifically been about doubling. We can also model a more
general growth pattern with a more general growth model. While the graphing calculator produces a function of the
form y = a(bx ), population growth is often modeled with a function in which e is the base. Lets look at this kind of
example:
The population of a town was 20,000 in 1990. Because of its proximity to technology companies, the population
grew to 35,000 by the year 2000. If the growth continues at this rate, how long will it take for the population to reach
1 million?
The general form of the exponential growth model is much like the continuous compounding function you learned in
the previous lesson. We can model exponential growth with a function of the form P(t) = P0 ekt . The expression P(t)
represents the population after t years, the coefficient P0 represents the initial population, and k is a growth constant
that depends on the particular situation.
In the situation above, we know that P0 = 20,000 and that P(10) = 35, 000. We can use this information to find the
value of k:
P(t) = P0 ekt P(10) = 35000 = 20000ek·10 35,000
20000 = e
10k 1.75 = e10k ln1.75 = lne10k ln1.75 = 10klne
ln1.75
ln1.75 = 10k(1) ln1.75 = 10k k = 10 ≈ 0.056
ln1.75
Therefore we can model the population growth with the function P(t) = 20000e 10 t . We can determine when the
population will reach 1,000,000 by solving an equation, or using a graph. ln1.75
ln1.75 ln1.75
Here is a solution using an equation:1000000 = 20000e 10 t 50 = e 10 t ln50 = ln e 10 t ln50 =
ln1.75 ln1.75 10ln50
10 t(lne) ln50 = 10 t(1) 10ln50 = ln1.75t t = ln1.75 ≈ 70
At this rate, it would take about 70 years for the population to reach 1 million. Like the initial doubling example,
the growth rate may seem very fast. In reality, a population that grows exponentially may not sustain its growth rate
over time. Next we will look at a different kind of function that can be used to model growth of this kind.
372
Logistic models
Given that resources are limited, a population may slow down in its growth over time. Consider the last example,
the town whose population exploded in the 1990s. If there are no more houses to be bought, or tracts of land to
be developed, the population will not continue to grow exponentially. The table below shows the population of this
town slowing down, though still growing:
TABLE 5.58:
t (1990=0) Population
0 20,000
10 35,000
15 38,000
20 40,000
As the population growth slows down, the population may approach what is called a carrying capacity, or an upper
bound of the population. We can model this kind of growth using a logistic function, which is a function of the form
f (x) = 1+a(ec −bx ) .
The graph below shows an example of a logistic function. This kind of graph is often called an s curve because of
its shape.
Notice that the graph shows slow growth, then fast growth, and then slow growth again, as the population or quantity
in question approaches the carrying capacity. Logistics functions are used to model population growth, as well as
other situations, such as the amount of medicine in a persons system
Given the population data above, we can use a graphing calculator to find a logistic function to model this situation.
The details of this process are explained in the Technology Note in Lesson 3.5. As shown there, enter the data into
L1 and L2 . Then run a logistic regression. (Press <TI font_STAT>, scroll right to CALC, and scroll down to B.
41042.38
Logistic.) An approximation of the logistic model for this data is: f (x) = 1+1.050e −.178x . A graph of this function and
the data is shown here.
373
Notice that the graph has a horizontal asymptote around 40,000. Looking at the equation, you should notice that the
numerator is about 41,042. This value is in fact the horizontal asymptote, which represents the carrying capacity.
We can understand why this is the carrying capacity if we consider the limit of the function as x approaches infinity.
As x gets larger and larger, e−.178x will get smaller and smaller. So 1.05 e−.178x will get smaller. This means that the
denominator of the function will get closer and closer to 1:
limx→∞ (1 + 1.050e−.178x ) = 1.
Therefore the limit of the function is (approximately) (41042/1) = 41042. This means that given the current growth,
the model predicts that the population will not go beyond 41,042. This kind of growth is seen in population, as
well as other situations in which some quantity grows very fast and then slows down, or when a quantity steeply
decreases, and then levels off. You will see work with more examples of logistic functions in the review questions.
Exponential decay
Just as a quantity can grow, or increase exponentially, we can model a decreasing quantity with an exponential
function. This kind of situation is referred to as exponential decay. Perhaps the most common example of exponential
decay is that of radioactive decay, which refers to the transformation of an atom of one type into an atom of a different
type, when the nucleus of the atom loses energy. The rate of radioactive decay is usually measured in terms of half-
life, or the time it takes for half of the atoms in a sample to decay. For example Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope
that is used in carbon dating, a method of determining the age of organic materials. The half-life of Carbon-14 is
5730 years. This means that if we have a sample of Carbon-14, it will take 5730 years for half of the sample to
decay. Then it will take another 5730 years for half of the remaining sample to decay, and so on.
We can model decay using the same form of equation we use to model growth, except that the exponent in the
equation is negative: A(t) = A0 e−kt . For example, say we have a sample of Carbon-14. How much time will pass
before 75% of the original sample remains?
We can use the half-life of 5730 years to determine the value of k:
TABLE 5.59:
A(t) = A0 e−kt
1 −k·5730
2 = 1e We do not know the value of A0 , so we use 1 as 100%.
(1/2) of the sample remains when t = 5730 years
ln 21 = lne−k·5730 Take the ln of both sides
ln 12 = −5730klne Use the power property of logs
ln 12 = −5730k ln(e) = 1
374

A(t) = A0 e−kt
−ln2 = −5730k ln(1/2) = ln(2−1 ) = −ln2
ln2 = 5730k
ln2
k = 5730 Isolate k
Now we can determine when the amount of Carbon-14 remaining is 75% of the original:
−ln2 −ln2 −ln2 5730ln(0.75)
0.75 = 1e 5730 t 0.75 = 1e 5730 t ln(0.75) = lne 5730 t ln(0.75) = −ln2
5730 t t = −ln2 ≈ 2378
Therefore it would take about 2,378 years for 75% of the original sample to be remaining. In practice, scientists
can approximate the age of an artifact using a process that relies on their knowledge of the half-life of Carbon-14,
as well as the ratio of Carbon-14 to Carbon-12 (the most abundant, stable form of carbon) in an object. While the
concept of half-life often is used in the context of radioactive decay, it is also used in other situations. In the review
questions, you will see another common example, that of medicine in a persons system.
Related to exponential decay is Newtons Law of Cooling. The Law of Cooling allows us to determine the temper-
ature of a cooling (or warming) object, based on the temperature of the surroundings and the time since the object
entered the surroundings. The general form of the cooling function is T(x) = T 5 + (T 0 - T 5 ) e−kx , where T 5 , is the
surrounding temperature, T 0 is the initial temperature, and x represents the time since the object began cooling or
warming.
The first graph shows a situation in which an object is cooling. The graph has a horizontal asymptote at y = 70. This
tells us that the object is cooling to 70◦ F. The second graph has a horizontal asymptote at y = 70 as well, but in this
situation, the object is warming up to 70◦ F.
We can use the general form of the function to answer questions about cooling (or warming) situations. Consider
the following example: you are baking a casserole in a dish, and the oven is set to 325◦ F. You take the pan out of the
oven and put it on a cooling rack in your kitchen which is 70◦ F, and after 10 minutes the pan has cooled to 300◦ F.
How long will it take for the pan to cool to 2000 F?
We can use the general form of the equation and the information given in the problem to find the value of k:
T (x) = Ts + (T0 − Ts )e−kx T (x) = 70 + (325 − 70)e−kx T (x) = 70 + (255)e−kx T (10) = 70 + 255e−10k =
230
300 255e−10k = 230 e−10k = 230 −10k = ln 230 −10k = ln 230 k = ln( 255 ) ≈ 0.0103

255 lne 255 255 −10
Now we can determine the amount of time it takes for the pan to cool to 200 degrees:
T (x) = 70 + (255)e−.0103 x T (x) = 70 + (255)e−.0103 x 200 = 70 + (255)e−.0103 x 130 = (255)e−.0103 x
130
130 −.0103 x ln 130 = lne−.0103 x ln 130 = −.0103x x = ln( 255 ) ≈ 65

255 = e 255 255 −.0103
Therefore, in the given surroundings, it would take about an hour for the pan to cool to 200 degrees.
375
Lesson Summary
In this lesson we have developed exponential and logistic models to represent different phenomena. We have
considered exponential growth, logistic growth, and exponential decay. After reading the examples in this lesson,
you should be able to write a function to represent a given situation, to evaluate the function for a given value of
x, and to solve exponential equations in order to find values of x, given values of the function. For example, in a
situation of exponential population growth as a function of time, you should be able to determine the population at
a particular time, and to determine the time it takes for the population to reach a given amount. You should be able
to solve these kinds of problems by solving exponential equations, and by using graphing utilities, as we have done
throughout the chapter.
Points to Consider
1. How can we use the same equation for exponential growth and decay?
2. What are the restrictions on domain and range for the examples in this lesson?
3. How can we use different equations to model the same situations?
Review Questions
1. The population of a town was 50,000 in 1980, and it grew to 70,000 by 1995.
a. Write an exponential function to model the growth of the population.
b. Use the function to estimate the population in 2010.
c. What if the population growth was linear? Write a linear equation to model the population growth, and use
it to estimate the population in 2010.
2. A telecommunications company began providing wireless service in 1994, and during that year the company
had 1000 subscribers. By 2004, the company had 12,000 subscribers.
a. Write an exponential function to model the situation
b. Use the model to determine how long it will take for the company to reach 50,000 subscribers.
3. The population of a particular strain of bacteria triples every 8 hours.
a. Write a general exponential function to model the bacteria growth.
b. Use the model to determine how long it will take for a sample of bacteria to be 100 times its original
population.
c. Use a graph to verify your solution to part b.
4. The half-life of acetaminophen is about 2 hours.
a. If you take 650 mg of acetaminophen, how much will be left in your system after 7 hours?
b. How long before there is less than 25 mg in your system?
5. The population of a city was 200,000 in 1991, and it decreased to 170,000 by 2001.
a. Write an exponential function to model the decreasing population, and use the model to predict the
population in 2008.
b. Under what circumstances might the function cease to model the situation after a certain point in time?
6. Consider the following situation: you buy a large box of pens for the start of the school year, and after six
weeks, (1/3) of the pens remain. After another six weeks, (1/3) of the remaining pens were remaining. If you
continue this pattern, when will you only have 5% of the pens left?
7. Use Newtons law of cooling to answer the question: you pour hot water into a mug to make tea. The
temperature of the water is about 200 degrees. The surrounding temperature is about 75 degrees. You let
the water cool for 5 minutes, and the temperature decreases to 160 degrees. What will the temperature be after
15 minutes?
2000
8. The spread of a particular virus can be modeled with the logistic function f (x) = 1+600e −.75x , where x is the
number of days the virus has been spreading, and f(x) represents the number of people who have the virus.
a. How many people will be affected after 7 days?
376
b. How many days will it take for the spread to be within one person of carrying capacity?
9. Consider again the situation in problem #2: A telecommunications company began providing wireless service
in 1994, and during that year the company had 1000 subscribers. By 2004, the company had 12,000 sub-
scribers. If the company has 15,000 subscribers in 2005, and 16,000 in 2007, what type of model do you think
should be used to model the situation? Use a graphing calculator to find a regression equation, and use the
equation to predict the number of subscribers in 2010.
10. Compare exponential and logistic functions as tools for modeling growth. What do they have in common, and
how do they differ?
Review Answers
ln( 75 )
1. a. A(T ) = 50, 000e 15 t
b. 98, 000
c. f (t) = 4000
3 t + 50000. The population would be 90,000, which is different by about 9%.
ln(12)
2. a. S(t) = 1000e 10 t
b. t = 10ln50
ln12 ≈ 15.74
3. a. A(t) = A0 (3t/8 )
16
b. t = log3 ≈ 33.53
c. The graph below shows y = 100 and y = 3x/8 , which intersect at approximately x = 33.53
4. a. About 57.45 mg
b. About 9.4 hours
−ln.85
5. a. P(t) = 200000e −10 t , P(17) ≈ 151720
b. If the economy or other factors change, the population might begin to increase, or the rate of decrease could
change as well.
6. t = 6log(0.05)
log( 13 )
≈ 16 weeks
7. About 114 degrees.
8. a. About 482 people.
b. After 19 days, over 1999 people have the virus.
18872
9. The graph indicates a logistic model. f (x) ≈ 1+21.45e −377x gives 17952 subscribers in 2010.
10. Both types of functions model fast increase in growth, but the logistic model shows the growth slowing down
after some point, with some upper bound on the quantity in question. (Many people argue that logistic growth
is more realistic.)
377
Vocabulary
Carrying capacity The supportable population of an organism, given the food, habitat, water and other necessities
available within an ecosystem is known as the ecosystem’s carrying capacity for that organism.
Radioactive decay Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting
radiation in the form of particles or electromagnetic waves. This decay, or loss of energy, results in an atom
of one type transforming to an atom of a different type. For example, Carbon-14 transforms into Nitrogen-14
Half-life The amount of time it takes for half of a given amount of a substance to decay. The half-life remains the
same, no matter how much of the substance there is.
Isotope Isotopes are any of two or more forms of a chemical element, having the same number of protons in the
nucleus, or the same atomic number, but having different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus, or different
atomic weights.
378
5.8 Applications
Learning objectives
• Work with the decibel system for measuring loudness of sound.

• Work with the Richter scale, which measures the magnitude of earthquakes.
• Work with pH values and concentrations of hydrogen ions.
Introduction
Because logarithms are related to exponential relationships, logarithms are useful for measuring phenomena that
involve very large numbers or very small numbers. In this lesson you will learn about three situations in which a
quantity is measured using logarithms. In each situation, a logarithm is used to simplify measurements of either very
small numbers or very large numbers. We begin with measuring the intensity of sound.
Intensity of sound
Sound intensity is measured using a logarithmic scale. The intensity of a sound wave is measured in Watts per square
meter, or W/m2 . Our hearing threshold (or the minimum intensity we can hear at a frequency of 1000 Hz), is 2.5
1012 W/m2 . The intensity of sound is often measured using the decibel (dB) system. We can think of this system as
a function. The input of the function is the intensity of the sound, and the output is some number of decibels. The
decibel is a dimensionless unit; however, because decibels are used in common and scientific discussions of sound,
the values of the scale have become familiar to people.
We can calculate the decibel measure
h as follows:
intensity of sound in W /m2
i
Intensity level (dB) = 10log −12
.937×10 W /m 2
An intensityhof .937 10−12 W/m 2 corresponds to 0 decibels:

−12 2
i
.937×10 W /m
10log .937×10 −12W /m2 = 10log1 = 10(0) = 0.
Note: The sound equivalent to 0 decibels is approximately the lowest sound that humans can hear. If the intensity is
ten times as hlarge, the decibeli level is 10:
.937×10−11W /m2
10log .937×10−12W /m2 = 10log10 = 10(1) = 10
If the intensity is 100 times as large, the decibel level is 20, and if the intensity is 1000 times as large, the decibel level
is 30. (The scale is created this way in order to correspond to human hearing. We tend to underestimate intensity.)
The threshold for pain 2
h caused 2
by sound
i is 1 W/m . This intensity corresponds to about 120 decibels:
1W /m 2 ≈ 10 : 12 = 120
10log .937×10 −12 W /m
Many common phenomena are louder than this. For example, a jet can reach about 140 decibels, and concert can
reach about 150 decibels.
(Source: Ohanian, H.C. (1989) Physics. New York: W.W. Norton Company.)
For ease of calculation, the equation is often simplified: .937 is rounded to 1:
379
5.8. Applications www.ck12.org
TABLE 5.60:
h i
Intensity level (dB) = 10log 1×10−12W /m2
h i
= 10log 10−12W /m2
In the example below we will use this simplified equation to answer a question about decibels. (In the review
exercises, you can also use this simplified equation).
Example 1: Verify that a sound of intensity 100 times that of a sound of 0 dB corresponds to 20 dB.
−12

Solution: dB = 10log 100×10
10−12 = 10log(100) = 10(2) = 20.
Intensity and magnitude of earthquakes
An earthquake occurs when energy is released from within the earth, often caused by movement along fault lines. An
earthquake can be measured in terms of its intensity, or its magnitude. Intensity refers to the effect of the earthquake,
which depends on location with respect to the epicenter of the quake. Intensity and magnitude are not the same
thing.
As mentioned in lesson 3, the magnitude of an earthquake is measured using logarithms. In 1935, scientist Charles
Richter developed this scale in order to compare the size of earthquakes. You can think of Richter scale as a function
in which the input is the amplitude of a seismic wave, as measured by a seismograph, and the output is a magnitude.
However, there is more than one way to calculate the magnitude of an earthquake because earthquakes produce two
different kinds of waves that can be measured for amplitude. The calculations are further complicated by the need
for a correction factor, which is a function of the distance between the epicenter and the location of the seismograph.
Given these complexities, seismologists may use different formulas, depending on the conditions of a specific
earthquake. This is done so that the measurement of the magnitude of a specific earthquake is consistent with
Richters original definition. (Source: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learning/topics/richter.php)
Even without a specific formula, we can use the Richter scale to compare the size of earthquakes. For example, the
1906 San Francisco earthquake had a magnitude of about 7.7. The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake had a magnitude
of about 6.9. (The epicenter of the quake was near Loma Prieta peak in the Santa Cruz mountains, south of San
Francisco.) Because the Richter scale is logarithmic, this means that the 1906 quake was six times as strong as the
1989 quake:
107.7
106.9
= 107.7−6.9 = 10.8 ≈ 6.3
This kind of calculation explains why magnitudes are reported using a whole number and a decimal. In fact, a
decimal difference makes a big difference in the size of the earthquake, as shown below and in the review exercises
Example 2: An earthquake has a magnitude of 3.5. A second earthquake is 100 times as strong. What is the
magnitude of the second earthquake?
Solution: The second earthquake is 100 times as strong as the earthquake of magnitude 3.5. This means that if the
magnitude of the second earthquake is x, then:
10x
103.5
= 100 10x−3.5 = 100 = 102 x − 3.5 = 2 x = 5.5
So the magnitude of the second earthquake is 5.5.
The pH scale
If you have studied chemistry, you may have learned about acids and bases. An acid is a substance that produces
hydrogen ions when added to water. A hydrogen ion is a positively charged atom of hydrogen, written as H+ . A
380
base is a substance that produces hydroxide ions (OH − ) when added to water. Acids and bases play important roles
in everyday life, including within the human body. For example, our stomachs produce acids in order to breakdown
foods. However, for people who suffer from gastric reflux, acids travel up to and can damage the esophagus.
Substances that are bases are often used in cleaners, but a strong base is dangerous: it can burn your skin.
To measure the concentration of an acid or a base in a substance, we use the pH scale, which was invented in the
early 1900s by a Danish scientist named Soren Sorenson. The pH of a substance depends on the concentration of
H+ , which is written with the symbol [H+ ].
pH = - log [H+ ]
(Note: concentration is usually measured in moles per liter. A mole is 6.02 1023 units. Here, it would be 6.02
1023 hydrogen ions.)
For example, the concentration of H+ in stomach acid is about 1 10 −1 . So the pH of stomach acid is -log (10−1 ) =
-(-1) = 1. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A substance with a low pH is an acid. A substance with a high pH is a
base. A substance with a pH in the middle of the scale is considered to be neutral.
Example 3: The pH of ammonia is 11. What is the concentration of H+ ?
Solution: pH = - log [H+ ]. If we substitute 11 for pH we can solve for H+ :
+
11 = −log[H + ] −11 = log[H + ] 10−11 = 10log[H ] 10−11 = H +
Lesson Summary
In this lesson we have looked at three examples of logarithmic scales. In the case of the decibel system, using a
logarithm has produced a simple way of categorizing the intensity of sound. The Richter scale allows us to compare
earthquakes. And, the pH scale allows us to categorize acids and bases. In each case, a logarithm helps us work with
large or small numbers, in order to more easily understand the quantities involved in certain real world phenomena.
Points to Consider
1. How are the decibel system and the Richter scale the same, and how are they different?
2. What other phenomena might be modeled using a logarithmic scale?
Review Questions
1. Verify that a sound of intensity 1000 times that of a sound of 0 dB corresponds to 30 dB.
2. Calculate the decibel level of a sound with intensity 10−8 W/m2 .
3. Calculate the intensity of a sound if the decibel level is 25.
4. The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was recorded to have a magnitude of about 9.5. In 1960, an earthquake in
Chile was recorded to have a magnitude of 9.1. How much stronger was the 2004 Indian Ocean quake?
5. Two earthquakes of the same magnitude do not necessarily cause the same amount of destruction. How is that
possible?
6. The concentration of H+ in pure water is 1 10 −7 . What is the pH?
7. The pH of normal human blood is 7.4. What is the concentration of H+
Review Answers

100×10−12
1. dB = 10log 10−12
= 10log(100) = 10(3) = 30

10− 8
2. dB = 10log 10−12
= 10log(10000) = 10(4) = 40
381
5.8. Applications www.ck12.org
3. 10−9.5 or 3.16 10−10

4. 100.4 ≈ 2.5
5. According to the USGS, the damage depends on the strength of shaking, the length of shaking, the type of soil
in the area, and the types of buildings. Many buildings in the San Francisco Bay Area are undergoing seismic
retrofitting, in anticipation of the big one.
6. The pH is 7.
7. 10−7.4 ≈ 3.98 10−8
Vocabulary
Acid An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions when added to water.
Amplitude The amplitude of a wave is the distance from its highest (or lowest) point to its center.
Base A base is a substance that produces hydroxide ions (OH − ) when added to water
Decibel A decibel is a unitless measure of the intensity of sound.
Mole 6.02 1023 units of a substance.
Seismograph A seismograph is a device used to measure the amplitude of earthquakes.
382

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Printed: December 7, 2012

1 Factoring Polynomials and Polynomial Equations 1

2 Radical Equations and Radical Functions 46

3 Quadratic Equations and Quadratic Functions 120

4 Rational Equations and Functions 225

5 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations and Functions 304

5.6 Compound Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359

1.1 Polynomial Equations in Factored Form

• Use the zero-product property

Use the Zero-Product Property

6x4 + 7x3 − 26x2 + 17x + 30

We can now solve each part individually and we obtain:

b) x(5x − 4) = 0 can be split up into two linear equations

c) 4x(x + 6)(4x − 9) = 0 can be split up into three linear equations.

Find Greatest Common Monomial Factor

Since x is a common factor, we factor it by writing in front of a parenthesis:

Lets look at more examples.

We factor the 2 by writing it in front of a parenthesis.

Solve Simple Polynomial Equations by Factoring

Check Substitute each solution back into the original equation.

x=0 ⇒ (0)2 − 2(0) = 0 works out

Check Substitute each solution back into the original equation.

x = 0 ⇒ 2(0)2 = 5(0) ⇒ 0 = 0 works out

Check Substitute each solution back into the original equation.

x = 0 ⇒ 9(0)y − 6(0)y = 0 − 0 = 0 works out

Factor the common factor in the following polynomials.

Solve the following polynomial equations.

1.2 Factoring Quadratic Expressions and Solv-

• Write quadratic equations in standard form.

Write Quadratic Expressions in Standard Form

Factor when a = 1, b is Positive, and c is Positive

To factor we need to do this process in reverse.

We see that x2 + (n + m)x + mn

This means that we need to find two numbers m and n where

To factor x2 + bx + c, the answer is the product of two parentheses.

6 = 1·6 and 1+6 = 7

So the answer is (x + 2)(x + 3).

The answer checks out.

The number 12 can be written as the product of the following numbers.

The answer is (x + 3)(x + 4).

The answer is (x + 2)(x + 6).

The answer is (x + 6)(x + 6).

Factor when a = 1, b is Negative and c is Positive

The number 8 can be written as the product of the following numbers.

8 = (−2) · (−4) and −2 + (−4) = −6 ← This is the correct choice.

The answer is (x − 2)(x − 4)

The answer checks out.

The answer is (x − 1)(x − 16).

Factor when a = 1 and c is Negative

−15 = −1 · 15 and −1 + 15 = 14 Notice that these are two different choices.

− 15 = −3 · 5 and −3+5 = 2 ← This is the correct choice.

The answer is (x − 3)(x + 5).

The answer checks out.