Continuing Education: Technology

Modern VVVF Drives

by Lionel Hutt, Donald Vollrath and Casey Carey

drive of choice. This article looks at

Learning Objectives the basic motor theory and then
After reading this article, you moves on to discuss types of drives,
should have learned about: and how the two are matched. Prac-
◆ Types of VVVF drives tical matters such as the correct sizing,
◆ The comparison of a VVVF EMC, grounding, power consumption,
inverter to a vector drive etc. are examined. Finally, future trends
◆ Power consumption of AC-VVVF and products are predicted.
drives Speed Control of Asynchronous
◆ The sizing of a drive (Induction) Motors
◆ Advantages of a DC drive unit The synchronous speed of an induc-
tion motor is controlled by the number
Introduction of poles in the motor and the fre-
The Ward-Leonard drive system quency of applied current. Torque is
for DC motors was invented in 1893 developed by rotor slip (electrical rpm
and rapidly became the drive of – actual rpm) multiplied by excitation
choice for lift systems. One hundred current in the stator. The strength of
years later (give or take a year or the motor can be varied by adjustment
two), the variable-voltage, variable- of the “volts per hertz” ratio applied
frequency (VVVF) drive system for AC to the motor windings. Operation is
motors appeared. Ten years later, it symmetrical in either motoring or re- Value: 1 contact hour
has matured to the 21st Century generative conditions. Synchronous
speed is a function of the (0.1 CEU)
INCREASING
applied frequency and may
EXITATION indeed be zero. Full rated This article is part of ELEVATOR WORLD’s
CURRENT
(V / Hz) and overload torque can Continuing Education program. Elevator-industry
be developed at any speed personnel required to obtain continuing-education
MOTORING
TORQUE by applying the correct credits can receive one hour of credit by reading
the article and completing the assessment exami-
amounts of frequency, cur-
RATED TORQUE nation questions found on page 117.
rent and slip. The “round-
For this article and more continuing-education
ness” of the characteristic opportunities, visit www.elevatorbooks.com
slip-torque curve in Figure
SLOWER FASTER NATIONAL ASSOCIATION

1 will vary with individual

OF ELEVATOR CONTRACTORS
®

ROTOR ROTOR Approved by NAEC

motor designs.
CERTIFIED

ROTATION ROTATION
ELEVATOR TECHNICIAN

EDUCATION PROGRAM

(MOTORING SLIP) (REGEN SLIP) To control an induction

motor one must be able to Approved by NAESA
International
predict, calculate or actu-
RATED
SLIP ally measure rotor slip with
RPM Approved by QEI Services, Inc.
a shaft encoder, or let the
motor do it. An electronic
REGENERATING inverter is used to vary the
TORQUE Approved by the following states:
frequency. A multitude of Florida
SYNCHRONOUS “volts per hertz” (V/F), Pennsylvania
SPEED
“closed loop” and “open
Figure 1 – Asynchronous/induction motor characteristics Continued
February 2010 | ELEVATOR WORLD | 87
 Continuing Education: Technology Continued

loop” (encoderless) vector-control schemes exist to con- sired magnitude and frequency. Because a simple rectifier
trol motor current and torque. “Vector” control essentially cannot pass power back into the mains supply, a separate
means that algorithms within the inverter are calculating “on-off” switch (Figure 3), commonly termed as a “brak-
the relative positions of stator and rotor voltage, current ing chopper,” is necessary to dissipate regenerative en-
and magneto motive force, in order to control the motor ergy during the motor’s braking phase into an external
more accurately. Repeatable control of the motor requires dynamic braking resistor, in the form of heat.
knowledge of key motor characteristics, which must remain Basic inverter controllers exhibit fundamental charac-
stable. Modern “vector rated” motors will have well behaved teristics:
linear characteristics over a wide range of temperatures ◆ Drives must be compatible with a variety of mains
and rotor slip. Older motor designs may not be so com- power supplies: one-phase or three-phase, 50/60 hz.
patible with precision vector control. ◆ VVVF fed to the motor controls its speed and torque.
Basic Inverter Control of AC Machine ◆ DC bus energy storage isolates the input “front-end”
A typical low-cost inverter uses a simple rectifier front- from motor control “back-end.”
end and a fixed voltage intermediate DC bus to help isolate ◆ The motor side can have a different kVA rating than
mains current from that of the motor, as shown in Figure mains power.
2. Each motor phase is alternately connected to the + and ◆ True power conversion, i.e., “kW in = kW out”
- terminals of the DC bus in pulse-width-modulation ◆ Motor and inverter can regenerate mechanical power
(PWM) fashion so that the average three-phase voltages back into the DC bus.
applied to the motor terminals are sinusoidal at any de- ◆ The simple rectifier front end has one-way power flow.

DC BUS DC - AC
L1 AC-DC VARIABLE
L2 + ENERGY 3-PH
POWER FREQUENCY
STORAGE AC
CONVERTER PWM POWER
(CAPACITOR MOTOR
BANK) INVERTER

L3
FRONT BACK AC MOTOR
3-PH END END INDUCTION OR PM
UTILITY POWER
SOURCE VARIABLE VOLTAGE VARIABLE FREQUENCY
AC MOTOR CONTROL VARIABLE VOLTAGE & FREQUENCY
CONSTANT VOLTAGE & FREQUENCY (VVVF) = VARIABLE SPEED & TORQUE

Figure 2 – Basic inverter control

DYNAMIC
BRAKING
RESISTOR
NETWORK

(+)

POWER FROM
RECTIFIER
U
V
W

DV/DT PROTECTIVE
REACTOR
[NOT ALWAYS REQUIRED]
(-)
DC BUS BRAKING PWM PWM POWER AC MOTOR
CAPACITOR CONTROL SW SWITCHES INDUCTION
BANK ALL 3 LEGS OR PM
Figure 3 – Typical inverter power section

88 | WWW.ELEVATOR-WORLD.COM | February 2010

 Advantages brake is set. Additionally, vector drives can be used with
▲ Low maintenance system. both geared and gearless machine designs and are often
▲ Provides variable speed control of the motor. available in sensorless open loop (encoderless) format.
▲ Synthesized sinusoidal voltage and current to motor equates to Although the performance of these drives is typically better
smoother control.
than simple VVVF control, they do not generally allow the
▲ Motor and inverter have the ability to regenerate.
▲ Independent of power source for DC bus. same precise control of torque at or near zero speed as
▲ DC bus power is isolated from mains supply disturbances. closed-loop vector controlled drives. Most AC elevator drives
Disadvantages also use a dynamic braking resistor bank to dissipate excess
▼ More complex internal operation. regenerated energy. Additional controls are available for
▼ The general cost of power components. line regeneration and to help comply with relevant guide-
▼ Separate dynamic braking is required. lines for total harmonic distortion.
▼ PWM switching gives rise to increased RFI.
▼ Consideration should be given to motor insulation breakdown V/f Control
caused from higher levels of dv/dt. ◆ Indirect control of torque.
◆ Control adjusts frequency, not speed.
Table 1 – Advantages and disadvantages of inverter drive control ◆ Feedback is based only on fixed electrical values for the current and
voltage.
Fundamental Equations for an ◆ Can be made to work with most machines.
AC Asynchronous Induction Motor ◆ Normally used DC injection plus the mechanical brake for reliable
torque ~ rpmslip x excitation stopping.
voltagemotor ~ rpmspeed x excitation + current x Vector Control
stator-impedance ◆ Excellent control of torque.
◆ Speed is regulated at all speeds.
rpmslip = rpmstator-electrical - rpmrotor
◆ Feedback is from encoder mounted on the motor shaft and measured
rpmstator-electrical = 60 x frequencyinverter/number of phase currents.
pairs of poles ◆ Requires known (and stable) motor characteristics for good results.
excitation ~ currentstator - torque x power-factor ◆ Vector control can often provide direct reliable position control.
As simple as it may appear, operation of the induction Table 2 – Comparison between V/f and closed-loop vector control
motor is complex with many interoperative characteristics.
With the correct amount of voltage and frequency applied,
Synchronous Permanent-
the motor will automatically align its internal characteristics
Magnet (PM) Motor Control
(torque, current, speed) to settle on a stable operating point
The rotor speed of a synchronous PM motor is controlled
as per the above fundamental equations.
directly by the applied frequency. Torque is developed by
However, the simplest of VVVF inverters can only vary
moving the rotor away from the angular position of the
voltage and frequency applied to the motor terminals. For
electrical magnetic forces in the stator. The strength of
precise control of motor torque, and therefore speed, one must
the motor is maintained by adjustment of stator current,
be able to predict what changes in voltage and frequency
manipulated by the voltage applied to the windings. As
are necessary in order to produce the desired torque to con-
Figure 4 shows operation is symmetrical in either motoring
trol actual speed. For elevators, this is particularly impor-
or regenerative conditions. Full and overload torque can
tant when driving into a landing, as a small error in the
be developed at zero speed (frequency) when sufficient
estimate of motor slip will produce an obvious error in
speed, causing unwanted landing level inaccuracies. current is applied.
Vector Drive Technology PM Motor Controls
The power section of a vector drive is identical to that Control of a synchronous motor requires the ability to pro-
of a VVVF inverter. The main difference is that the vector vide sufficient current to produce the desired torque, but
drive uses a more complex algorithm to control power to not too much to overheat the motor windings. An inverter is
the motor. Current transducers are also required to report used to vary the frequency, adjust motor voltage and, there-
back actual motor current, which is closely regulated in fore, current. Rotor angular position is usually measured by
accordance with known motor characteristics. When com- the use of a resolver. Modern PM machines are constructed
bined with encoder feedback to measure slip, full motor with powerful magnets, limiting them to low rpm gear-
torque may be reliably produced at all speeds, including less elevator machines. However, this does lend itself
zero mechanical rpm. well to flat, pancake-type designs, which are in them-
When using a vector drive (with encoder), the elevator selves ideal for machine-room-less (MRL) applications.
car can approach the floor, level at very low speeds, and Some servo stepper motors are early versions of PM-
then hold the car stationary at the landing level until the AC machines, constructed with discrete magnetic pole

February 2010 | ELEVATOR WORLD | 89

 Continuing Education: Technology Continued

It is realistic to expect electricity consumption savings

INCREASING
STATOR of typically 30% upward when an AC-VVVF drive is fitted
CURRENT in place of AC-VV. It is also true to say kWHr consumption
for AC-VVVF drives is typically half that of two-speed systems.
MOTORING
TORQUE The other obvious benefits are a more efficient and cooler-
running machine, especially during regenerative conditions,
RATED TORQUE
where DC injection braking systems are normally required to
brake the load. This is because modern drive systems over-
come the previous problems associated with DC injection
LAGGING LEADING
ROTOR ROTOR
braking, by offering a near-sinusoidal output waveform
POSITION POSITION and constant torque across a wide speed range.
(MOTORING ANGLE) (REGEN ANGLE) To conclude, one of the main benefits of fitting a variable
speed drive is that for all conditions of running load, drive
system efficiency will be typically 96-97% and power factor
RATED
POWER
will be approaching unity, resulting in electricity savings
ANGLE by a reduction in kWHr consumption.
Drive Sizing
REGENERATING Each elevator application requires a certain amount of
TORQUE
peak and continuous power (kW) to accelerate and lift
SYNCHRONOUS the load. The choice of motor, gearing and operating volt-
STATOR SPEED AND
ELECTRICAL POSITION
age will determine the continuous and peak current that
Figure 4 – Synchronous/PM motor characteristics must be delivered by the inverter. Even though drives
may be rated by kW, continuous and/or peak amperes
positions in both rotor and stator that can suffer from are often the limiting factor. In essence, the selected drive
torque “cogging” at low speeds. “Brush-less DC” motors must accommodate the required peak and running currents
are of similar construction with the same salient pole effects. of the lift system within its standard “I x t” overload reserve,
Modern PM elevator machines have almost no magnetic ensuring that sufficient current can be delivered at the selected
saliency to create cogging, making them ideal for smooth switching frequency, also taking into account any required
operation near zero speed. However, controlling them current “derates” when running in high machine room
can be rather complex. The rotational angle between the temperature environments.
poles of the permanent magnets on the rotor and that Selecting an oversized drive does not generally cause
caused by current in stator windings must be known and any problem other than increased hardware cost and in
controlled in order to produce useful torque and speed, some cases motor map “mismatch” issues between drive and
without motor shaft oscillation. A resolver to measure the machine, but this is sometimes necessary to ensure that
angular position of the rotor, plus the use of complex, IGBT power components are always operating within
vector-like computations, are required to achieve smooth their design capability to ensure longevity of operation from
torque at all speeds. The control mechanisms are slightly increased reliability. This is particularly important in the
different, but the power circuitry of the inverter and motor case of gearless asynchronous and synchronous machine
are essentially similar to that used with standard asynchro- types, where nominal running frequencies are typically
nous induction machine types. less than 50Hz. Selecting a drive that is undersized can
Power Consumption induce reliability issues, the inability to obtain desired ride
Modern AC elevator drives are often the most electri- quality performance or simple inability to lift, accelerate
cally efficient part of the elevator control apparatus, often or decelerate the load. It is always essential to follow the
exceeding 94%, including the necessary EMC filters. AC manufacturer’s guidelines for reliable operation.
motors themselves are typically between 90-96% efficient Wherever possible, it is advisable to check the motor
when running at rated load, although with conventional nameplate for voltage, frequency, full load rpm and full load
two-speed or AC-VV type drive systems, the user is penal- current. This may be difficult on older motors, as name-
ized during light-load stages of the lift cycle, i.e., full-car- plate data is often illegible or missing. It is very important
down and empty-car-up where motor loadings are light that accurate full load current, frequency and rpm be
and resultant power factor is poor. known. In order to size the drive correctly and calculate

90 | WWW.ELEVATOR-WORLD.COM | February 2010

motor slip, it can be helpful to take measurements of full fault-current requirements of the equipment size, should
load motor current, voltage and rpm on existing applications be routed through the same wiring conduits. It is not recom-
before selecting an inverter size. mended that metal conduit connections or building steel
Motor slip is also an important motor parameter. Vector be solely relied upon to provide grounding.
drives (both closed loop and open loop) are designed for The encoder housing and shaft should be electrically
use with low slip machines. “Low slip” is usually considered insulated from the motor frame and shaft. It is essential
less than 5%. “High slip” motors (above 5% slip) are usually to always use shielded cable for encoder wiring, ensuring
associated with open loop (encoderless) control. A closed- the shield of this cable only terminates at the receiver
loop vector drive will be more difficult to adjust with an older (drive) end.
high slip motor, as current regulation becomes more critical The drive’s circuit common should be connected to
with high-resistance rotor machines. Here the onsite guidance chassis ground with a wire of suitable cross-section.
of the drive manufacturer should be sought. All 24V logic signal circuits have their 0V common
Correct Installation grounded at the drive. If 24V signaling is used rather than
Considerations relay contacts, it is essential to provide a wire link between
There are four common features in lift installations. drive controller and car controller circuit commons.
The AC drive unit is mounted on an unpainted back plate Reliability Considerations
within a steel electrical enclosure. The elevator motor is Customers deserve reliable equipment with a long operat-
located nearby and is located on a suitable steel bedplate. ing life that can only be achieved through excellence in
The velocity encoder is directly coupled to the motor engineering design and manufacturing. This includes a
shaft. The elevator car controller may or may not be in a thorough understanding of the stresses caused by repeated
separate electrical enclosure. elevator cycling, careful selection and qualification testing
Safety considerations require that the metal chassis and of critical components through close collaboration with
cabinet components of all exposed electrical apparatus suppliers, control of manufacturing processes, involvement
be connected to earth ground for personnel protection. of manufacturing associates in training and continuous
The manner in which grounding wires are connected and quality-improvement programs. Just as important is quick
installed can make a difference in the emissions of and identification of the root causes of manufacturing and
sensitivity to electrical noise. field failures, through failure analysis, with closed loop
PWM inverters operate by rapidly switching power on corrective feedback.
and off. Since there is always some capacitive coupling Equipment life is established at the design stage, as all
from electrical circuits to other nearby objects, AC drive components degrade or age with the effects of electrical
switching noise will attempt to flow between the motor stress, high temperature or repeated temperature fluctu-
and drive chassis, and between the drive chassis and other ations. Specifying it to death is not the complete answer.
components on the mains supply side. The most effective A great deal of experience is also necessary to select the
method of minimizing interference is to give noise current a correct components with adequate de-rating from that
direct low-resistance path in which to flow, and a higher shown on the data sheet in order to achieve long life per-
resistance path to where it is unwanted. The following formance. Understanding real-life conditions and adding
guidelines will help achieve excellent results. sufficient safety margin to ride through “unexpected” out-of-
It is recommended that a grounding conductor bar be tolerance conditions in the field is also necessary to improve
provided in the drive enclosure cabinet, electrically bonded the drive’s “in-field” reliability. Two factors, often overlooked,
to the metal frame, AND a grounding wire be provided to that will ensure longevity of operation are (1) providing
this bar: sufficient drive ventilation and cooling as per the drive
a. Directly from the drive chassis manufacturer’s recommendations and (2) ensuring solid
b. Directly from the drive panel backplate grounding integrity for each and every drive installation.
c. Directly from the motor frame Future Trends
d. From building steel A greater use of flat-package-style synchronous PM
e. From the car controller enclosure machines, in and out of machine rooms, and higher rpm
All electrical power wiring should be encased in metal motors with small-diameter sheaves with Kevlar® ropes
conduit rather than open electrical cable trays. Three- or flat belts are expected changes in the industry. Gener-
phase wiring for mains input and motor output should be ally, these innovations do not affect the electronic con-
separated. Ground bonding wires, sized to meet or exceed trols of elevator drives. However, additional considerations

February 2010 | ELEVATOR WORLD | 91

 Continuing Education: Technology Continued

may need to be taken to overcome issues such as personnel

evacuation under mains-loss conditions for MLR lifts. Learning-Reinforcement Questions
Other trends that will affect drive technology are:
◆ Insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) power devices Use the below learning-reinforcement questions
(“electronic switches”) will become larger and more efficient, to study for the Continuing Education Assessment
leading to larger kW rated AC drives with higher switching Exam available online at www.elevatorbooks.com
speeds to create less acoustic motor noise. or on page 117 of this issue.
◆ The ongoing market push for material cost reduction and ◆ What controls the synchronous speed of an induc-
the increased awareness of needing to comply with new mains tion motor?
distortion, voltage flicker and noise emissions/immunity ◆ What are the characteristics of a braking chopper?
standards – Drives will feature active rectifier front ends ◆ What are the seven fundamental attributes of
to reduce current harmonics on mains lines, resulting in basic inverter controllers?
increased drive complexity and larger filter components. ◆ What are the four common features in lift instal-
◆ An ever-tightening focus on energy conservation – Drives lation?
with active mains supply regeneration capability will become ◆ How much energy can installing an AC-VVVF
the standard above 25kW. drive save when it is replacing an AC-VV drive?
◆ DC motors will also be powered by PWM switching! – ◆ How can equipment life be affected?
Once larger sized drives with regeneration and harmonic ◆ Which trends are important to the future of drive
current reduction become available, DC motors powered technology?
by the same controller as an AC drive could well become
commonplace. This will eventually replace SCR type drives
where control of mains supply harmonics is key. combining minimum flight times with optimum ride comfort,
◆ Increased position profiling capabilities – With a desire for we should expect to see an increase in “direct to floor”
position profiling. This will potentially serve to reduce the
necessary complexity and cost of the car controller itself.
◆ Increased commissioning aids – The increased aware-
ness of drive, control and position protocols will essentially
replace standard drive control circuit interconnections
and allow for increased fault diagnosis capability and reduced
commissioning time. Other benefits will include the ability
to program drive parameters via the car controller and make
drive related ride quality adjustments whilst inside the lift car.
◆ Ever-increasing reliability, reduction in unit size and unit
cost – There are so many critical design elements where
no single factor can be considered more important than
all others. But all this comes with a price. The truth is...
You only get what you pay for!

Reprinted from Elevation

Lionel Hutt is the managing director for Magnetek-UK, Ltd. He has over 10
years of experience applying AC and DC drives to elevators.

Donald Vollrath is a principal engineer for the Magnetek Elevator Products

Division with 35 years of related experience with EC, AC and DC motor con-
trols. He has worked to perfect motor drive applications on elevators for
nearly 20 years. He is a BSEE graduate of the University of Illinois.

Casey Carey is a senior application engineer for the Magnetek Elevator

Products Division. He attended the Milwaukee School of Engineering and has
an associate degree from the U.S. Navy. Prior to coming to Magnetek in 1980,
Casey worked for the Raytheon Undersea Warfare Center and the Koss Corp.

92 | WWW.ELEVATOR-WORLD.COM | February 2010

 Continuing Education: Technology

ELEVATOR WORLD Continuing Education

Assessment Examination Questions
Instructions:
◆ Read the article “Modern VVVF Drives” (page 87) and study the learning-re-
inforcement questions at the end of the article.
◆ To receive one hour of continuing-education credit, answer the assessment
examination questions found below online at www.elevatorbooks.com or fill
out the ELEVATOR WORLD Continuing Education Reporting Form found over-
leaf and submit by mail with payment.
◆ Approved for Continuing Education by NAEC for CET and NAESAI and QEI
Services, Inc. for QEI and for Florida and Pennsylvania State Licenses

1. What is the purpose of an electronic converter? 6. Which is NOT a fundamental attribute of basic inverter
a. It is used to vary and apply the correct amount of controllers?
frequency to the motor. a. True power conversion.
b. It changes the power to the motor from AC to DC. b. The motor side having a different kVA rating than
c. It monitors the torque to the motor. mains power.
d. It is very compatible to older motor designs. c. Speed and torque are fed to the motor controls
2. What does a braking chopper do? through VVVF.
a. It helps isolate the main current from that of the motor. d. Both the motor and inverter can regenerate power
b. It regulates the three-phase voltages to the motor back into the DC bus.
terminals. e. Drives are usually not compatible with mains
c. It acts as a separate on/off switch that is necessary power supplies.
to dissipate regenerative energy during the motor’s 7. How can precise control of motor torque be obtained?
braking phase. a. By predicting the necessary changes in voltage and
d. It cuts off all power to the braking circuit. frequency in order to produce the desired torque.
3. What is expected in electricity-consumption savings b. By using the simplest VVVF inverters available.
when an AC-VVVF drive replaces an AC-VV drive? c. By randomly varying voltage and frequency applied
a. Up to 40%. to the motor terminals.
b. Up to 30%. d. By aligning the motor’s internal characteristics to
c. Up to 10%. settle on a stable operating point.
d. Up to 15%. 8. Power sections of vector drives and VVVF inverters
4. Which item below is NOT a common feature in elevator- are always different.
drive unit installation? a. True.
a. The AC drive unit is mounted on an unpainted b. False.
back plate within a steel electrical enclosure. 9. Which of the following does NOT affect equipment
b. The elevator motor is located nearby on a suitable life?
steel bedplate. a. Electrical stress.
c. The velocity encoder is directly coupled to the b. The altitude of the installation.
motor shaft. c. High temperature.
d. All power wiring shall be in open electrical-cable d. Repeated temperature fluctuations.
trays. 10. Which of the following trends will affect drive tech-
e. The elevator controller may or may not be in a sep- nology?
arate electrical enclosure. a. IGBT power devices will become smaller.
5. What is a disadvantage of an inverter drive control? b. DC motors will no longer be powered by PWM
a. It is independent of the power source for the DC switching.
bus. c. There will be less position profiling.
b. It is a low-maintenance system. d. There will be an increase in commissioning aids.
c. It requires separate dynamic braking.
d. Both the motor and inverter have the ability to re-
generate.
e. It provides variable speed control of the motor.

February 2010 | ELEVATOR WORLD | 117

 Continuing Education: Technology Continued

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