CHAPTER 1

Introduction
1.1 Background

Plastics made from fossil fuels are just over a century old. Production and development
of thousands of new plastic products accelerated after World War II, so transforming the
modern age that life without plastics would be unrecognizable today. Plastics
revolutionized medicine with life-saving devices, made space travel possible, lightened
cars and jets—saving fuel and pollution—and saved lives with helmets, incubators, and
equipment for clean drinking water.

The conveniences plastics offer, however, led to a throw-away culture that reveals the
material’s dark side: today, single-use plastics account for 40 percent of the plastic
produced every year. Many of these products, such as plastic bags and food wrappers, have
a lifespan of mere minutes to hours, yet they may persist in the environment for hundreds
of years.

Today, plastic waste materials are being raised as reinforcement material in civil
engineering projects. In order to evaluate the effects of plastic wastes on the behavior of
clayey soils, a clayey soil was mixed with different amount of plastic wastes (i.e. 0.25%,
0.50%, 0.75%, 1.0%, 1.5% and 2.0% by weight). Compacted specimens were prepared and
after saturating and consolidating, undrained tri axial test were performed on the specimens.
The results of the tri axial tests indicate that the undrained shear strength and pore water
pressure of specimens depend on the amount of plastic waste in the mixtures. It is observed
that for plastic waste more than 1.0% mixed soils have higher strength than plain soil which
is a useful consideration in the use of plastic waste in soil improvement. Finally, it can be
concluded that it's possible to use the clay–plastic waste mixture as construction materials in
civil engineering projects, with some improvement in shear strength. Hereby, it can manage
the plastic wastes in order to recycling them in the field of geotechnical engineering as
reinforcing materials and clean up the environment.
Many people proposed and created the idea of recycling plastics by shredding it that
serves as additional reinforcement materials for concrete and for building construction
purposes. Some are also used and mixed plastics with clay but in different type of plastic
not Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE). To manage these waste materials is using them in
the field of civil engineering as reinforcing materials in Bio Eco Paver Blocks (BEPB), it
helps and balances the flow of ecosystem. The BEPB contributes a big role in absorbing
water in the surface, made from natural components and it is cheap.
This study aims to produce and evaluate the physical and mechanical properties of Bio-
Eco Paver Blocks. The properties in terms of abrasion, compressive strength, breaking load,
water absorption, flexural strength, and modulus of rupture will be determined based on the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Test Methods.
Statement of the Problem
Plastic pollution is currently one of the biggest environmental concerns. It may seem like
large amounts of plastic waste are inevitable in the world we live in, but you can help with the
plastic pollution issue by being aware of its dangers and taking steps to reduce waste. Plastic
waste harms the environment, birds and wildlife and even people. But as with anything, even
plastics may actually have a beneficial use, despite the damage they are causing. To manage
these waste materials is using them in the field of civil engineering as reinforcing materials like
Bio Eco Paver Blocks (BEPB), it helps and balances the flow of ecosystem. The BEPB gives a
tremendous solution to the country by means of paver blocks application when it comes to
plastic wastes utilization that bring several issues, this includes the following.
 Today, people are facing problems like how to eliminate plastics without resulting
harmful effects to environment as well as burning of plastics having a content of
chlorofluorocarbon that greatly contribute damages to ozone layer is still in the making.
 Using clay in paving blocks can save financially compare to other using concrete and
expensive construction materials just to obtain good quality pavers.
 There are some areas of the community suffering floods or instant increase of water level
after raining that can’t easily absorbed by the surface, through Bio-Eco Paver Blocks the
water that poured on the surface will be soaked thoroughly and minimize the increase of
water level.
 Nowadays, the availability of expensive and advance paver blocks is the basis of most
people for paving construction regardless to its cost, quality, and environmental impact,
with BEPB these aspects will able to be done.

Objective of the Studies

The main purpose of this study is to determine the physical and mechanical properties of
Bio-Eco Paver Blocks. Clay, Lime, Shredded Plastics and water are the main components of this
paver bocks.
The specific aims of this research are:
1.) To fabricate the Bio-Eco Paver Blocks using 3:1 clay-lime ratio mixed with 3%, 4%, 5%
shredded plastics weight respectively.
2.) To determine the physical properties of the Bio-Eco Paver Blocks (BEPB) which is
abrasion.
3.) To determine the mechanical properties of Bio-Eco Paver Blocks namely its breaking
load, water absorption and compressive strength, modulus of elasticity and flexural
strength or modulus of rupture.
Significance of the Study
1.) To encourage development of new products especially in applications of shredded
plastics with clay and lime has an advantage over concrete paver blocks.
2.) To provide additional information on the physical and mechanical properties of Bio-
Eco Paver Blocks.
3.) To encourage the development of value added products, such as BEPB, out of plastic
wastes to reduce the plastic pollution in the country.
4.) To encourage institutions, like Southland College that the plastic pollution is rampant
in the country and its needing to be dealt with stability to specified distinctive
institutional capabilities to promote and initiate the conduct of research and
development of plastic wastes utilization.
5.) To show that the BEPB has a huge impact in the environment knowing that it is eco-
friendly, helps minimize plastic wastes, good in terms of water absorption as well as
made in affordable and natural components.
6.) To contribute knowledge that the plastic wastes can be recycled in a technical and
scientific way in terms of road-building construction materials and purposes.
7.) To offer an easy paver landscape design specifically the growing edges design,
known as paver block border green design, knowing that the BEPB composed of
agricultural lime which rich in minerals good for plants or grasses and clay which
help to establish the growth of ornamental grasses, additional design of plastics that
produce beautiful texture, and colors, it serves as one of the best feature pavers.
Scope and Limitation
This study will cover and is limited to the fabrication of 102 by 203 by 67 mm paver
blocks using 3:1 clay-lime ratio mixed with 3%, 4%, 5% shredded plastics weight respectively.
The physical and mechanical properties of three mix designs will be evaluated using the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Test Methods. The properties that will be
determined are abrasion, breaking load, compressive strength, water absorption, flexural strength
or modulus of rupture and modulus of elasticity.
Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature

2.1 Related Works

Clay pavers – An external flooring material – A case study (R Sathish Kumar), an

International Journal of Physical and Social Sciences 2 (5), 145-160, 2012.

 External flooring using the Interlocking blocks, Paving blocks and Paving tiles are
aesthetically pleasing, easy maintenance and ready to use within an hour.
 They are high strength concrete and clay mouldings in various shapes, sizes & colors to
suit the imagination of landscape architects & nature's essence.
 The material constituents for the clay pavers are Laterite soil (collected from Naubad area
of Bidar district Karnataka), cement (Birla super cement -43 grade) and quarry dust which
is then mixed in the ratio 1:4 (1 part of cement, 2 part of laterite soil and 2 part of quarry
dust) and then moulded into suitable shapes.
 They are then tested for their index properties and the investigation revealed that these
pavers are economical and easy to install product and of sufficient strength.
(The BEPB made up of Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) shredded plastics, clay and
lime with 3:1 ratio, 3%, 4% and 5% by weight of plastics)
Recycled plastic used in concrete paver block by Ganesh Tapkire , Pramod Patil ,
Hemraj R Kumavat – 2014 – Citeseer.
 Recycled plastic aggregate used in various proportion in concrete mix and check there
suitability, thus obliging the authorities to invest in felicitating the use of waste plastic
coarse aggregate in a concrete is fundamental to the booming construction industry.
 Industrial wastes from plastic bottles, pallets, carry bags; polypropylene (PP) and
polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) were studied as alternative replacements of a part of the
conventional aggregates of concrete.
(In BEPB, the LDPE plastics serve as the reinforcement, and plastics are usually and
commonly found in the surrounding, these are recycled plastics as well that gives a huge
impact to the ecosystem and to the community.)
Mud concrete paving block for pedestrian pavements - C Udawattha, H
Galabada, R Halwatura - Case studies in construction …, 2017 - Elsevier.
 This is an attempt to search for alternative eco-friendly earth paving material for public
walkways with both the strength and durable properties of concrete while
ensuring pedestrian comfort.
 The results obtained revealed that the proposed self-compacting block can be produced by
using soil with less than 5% fine particles, 55% of 65% sand particles and 18% of 22%
 cement by weight together with the moisture content between 14% and 15% The tested
mud concrete paving blocks were already used in practical application in Sri Lankan
urban context.
(BEPB is composed of clay, lime and plastics that give additional embellishment to the
pavement, unique paving strategy and an economical way of helping environment
balances its nature to residential walkways, with 25% of water to clay-lime.)
Geopolymer Paver Blocks AD Vaz, DS Donal Nixon, N Kaliveer, KT Satish… - Proc.
of Int. Conf. on …, 2012 – Citeseer.
 Green paver blocks is an eco-friendly method of making concrete paver block using
geopolymer concrete.
 Environmental responsibility has initiated research in sustainability and eco-friendly
methods for infrastructure development because of the great problem today which is
disposal of solid waste.
 Today research has combined sustainability with waste management leading to a wonderful
product called geopolymer concrete. The mix design with a target strength of 47 MPa was
developed to create paver blocks suitable for highways.

(BEPB provides also suitable and eco-friendly products but not geopolymer concrete but
LDPE type of plastics and clay-lime blocks, its mix design targets a strength of 27.6 MPa
to create paver blocks suitable for light application like residential walkways.)

Development of ceramic paver with ornamental rock waste by Lucas Fonseca Amaral
,Juliana Peixoto Rufino Gazem de Carvalho, Bertácia Mendes da Silva, Geovana Carla
Girondi Delaqua, Sergio Neves Monteiro and Carlos Maurício Fontes Vieira – Journal of
Materials Research and Technology 8 (1), 599 – 608, 2019.
 In attempt to give a nobler destiny of ornamental rock residue, in order to expand the use
of ceramic paver, clayey bodies were formulated with 0, 10, 20 and 30 wt.% of waste by
uniaxial pressure at 34 MPa.
 The samples were fired at 900, 950, 1000 and 1050 °C and some technological properties
were evaluated. The results indicated that the residue addition adjusted the clayey body
plasticity and increased the dry bulk density, indicating a higher packing.
 The use of ornamental rock residue allowed improvements in yellow clay of Campos dos
Goytacazes, besides being an appropriate way of disposal.
(The BEPB experiences direct burning process through piling the paver blocks with two
holes for firing and neglecting its temperature, with 3%, 4% and 5% of srp by weight.)
 Fired clay bricks manufactured by adding wastes as sustainable construction
material – A review - P.Muñoz Velascoa, M.P.Morales Ortízab, M.A.Mendívil,
GiróbL.Muñoz Velascob – Construction and Building Materials 63, 97-107, 2014.
 This paper provides a review of research concerning the recycling of different types of
wastes into eco-friendly fired clay bricks (FCB's).
 The reuse of waste in brick production might be an environmental friendly way to manage
them. In some cases it even implies an enhancement of the bricks properties as well as an
advantage for brick producers.

(The BEPB also gives a lot of advantages in the environment, making non-bio materials like
plastics to reuse into paver blocks and produces affordable and environmental friendly blocks.)

Effects of compaction method and rubber content on the properties of concrete paving
blocks - Tung-ChaiLing – Construction and Building Materials 28 (1), 164-175, 2012.

 A wide variety of recycled waste has been successfully used in the production of
concrete paving blocks. In this study, recycled waste tyre (crumb rubber) was used to
replace sand by volume at the level of 0%, 10%, 20% and 30% in order to investigate
how the soft rubber particles behave under plant-machine compaction method during
the production of rubberized concrete paving blocks (RCPB).
 The presence of rubber in concrete did not demonstrate brittle failure, but rather a
ductile which had an ability to withstand post-failure loads.
 In comparison, the mechanical properties of plant-made RCPB performed better than
that of corresponding manually-made RCPB.

(The BEPB is a clay paving block mixed with lime and shredded plastics with 3%, 4%
and 5% by weight of srp and it is also has the ability to withstand post failure loads
because of the plastic presence with in the block.)

Vinyl walkway paver - MH Wu - US Patent 5,409,325, 1995.

 A vinyl walkway paver, particularly the one used as a paving stone with grass contained
therein. The paver can be integrally formed to have a surface with a plurality of ridged
bodies which are different in sizes.
 A plurality of pavers can be laid on the walkway, the central recessed portion thereof can
be filled up with soil for planting grass. Moreover, the interior wall of the hollow frame
can be provided with a plurality of ribs to form a suitable rough surface for strengthening
the structure of the paver.
 Expansible materials such as polystyrene can also be filled inside the frame to give a better
bonding structure.
 (The BEPB focuses only on one size, a rectangular size and a clay type paver block and
having LDPE type of plastics.)

Paving block - H Rosenberger - US Patent 3,947,192, 1976.

 A paving block having sides which are shaped to provide an interlocking tooth
engagement between the complementary sides of adjacent blocks when laid. Such
engagement counteracts shifting of the laid blocks when loads are applied thereto.

(The BEPB an interlocking paving block without tooth engagement.)

Paving stone - G Barth, FV Langsdorf - US Patent 4,834,575, 1989.

 A paving stone for use with other similarly configured paving stones all of which are to
be laid adjacent each other to form a paved surface.
 The paving stone having two centrally symmetrical contiguous parts at least one of which
is generally square-shaped and has cut-off corners. The parts being joined along a side that
is common to the two parts.

(The BEPB is a clay paving block composed of lime and shredded plastics, and a
rectangular- shaped.)
2.2 Theoretical Framework

2.2.1 Composite Production Process

The production of Bio-Eco-paver block follows the following five basic stages:
preparation of raw materials, mixing, molding, drying, and burning.

(1) Preparation of raw materials

Preparation of clay for paver block manufacturing is done by removal of clay
from sand thru sieve shaker machine passing the sieve number 200 with diameter of 0.1
mm until it reaches the pan. Collecting of the waste recyclable Low Density Polyethylene
(LDPE) plastics that will be shredded thru a shredding machine or by cutting manually.
The lime should be an agricultural lime taken from local suppliers.

(2) Mixing
Mixing is a unit operation to make a heterogeneous physical system homogeneous
by using manipulating operations. The properties of the unit like workability, setting
time, plasticity and hardened properties of the unit is surely attained by this method.

(3) Molding
Manufacturing of the paver block using hand molding. The mixed raw materials
are placed on a forming tool. Molds are lubricated with either oil, water or sand to
prevent the mixture from sticking to the mold.

(4) Drying
The bricks contain some amount of moisture in it. So, drying is to be done
otherwise they may cracked while burning. The drying of raw bricks is done by natural
process. The period of drying may be 3 to 10 days. It also depends upon the weather
conditions.

(5) Burning
Burning, one of the most specialized steps in the manufacture of paver block. The
dried bricks are burned in a direct burning process. The duration time of burning is
depending upon the burning of a firing home-made BEPB and other variables. The
fusibility of paver block causes it to become hard, solid and of relatively low absorption
when properly fired.
2.2.2 Physical Properties of Materials

(1) Abrasion
The Abrasion Index is the ratio of the absorption divided by the compressive
strength, multiplied by 100. The compressive specimen must be half pavers that are
without core holes, frogs or other perforations, and the full height of the paver no less
than 2¼ in. (57 mm). The volume abrasion loss is used if the height requirement cannot
be met. The volume abrasion loss is determined by the loss of material created by
sandblasting the surface of the paver. The abrasion requirements of pavers from the
ASTM standards are shown in Table 5.

2.2.3 Mechanical Properties of Materials

(1) Compressive Strength, Breaking Load and Absorption

The strength and absorption requirements of pavers from the ASTM standards are
shown in Table 4. Some pavers are durable, but cannot be classified under the physical
requirements shown in Table 4. Using alternatives in the specifications allows pavers that
 are known to perform well to meet the durability requirement. It does not signify that the
pavers are of a lower quality.
For pavers complying with ASTM C 902 or C 1272, several alternatives are
allowed. The freezing and thawing test alternative allows the cold water absorption and
the saturation coefficient to be waived if a sample of five brick that meet all other
requirements passes the freezing and thawing test of ASTM C 67 without breaking and
with no greater than 0.5 percent loss in dry weight of any individual unit. The sulfate
soundness alternative allows the cold water absorption and saturation coefficient to be
waived if five brick survive 15 cycles of the sulfate soundness test with no visible
damage. The performance alternative allows specifiers to waive all property requirements
for pavers if they are satisfied with information furnished by the manufacturer on the
performance of the pavers in a similar application subject to similar exposure and traffic.
For pavers complying with ASTM C 902, the absorption alternative allows the saturation
coefficient to be waived for pavers that absorb less than 6.0% after 24 hours of
submersion in room-temperature water.

2.2.4 Materials and Testing Standards

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
ASTM International (ASTM) is an international standards organization that
develops and publishes voluntary consensus technical standards for a wide range of
materials, products, systems, and services.

ASTM has a dominant role among standards developers in the USA, and is
considered to be the world's largest developer of standards. Using a consensus process,
ASTM support thousands of volunteer technical committees, which draw their members
from around the world and collectively develop and maintain more than 12,000
standards.

ASTM International Standards fall into five categories:

(1) Standard Specification that defines the requirements to be satisfied by subject of the
standard.
(2) Standard Test Method that defines the way a test is performed. The result of the test
may be used to assess compliance with a Specification.
(3) Standard Practice that defines a sequence of operations that, unlike a test, does not
produce a result.
(4) Standard Guide that provides an organized collection of information or series of
options that does not recommend a specific course of action.
(5) Standard Classification that provides an arrangement or division of materials,
products, systems, or services into groups based on similar characteristics such as
origin, composition, properties, or use.
This research uses ASTM Test Methods in the conduct of the tests in the characterization
of the composite in terms of its physical and mechanical properties.
 ASTM C 902. This specification covers clay pavers suitable for patios, walkways, floors,
plazas, residential driveways and commercial driveways (passenger drop-offs). It
describes three Classes and three Types of clay pavers according to severity of their
exposure to weather and to traffic, respectively. Three Applications also are defined,
based upon the pavers’ intended use, and limit their dimensional tolerances, distortion
and extent of chipping.

2.3 Conceptual Framework

The following shows the development process in the fabrication of BEPB and the process
of the composite of its characterization.

Figure 1. Flow Chart of Development and Characterization of Composite.

As shown in figure 1. The development of composite starts in shredding plastics and

procurement of clay from sand through sieve analysis. The clay and lime will be investigated to
conform to American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). The data acquired will be
recorded and processed. Then the BEPB Fabrication process starts with measuring the correct
proportions of constituents before they are mixed, molded, dried and burned. The BEPB’s will
undergo test to measure its performance in terms of its physical and mechanical properties. The
test are compressive strength test, flexural strength test, impact strength test, water absorption
test, resistance to sulphuric attack test and splitting of tensile strength test. The result of tests will
be recorded and processed. These values will be used to characterize the different BEPB’s in
terms of its water absorption properties, impact and flexural-compressive strength.
Chapter 3

Materials and Methods

3.1 Materials
The materials needed for the composition and fabrication of Bio-Eco Paver Blocks (BEPB)
are clay, lime, shredded plastics and water.
3.1.1 Clay
Clay will be sourced from a certain location where the sand is taken. The sand will undergo
sieve analysis for the procurement of clay, must pass through a No. 200 sieve with diameter of 0.1
mm until it reaches the pan.

Figure 2: Particle-size distribution curve

3.1.2 Lime
The lime is taken from the local suppliers. This kind of lime is an agricultural lime also
called as aglime, agricultural limestone, garden lime or liming. A natural pulverized limestone or
chalk with calcium carbonate as the primary active component.
3.1.3 Shredded Plastics
The Shredded Plastics are collected recyclable wastes and Low Density Polyethylene
(LDPE) type of plastic. These will be washed, dried and cut into shreds. These resultants are called
as SRP or Shredded Recycled Plastics.
3.1.4 Water
Water will be used for the fabrication of BEPB and Civil Engineering Laboratory of
Southland College will be the water source.

3.2 Methods
The Bio-Eco Paver Blocks (BEPB) with 3:1 clay-lime ratio with 3%, 4%, and 5% by
weight of Shredded Recycled Plastics (SRP) will be considered for investigation in terms of
physical properties such as compressive strength, abrasion, breaking load and water absorption
properties and its mechanical property such as modulus of rupture or flexural strength. Paver
blocks measuring 4 x 8 x 2 5/8 inch (102 by 203 by 67 mm) with different clay-lime-srp
proportions will be fabricated for characterization. The clay-lime-srp will be termed as “mix
design” for reference purposes.
The sections discussing the Preparation of Shredded Plastics, Mix Design and Fabrication
of Bio-Eco Paver Blocks (BEPB) is based in accordance to ASTM.

3.2.1 Preparation of shredded plastics

The plastics will be taken from surroundings, these are LDPE plastic stands for Low
Density Polyethylene, and it’s most common use in plastic bags like grocery bags, snack packaging
bags, food grade plastic covers or plastic wraps, the simplest of all commercial polymers. These
are recyclable plastic wastes usually scattered and found in the environment.
The plastics will be gathered in accordance to LDPE type of plastic, and it is then classified
with their thickness and flexibility. The plastics will undergo washing to remove dirt and impurities
then air drying after the washing procedure.
After air drying, plastics will cut into smaller pieces manually, its size varies from 5 to 10
mm. The shredded plastics are collected in bags to be further reprocessed.
3.2.2 Mix Design of Bio-Eco-Paver Block
This research will focus on three mix designs with different ratios of Shredded Recycled
Plastics (SRP) to clay-lime. The three mix designs will have a ratio of 3:1 clay-lime and 25% water
to clay-lime ratio.
The following table shows the proportions of paver block composites for the three mix
designs (3%, 4%, 5% weight of shredded recycled plastics to clay-lime).
Table 1: Proportion of Paver Block Composite
% weight of
Shredded
Mix Clay : Water/clay-
Samples Recycled
Design Lime lime
Plastics(SRP)
(to clay-lime)
1 1-3 3:1 3 0.25
2 4-6 3:1 4 0.25
3 7-9 3:1 5 0.25

3.2.3 Fabrication of BEPB

The following composite constituents for the three mix design will be used for fabrication
of 4 by 8 by 2 5/8 inch (102 by 203 by 67 mm) Bio-Eco Paver Block(BEPB), shredded recycled
plastics, clay, lime, water. These constituents will pass through several steps in fabrication process.

Preparation of Mixing Molding Drying Burning

Raw Materials

Figure 3: BEPB Fabrication Process

a.) Preparation of Raw Materials
The raw materials will be prepared based on the constituent proportions as shown in Table
1: Proportion of Paver Block Composite. A sample computation to prepare the constituents in Mix
Design No. 2 (clay-lime composite with 3%, 4%, 5% shredded plastic by weight).

b.) Mixing
After the preparation of raw materials, the clay and lime will be mixed until the
mixture of two composites are formed homogenously. The water is added to the homogenous
mixture in order to obtain an extreme and constant slurry. Then, the shredded recycled plastics will
be added when constant slurry is formed in accordance of its sizes and shapes. The water will then
be uniformly added to avoid balling effect by the plastics. Once homogeneous mixture is formed,
then it is ready for molding.

c.) Molding
Metal steel molds will be used to form the 4 by 8 by 2 5/8 inch (102 by 203 by 67
mm) in paver blocks. The volume of wet SRP-Clay-Lime equivalent to approximately 82 in³
(1343.74 cm³) is poured and leveled in the metal steel molds. A hand press force will be applied
to press the mixture in the mold. After pressing, the compacted mixture is allowed to be removed
easily. This procedure applies to all mix designs.
d.) Drying
The paver blocks are still contain of some moistures, drying is needed after molding
and the process will be done naturally. The period of drying may be 3 to 10 days. It also depends
upon the weather conditions.

e.) Burning
Before proceeding in burning process, the paver block should be totally dried to
avoid fracture. The paver blocks are arrange in a pile or stacked to create a firing home-made
BEPB with two holes for a direct burning process. The duration time of burning is depending upon
burning and other variables regardless its temperature.

3.2.4 Compressive Strength, Breaking Load and Absorption Test

Compressive strength or compression strength is the capacity of a material or structure to

withstand loads tending to reduce size, as opposed to tensile strength, which withstands loads
tending to elongate. In other words, compressive strength resists compression (being pushed
together), whereas tensile strength resists tension (being pulled apart). In the study of strength of
materials, tensile strength, compressive strength, and shear strength can be analysed
independently. Some materials fracture at their compressive strength limit; others deform
irreversibly, so a given amount of deformation may be considered as the limit for compressive
load. Compressive strength is a key value for design of structures. Breaking Load is stress or
tension steadily applied and just sufficient to break or rupture.

Water absorption is used to determine the amount of water absorbed under specified
conditions. Factors affecting water absorption include: type of plastic, additives used, temperature
and length of exposure. The data sheds light on the performance of the materials in water or humid
environments. It is a popular method of determining the water-tightness of paver blocks and
measures the amount of water that penetrates into the samples when submersed.
The strength and absorption requirements of pavers from the ASTM standards are shown
in Table 4. Some pavers are durable, but cannot be classified under the physical requirements
shown in Table 4. Using alternatives in the specifications allows pavers that are known to perform
well to meet the durability requirement. It does not signify that the pavers are of a lower quality.
Class SX pavers - are intended for use where the pavers may be frozen while saturated with water.
Class MX pavers- are intended for exterior use where the pavers will not be exposed to freezing
conditions.
Class NX pavers - are not acceptable for exterior use but may be used for interior areas where the
pavers are protected from freezing when wet.
Note: For most exterior residential or light duty applications, Class SX pavers are used.
Compressive strength values are influenced by specimen shape (particularly the height to
width ratio of the test specimen). Therefore, a shape is specified which conforms to the data on
which the abrasion index is based.
The compressive strength shall be determined on specimens measuring 3 7⁄8 by 3 7⁄8 by 2
1⁄4in. 6 1⁄4 in. (98 by 98 by 57 mm ± 6 mm) for length, width, and height respectively. The brick
shall be without core holes, other perforations or frogs. Other shaped specimens may be used
provided that the producer submits evidence acceptable to the purchaser that the change in shape
gives equivalent strength results to those of the specified shape.
The Compressive Strength for each specimen will be calculated by the following equation:
Compressive Strength, C = W / A
where:
C = compressive strength of the specimen, lb/in.2 (or kg/cm2) (or Pa·104),
W = maximum load, lbf, (or kgf) (or N), indicated by the testing machine, and
A = average of the gross areas of the upper and lower bearing surfaces of the specimen, in. 2 (or
cm2).
The average value of Compressive Strength of the three samples will be the Compressive
Strength of the mix design in psi or MPa.
The dry specimen without preliminary partial immersion will be submerge in clean water
(soft, distilled or rain water) at 60 to 86°F (15.5 to 30°C) for 24 hours. Then after the 24 hours
submersion, the specimen will be remove, surface water will be wipe off with a damp cloth and
specimen will be weigh after wiping it. The completion of weighing of each specimen will be done
within 5 min after removing the specimen from the bath.
 The Cold Water Absorption for each specimen will be calculated by the following
equation:
Cold Water Absorption, % = 100(Ws - Wd)/Wd
where:
Wd = dry weight of the specimen, and
Ws = saturated weight of the specimen after submersion in cold water.
The average Cold Water Absorption of all specimens will be rounded to the nearest 0.1 %
After getting the cold water absorption from all specimens, the specimens will be submerge
in clean water (soft, distilled or rain water) at 60 to 86°F (15.5 to 30°C) in such a manner that water
circulates freely on all sides of the specimen. Heat the water to boiling, within 1h, boil continuously
for specified time, and then allow to cool to 60 to 86°F (15.5 to 30°C) by natural loss of heat. Then
after the 5 total hours of submersion, the specimen will be remove, surface water will be wipe off
with a damp cloth and specimen will be weigh after wiping it. The completion of weighing of each
specimen will be done within 5 min after removing the specimen from the bath.
The Boiling Water Absorption for each specimen will be calculated by the following
equation:
Boiling Water Absorption, % = 100(Wb - Wd)/Wd
where:
Wd = dry weight of the specimen, and
Wb = saturated weight of the specimen after submersion in boiling water.
The average Boiling Water Absorption of all specimens will be rounded to the nearest 0.1
%
The Saturation coefficient for each specimen will be calculated by the following equation:
Saturation coefficient = Ws 2 - Wd/Wb 5-Wd
where:
Wd = dry weight of the specimen,
Ws 2 = saturated weight of the specimen after 24-h submersion in cold water, and
Wb 5 = saturated weight of the specimen after 5-h submersion in boiling water.
The average Saturation coefficients of all specimens will be rounded to the nearest 0.1 %
These equations are in accordance to ASTM C67 – 05
3.2.5 Abrasion Test

Abrasion is an area on a paver block where the surface has been scraped. It is the process
of scuffing, scratching, wearing down, marring, or rubbing away. It can be intentionally imposed
in a controlled process using an abrasive. Abrasion can be an undesirable effect of exposure to
normal use or exposure to the elements. The measurement of abrasion resistance, usually by the
weighing of a material sample before and after subjecting it to a known abrasive stress
throughout a known time period, or by reflectance or surface finish comparisons or by
dimensional comparisons.

The compressive specimen must be half pavers that are without core holes, frogs or other
perforations, and the full height of the paver no less than 2¼ in. (57 mm). The volume abrasion
loss is used if the height requirement cannot be met. The volume abrasion loss is determined by
the loss of material created by sandblasting the surface of the paver. The abrasion requirements of
pavers from the ASTM standards are shown in Table 5.

Type I pavers - are intended for use where the pavers are exposed to extensive abrasion, such as
sidewalks and driveways in publicly occupied spaces.
Type II pavers - are intended for use where the pavers are exposed to intermediate pedestrian
traffic, such as heavily traveled residential walkways and residential driveways.
Type III pavers - are intended for use in low pedestrian traffic, residential areas such as floors
and patios of single-family homes.
For most exterior residential or light duty applications, Type I or II pavers are used.

The Abrasion Index will be calculated by the following equation:

100 𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐴𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 =
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
The equation is in accordance to ASTM C67 – 05
3.2.5 Modulus of Rupture/Flexure Test

Modulus of rupture (MOR) also called as flexural strength is a measure of the maximum
load-carrying capacity or strength of the crosstie and is defined as the stress at which the material
breaks or ruptures (based on the assumption that the material is elastic until rupture occurs).
During the Modulus of Rupture/Flexure test, the test specimens shall consist of whole dry
full-size units. Three such specimens shall be tested.
The test specimen flatwise should be supported unless specified and reported otherwise
(that is, apply the load in the direction of the depth of the unit) on a span approximately 1 in.
(25.4 mm) less than the basic unit length and loaded at midspan. If the specimens have recesses
(panels or depressions) place them so that such recesses are on the compression side. The
application of the load can be done to the upper surface of the specimen through a steel bearing
plate 1⁄4 in. (6.35 mm) in thickness and 11⁄2 in. (38.10 mm) in width and of a length at least
equal to the width of the specimen.
The rate of loading shall not exceed 2000 lbf (8896 N)/min. but this requirement is
considered as being met if the speed of the moving head of the testing machine immediately
prior to application of the load is not more than 0.05 in. (1.27 mm)/min.
The Modulus of Rupture for each specimen will be calculated by the following equation:
S = 3W(l/2 – x)/bd2
where:
S = modulus of rupture of the specimen at the plane of failure, lb/in.2 (Pa),
W = maximum load indicated by the testing machine, lbf (N),
l = distance between the supports, in. (mm),
b = net width, (face to face minus voids), of the specimen at the plane of failure, in. (mm),
d = depth, (bed surface to bed surface), of the specimen at the plane of failure, in. (mm), and
x = average distance from the midspan of the specimen to the plane of failure measured in the
direction of the span along the centerline of the bed surface subjected to tension, in. (mm).
The average value of the Modulus of Rupture of all specimens are rounded to the nearest
1 psi (0.01 Mpa)
The equation is in accordance to ASTM C67 – 05
References
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https://www.wgpaver.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/ASTM-C902.pdf
https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/modulus-of-elasticity

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/modulus-of-rupture