Semantics Unit 4

4 INTERPERSONAL MEANING
SPEECH ACT THEORY

Speech act theory was proposed by J.L.Austin and has been developed by J.R.Searle.
They believe that language is not only used to inform or to describe things, it is
often used to ‘do things’, to perform acts. (ex. You’re fired)
Actions performed via utterances are generally called speech acts, the uttering of
the relevant words is the action itself; without the utterance the action is not done. These
are called performative sentences and the verbs used are called performative verbs.
(ex. I name the ship Titanic)
WHAT IS SPEECH ACT THEORY?

LOCUTION – what we say. The words the speaker uses.
ILLOCUTION – what we intend to accomplish by saying it. What the speaker is doing
by using those words.
PERLOCUTION – what we actually accomplish by saying it. the effects of those words
on the hearer.
Example:
A: You’ve interrupted me again!
B: I was rude
- Locution: Steve uttered the words ‘I was rude’, which can be semantically
paraphrased as: ‘I was ill-manered’, with ‘I’ referring to Steve.
- Illocution: Steve performed the act of apologizing to Jane for having
interrupted her.
- Perlocution: Jane accepted Steve’s apology
I apologize
I declare the meeting open.
These sentences are used to do things. They are performatives vs all other utterances
constatives.
Utterances can be classified as performative or constative. Performatives like “I

apologize” simultaneously state and perform the illocution. Constatives can also be used
to perform an illocution but, unlike performatives, they do not explicitly name the
intended illocutionary act.
Differentiation between performatives and constatives: adverb ‘hereby’.
I hereby apologize / I hereby declare the meeting open.
Examples of performative verbs in English:

To say To withdraw
To protest To declare
To object To plead
To apologize To vote
To deny To thank, etc
To promise
CONDITIONS ON PERFORMATIVES
• Subject must be 1st person • Verb must perform the act

• Verb must be active • Must meet felicity conditions
• Verb must be non-durative (authority, etc.)
• Adverb must be ‘hereby’ • Must meet sincerity conditions (not
• Sentence must be positive, not a joke, etc)
negative • Can be larger than a sentence.
• Sentence must be Imperative or
Declarative
SPEECH ACTS
1. REPRESENTATIVES: such as informing ‘It is raining’ or to convey a belief.

2. DIRECTIVES: attempts to get the hearer to do something ‘Please, make the tea’
3. COMMISSIVES: which commit the speaker to doing something ‘I promise to
go there’
4. EXPRESSIVES: whereby a speaker expresses a mental state ‘Thank you’
5. DECLARATIONS: such as declaring war and christening. They create a new
external situation (performatives)
INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS
A different approach to distinguishing types of speech acts can be made on the basis
of structure. A simple structural distinction between three general types of speech acts
is provided, in English, by the three basic sentences types. There is an easily
recognized relationship between the three structural forms (declarative, interrogative,
imperative) and the three general communicative functions (statement, question,
command/request).
- Declarative: You wear a red hat. (statement)
- Interrogative: Do you wear a red hat? (question)
- Imperative: Wear a red hat! (command/request)
a) It’s cold outside
b) I hereby tell you about the weather
c) I hereby request of you that you close the door
Whenever there is a direct relationship between a structure and a function, we have a

direct speech act. For example, a declarative used to make a statement is a direct
speech act, but a declarative used to make a request is an indirect speech act. As
illustrated in (a,b,c), the utterance in (a) is a declarative. When it is used to make a
statement, as paraphrased in (b), it is functioning as a direct speech act. When it is used
to make a command/request, as paraphrased in (c), it is functioning as an indirect speech
act.
One of the most common types of indirect speech act in Englissh, as shown in the
following sentences, which have an interrogative structure, but is not typically used to
ask questions, that is, we do not expect an answer, but we expect an action.
a. Could you pass me the salt, please?
b. Would you open this for me?
FELICITY CONDITIONS
Not all speakers can perform all speech acts. The conditions that must be fulfilled for a
speech act to be satisfactorily performed or realized are called Felicity Conditions. A
sentence must not only be grammatically correct, it must also be felicitous, that is
situationally appropriate.
Circumstances under which it would be appropriate to interpret something as a

particular type of speech act.
1. General conditions
2. Preparatory conditions
FELICITY CONDITIONS 3. Content conditions
4. Sincerity condition
5. Essential condition
1. General conditions - They apply to all types of illocutions. Participants share
the same language, they are not acting, etc.
2. Preparatory conditions - The person performing the speech act has the
authority to do so. The participants are in the correct state to have that act
performed on them.
3. Content conditions - Correspondence between content and linguistic choices.
4. Sincerity conditions - The participants must have the appropriate thoughts,
feelings, and intentions.
5. Essential conditions - The speaker’s intention to carry out the action
expressed (the speech act creates an obligation).
What happens when some of these conditions are absent?

Speech acts are situationally inappropriate and are considered infelicitous /inappropriate
→ they do not fulfil the communicative intention.
o Felicity Conditions for Questioning

Speaker (S) questions Hearer (H) about x:
1. S does not know the truth about x.

2. S wants to know the truth about x.
3. S believes that H may be able to supply the information about x that s/he wants.
In classrooms, for example, one reason that children may resent teachers‘ questions is
that they know that there is a violation of 1: the teacher already knows the answer
o Felicity Conditions for Requesting

S requests H to do x:
1. S believes x has not yet been done.

2. S believes that H is able to do x.
3. S believes that H is willing to do x-type things for S.
4. S wants x to be done
o Felicity Conditions for Promising

S promises H to do x:
1. S believes H wants x done

2. S is able to do x.
3. S is willing to do x.
4. x has not already been done.
5. H will benefit from x.
o Felicity Conditions for Threatening

S threatens H to do x:
1. S believes H does not want x to be carried out.

2. S is able to carry out x.
3. S is willing to carry out x.
4. S believes that H is aware of 2 & 3.
5. x has not already been carried out.
o Felicity Conditions for Advising
S advises H to do x:
1. S believes H has not yet done x (or has not yet tried to do x).
2. S believes H might be willing to try x (or be persuaded to try x). [Otherwise
why bother advising someone to do something?]
3. S believes H is able to do x.
4. S believes x will be in the best interest of H (i.e. that x will work).

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4 INTERPERSONAL MEANING

SPEECH ACT THEORY

WHAT IS SPEECH ACT THEORY?

Utterances can be classified as performative or constative. Performatives like “I

Examples of performative verbs in English:

• Subject must be 1st person • Verb must perform the act

1. REPRESENTATIVES: such as informing ‘It is raining’ or to convey a belief.

Whenever there is a direct relationship between a structure and a function, we have a

Circumstances under which it would be appropriate to interpret something as a

What happens when some of these conditions are absent?

o Felicity Conditions for Questioning

1. S does not know the truth about x.

o Felicity Conditions for Requesting

1. S believes x has not yet been done.

o Felicity Conditions for Promising

1. S believes H wants x done

o Felicity Conditions for Threatening

1. S believes H does not want x to be carried out.

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