Mastery Learning: An Effective Teaching Strategy

Vahid Motamedi

Assistant Professor
Department of Educational Technology

Faculty of Psychology & Education

Tarbiat Moallem University

Mofateh Avenue

Tehran, Iran 15614

vmotamedi@tmu.ac.ir

Abstract
Mastery learning is used in order to advance an individual�s potential for learning. Compared to

traditional learning models, sufficient time, attention, and help are afforded to each student. This

paper investigates the mastery learning model and changes that have taken place in its use as an

effective teaching strategy. It also provides a comparison of Bloom�s and Keller�s approaches

as well as a critique of both approaches using historical data. This paper shows that by applying

mastery learning as a teaching strategy, students achieve higher learning and better academic

performance.

Key words: Mastery Learning, Learning, Teaching Strategy, Personalized System of Instruction

Introduction
 Allowing students the opportunity to achieve mastery of content at different time

intervals has proven to be an effective method of increasing student learning. This paper will

investigate the mastery learning model and changes that have taken place in its use as an

effective teaching strategy. It also provides a comparison of Bloom�s and Keller�s approaches

as well as a critique of both approaches using historical data. By definition, mastery learning is a

method of instruction where the focus is on the role of feedback in learning. Furthermore,

mastery learning refers to a category of instructional methods which establishes a level of

performance that all students must �master� before moving on to the next unit (Slavin, 1987).
Thus, through one or more trials, students have to achieve a specified level of content knowledge

prior to progression on to a next unit of instruction.

Background Information
Mastery learning though strongly influenced by the development of instructional

technology is not, however, a new concept (Bloom, 1976; Wentling, 1973). Some principles of

mastery learning originated with Aristotle and other ancient Greek philosophers. Furthermore,

the concept that most students can learn everything that is being taught, if given sufficient time,

goes back into the previous century (Block, 1973; Bloom, 1976).

Mastery learning was first introduced into the American educational system over seventy

years ago. However, during the 1920s, only a few schools in America were using mastery

learning. Washburne (1922) stated, �With the development of the achievement test movement,

we may now make units of achievement the constant factor, varying the time to fit the individual

capacities of the children.� According to Block (1971), in 1922 there was an attempt by

Washburn and others to produce mastery in students' learning. This plan was known as the

Winnetka Plan, in which "primarily self-instructional practice materials were used, although the

teacher occasionally tutored individuals or small groups" (p. 4). A further attempt was made in
1926 by Morrison in which "a variety of correctives were used -- for example, re-teaching,

tutoring, restructuring the original learning activities, and redirecting student study habits" (p. 4).
Block stated that Morrison's method was successful in the 1930s. However, because of a lack of

technology, Morrison's idea of mastery learning failed to be used by teachers across the nation.

In the early 1960s the idea of mastery learning was revived in the form of programmed

instruction. Programmed instruction derived initially from work conducted by B. F. Skinner was

further developed by other behaviorists. This program was similar to mastery learning in the

sense that the focus was on the role of feedback in learning and on individualized learning. Also,

like the original mastery learning model, this method of instruction allowed students to move at

their own pace and receive instant feedback on their current level of mastery.

Founders of Mastery Learning

Both Bloom and Carroll are credited with formulating the idea of mastery learning,

though many of its elements were strongly influenced by Washburn and Morrison in the 1920s

and behaviorists in the 1960s. As cited in Carroll (1963), Bloom came up with an important

component of instruction which is time. In Carroll�s theory learning is a function of time spent

divided by the time needed (Davis & Sorrell, 1995). According to Carroll, the differences in

aptitude among students are due to the amount of time spent in learning the material. Carroll

(cited in Block & Anderson, 1975) defines aptitude as "a measure of learning rate, i.e. as a

measure of the amount of time the student would require to learn a given level under ideal

instructional conditions" (p. 2). According to Davis and Sorrell (1995), Carroll indicated that if

the student will make the effort to learn a task by allowing himself or herself the time that the

student requires for individual learning then he or she will succeed. Therefore, in a given test, the

only thing that varies is student performance.

In the late 1960s, Bloom's "Learning for Mastery" focused attention on the philosophy of

mastery learning. Bloom interpreted Carroll's ideas and philosophy of learning in terms of

mastery learning. He stated that the mastery learning proponent believes that intelligence and

aptitude are not the best indicators of potential achievement. Furthermore, Bloom (1976, 1979, &
1980) pointed out that �cognitive entry characteristics� (specific knowledge, abilities, and

skills), which are necessary prerequisites to a particular learning task, are better predictors of
later achievement. These characteristics were seen as identifiable and alterable by Bloom. In

addition, with continual academic success, Bloom felt that �affective entry characteristics�

(attitude, self confidence, and motivation) would improve over time. According to Bloom

�cognitive entry characteristics,� �affective entry characteristics,� and quality of instruction

determine the rate of learning for each individual. Bloom along with Anderson (1976), Block

(1973 & 1979), Guskey and Gates (1986), and Walberg (1984) argue that under the mastery

learning approach, differences in learning rates will decrease and can approach zero. Thus, as

students master the prerequisite skills for each new unit the need for corrective instruction will
progressively reduce on each succeeding unit (Bloom, 1976, 1980).

Bloom (1968) is known as the individual recognized for the theoretical formulation of the

mastery model. His prediction was that 95% of the students taught by the mastery approach

would achieve at a level that had previously been reached by only 5%. He suggested that

learning outcomes in most all subject areas can be enhanced through the mastery learning

method. Over time, the model of mastery learning, developed by Bloom, began to take on a

number of different variables. According to Bloom, every mastery learning program divides

instruction into small units. Feedback is always a part of mastery learning where students are

given an opportunity to practice what they have learned and are given corrective feedback

(Motamedi & Sumrall, 2000).

The idea of "cognitive objective" was originated by Bloom. Mastery is defined in terms

of objectives. Students will be able to perform at least 90% or higher on a test. According to

Bloom's theory of mastery learning diagnosis is required. For example, if a student is having

problems with his studies, the cause needs to be found. Instruction should be supplemented with

correctives such as tutoring, additional practice, small group study, games, or even re-teaching

the material. The time is always allowed to vary.

Traditionally, many teachers believe that intelligence and aptitude have determined the
individual�s potential for learning. Bloom (1974a, 1976, & 1980) states that all too often,

intelligence and aptitude scores have determined opportunities for further education, student
support and encouragement, and even quality of interaction between teacher and student. Hence,

students with high scores have been the ones to whom the teachers have directed most of their

attention. However, in the mastery learning model, Bloom stated that teacher-student

relationships are greatly altered and the potential of low achievers is increased.

Bloom recognized that one aspect of mastery learning is learning in sequence, where

sequencing is described as hierarchical. Thus, mastery of each step prior to advancing to the next

step is essential. This concept goes back to the behaviorists and Skinner in 1954. The learning of

most complex behavior rests upon learning a sequence of less complex component behaviors. If
we are learning algebra, for example, an understanding of later material requires a complete

understanding of earlier material. This is related to the sequential nature of mastery learning. A

student cannot take the next step until that individual has fully mastered the previous

material. Slavin and Karweit (1984) refer to Bloom (1976) in his claim that mastery learning

"focuses primarily on students' abilities to understand instruction by attempting to insure that all

students have mastered the previous skill before attempting the next" (p. 726). Jensen (2006) also

supports mastery learning wherein a student who masters a skill or subject moves on to the next

level of learning. In this process slow learners are not kept back and gifted students would

perform to their own higher capacities.

Bloom was not without criticism, though few educators who are familiar with the mastery

learning approach deny that it can provide some positive effects. However, the claim of mastery

learning theorists that achievement variability and time variability can be minimized

simultaneously has created considerable controversy (Arlin, 1984b). Whereas, Bloom�s 1976

book on mastery learning has been described as �possibly the most significant book of its

decade� [Havighurst, 1976 (cited by Arlin, 1984b)], Glass and Smith (1978) suggest that

Bloom�s claims are mere educational rhetoric. Others call his claims of vanishing differences

�mythological statements� which deny reality and a psychological trap� which will entice
teachers to attempt unfeasible goals (Arlin, 1984b).

Research Studies about Mastery Learning

 Over the years many research studies based on mastery learning have been conducted.

Studies ranging in population from elementary through university and in some cases using

educational technology have taken place.

Whiting and Render (1984) provided research findings to support the hypothesis that

mastery learning does produce successful learning experiences for at least 80% of the students in

their program. Their study also indicated very strong positive outcomes in the affective domain

with strong indications of satisfaction and pride in the learning accomplishments along with a

steady increase in enrollment in the classes comprising the study. A high level of retention was
illustrated with students motivated to remediate unlearned materials even though at times they

were not required to retake a test. The authors made a strong case for the use of mastery learning

while at the same time they clearly outlined some of the difficulties encountered in the

�corporate culture� when such a program is implemented.

Guskey and Gates (1986) conducted a research synthesis of studies of group based

mastery learning in elementary and secondary classrooms. Twenty seven studies were selected

for the synthesis. Guskey and Gates reported �that without exception the studies showed

positive effects on a broad range of student learning outcomes, including student achievement,

retention of learned material, involvement in learning activities, and student affect.� The

synthesis revealed that the magnitude of the effect on student achievement varied widely across

studies. Several of the studies investigated variables related to time. Although Guskey and Gates

contend that student learning rates are alterable as Bloom�s model hypothesizes, their synthesis

report does state that �Arlin (1984a, & 1984b) argues that learning rate is a fairly stable and

unalterable characteristic.�

Lai and Biggs (1994) conducted a study with educationally disadvantaged students in

grade 9 biology classes. Students were classified into surface biased and deep biased. The results

of the study indicated that mastery learning benefited surface biased students while the deep
biased students� interest levels tended to progressively diminish using mastery learning. Thus

deep and surface biased learners increasingly diverge in both performance and attitude, where
surface learners did better than deep learners from unit to unit. Lai and Biggs stated that surface

students seemed to be motivated by the success they have obtained; a success that is a rare event

to these students.

Ritchie and Thorkildsen (1994) used the videodisc-based instruction method �to

examine the factor of accountability in mastery learning programs. The videodisc-based

instruction was chosen to help minimize differences in instructional materials, instructional time,

and instructional delivery.� Results of this study indicated a significant difference in

achievement test scores. Two possible reasons for the significant increase among mastery
learning students were such that their awareness of participating in a mastery learning program

quiz and test results will directly influence their progression and re-mediation of ensuing

instructional material.

Kulik, Jaksa, and Kulik (1978) conducted a study which demonstrated that the high

student achievement was an outcome of personalized instruction. They noted that this instruction

has at least four sources. The first important factor is PSI's high mastery standard. The second

factor is the large number of unit quizzes. The third is timing of feedback which influences

student achievement in Personalized System of Instruction (PSI) courses. The final critical factor

is the total amount of review built into PSI courses.

Semb (1980) referred to several studies that have compared Keller's (1968) personalized

system of instruction to more traditional lecture methods. The result of these studies

demonstrated that PSI has produced higher levels of academic achievement and higher student

ratings. According to Klishis, Hursh, and Klishis (1980) PSI has repeatedly been shown to be

more effective than the traditional lecture approach.

Atkisson (cited in Klishis, Hursh, & Klishis, 1980) conducted a study with sixth-grade

students in a PSI spelling class. He found that these students completed their work early, giving

them time to work at building their vocabulary skills. Klishis, Hursh, and Klishis (1980)
demonstrated in an experiment that PSI results in more effective learning of spelling in
elementary classrooms. Results showed that students were more successful in mastering content

and faster in completing the course than they were when taught by traditional methods.

They also found that attitudinally students enjoyed PSI more than the conventional

approach and enjoyed serving as proctors. According to Kulik, Kulik, and Carmichael (1974),

Keller reported that students rated the personalized courses as much more enjoyable than

traditionally taught courses. The authors stated that students are "highly pleased with this way of

teaching and learning" (p. 379). Kulik, Kulik, and Carmichael found that 72% of students in

nuclear engineering, 91% in electrical engineering, 64% in mechanical engineering, and 59% in
operations research considered PSI better than the lecture method. They presented results of 15

studies in which examination results in Keller and conventional courses were compared.

According to the authors of the 15 studies, higher performance for the Keller section was

reported in 11 of them. The authors also stated that "content learning under the Keller plan

always equals, and most often exceeds, content learning under the lecture method" (p. 383).

A Comparison of Bloom�s and Keller�s Approaches

Similarities
One of the similarities is that students are capable of learning well. It is the task of the

teacher to design his instruction. The teacher should have a set of objectives for students to

follow. Both strategies assume that the course should be broken into smaller learning units so

that there is a better interaction between students and the teacher. Both of these approaches take

the same position on individual student performance. Individual student performance should be

based on �absolute performance� rather than on �relative performance� (Block, 1974).

Differences
Bloom and Keller both agree that each student must master each part of the course. But

Bloom believes that mastery of the parts is not the same as mastery of the whole. He bases a

student�s grade primarily on the student�s performance over all units taken as a whole,
whereas in Keller�s plan, mastery of the parts of a course is the equivalent of mastery of the

course taken as a whole. Keller bases the student�s grade mostly on his performance on each
unit. For Bloom, mastery is performance at or above a particular level on the course final

examination, whereas for Keller, mastery is perfect performance on a particular number of units

by a certain point in time. Bloom�s plan tends to use larger learning units than does Keller�s

plan. Bloom�s units usually correspond to two weeks worth of instruction; Keller�s units

usually correspond to about one week worth of instruction. In both strategies, the teacher is

encouraged to sequence his learning units; but in Bloom�s strategy, the teacher attempts to

sequence the units hierarchically so that the material in one unit builds on the material from the

preceding unit. Bloom�s units are taught using group-based methods while Keller�s units are
taught using individual based methods. The Keller strategy asks students to learn by reading,

whereas the Bloom strategy asks students to learn by reading, hearing lectures, and/or

participating in discussions. In Bloom�s strategy, the original instruction is teacher-paced;

whereas in Keller�s approach, it is student or self-paced (Block, 1974).

A Critique of Both Approaches

Both mastery learning and Personalized System of Instruction have been criticized. Gage

and Berliner (1988) quoted Mueller (1976) as asserting that mastery learning
(a) takes much of the responsibility for learning away from students, who may end up not
knowing how to learn independently; (b) requires non-fixed-time instructional units or
greatly liberalized time allocations; (c) makes faster learner "wait around" while slower
learner catch up, unless the faster learners are motivated to spend their time achieving
objectives beyond the pre-specified ones; (d) commits a major part of finite instructional
resources -- corrective effort, teacher aides, peer tutoring, and alternative learning
materials -- to slower students and (e) assumes that everything in an instructional unit
must be learned equally well by almost all students, although beyond basic skills and
hierarchical subjects (such as mathematics) this assumption is hard to defend (p. 467).

Slavin and Karweit (1984) concluded that the results of their study �do not support the

effectiveness of the principal component of group-paced mastery learning, the cycle of

formative test, corrective instruction for nonmasters, and summative test� (p. 732). According

to Slavin (1987) (cited in Gage & Berliner, 1988) longer-term experiments yield much lower

estimates of effectiveness than do briefer experiments. Also standardized achievement tests show
less effectiveness for the approach than do experimenter-made tests. Slavin, with a modified

view, concluded that:

The best evidence from evaluations of practical applications of group-based mastery
learning indicates that effects of those methods are moderate at best on experimenter-
made achievement measures closely tied to the objectives taught in the mastery learning
classes and are essentially nil on standardized achievement measures. ... These
conclusions are radically different from those drawn by earlier reviewers and meta-
analysts. (p. 464)

Gage and Berliner (1988) stated that unless carefully controlled and implemented,

mastery learning often helps slower-learning students at the expense of faster-learning students

by taking educational resources such as teacher�s time and attention. Faster learners are often

left on their own with �busy� work.

Most critics do not deny that benefits accrue under the Personalized System of Instruction

or continuous-progress types of mastery programs in which students move at their own pace;

however, several critics of group based mastery learning (Arlin, 1984a; Slavin, 1987) have

questioned whether mastery learning simply shifts learning from high to low achievers. They

suggest that mastery learning sacrifices coverage for mastery and since rapid coverage is likely

to be of greatest benefit to high achievers and high mastery is of greatest benefit to low

achievers, pure group based mastery learning will likely produce a �Robin Hood� effect.

There are several other reservations about the mastery learning approach. Mueller (1976)
sees the mastery model as placing a ceiling beyond which the faster learners are not allowed to

progress. Mueller also believes that it is not useful in training students to learn independently. In

addition, he states, �the mastery model equates mastery with high quality performance� (p.

14). Mueller thinks that, in addition to what a student learns, how long it took him to learn it

should be a part of his grade.

Later studies countered these criticisms by questioning the efficacy of the individual

implementations of the mastery learning. Arredondo and Block (1990) stated that �when well
implemented separately, both mastery learning and thinking skills programs appear to improve
student learning.� Technology is often viewed as a useful tool for the more efficient

implementation of some of the key aspects of the mastery learning model. Both mastery learning

and PSI try to ensure remedial instruction of high quality. Alternative textbooks, workbooks,

programmed instruction, games, and interaction with a tutor may help a particular student to

understand what he is learning (Gage & Berliner, 1988).

Discussion and Conclusion

The hidden agenda that schools carry out does not involve how much students learn. The

agenda is to divide students based on their academic achievement. The schools function on a
system that separates the smartest from those that are not as academically inclined. That is the

structure of the educational system in the United States.

If, for example, forty students were put in a classroom, there would be some students that

would have poor academic skills, while others excelled. These students are separated based on

their academic performance. The reason why we have to perform this function in education for

society is that businesses, law firms, graduate schools, etc. all want to employ the brightest and

the best students. This is the way to categorize students. This is based on the function that our

educational system performs for us in the United States. Thus, our educational system is based

on the notion that allows performance to vary in the classroom. It is acceptable for us to teach all

students the same things, access their learning, and see how students differ in terms of what they

learn.

In mastery learning, time rather than performance, varies. Time is probably the biggest

and the most important element of mastery learning. What is done in classrooms now is the same

as what was done one hundred years ago: uniform instruction is presented in the classroom. This

is what goes on in 99% of classrooms. The same instruction is presented to a number of students.

What is measured? Achievement is measured in terms of how much information students are

able to master. A bell curve is found to tell what most are learning, which is about 70% of the
objective.
 Obviously students are different. Some have higher aptitude than others in the classroom.

Therefore, for all students to reach a high standard of performance it will take some students

longer than it will take others. Thus, with mastery learning, the longer period of time required for

some students to learn hinders them from reaching the desired achievement level. An advantage

of mastery learning is that more students achieve higher learning. Also, students would have

prerequisite skills to move to the next units, objectives would be stated, and better academic

performance would result for some students. An obvious disadvantage of mastery learning is that

the less capable students who do not achieve the criterion as quickly take longer to master the
material. Also, individualized instruction, a variety of material for re-teaching, and several tests

for each unit may be required. The main weakness of mastery learning is the time factor.

Mastery learning is an alternative method of teaching and learning for many students who

do not respond well to traditional instruction. Traditional instruction has not been successful for

many students in schools, colleges, and universities. Like the mastery learning theory,

cooperative learning is a strategy that looks unfavorably on competition among individual

students when learning the subject matter. In addition, it is a strategy like mastery learning that

makes the students responsible for their learning the subject. Cooperative learning is considered

by many educators to be the most viable means by which all students can learn the subject matter

(Motamedi & Sumrall, 2000). Constructivism, on the other hand, has been described as the

unifying theory of education that has succeeded in tying together all learning theories in all

academic areas. Constructivists use a type of learning where students are allowed "concrete,

contextually meaningful experience through which they can search for patterns, raise their own

questions, and construct their own models, concepts, and strategies" (Fosnot, 1996, p. ix).

According to Fosnot, the classroom in this model is viewed as sharing activities, discourse, and

reflection. The teacher is more of a facilitator rather than traditional controller of the classroom.

Unlike cooperative learning, the literature does not provide a positive tie between constructivism
and mastery learning.
 From the research discussed above, it is evident that mastery learning is an effective

method of instruction which enhances student learning, achievement, attitude, and expectations.

There is also evidence that students enjoy this method of learning and individually can reach

success. Students prefer the Keller plan to traditional teaching methods. Mastery teaching and

learning is a very simplistic way of teaching and learning in the sense that the instructors assume

all students can learn the same material. The only difference among students is the amount of

time needed to learn the material. With such positive results shown by research studies on

mastery learning, it becomes clear that mastery learning techniques need to be more widely
implemented in American classrooms than they currently are.

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