Preface

This book is an outcome of hard work of dedicated team with a lot of experience in
their respective subjects.

This book is prepared after indepth study of previous NTSE paper of SAT.
SAT

The basic concepts given will help to build confidence among the students in the
concepts and bring expertise in the application of these concepts by solving the practice
sheets to get sure success for the students of Class X
X.

This book serves as a ready reckoner for the students of all categories to crack the
first level of NTSE
NTSE.

Along with NTSE syllabus, all the fundamental concepts also covered, along with
application oriented questions.

Although every effort has been made to keep this book error free, suggestions for
further improvement of the book will be gratefully acknowledged.

Material is prepared based on the revised syllabus approved by the Govt. of Karnataka
State according to the new curriculum.

These exercises are compiled by taking the important explanations, discussions,

applications in daily life.

NTSE is prepared to develop the competency of students in areas like thinking

logically and working systematically, learning through it, and practicing them in daily life.
MATHEMATICS
 INDEX
S.No. Name of the Topic
1. Arithmetic Progressions

2. Triangles

3. Pair of linear equations in two variables

4. Circles

5. Areas related to circles

6. Constructions

7. Coordinate geometry

8. Real numbers

9. Polynomials

10. Quadratic equations

11. Introduction to trigonometry

12. Some applications of trigonometry

13. Statistics

14. Probability

15. Surface areas and volumes

X Class - Karnataka NTSE - Mathematics

1. ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS
SYNOPSIS :
Ø Sequence : An orderly arrangement of numbers according to a certain rule is called a “Sequence”.
Ex : 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ...
Note : Each number in the sequence is called a term of the sequence.
Ø Real sequence : A sequence whose domain is N and range is subset of R is called a real sequence.
1 1 1
Ex : i) 1, , , ... ii) 2 , 2, 2 2 , 4, 4 2 ...
2 3 4
Ø Series : If the terms of a sequence are connected by plus (or) minus sign, a series is obtained.
If a1 , a2, a3, ..., an is a sequence, then a1 + a2 + a3 + ... an is a series
Ø Finite and infinite series: A series is finite or infinite according to the number of terms in the corresponding
sequence. If a sequence containing finite number of terms is called a finite sequence. If a sequence
containing infinite number of terms is called infinite sequence.
Ex : Finite series : 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + 100 ; Infinite series : 2 + 4 + 6 + ... ∞
Ø Progression : The sequence whose terms follow a certain pattern is called progression. i.e., The terms
are arranged under a finite rule.
Ex : i) 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ... ii) 1, 4, 9, 16, ... iii) 5, 10, 15, 20, ...
1. Arithmetic progression (A.P) : An arithmetic progression is a sequence in which each term is obtained
by adding a fixed number to the preceding term (except the first term). The fixed number is called
common difference (d).
Some important points :
i) In an A.P the common difference can either be a positive number or a negative number or zero.
ii) In an A.P, if the common difference is zero, then it is called a constant sequence.
iii) An A.P containing finite number of terms is called a finite arithmetic progression.
iv) An A.P containing infinite number of terms is called an infinite arithmetic progression.
Tp − Tq
v) If pth and qth terms of an A.P are Tp, Tq respectively, then common difference (d) = .
p−q
Tn − a
vi) First term of an A.P is ‘a’ and nth term of an A.P is Tn, then common difference is d = .
n −1
a+c
vii) If a, b, c are in A.P, then b = . Here b is called arithmetic mean of a, c.
2
a+b
viii) Arithmetic mean (A.M) of two numbers is equal to half of their sum. i.e., A.M of a and b =
2
Ø If the general form of an A.P is a, (a + d), (a + 2d), ... then the nth term of an A.P is Tn = a + (n – 1)d.

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Ø Sum to ‘n’ terms of an A.P : The sum of n terms of the series a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + ... + (a + (n – 1)d)
n n n
is Sn = ⎡⎣2a + ( n − 1) d ⎤⎦ (or) Sn = [ a + l ] = [ a + Tn ] . Here a = first term, d = common difference,
2 2 2
l = last term.
Some important points :
n ( n + 1)
i) Sum of first n - natural numbers = ∑ n =
2
n ( n + 1)( 2 n + 1)
Sum of the squares of first n natural numbers = ∑ n =
2
ii)
6

n2 ( n + 1) ⎡ n ( n + 1) ⎤
2 2

⎥ = ( ∑ n)
2
iii) The sum of cubes of first ‘n’ natural numbers = ∑ n = 3
=⎢
4 ⎣ 2 ⎦
iv) ∑1= n
v) ∑ k = kn
Note : It is impossible to find the sum of an infinite arithmetic series.

2. TRIANGLES
SYNOPSIS :

Ø Two figures are similar if and only if they have same shape, but not necessarily the same size.
Ø Similar polygons : Two polygons of same number of sides are similar, if and only if,
i) all the corresponding angles are equal ii) all the corresponding sides are equal.
Ø Two triangles are said to be similar, if, “their corresponding angles are equal or their corresponding sides
are equal”.
Ø “Congruent triangles are always similar but similar triangles are not necessarily congruent”.
Ø Basic proportionality theorem or Thales theorem if a straight line is drawn parallel to one side of a
triangle, then it divides the other two sides proportionally”.
Ø Converse of Thales theorem : “If a straight line divides two sides of a triangle proportionally, then the
straight line is parallel to the third side”.
Ø Corollary : “If a straight line is drawn parallel to a side of a triangle then the sides of intercepted triangle
will be proportional to the sides of given triangle”.
Ø Theorem (AA Similarity Criterion) : “If two triangles are equiangular, then their corresponding, Sides
are proportional”.
Ø Brahma Gupta’s Theorem (628 AD) : “The rectangle contained by any two sides of a triangle, is
equal to rectangle contained by altitude drawn to the third side and the circum diameter”.
Ø SSS similarity Criterion for two triangles. “If the three sides (SSS) of a triangle are proportional to the
corresponding three sides (SSS) of another triangle, then their corresponding angles (AAA) are equal”.

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Ø SAS similarly criterion for two triangles. It two sides of one triangle are proportional to two sides of
another triangle and the angles formed by those sides are equal, then the two triangles are equiangular
and therefore they are similar.
Ø Theorem : In a right angled triangle, the perpendicular drawn to the hypotenuse from the right angled
vertex, divides the original triangle in to two right angled triangles, each of which are similar to the
original triangle”.
Ø Theorem : “The areas of similar triangles are proportional to the squares on the corresponding sides”.
Ø The ratio of the areas of two similar triangles is equal to the square of the ratio of the corresponding
medians.
Ø The areas of similar triangles are proportional to the squares on the corresponding altitudes.
Ø The areas of similar triangles have the same ratio as the squares of the radii of their circumcircles.
Ø In a right angled triangle, the square on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares on the other
two sides.
A
1
Ø Area of right angled triangle ABC right angle at B is (AB) (BC).
2

B C
3 2
Ø Area of an equilateral triangle whose side ‘x’ is x .
4
Converse of Pythagoras Theorem :
Ø If the square on the longest side of a triangle is equal to the sum of the squares on the other two sides then
those two sides contain the right angle.
Ø If the three numbers which are the measure of three sides of a right phthagorean triplets angled trianlge
are natural numbers then they are called pythagoren triplets.
Ø The general form of pythagorean triplets are 2n, (n2 – 1), (n2 +1) here n may be even or odd.

Ø The length of diagonal of a square of side ‘a’ is 2a.

3
Ø The height of the equilateral triangle is h = × a units.
2

Ø Length of the diagonal of a rectangle l 2 + b2 .

1 2
Ø The area of right isosceles triangle is A = a where ‘a’ is of length of perpendicular sides.
2

Ø Length of the hypotenuse of right isosceles triangle is 2a units.

Ø Perimeter of equilateral triangle is 3 × side.

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3. PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

SYNOPSIS :

Ø Introduction : In our previous classes, we have studied about linear equations in one variable and two
variables along with their graphs and solutions. In this chapter, we shall study about systems of linear
equations in two variables, solution of such systems by graphical and algebraic methods. We will also
study the applications of linear - equations in two variables in solving problem from different fields.
Ø Simultaneous Linear Equations in Two variables : A pair of linear equations in two variables is said
to form a system of simultaneous linear equations.
Examples: i) 2x – 3y = 1 ii) x + y = 5
1
x+ y=3 x–y=1
2
Note : The general form of a pair of linear equations in two variables x and y is
a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and
a2x + b2y + c2 = 0, where a1, b1, c1, a2, b2, c2 are real numbers and a12 + b12 ≠ 0 and a22 + b22 ≠ 0 .
Ø Solution : A pair of values of the variables x and y satisfying each one of the equations in a given system
of two simultaneous linear equations in x and y is called a solution.
Example: For the pair of linear equations
3x – 2y = 4 and 2x + y = 5,
x = 2, y = 1 is a solution.
Note:The solution of a system of simultaneous linear equations can be obtained by the following
methods:
i) Graphical Method
ii) Algebraic Method → a) Substitution Method
→ b) Elimination Method
→ c) Cross Multiplication Method.
Ø Graph of simultaneous linear equations : We have studied in our previous class that the graph of a
linear equation is a straight line. So, the graph of a system of simultaneous linear equations is a pair of
straight lines.
Thus, the graph of a system of simultaneous linear equations represents
either a pair of intersecting lines
or a pair of parallel lines
or a pair of coincident lines
Graphical method :
Ø Consistent system : A system of simultaneous linear equations is said to be consistent if it has atleast
one solution.
Note : i) If the system has only one solution then it is called independent.
ii) If the system has infinitely many solutions then it is called dependent.
Ø Inconsistent system : A system of simultaneous linear equations is said to be inconsistent if it has no
solution.

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Ø Nature of system of linear equations : Let a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 is a system of
simultaneous linear equations then
S.No. Compare Algebraic Graphical Nature of the
ratios Interpretation Representation System
a1 b1
1. ≠ Exactly one Intersecting lines Consistent
a2 b2
solution (unique)
a1 b1 c2
2. = = Infinitely many Coincident lines Consistent and dependent
a2 b2 c2
solutions
a1 b1 c2
3. = ≠ No solution Parallel lines Inconsistent
a2 b2 c2

Note:The solution of a consistent system of linear equations is the coordinates of intersecting point of
the two lines represented by them.
Representing a Pair of Linear Equations Algebraically and Graphically.

4. CIRCLES
SYNOPSIS :
Ø A circle is a set of all points in the plane that are equidistant from a given fixed point in the plane. Fixed
point is called centre of circle.
Ø A circle is a path traced by a point in a plane.
Ø The line segment joining the centre to any point on the circle is called radius.
Ø A line segment joining any two distinct points on the circle is called Chord of a circle.
Ø The chord that passing through the centre of the circle is called diameter of the Circle.
Ø The longest Chord in the Circle is a diameter.
Ø The diameter divides a circle into two equal parts.
Ø The diameter (d) of the circle is twice the radius (r) of a circle.
Ø A part of a circle is called arc of a circle.
Ø The circle it self corresponds to the longest arc whose length is called the circumference.
Ø Any Chord other than a diameter divides the circumference into two unequal parts. The larger arc is
called a major arc and the smaller one is called minor arc.
Ø Dia meter of a circle divides it into equal halves and each half is called a semi circle.
Ø Part of the interior of a circle bounded by a chord and the arc is called segment.
Ø The segment that contain the centre inside it is called major segment.
Ø The segment that does not contain the centre is called a minor segment.
Ø A line that intersects a circle in two distinct points is called a secant of the circle.
Ø Two or more circles have the same centre in the same plane are called concentric circles.
Ø Two circles are congruent if the radiius of one is equal to the radius of the other.
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Ø ‘C’ is the centre of circle of radius ‘r’ and P is any point.

If P lies inside the circle then CP < r
If P lies out side the circle then CP > r
If P lies on the circle then CP= r
Ø The circumferences of congruent circles arc equal.
Ø Dia meters of the congruent circles are equal.
Ø A straight line cannot intersect a circle in more than two distinct points.
Ø If two circles cut each other at two distinct paintes then they are called intersecting circles.
Ø Two circles intersect at A, B then AB is called common chord.
Ø The per pendicular to the chord from the centre of the circle bisects the chord and perpendicular to the
chord.
Ø If two circles intersect at two distinct points then the line through their centres is the perpendicular
bisector of their common chord.
Ø Equal chords in a circle are equidistant from the centre.
Ø The chord of larger length is nearer to the centre of the circle.
Ø A parallelogram in scribed in a circle is a rectangle.
Ø The angle substended by an arc of a circle at the centre is twice the angle subtended by the same arc at
any point on the circumference of the circle.
Ø Angle in a semicircle is a right angle.
Ø Angle subtended by a chord at the centre is twice the angle subtended by the same chord at the circum-
ference.
Ø Equal chords subtend equal angles at the centre.
Ø Angles in the same segment are equal.
Ø Angle in a minor segments is an obtuse angle.
Ø Angle in a major segment is an acuteangle.
Ø If the four vertices of a quadrilateral are lie on the circle, then it is called a cyclic quadrilateral.
Ø Pairs of opposite angles of a Cyclic quadrilateral arc supplementary.
Ø If the exterior angle then the quadrilateral is cyclic.
Ø A circle passing through the vertices of the any triangle is called circumcircle.
Ø Circle : A circle is a plane geometrical figure formed by infinite set of points which are the equal distant
from a fixed point.
Ø Radius: It is the line segment joining the centre and a point on the circle. It is denoted by r.
Ø Chord : the line segment joining any two points on the circle.
Ø Diameter : A chord which passes through the centre of the circle. It is denoted by d.
Ø Arc : It is a part of the circle.
Ø Segment : The region bounded by an arc and a chord.
a) Minor segement : Region bounded by an arc and a chord
b) Major segment : Region bounded by a major arc and a chord.
c) Semi circular region : Region bounded by a semi-circle and diameter.
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Ø Equal chords of a circle are equidistant from the centre converse of the above statement :
It the chords of a circle are at equal distance from the centre, then they are equal in length.
a) If the length of the chord increases, its perpendicular distance from the centre decreases.
b) If the length of the chord decreases, its perpendicular distance from the centre increases.
c) The perpendicular distance between the biggest chord and centre is zero.
Ø Angles subtended by an arc in the segments :
a) In a circle, angles in a minor segment are obtuse angles.
b) In a circle, angles in the major segment are acute angles.
c) Angles in a semi circle are right angles.
d) In a circle, angles in the same segment are equal.
Ø Concentric circles : Circles having the same centre but different radii are called concentric circles.
Ø Congruent circles : Circles having same radii different centre are called congruent circles.
Ø Secant : A straight line which intersects a circle at two distinct points is called a secant.
Ø Tangent : A straight line which touches the circle at only one point is called a tangent.
Ø Point of contact : The point where the tangent touches the circle is called the point of contact.
Ø In any circle, the radius drawn at the point of contact is perpendicular to the radius at its non - centre end
is the tangent to the circle.
Ø Corollaries :
1) The perpendicular to the tangent at the point of contact passes through the centre of the circle.
2) Only one tangent can be drawn to a circle at any point on it.
3) Tangents drawn at the ends of a diameter are parallel to each other.
Note : Only two tangents can be drawn from an external point to a circle.
Ø Theorem : The tangents drawn from an external point to a circle.
a) are equal.
b) subtend equal angles at the centre.
c) are equally inclined to the line joining the centre and the external point.
Ø The length of tangent drawn from external point to the circle of radius ‘r’ at a distance ‘d’ from the center
is d2 − r2 .
Ø Touching circles : Two circles having only one common point of contact are called touching circles.
Two types of touching circles.
a) Externally touching circles b) Internally touching circles
Ø Two circles, one out side the other and having a common point of contact are called externally touching
circles. Distance between the centre (d) = R + r.
Ø Two circles one inside the other and having a common point of contact are called internally touching
circles.
Distance between the centres (d) = R – r
Ø If two circles touch each other, their centres and the point of contact are collinear.
Direct common Tangent (DCT) : If both the circles lie on the same side of a common tangent, then the
common tangent is called a direct common tangent.

d2 − (R − r ) .
2
The length of direct common tangent is

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Transverse common Tangent (TCT) : If both the circles lie on either side of a common tangent, then
the common tangent is called a transverse common tangent.

d2 − (R + r) .
2
The length of transverse common tangent is
Ø Method of constructing direct common tangent’s is name for non congruent.
i) Non - intersecting circles (d > R + r)
ii) Circles touching externally, then d = R + r
iii) Intersecting circles, then d < R + r
Ø Method of constructing transverse common tangent’s is same for congruent and non - congruent and
again same for non - intersecting circles (d > R + r)
S.No. Circles Relation between No. of DCT’s No. of TCT’s No. of CTS
d, R and r
1) Non - intersecting circles d>R+r 2 2 4
2) Circles touching externally d=R+r 2 1 3
3) Intersecting circles d<R+r 2 0 2
4) Circles touching internally d=R–r 1 0 1
5) Non - concentric circles d<R–r 0 0 0
6) Concentric circles d=0 0 0 0

5. AREAS RELATED TO CIRCLES

SYNOPSIS :

Ø Introduction : In earlier classes, we have studied methods of finding perimeters and areas of simple
plane figures such as rectangles, squares, parallelograms, triangles and circles. In our dialy life , we
come across many objects which are related to circular shape in some form (or) other. For example cycle
wheels, wheel arrow, drain cover, bangles, circular paths etc. That is why the problem of finding perimeters
and areas related circular figures is of great practical importance. In this chapter, we shall discuss problems
on finding the areas of the two special parts of a circular region known as sector and segment of a circle
we shall also discuss problems on finding the areas of some combinations of plane figures involving
circles or parts of circles ...............
w Review of perimeter and area of a circle.
Ø Circle : A circle is the locus of a point which moves in a plane in such a way that its distance from a
fixed point always remains same.
r
0

Here the fixed point ‘o’ is called the centre and the given constant distance ‘r’ is known as radius of the
circle.
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Ø Circumference : The perimeter (or) length of the boundary of a circle is called its circumference
We know that circumference of a circle nears a constant ratio with its diameter. This constant ratio is
denoted by the greek letter π (read as ‘pi’)
Thus, if ‘C’ denoted the circumference of a circle of radius ‘r’. Then,
Circumference
π=
Diameter

C
⇒ π=
2r
⇒ C = 2r × π = 2 π r
⇒ C = 2π r
(or) C = π d (diameter ‘d’ = 2 × radius = 2r)
Here ‘ π ’ stands for a particular irrational number whose approximate value is 3.14 (up two decimal) or
22
, and
7
π = 3.1416, (up to four decimals)
π = 3.141592651, (up to eight decimals) for practical purposes, we generally take the value of ‘ π ’ as
22
(or) 3.14 approximately
7
Ø Area of a circle : The region enclosed by the boundary of the circle is called its area.
Area of the circle = π r2
A = π r2
2
⎛ d⎞
(or) A = π ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2⎠

d
2 r
= π· O
4

π d2
A=
4
Ø Area of semicircle :
1
A= × Area. of circle
2
1 o
⇒ A= × π r2
2
πr2
⇒ A=
2

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Ø Area of the quadrant :

1
A= × Area of circle
4 r
1
= × π r2 o
4

πr2
=
4
Ø Area enclosed by two concentric circles : If ‘R’ and ‘r’ are radii of two concentric circles, then area
enclosed by two circles = π R2 – π r2
Area of annulus (Ring) = π (R2 – r2) o 'r'
R
= π (R + r) (R – r)
Note : Distance moved by a rotating wheel in one revolution is equal to the circumference of the wheel.
The number of revolutions completed by a rotating wheel in one minute

Distance moved in one minute

=
Circumference

6. CONSTRUCTIONS
SYNOPSIS :

Ø Introduction : In class IX we have done some constructions, namely drawing perpendicular bisector of
a line segment, bisect an angle, construction of some standard angles and construction of some triangles.
In this chapter, we shall learn some more constructions by using the knowledge of constructions learnt in
earlier classes. We will also give their justifications by using various concepts of geometry which we
have learnt so far.
Ø Division of a line segment : In this section we will learn the method of dividing a line segment internally
in a given ratio. The Justification of the method will be given by using the basic proportionality theorem
and the concept of similar triangles.
Ø Scale factor : The ratio of the corresponding sides of two similar geometric figures is called the scale-
factor.
Ø Construction of tangents to a circle : In the previous chapter, we have studied that if a point lies inside
a circle, there cannot be a tangent to the circle through this point. However, if a point lies on the circle
then there is only one tangent to the circle at this point and it is perpendicular to the radius through this
point. We have also learnt that if the point lies outside the circle there will be two tangents to the circle
from this point. In this section we shall learn the construction of tangents to a circle when the centre is
known and also when its centre is not known.

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7. COORDINATE GEOMETRY
SYNOPSIS :
Ø Analytical Geometry or Coordinate Geometry is a Branch of Mathematics which is based on rectangular
coordinate system which treats geometry algebraically.
Ø Coordinate geometry was mainly developed by a French philosopher and Mathematician Rene Descartes
[1596 – 1650].
Descartes developed the Idea of placing two number lines perpendicular to each other on a plane and
locate points on this plane.
Ø The perpendicular distance from Y - axis is called the Y - coordinate [or ABSCISSA ] of the point.
The perpendicular distance form X - axis is called the Y - coordinate [or ORDINATE] of the point.
Ø The Coordinate axes divided the plane in to four quadrants.
Ø a) The Coordinates of a point P is represented as P(x, y)
b) Coordinates of origin are (0, 0)
c) Coordinates of any point on X- axis will be of the form (x, 0)
d) Coordinates of any point on Y - axis will be of the form (0, y)
Ø The graph of equations of the form ax + by = c is always a straight line.
Ø Two points are sufficient to draw the line graph.
Ø The angle formed by the linear graph with the positive direction of the X - axis is called the inclination
of the line. This angle is denoted by ‘O’ This angle is always measured in anticlockwise direction form
the x axis to line.
Vertical distance
Ø Slope =
Horizontal distance
The slope of a line is the tangents of the angle of its inclination. Generally denoted by ‘m’ ∴ m = tan θ
Gradient is nothing but the slope of a straight line.
Ø Value of angle of Inclination Value of slope
θ = 0° 0
0° < θ < 90° Positive No.
θ = 90° not defined
90° < θ < 180° negative no
Ø Slope of a straight line passing through two given points.
y2 − y1 difference of ordinates of given points
m= x −x =
2 1 difference of their abscissa
Ø Two parallel lines have equal slopes.
Ø If two lines are mutually perpendicular, then, the product of their slopes is - 1 (m1 xm2 = - 1)
Ø The equation of a line with slope “m” and whose y-intercept is “c” is given by y = mx + c

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Ø The distance between two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) ;d = ( x 2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2
⎡ mx2 + mx1 my2 + ny1 ⎤
Ø Section formula : Coordinates of P(x, y) = ⎢ ,
⎣ m+ n m + n ⎥⎦

⎡ x2 + x1 y2 + y1 ⎤
Ø Mid point formula p = ⎢ ,
⎣ 2 2 ⎥⎦
Ø Equation of the line having slope ‘m’ and y-intercept = ‘c’ is y = mx + c.
Ø Equation of the line having slope ‘m’ and x-intercept = ‘a’ is y = m (x – a).
Ø Equation of the line having slope ‘m’ and point (x1, y1) is y – y1 = m (x – x1).

8. REAL NUMBERS
SYNOPSIS :
Ø Perfect Square : A number of the form b × b = b2. Where b is an integer.
Ø Square root : If a = b2, then b is square root of ‘a’ and written as ‘ a ’
Ø Division method : A method of finding the square root of a given number using division process, based
on the identity (a + b)2 = a2 +(2a + b) b. This also helps to find square root of non-perfect squares or
decimal numbers to any degree of accuracy as required.
Ø Approximation : A number which is very close to a given number, as close as one requires.
Ø Rounding off : A process adopted for approximation. The accuracy of the approximation is measured
using the number of decimal digits.
Ø For a decimal number to be the square of some other decimal number it should have even number of
digits after the decimal point.
Ø Put a zero if necessary and make sure that you have even number of decimal digits.
Ø Start from the rightmost digit and move leftwards. Making pairs of digits, as in the case of a whole
numbers.
Ø If the square root of a number ‘a’ which is not a squre is to be found correct to n decimel places, use the
following steps (here n ≥ 1) ;

i) Find a using division method upto n+1 decimal places.

ii) Round it off to n decimal places.

w The resulting number is a correct to n decimal places. If n = 0, it is simply the nearest integer to a .

3 2
Ø If ‘a’is the side of an equilateral triangle, then its area is a .
4

a a
Ø For any two numbers ‘a’ and ‘b’ a × b = a × b , and = (provided b ≠ 0, , B ∈ R+).
b b

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Ø Writing any number of zeros after the last decimal does not affect the number, thus 2.346 = 2.34600000000.
Ø Integers are the collection of negative numbers and whole numbers. It is denoted by I or Z written as
Z = {... – 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ......}.
p
Ø Rational numbers are of the form , where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0. Rational numbers are
q
denoted by ‘Q’ .
p
Ø Natural numbers, whole numbers, integers and rational numbers can be written in the form , where p
q
and q are integers and q ≠ 0.
p 2p 3p 10p
Ø The fractions of the form , , , , .... where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0 are equivalent
q 2q 3q 10q
rational numbers (or fractions).
1 2 3 10 50
Ex : = = = = ....
2 4 6 20 100
p p
Ø If we say is a rational number or when we represent on number line, we assume that q ≠ 0 and that
q q
p and q have no common factors other than the universal factor ‘1’ (i.e., p and q are co primes).
a+b
Ø The rational number lies between two rational numbers a and b is .
2
Ø There are infinite number of rational numbers between any two given rational numbers. This property is
called density property of rational numbers.
Ø Every fraction can be expressed as either terminating or non-terminating recurring decimal.
p
Ø The numbers which cannot be represented in form are called irrational numbers. They are denoted by
q
‘S’ or ‘Q|’ .
Ø Irrational numbers can be expressed as non-terminating, non-recurring decimals.
Ø Famous mathematician and philosopher pythagoras, was the first to discover the numbers which were
not rationalise, (irrationals).
Ø If ‘n’ is a natural number other than a perfect square, then n is an irrational number.
c
Ø π is defined as the ratio of the circumference (C) of a circle to its diameter (d) i.e., π = .
d
Ø The collection of rational and irrational numbers are called Real numbers, denoted by R, i.e Q ∪ S = R.
Ø N ⊂ W ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R.
Ø If ‘a’ and ‘b’ are two positive rational numbers such that ab is not a perfect square of a rational number,
then ab is an irrational number lying between a and b.
Ø N⊂ W⊂ Z ⊂ Q⊂ R

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Ø Division Algorithm :
Dividend = (Divisor × Quotient) + Remainder
Ø An algorithm is a series of well defined steps which gives a procedure for solving a problem.
Ø Lemma : Lemma is a minor result whose sole purpose is to help in proving a theorem. It is a stepping
stone in the path of proving a theorem.
It is a proven statement used to prove another statement.
Ø Euclid’s Division Lemma : “ Given positive integers ‘a’ and ‘b’ there exist unique integers ‘q’ and ‘r’
satisfying a = bq + r, 0 ≤ r < b”.
Ø By using ‘Euclid’s Division Lemma’, we can find H.C.F of two positive integers easily.
Ø Prime number : A positive integer ‘p’ is considered as a prime number, if p > 1 and ‘p’ does not have
factors other than 1 and ‘p’.
Ø Composite number : A number greater than 1 and not a prime number is a composite number.
Ø Fundamental theorem of arithmetic : “ Every composite number can be expressed as a product of its
primes and this factorisation is unique except for the order in which the prime factors occur.
Ø H.C.F of any two positive integers is the product of the smallest power of each common prime factor of
the numbers.
p
Ø Irrational numbers : A number is said to be irrational number, if it cannot be written in the form
q
where p, q are integers and q ≠ 0.
Ø If a prime number ‘p’ divides ‘a2’, then ‘p’ divides ‘a’ where ‘a’ is a positive integer.
Ø Co-primes : The two numbers ‘a’ and ‘b’ are said to be co-primes, if the only common divisor of ‘a’ and
‘b’ is 1.
Ø ‘p’ is a prime number, if ‘p’ divides ‘ab’, then ‘p’ divides ‘a’ and ‘p’ divides ‘b’.
Ø If ‘a’ divides ‘bc’ and H.C.F of a, b is 1, then ‘a’ divides ‘c’.
Ø If ‘d’ is the H.C.F of two numbers ‘x’and ‘y’, then there exists a,b ∈z, such that ax + by = d.

9. POLYNOMIALS
SYNOPSIS :
Ø The general form of an algebraic expression is f(x) =a0 + a1x + a2 x2 + ... + anxn.
Ø In f(x), a0, a1, a2, ... an are real numbers and n is non negative integer then f(x) is called a polynomial
with real coefficient (or a real polynomial)
Ø In f(x), a0, a1, a2, .... an are called the coefficients of the polynomial f(x)
Ø In f(x), a0, a1x, a2 x2, an xn are called the terms of the polynomial f(x)
Ø In f(x), an ≠ 0, then the degree of polynomial is ‘n’
Ø The polynomial of degree zero is called constant polynomial
Ø The polynomial of degree one is called linear polynomial
Ø The polynomial of degree two is called quadratic polynomial
Ø The polynomial contain one term is called monomial

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Ø The polynomial contain two terms is called binomial

Ø The polynomial contain three terms is called trinomial
Ø The product of two or more monomial is also a monomial
Ø Maximum number of terms in the product of binomials is 4
Ø Maximum number of terms in the product of monomial and binomial 2
Ø An identity is an equation which is true for all values of the varaibles in it.
Ø The symbol ‘ ≡ ’ is used to indicate that two expressions are identically equal
Ø Some important identities are
i) (a + b) ( a – b) = a2 – b2
ii) (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
iii) (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab+ b2
iv) (x + a) (x + b) = x2 + x (a + b) + ab
v) (x + a) (x + b) (x + c) = x3 + x2 (a + b + c) + x (ab + bc + ca) + abc
vi) (a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3 = a3 + 3ab (a + b) + b3
vii) (a – b)3 = a3 – 3a2 b + 3ab2 – b3 = a3 – 3ab (a – b) + b3
viii) a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 – ab + b2)
ix) a3 – b3 = (a – b) (a2 + ab + b2)
x) (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca
xi) (a + b + c)3 – a3 – b3 – c3 = 3 (a + b) (b + c) (c + a)
xii) (a + b) (b + c) (c + a) = (a + b + c) (ab + bc + ca) – abc
xiii) a4 + a2 b2 + b4 = (a2 + b2 + ab) (a2 + b2 – ab)
Multinomial: An algebraic expression containing one or more terms is called a multinomial.
1 1
3
Example: 2x – 2 + 5, x 2
+ 3 are multinomials but not polynomials because in the terms 2 , 3x–1 . The
x
x
power of x is not a non- negative integer.
Ø An algebraic expression can be expressed as product of two or more expressions is called the factorisation.
Ø Each term of an expression has a common factor, we take it out as a factor.
Ø In an algebraic expression not possible to take out a common factor or directly then the terms of the
given expression are grouped in such a manner that we have a common factor.
Ø If an expression is difference of two squares in the form a2 – b2. We can factor it as (a – b) (a + b)
Ø ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0 is quadratic trinomial.
Ø The factors of quadratic trinomial ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0 are two numbers p, q such that pq = ac and
p + q = b.
Ø H.C.F divides each of the polynomial and divisible by every common factor of the polynomials.
Ø L.C.M is divisible by every polynomial.
Ø If there are two or more common factors, then the product of the common factors will be the H.C.F of
the given expression.
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Ø If there are no common factors then the H.C.F is 1.
Ø Every common multiple of given polynomials is a multiple of L.C.M
Ø H.C.F of polynomials is obtained by taking the lowest power of each common factor of all the expressions
and multiplying them.
Ø L.C.M of polynomials is obtained by taking the highest power of every factor which occurs in any of the
given polynomials and multiplying them.
Ø The product of two polynomials is equal to the product of their H.C.F and L.C.M
Ø H.C.F is a factor of L.C.M
Ø A polynomial can also have more than one variable.
Ø Poly means is many and nomial means term.
Ø The term polynomial means many terms.
Ø Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division of any two polynomials is also a polynomial.
Ø Division of monomial by a monomial gives again monomial.

am
Ø For division of monomial we use the formula = am−n .
an
Ø In division, dividend = divisor × quotient + remainder.
Ø Division Algorithm theorem : Dividend = (Divisor × Quotient) + Remainder.
Ø To divide a polynomial by a monomial we divide each term of the polynomial by the monomial
Ø To divide a polynomial by a binomial (or) a polynomial we can follow the process of dividing a number
with another number. The division process is said to be complete, if we get the remainder zero or the
degree of the remainder is less than the degree of the divisor.
Note : Factor theorem: If p(x) is a polynomial of degree n ≥ 1 and ‘a’ is any real number, then (x – a)
is a factor of p(x), if p(a) = 0 and its converse “ if ( x – a) is a factor of a polynomial p (x) then p(a) = 0”
Polynomial Divisor Remainder Condition Factor of (x)
f(x) (x – a) f(a) p(a) = 0 x–a
f(x) (x + a) f(– a) p(– a) = 0 x+a
⎛ −b ⎞ ⎛ a⎞
f(x) (ax + b) f ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ p ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 0 bx – a
a b

⎛ b⎞ ⎛ a⎞
f(x) (ax – b) f ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ p ⎜⎝ − ⎟⎠ = 0 bx + a
a b
Ø An algebraic expression of the form p(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3 + ........ + anxn in which the variables
involved have only non negative integral exponents and an ≠ 0 is called a polynomial in x of degree ‘n’.
Here a0, a1x1, a2x2, ........ anxn are called terms of the polynomial and a0, a1, a2, ........... an – 1, an are called
the coefficients of x0, x1, x2, ........ xn – 1, xn respectively.

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Ø If p(x) is a polynomial and k is any real number such that p(k) = 0, then k is called a zero of the polynomial.
Note : 1) Degree of constant polynomial is zero.
2) Degree of zero polynomial is not define.
3) A linear polynomial has at the most one zero.
4) A quadratic polynomial has at most two zeroes.
5) A cubic polynomial has at most three zeroes.
6) A polynomial may not have any zero is a real number.
7) The highest exponent of the variable in a polynomial is called its degree.
Ø Type of polynomials
1) Linear polynomial : If the degree of the polynomial is 1, then the polynomial is called linear
polynomial
2) Quadratic polynomial : If the degree of a polynomial is 2, then the polynomial is called quadratic
polynomial
3) Constant polynomial : If the degree of a polynomial is zero, then the polynomial is called constant
polynomial
4) Zero polynomial : Let p(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + .... + anxn is a polynomial such that a0 = a1 = a2 =
..... an = 0, then p(x) is called zero polynomial. The degree of zero polynomial is not defined
Ø Synthetic division : The simplest method where remainder theorem is applied is known as synthetic
division.
Ø Graphically a zero of any polynomial is nothing but the x - coordinate of the point of intersection of the
graph of the polynomial with the X-axis, if they intersect.

10. QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

SYNOPSIS :
Ø A linear equation having only one variable is called simple equation, its solution represents on number
line.
Example: ax + b = 0, where a ≠ 0
Ø Linear equations in two variables : If a linear equation has two variables, then it is called a linear
equation in two variables.
Ø The general form of a linear equation in two variables x, y is ax + by + c = 0, where a, b, c are real
s t
numbers and a,b are not simultaneously zero. Ex : 4x + 2y = 100, p + 3q = 50, − = 5 etc.
2 3
Ø Any pair of values of ‘x’ and ‘y’ that satisfy the linear equation in two variables is called its solution.
Ø The linear equations in two variables having many (infinite) solutions. The solution represents on cartesian
plane.
Every solution of the linear equation represents a point on the line of the equation.
Every point on the linear equation is a solution of the linear equation.
Any point that does not lie on linear equation is not a solution of the equation and vice versa.
Ø The graph of every linear equation in two variables is a straight line.
Ø An equation of the type y = mx represents a line passing through the origin.

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Ø The graph of x = k is a line parallel to Y-axis at a distance of k units and passing through the point (k, 0).
Ø The graph of y = k is a line parallel to X-axis at a distance of k units and passing through the point (0, k).
Ø Equation of X-axis is y = 0.
Ø Equation of Y-axis is x = 0.
Ø Infinite number of lines can be drawn through a single point.
Ø A quadratic equation in the variable x is an equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a,b,c are real
numbers and a ≠ 0.
Ø Pure quadratic equation : A quadratic equation of the form ax2 + c = 0 is called a pure quadratic
3 x
equation. Ex : x2 – 25 = 0, x2 – 169 = 0, =
x 12
Ø Adfected quadratic equation : In the standard form of the quadratic equation, if a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0 , then the
resulting equation is an adfected quadratic equation. Ex : x2 + 3x + 2 = 0, x2 + 6x = 0.
Ø ax2 + bx + c = 0, in which a ≠ 0 , is called standard form of quadratic equation.
Ø In general, a real number ‘k’ is called a root of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0 , if
ak2 + bk + c = 0.
Ø Solution of adfected quadratic equation : We know that the general form of an adfected quadratic
equation is ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0 . This equation can also occur in different forms such as ax2 + b = 0,
ax2 + c = 0 and ax2 = 0.
Ø Zero product rule : Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two real numbers or factors. If a × b = 0, then either a = 0 or
b = 0 both a = 0 and b = 0.
Ø The methods of solving quadratic equation :
a) Factorisation method b) Completing the square method
c) Formula method d) Graphical method
Ø Relation between roots and coefficients :
If m, n are the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, then
−b c
a) Sum of the roots = (m + n) = b) Product of the roots = mn =
a a
c) Framing a quadratic equation x2 – (m + n)x + mn = 0
Ø Δ = b2 − 4 ac determines the nature of the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0. Hence, it is called discriminant.
Ø Nature of roots :
Discriminant Nature of roots
Δ=0 Real and equal
Δ>0 Real and distinct
Δ<0 No real roots (imaginary roots)

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Ø Roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are

− b + b 2 − 4 ac − b − b 2 − 4 ac
x= and x =
2a 2a
Y
Ø The graph of the quadratic equation represents a parabola.
Ø y = mx2 (m > 0) represents a parabola
X–
i) above parabola is symmetric about +ve Y-axis
ii) above parabola is passing through Q1 and Q2
Y
Ø y = mx2 (m < 0)
X–
i) Represents a parabola
ii) Symmetric about negative Y-axis
iii) Passing through Q3 and Q4
Ø y = my2 (m > 0) Y

i) Represents a parabola
X–
ii) Symmetric about positive X-axis
iii) Passing through Q1 and Q4
Ø x = my2 (m < 0) Y
i) Represents a parabola
X–
ii) Symmetric about negative X-axis
iii) Passing through Q2 and Q3
Ø The parabola y = ax2 and line y = bx + c intersect at two distinct points, then ax2 – bx – c = 0 has two real
roots.
Ø The parabola y = ax2 and the line y = bx + c touches at only one point, then ax2 – bx – c = 0 has only one
real root.
Ø The parabola y = ax2 and the line y = bx + c never meet then ax2 – bx – c = 0 has no real roots.
Ø The graph of y = ax2 + bx + c intersect X-axis at two distinct points then ax2 + bx + c = 0 has two real
roots.
Ø The graph of y = ax2 + bx + c touches X-axis at a point then ax2 + bx + c = 0 has only one root (equal).
Ø The graph of y = ax2 + bx + c never intersects X-axis then the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0 are imaginary.
Ø The graph of parabola meet the axis then that point is called the vertex of the parabola.

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11. INTRODUCTION TO TRIGONOMETRY

SYNOPSIS :
Ø The word Trigonometry is derived from the greek words Tri, gon and metron.
C
Ø Tri – Three, gon – angle, metron – measure.
Ø Trigonometry means measure of three sides of triangles.
Ø All the trigonometry concepts are based on right angled triangle θ
B A
Ø In right angled triangle, (hyp)2 = (side)2 + ( side)2 ⇒ AC2 = AB2 + BC2
Ø In Δ ABC,i) If ∠A = θ , then BC is the opposite side and AB is the adjacent side.
ii) If ∠C = θ , then AB is the opposite side and BC is the adjacent side
Ø The measure of angle ' θ ' can be expressed in ‘ degrees’ (or) ‘ radians’
Degree 30° 45° 60° 90° 180° 360°
π π π π
Radians π 2π
6 4 3 2 C F
Ø Two triangles are similar, their corresponding sides are in proportion
AB BC CA
∴ ΔABC ~ ΔDEF ⇒ = = B A E D
DE EF FD
Ø In a right angled triangle, for the given acute angles the ratio between any two sides is always constant
Ø Trigonometric ratios :
C
opposite side to θ BC hypotenuse AC
sin θ = = cosec θ = = opp hyp
hypotenuse AC opposite side to θ BC
θ
B adj A
adjacent side to θ AB hypotenuse AC
cos θ = = sec θ = =
hypotenuse AC adjacent side to θ AB Remember
S C T
opposite side to θ BC adjacent side to θ AB O A O
tan θ = = cot θ = =
adjacent side to θ AB opposite side to θ BC H H A

Ø Relation between the trigonometry ratios :

1 1 1 sin θ
sin θ = cos θ = tan θ = =
cosec θ sec θ cot θ cos θ
1 1 1 cos θ
cosec θ = sec θ = cot θ = =
sin θ cos θ tan θ sin θ
The value of sin θ and cos θ are always lessthan are equal to 1.

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Ø Trigonometric ratios of standard angles:

Angle/ratio 0° 30° 45° 60° 90°
1 1 3
sin θ 0
2
1
2 2
3 1 1
cosθ 1 0
2 2 2
sin θ 1
tan θ = 0 1 3 ND
cos θ 3

1 1
cot θ = ND 3 1 0
tan θ 3

1 2
cosecθ = ND 2 2 1
sin θ 3
1 2
sec θ = 1 2 2 ND
cos θ 3

Ø Trigonometric Identities :
1) sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
2) sec2 θ – tan2 θ = 1
3) cosec2 θ – cot2 θ = 1
The identities can also be rewritten as following :
i) sin2 θ = 1 – cos2 θ (or) cos2 θ = 1 – sin2 θ
ii) sec2 θ = tan2 θ + 1 (or) tan2 θ = sec2 θ – 1
iii) cosec2 θ = cot2 θ + 1 (or) cot2 θ = cosec2 θ – 1
Ø Trigonometric ratios of complementary angle :
sin (90° – θ ) = cos θ cos (90° – θ ) = sin θ tan (90° – θ ) = cot θ
cosec (90° – θ ) = sec θ sec (90° – θ ) = cosec θ cot (90° – θ ) = tan θ
Ø The angle formed upwards by the with horizontal line is called angle of elevation.
Ø The angle formed downwards by the line of sight with horizontal line is called angle of depression.
Ø Angle of elevation and angle of depression are always measured with the horizontal line.
Ø The angle of elevation of an object as seen by the observer is same as the angle of depression of the
observer as seen from the object.
Ø If the height of the observer is not given, the observer is taken as a point.

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12. SOME APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY

SYNOPSIS :

Ø Introduction : In the previous chapter, you have studied about trigonometric ratios. In this chapter you
will be studying about some ways in which trigonometry is used in the life around you. One of the main
application of trigonometry is to find the distance between two or more than two places or to find the
height of the object or the angle subtended by any object at a given point without actually measuring the
distance or heights or angles.

Trigonometry is useful to astronomers, navigators, architects and surveyors in solving problems related
to heights and distances .

The directions of the objects can be described by measuring (i) Angle of elevation and (ii) Angle of
depression.

Ø Line of Sight (Line of Vision) : The line of sight is imaginary line drawn from the eye of the observer
to the object, when a person is looking at the object.

object
ht
ig
fs
eo
lin

Observer Horizontal level

Ø Angle of Elevation : The angle formed by the line of sight with the horizontal when the point being
viewed is above the horizontal level is called angle of elevation.

ht
sig
f
eo n
lin l e va tio
fe
le o
an g

Observer Horizontal level

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Ø Angle of Depression : The angle formed by the line of sight with the horizontal when the point being
viewed is below the horizontal level is called angle of depression.

Observer Horizontal level

angle of depression
lin
eo
fs
igh
t

object

Ø Theodolite : Angles of elevation or angles of depression of the objects are measured by an instrument
called theodolite. Theodolite is based on the principles of trigonometry, which is used for measuring
angles with a rotating telescope.
Ø Trigonometric ratios : C
Side opposite to ' q ' p
sin q = =
Hypotenuse h p h
Side adjacent to ' q ' b
cos q = = G
Hypotenuse h A
B b
Side opposite to ' q ' p
tan q = =
Side adjacent to ' q ' b
Hypotenuse h
co sec q = =
Side opposite to ' q ' p
Hypotenuse h
sec q = =
Side adjacent to ' q ' b
Side adjacent to ' q ' b
cot q = =
Side opposite to ' q ' p
Ø Relation between trigonometric ratios :
1 1 Sin q 1
i) sin q = ii) cos q = iii) tan q = =
Co sec q S ec q Cos q Cot q
1 1 Cos q 1
iv) co sec q = v) sec q = vi) cot q = =
Sin q Cos q Sin q tan q
Ø Trigonometric ratios of Complementary Angles :
i) sin (90o – G ) = Cos G ii) cos (90o – G ) = Sin G
iii) tan (90o – G ) = Cot G iv) cosec (90o – G ) = Sec G
v) sec (90o – q ) = Cosec q vi) cot (90o – q ) = Tan q
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Ø Values of trigonometric ratios :

θ 0° 30° 45° 60° 90°
1 1 3
sin θ 0 1
2 2 2
3 1 1
cos θ 1 0
2 2 2
1
tan θ 0 1 3 N.D.
3
2
cosec θ N.D. 2 2 1
3
2
sec θ 1 2 2 N.D.
3
1
cot θ N.D. 3 1 0 N.D. = not defined
3

13 . STATISTICS
SYNOPSIS :
Ø Change of quantity is called variation.
Ø A quantity which does not change is called a constant.
Ø The ratio of ‘y’ to ‘x’ is a constant, then we say ‘y’ varies directly with ‘x’. (or) ‘y’ is directly proportional
y
to ‘x’. Symbolically we write this as = k or y = kx, here ‘k’ is called constant of proportionality.
x
Ø y is proportional to x symbolically written as y α x.
Ø In a circle, circumference varies directly as the diameter C α 2r. The constant of proportionality is π .
Ø If the product of two variables is constant, then one variable varies inversely as the other.
1 k
w ‘y’ varies inversely as ‘x’ symbolically we write this y α or y = or yx = k. Here ‘k’ is
x x
constant of proportionality.
Ø A variable y is varying jointly with x1 , x2, x3,...... xn if y α x1,x2, x3......xn. In this case the variation is
called as joint variation of compound proportion.
Ø A variable may depend directly on one variable and inversely one some other variable or it may depend
on different powers of a single variable. Such variations are called combined variations.
Ø The facts or figures which are numerical (or) otherwise collected with a definite purpose are called data.
Ø Extraction of meaning from the data is studied in a branch of mathematics is called statistics.
Ø The information was collected by the investigator with a definite objective, the data obtained is called
primary data.

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Ø The information collected from a source, which had already been recorded, say from registers,is called
secondary data.
Ø The difference between the minimum and maximum marks is called the range of given data.
Ø The tally marks are useful in tabulating the raw data.
Ø The sum of all frequencies in the table gives the total number of observations of the data.
Ø The representation of the data with actual observations with their frequencies, in a table is called
“ungrouped frequency distribution table” (or) “table of weighted observations”.
Ø The data is divided into convenient and small groups called classes (or) class intervals.
Ø In the class interval 40 – 50, the lower limit is 40 and the upper limit is 50.
Ø The size of the class is called length of the class (or) class width, in the class 50 – 59 the length of the
class is 10.
Ø The class intervals like 1 - 10, 11 - 20, 21 - 30 .... are called inclusive classes intervals due to both lower
and upper limits of a particular class belong to that particular class interval.
Ø The class intervals like 0 - 10, 10 - 20, 20 - 30 ... are called exclusive class intervals due to only lower
limit of a particular class belongs to that class.
Ø The difference between the upper and the lower boundaries of a class is called length of the class interval
i.e the length of class interval of 90 - 99 is 99.5 - 89.5 = 10.
Ø The nature of the data and its purpose will be the criteria to go for average or median or mode among the
measures of central tendency.
Ø A measure of central tendency is a typical value of the data around which other observations congregate.
Ø Mean is the sum of observations of a data divided by the number of observations.

∑ xi Where x , x , x
()
Mean x =
sum of observation
no of observation
=
n 1 2 3 ..... are observations

Ø Median is the middle observation of a given raw data, when it is arranged in an order of ascending or
descending.

⎛ n + 1⎞
th

Ø If the data has ‘n’ number of observations and if ‘n’ is odd, then the median is ⎜⎝
2 ⎟⎠
observation.

th th
⎛ n⎞ ⎛n ⎞
Ø If ‘n’ is even, then the median is the average of ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ and ⎜⎝ + 1⎟⎠ observations.
2 2
Ø Median divides the data into two groups of equal number, one part comprising all values greater than the
median and the other comprising all values less than the median.
Ø Mode is the value of the observation that occurs most frequently i.e an observation with the maximum
frequency is called mode.
Mean of ungrouped frequency distribution :- If observations are x1, x2, x3....... xn and corresponding
frequencies are f1, f2, f3....... fn then the mean

f1 x1 + f2 x2 + f3 x3 + .... + fn xn ∑ fi xi
x= f1 + f2 + f3 + .... + fn =
∑ fi
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Mean of ungrouped frequency distribution by Deviation method is Mean x = A +

∑ fi di
∑ fi
Ø If the observations are shifted by the same amount, the measures of central tendency (mean, median,
mode) are all shifted by the same amount.
Ø If the observations are affected by the same multiplicative values, the measures of central tendency
(mean, mediam, mode) will also be affected similarly.

14. PROBABILITY
SYNOPSIS :
Ø Probability : The chance of happening of an event when expressed quantitatively is called probability.
Ø Random experiment : A random experiment is one which the exact out come cannot be predicted.
w It has more than one possible out come.
w It is not possible to predict the out come in advance.
Ø Experiment means an operation which can produce some well defined out come (or) result
Experiment classified into two types, they are as follows.
Ø Trial : Performing a random experiment is called a trial.
Ø Out come : In a trial, whatever comes up is called an out come (or) result. The result of a random
experiment is called an out come.
Ø Sample space : It is denoted by ‘S’. The set of all possible outcomes of a random experiment is called a
sample space.
Ø Sample Point : Each element (or) member of a sample space is called a sample point.
Ø Event : An event is subset of sample space.
Ø Elementary Event : Each out come of the random experiment is called an elementary event.
Ø Compound Events : Two or more elementary events of a random experiments are called compound
event.
Ø Equally likely events : Two or more events are said to be equally likely events if each one of them have
an equal chance of occurrence.
Ø Probability of an event : Probability of an event is a ratio of the number of elementary events favourable
to the event E to the total number of elementary events in the sample space.

n (E)
Probability of an event p ( E ) =
n (S)

Ø Mutually exclusive events : Two or more events are said to be exclusive if the occurrence of one event
prevents (or) excludes the occurre nce of every other event.
Ø Exhaustive events : All the events are exhaustive events if their union is a sample space.
Ø If E1 and E2 are two mutually exclusive events, then E1 ∩ E 2 = φ.

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Ø Addition of probability :

i) p(E1 ∪ E2) = p (E1) + p(E2) – p(E1 ∩ E2)

ii) p(E1 ∪ E2) = p (E1) + p(E2)

Where E1 and E2 are mutually exclusive events.

Ø If E1, E2, E3 ....... En are mutually exclusive events, then

p(E1 ∪ E2 ∪ E3 ......En) = p(E1) + p(E2) + ...... + p(En)

Ø Sure event : An event of a random experiment is called a sure event if any one of its elements will surely
occur in any trial of the experiment.

Ø Impossible event : An event which will not occur on any account in any trial of the experiment is called
an impossible event.

Ø Probability of an impossible event is 0.

Ø Probability of sure event is 1 (or certain event)

Ø Probability of an event

i) Always lies between two whole numbers 0 and 1

ii) Is a fraction, which is 0 < p(A) < 1

iii) Can be 0 or 1 or any fraction between 0 and 1

Ø ( )
Complementary event : If ‘A’ is an event of a random experiment and p(A) + p A = 1, then p A is ( )
called complementary event of A., where A is not event. A complementary event of an event is also
called “negation of an event”.

Ø If an event A can happen in ‘m’ ways and fail to happen is ‘n’ ways, all these being equally likely to
m m
occur, then probability of the even happening = , probability of the even not happening = .
m+n m+n

Note :

Sum of two dice 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

all possibilities 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1

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NTSE - Mathematics X Class - Karnataka

Ø The 52 playing cards are classified as follows

Spades A 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 J Q K 13

Hearts A 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 J Q K 13

Clubs A 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 J Q K 13

Diamonds A 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 J Q K 13

Cards of spades, clubs are balck in colour.

Cards of hearts, diamonds are red in colours.
Kings (K), Queens (Q), Jacks (J) are namely face cards.

15. SURFACE AREAS AND VOLUMES

SYNOPSIS :

Ø Right Circular Cylinder : If a rectangle revolves about one of its

sides and completes a full rotation, the solid formed is called right circular cylinder.

Ø A Cylinder can be either solid or hollow.

Ø A Cylinder has the following properties :

i) It has two congruent and parallel circular bases

ii) It has a curved surface joining the edges of the two bases

iii) The line segment joining the centres of the two bases is perpendicular to the base. It is called the
height of the cylinder and also called axis of the cylinder.

Ø a) L.S.A or C.S.A of Cylinder : 2π rh sq.units.

b) T.S.A of Cylinder = 2π r (h + r) sq. units.

c) Volume of the Cylinder = π r 2 h cu. units.

Ø Right Circular Cone : If a right angled triangle is revolved about

one of the side containing the right angle, the solid formed is called a right circular cone.

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Ø A cone has the following properties.

i) It has a Circular Plane as its base.
ii) The axis of the cone and the slant height intersect at a point, called vertex.
iii) It has a curved surface which connects the edge of circular base and the vertex.
iv) The line joining the vertex and the centre of the circular base is perpendicular to the base.

Ø a) C.S.A (or) L.S.A of Cone = π rl sq. units.

b) T.S.A of Cone = πr (l + r ) sq. units.

1 2
c) Volume of a Cone = πr h cu. units.
3

Ø Frustum of a cone : Part of the cone containing its base is called frustum of a cone.
Note : Frustum is a Latin word meaning “Piece Cut off “ and its plural form is “Frusta”
L.S.A of Frustum = L.S.A of the cone + L.S.A of small cone cut off.

L.S.A = π(r1 + r2 ) L where L = h 2 + (r1 − r2 )2 r2

T.S.A of Frustum = L.S.A + Area of two Circular bases.
h l
{
∴ T.S.A = π (r1 + r2 )l + r + r
1
2
2
2
}
Volume of frustum of the cone r1

1
Frustum = πh(r12 + r22 + r1r2 )
3
Ø Sphere : If a circular disc is rotated about one of its diameters, the solid thus generated is called sphere.

a) The surface area of sphere = 4πr 2 sq. units

4 3
b) Volume of sphere = πr cu. units.
3

Ø Hemisphere : If a sphere is divided into two equal parts, then each part is called Hemisphere.

a) C.S.A of hemisphere = 2 πr 2 sq.units.

b) T.S.A of hemisphere = 3πr 2 sq.units

2 3
c) Volume of hemisphere = πr cu.units.
3
5
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