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HARVARD UNIVERSITY

LIBRARY OF THE MUSEUM OF

COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY

GIFT OF
THOMAS BARBOUR

OJAsA. a:i, nH~/p

 INDIAN SNAKES. %jl^^I^^

AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE
m OPHIOLOGY

WITH A DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE OF THE SNAKES

FOUND IJlSr IT^DIA

AND THE ADJOINING COUNJCRIES.

BY

EDWARD NICHOLSON,
Surgeon^ Army Medical Department.

SECOND EDITION.

HIGGINBOTHAM AND CO,

1874.
^^"^-^-'^-^ — ^-^rucJXft-A

T. Bcj^aWoa)

MADRAS:
PRINTED By HIGGINBOTHAM AND CO.,

Ifio, MOUNT ROAD.

 PREFACE.

The First Edition of this treatise was published under the

disadvantageous circumstances of my being stationed in
Burma at the time. Since my return to the Madras Pre-

sidency I have had but little leisure for collecting further

materials and I had expected that some abler hand than
mine would have taken up the But as my very
subject.

elementary treatise remains the only Manual of Indian

Ophiology available, I have determined to diminish as much
as possible the imperfections of first attempt at famili-
my
arizinof Eno-lish residents in India with an interestino-
branch of zoology, and at clearing away the haze of fiction
which still obscures it. In carrying out this purpose I have
been seconded by the enterprise of the publishers the ;

remainder of the first edition has been withdrawn in order

to make way for the present revised issue.

Whilst I have endeavoured to render this treatise as

complete as possible for non-scientific readers, those desirous

of stud^dng the subject thoroughly will, I hope, find it an
<a
eSicient introduction to the zoological and medical literature
of the subject. The student should certainly follow up this
introduction to Dr. Gunther's splendid work on the
Reptiles of British India, and, if desirous of extending his
information, he may consult with advantage the following
books :
— Professor Owen's Comparative Anatomy and
Physiology of Vertebrates, (first volume) ;
Schlegel's Essai
sur la Physionomie des Serpents, (La Haye, 1837) Gerard ;

Krefft's Snakes of Australia, (Sydne}^ and London, 1869) ;

 PREFACE,

Major Beddome's papers in the Madras Journal of Medical

Science; Mr. Theobald's papers in the Journal of the
Linnean Society and that of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
In the latter Society's Journal and in the Annals and
Magazine of Natural History a mass of ophiological infor-
mation is scattered. I cannot omit to mention Russell's
Account of Indian Serpents, 1796 ;
however antique and
unfitted for the guidance of the student, it will always be of
interest as the work of a pioneer in Indian zoology.

The First Edition of thisManual was sadly deficient in

illustrations. This has been repaired by the addition of
plates, which in every case reproduce drawings taken by me
from specimens or dissections. As illustrative of the physio-
logical part and aiding in the recognition of the principal
kinds of snakes, I trust that they will be found to answer

their purpose.
E. N.

Bangalore, April 1874.

 CONTENTS.

Page,
Introduction.
Place in the Animal kingdom vii

Part I.— Physiology.

—
Chapter I. The Skeleton 1
—
II. The Mouth and Teeth of harmless snakes 5
III.—The Mouth and Teeth of venomous snakes 9
IV. —Internal organs 19
v.—The Senses 23
VI. —The Integuments 24
—
Part II. Classification.
—
Chapter I. Principles 36
II. — Diagnosis of an unknown snake and method of
description 44
III. — Descriptive Catalogue of Indian snakes 46
Part III.— Natural History.
—
Chapter I. The Snake at liberty 125
II. —
The Serpentarium 131
III—The Museum 139
IV. — Snake-poison and antidotes 144
v.— Schemes of extermination 161
VI. — Snake mythology 165
Alphabetical Index TO the Descriptive Catalogue 177

An Index of Anglo-Indian, Hindustani, Tamil and Burmese

names will be found at page , 133
 OKDEU OF THE PLATES.
face page
Plate I

II

III

IV
V
VI
VII

VIII

IX
X
XI
XII
XIII

XIV
XV
XVI
XVII
XVIII

XIX
XX
 RBK-WEDDERBURN.
29 MAYS 3

INTRODUCTION.

Place in the Animal Kingdom.

Sub-kingdom.— YERTEBRATA.
Section (Huxley). Class. Order.

i Pisces.
Ichthyopsida..
( Amphibia,
r —Chelonia,
I. Tortoises.

II.— Ophidia, Snakes.

fReptilia.^ III.— Lacertilia, Lizards.
IV. — CROComuA, Crocodiles.*
SauropsiJa. \
V.
and five extinct orders.
Aves.
Mammalia. Mammalia.
The division of zoology, which treats of reptiles, is called

lierjpetology ; the sub-division devoted to snakes only is

called ophiology.

Snakes may be thus defined :

—
Reptiles of very elongate body, without limbs or with
rudimentary hind limbs scarcely visible from without pro- ;

gressing by means of abdominal plates moved by numerous

ribs.The jaws, especially the lower, capable of extensive
movement and great expansion palate ;
both jaws and
generally bearing teeth. The external ear absent. The
eye unprotected by eyelids. The integument scaly, and
the epidermis cast at frequent intervals.

Some kinds of snakes possess perforated or grooved teeth

conveying a poisonous salivary secretion into the system of

animals bitten by them.
* Crocodiles differ from lizards a stenaum or breast
by possessing
bone.
 PART I.-PHYSIOLOGY.
a

CHAPTER I— The Skeleton.

The bony parts of the snake consist of a skull, a long
vertebral column and ribs. The vertebrae are very numerous,

varying from about 120 to upwards of 400 in the body ;

those of the tail number from 4 or 5 in some burrowing

snakes to as many as 200 in certain tree snakes, in no case
exceedinor
CD
the dorsal vertebrae in number.* The vertebrae,
'

Plate I, figs. 2 and 3, are procoelous, i. e., the bodies are articu-
lated by ball and socket joints, the socket being in front
of the body; the movement of each joint is limited by
other minor joints between the adjacent
'

apophyses' (or
protuberances) of each pair of vertebrae ; but, as a whole, the
vertebral column is capable of extensive motion in every
direction. Of the numerous apophyses the most obvious
'
are the posterior or neural' spine and the anterior spine or
'
h3^papophysis.' The neural spines are most prominent in
some venomous snakes in Bungarus fasciatus they are
;

unusually large and are firmly connected with the skin.

The anterior spines are susceptible of a peculiar modifica-
tion in the genera Elachistodon
;
(India) and Dasypeltis
(Africa) those of the cervical vertebrae penetrate the gullet
and act as pharyngeal teeth several of them are tipped
;

with dental crust.

* There
may possibly be exceptions. I have found a specimen of
the common green tree-snake to have 172 dorsal and 169 caudal
vertebras, the tail being four-tenths of the entire length.
 2

All the cervical and dorsal vertebr?e,* excepting tlie first

two of the former, support ribs. Each pair of ribs rakes
backwards, and then bending towards the median line
terminates in two cartilaginous filaments attached to the
ventral
'
scute' or shield. The hoemal' arch
'
is
incomplete,
the pair of ribs being connected anteriorly by integumen-
tary tissue only. The ventral shield connected with each

pair of ribs is an organ of locomotion, and the numerous

shields arranged in clincher work act as legs when alter-

nately raised and depressed by the muscles of the ribs. The

snake uses these organs in difierent ways when moving ;

slowly a vermicular action along the ribs causes the ventral

shields to catch the ground in succession and the means of
progress is nearly imperceptible but rapid movement is
;

effected by the alternate contraction of a part of the

muscles of either side throwing the body into an S form ;

at each curve one side of the ventral shields holdinnf the

ground while the other side advances. These mnvements
are not done withany but in a progres-
visible alternation,

and undulating manner of considerable gracefulness.

sive
When turning round slowly, the movement becomes a kind
of counter-marching, where every pair of ribs has to come

up to the pivot point before proceeding in the opposite

direction. In case of alarm, these movements become more
sudden, the snake throws itself into sharp curves, and a
jerking motion of the body changes the ordinary imper-
ceptible gliding motion into a rapid series of wriggles.
Obstacles to other animals are rather favourable to the pro-

gress of snakes; whilst they are powerless on a smooth surface,

roughness aids them considerably a stone, a root or a twig
;

becomes a fulcrum for the anterior parts of the body, and

brings the posterior parts rapidly up, so that the ground

* There is no real distinction between dorsal and cervical vertebrae,

the latter term is not, therefore, to be taken in a strict anatomical
sense.
most favourable for the snake to pursue or retreat is the
least favourable to his prey or his pursuers.

In a few genera of venomous snakes, Naga

(the cobra)
and Ophiophagus (the hamadryad) especially, the cervical
ribs are elongated and capable of erection from their usual

supine state so much as to stretch the skin of the neck into

a broad flat disk.

Three ftimilies of Indian snakes, Tortricidce, Pythonidce,

Erycidce, have rudimentary hind limbs. Each limb consists

of a claw or spur protruding from a groove on either side
of the anus, and internally of two small bones, which may
be called the tibia and the tarsus. These relics of a former
stage of development can hardly be of any use for progres-
sion it has been thought that they were of use as auxiliary
;

sexual organs, and this opinion is strengthened by the fact

that in Gongyloplds cbnicus one of the Erycidce, I find that
the male alone is provided with them. In five adult females
which I dissected there was no trace of them ;
the only
adult male specimen I have is well-spurred.

The skull is elongated and of somewhat oval shape, beino-

rounded behind the jaws and tapering at the muzzle. Its
broadest part is just behind the eye, where it expands above
on either side to form the postfrontal bone the posterior
bony ring of the orbit the anterior limit of the orbit is
;

formed by a similar bony process, the prefrontal bone, and

it is bounded below by the
maxillary and by the palate
bone. This part of the head is nearly entirely
occupied by
the orbital cavities, which in the median line are
only
separated by the descending plates of the frontal bones.

The bones of the ophidian skull, exclusive of themaxillary

and mandibular arches, I shall merely mention, leavinp*
the comparative anatomist to study them in the pages of
Owen,
 ^
Basioccipital, exoccipitals, and super-
occipital, forming the walls
y of the
Basisphenoid and presphenoid, ali- skull.

sphenoids, J

Mastoids, 1.*

Parietal, 2.

Frontals, 3, postfrontals, 4, prefrontals and lacrymals, 5.

Vomer, nasals, 6, and turbinals t.

The maxillary arch is composed of the following bones :

—
The 'premaxillary, 7, a small bone wedged in the nasal

interspace and, except in the Pythonidce, not bearing teeth.

The maxillaries, 8, one on each side, of very variable

shape.

The 'palatines, 9, one on each side, lie parallel to the

maxillaries between them ; they bear teeth except in

Oligodon and some earth snakes.

The pterygoid, 10, and ectopterygoid, 11, of each side form
a KJ shaped bone (the ectopterygoid being represented
by the thin stroke) they abut against the posterior
extremities of the palatine and maxillary respectively, com-

municating motion to them. The pterygoid bears teeth

continuously with the palatine row; its posterior end is

loosely connected with the tympano-mandibular joint.

The mandibular arch comprises the following .-

The mandibles or lower jaw bones, 12, connected at the

chin by the geneial muscles and skin only. Each mandible
is composed of two principal parts, the articular posteriorly
and the dentary in front these are connected by a wedge-
;

shaped suture at the back of the row of teeth. The articular

* The and
figures refer to Plate I, figs. 1 2.
 PLATE L

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Figs. 1 & '2. Skull of Ttijas miicosns,

(CoIuhridcB), harmless.
1 (Right fig.) Skull from above.
(Left „
fig.) below.
2 Skull from the side ; views of a vertebra.
Fig. 3. Skull of Bungarus fasciatus, ( Elapid<v) venomous. ,

4.
Fig. „ Naga Trljnidians, (ElapidwJ yenomoiis. ,

» Baboia dcgans, (VijoeridceJ, venomous.

portion bears a deep cavity for the insertion of the temporal
muscles in the vipers a thin plate rises on the inner side of
;

this cavity. Close to its posterior end the mandible articulates

with the tympanic bone, 13. In the harmless snakes this is

short and stout, in the venomous snakes itbecomes long

and slender. Its
upper extremity is suspended from the
mastoid, a partly detached bone of the skull.

Owino^ to the loose connection of the mandibles at the

chin, and to there being three joints connecting successively
the mandible, the tympanic and the mastoid to the skull,
the lower jaws have an extensive range of motion both per-

pendicularly and horizontally, and are also to a certain

extent independent of one another. The maxillary and

palatine of either side being also loosely connected to the

base of the skull are capable of being pushed forward or
retracted by the pterygoid bones, themselves loosely attached

posteriorly. Each of the four half-jaws being then capable

of independent motion a snake is able to advance them one
at a time, the prey he is swallowing being securely held by
the other three. Also, the action of the pterygoid bones

being to
push forward the maxillary and palatine, if
either of these be fixed at one point, the to and fro motion
will become converted into a motion with the point
circular
of attachment as a centre. This the principle on which
is

the poison-fang is erected in venomous snakes.

CHAPTER II. — The Mouth and Teeth of harmless

Snakes.
The gape mouth is very considerable and, owino*
of the
to the multiplication of joints between the skull and the

mandibles, the upper and lower jaws can be separated until

they form nearly a straight line. The mouth is never
opened except for the purpose of seizing prey or in defence
or sometimes in yawning, after food or drink a chink in ;
 G

the permits the slender-forked tongue to dart

rosfcral shield

in and out with a rapid quivering motion. On separating

the upper and lower jaws, one cannot fail to be struck with
the exact fit of these two parts. Every relief on one surface
fitsinto a corresponding depression on the other surface, and
accurate apposition of every part is obtained. The roof of
the mouth is divided into three parts by the four rows of
teeth (Plate II.) These three depressions receive the three
prominences of the lower jaw, on each side the mandi-
bular teeth, in the middle the windpipe. The prehensile

apparatus is thus composed, on each side, of a row of lower

teeth fitting between two rows of upper teeth the middle
;

space being occupied by the windpipe, or rather its upper

extremity, the larynx. This, however, only occupies the

two posterior thirds of the middle space, as the anterior
third is occupied, above by the nasal fossse the floor of
which forms a low fore-palate, below by the sheath of the
tongue. The posterior aperture of the nasal fossae is there-
fore just in front of the aperture of the larynx (the glottis)
and air passes in a straight course from the nostrils to the
windpipe. Beneath the skin of the lips, especially at the
angle of the upper jaw, are numerous small salivary glands,
but their orifices are too small to be detected.

The salivary glands extend along the dentary portions of

both jaws and transude their contents through small orifices
within the mucous fold surrounding each tooth.* They are
usually four in number on each side, the maxillary, mandi-
bular, lacrymal, and nasal, but their size and disposition
vary considerably. The latter two supply the palatine and
pterygoid teeth with saliva, but the lacrymal, according to
Cloquet, furnishes also the small quantity of lubricating
fluid required between the eyeball and is epidermal covering.

Every Indian snake, except the genus Oligodon and some

^ Such is my impression both from dissection and from analogy.
 FLATE IL

-=a^'^.-

v-afc^>15

/
f

Moutli niul teeth of hr.rmlcss snakes.

Fig. 1. Tiijas mucosus ; g«ape of the jaws.
Fig. 2. j> „ superficial dissection of the jaws ;
the dotted ptirts are
salivary j?lands.
Fig. 3. ,, deep dissection.
Fig. 4. ., ., „ showing pahue and })terygoid regions.
Fig. o. Passer Ita myderizans. ,

Fig. 6. Simotes hicatcnaUts.

Fig. 7. Lycodoii anUcus ; superficial dissection. >
of the small burrowing snakes, has six rows of teeth. Of
these, two are on the maxillaries (and occasionally on their

posterior continuations
the ectopterygoids), two run parallel
to these along their inner side, on the pterj- go-palatine lines
of bones the other two are the mandibular teeth in the
;

lower jaw.

The pterygopalatine row of teeth is always the longest,

the maxillary row is shorter. The former row may contain
from ten to thirty teeth, the latter from five to twenty or
more the mandibular row is nearly equal in number to the
;

maxillary.

It isby no means easy to determine the number of teeth

possessed by a snake owing to their non-permanent charac-
ter and to the difficulty in distinguishing the new from
the old.

Some snakes have teeth of equal or nearly equal size

whilst in other kinds the teeth are irregular, or
(isodont)
gradually increase or decrease from before hindwards. A
very common form of dentition is for the teeth to increase

gradually and to terminate by a long tooth at the hinder

end of the maxilla (coryphodont.)

These teeth are all directed more or

backwards, and
less

oppose a formidable obstacle to any resistance on the part

of prey once seized they are composed of a horny sub-
;

stance impregnated with bone-earth, formed originally on a

vascular centre, hollow in structure, and in the form of an

elongated cone, curved backwards at th6 base.

Each tooth springs from a dental matrix in the bone,

protected externally by a mucous envelope the greater
;

portion of the tooth is concealed by this

envelope which is
however sufficiently loose to offer no resistance to the use of
the teeth. Inside this fold will be found a number of other
 8
*

teeth in a more or less advanced state, each of Avhich will

in its turn become fixed to the bone, by tlie successive shed-

ding of its predecessors.

The jaws are moved by the following muscles :

Action.
1. Masseter (superficial temporal) a Flexor of the mandible.
2. Temporal (deep) b do.
3. Posttemporal c do.
4. Tympano-mandibular d Extensor of the mandible.
5. Costo andneuro-mandibulare ... do.
6. Ectopterygoid,/ Depressor of the maxillary.
7. Entopterygoid, ^ do.
8. Postfrontopterygoid, h Erector of the maxillary.
9. Presphenopterygoid, i do.
10. Presphenopalatine, j Depressor of the maxillary.
11. Presphenovomerine, k Depressor of the premaxillary
1 2. Interraandibulary, I Attractor of the mandibles.
13. Masto-tympanic Levator tympanici and ex-
tensor of the mandible.
14. Basispheno-tympanic Depressor tympanici and at-
tractor of the mandible.

15. Trachelo-tympanic Extensor of the mandible.

Besides the primary actions given above, these muscles

have secondary actions in the attraction and devarication
of the mandibles, &;c.

No written description of these muscles will convey such

a good idea of their situation and action as the figures in
Plates II, III and IV. I would only make a few remarks
on those which cannot well be figured. The prespheno-
vomerine a thin tendinous muscle passing along the roof
is

of the mouth. The masto-tympanic is by no means easy

of discovery, and the basispheno-tympanic is, as a rule, only
to be found in venomous snakes. The muscle which I have
given as trachelo-tympanic is the trachelo-mastoid of Owen,
but as I always find it inserted into the tympanic, I prefer
the former name.
 On removing the skin from the cheek and lips of a harm-
less snake the first structure to be observed is the long
to the
ligament leading from the back of the maxillary
tympano-mandibular articulation this ligament is in reality
;

formed by a thickening of the fascia covering the temporal

muscles. These muscles are the superficial and posterior

temporal muscles and the tympano-mandibular on removing ;

them the deep temporal is seen, its two heads divided by the
maxillary nerve. The large lacrymal gland is also exposed
on removal of the superficial muscles.

The maxillary is suspended posteriorly by the jugal

ligament (a structure corresponding perhaps to the zygoma
in man) to the postfrontal bone in venomous snakes this
;

ligament becomes of considerable importance. The muscles

of the palato-pterygoid region are covered by the rugate
mucous membrane of the mouth and pharynx on removing ;

this, we
expose the muscles, and also, between the palatine
and maxillary rows of teeth, the floor of the orbit in this ;

space the maxillary vessels are seen.

CHAPTER III—The Mouth and Teeth of Venomous

Snakes.

To the disciple of Darwin the modifications we are about

to study have been developed by natural selection. Several
harmless snakes have long simple fangs for the purpose of

holding tough-skinned prey, others, including nearly all the

tree-snakes, have grooved fangs, though, as far as we know,
without any modification in the quality of the saliva. With
these facts before us, and with the knowledge that in
some animals the saliva becomes poisonous under certain
conditions, there can be little difficulty in accounting for
the development of the most perfect
poison-apparatus.
Neither in the fangs, in their mucous envelopes, in their
2
 10

erector muscles, in the poison gland, is there any new or

special organ ;
in each case there is a
clearly marked grada-
tion of development.*

Roughly speaking there are four stages in the develop-

ment of poison apparatus :
—
1°. The presence of grooved fangs in snakes which are
either unprovided with poisonous saliva or whose venomous
quality is so slight that its effect has not been observed.^

(Nearly all the tree-snakes ;

the fresh water snakes.)

2°. The possession of a salivary gland secreting poison

and of a grooved tooth in front of the other maxillary teeth.
Little modification in the shape or mobility of the maxillary.

(The Sea snakes Hydrophidce, and the Elapidce of Aub-

tralia).

o°.The maxillary is shortened, it contains one fang with a

perfect canal, and often one or two simple teeth behind the
fang. It possesses a degree of mobility sufficient to raise the

fang from a semi-erect to a nearly perfectly erect position ;

the angle moved through being less than 45°. (The Indian

Elapidoe).

4;°. The maxillahigher than it is long, and contains

is

only one tooth, a fang several times its own length. It is very

* I am well aware that my opinion is by no means general ; indeed

I may say that I have not seen it mentioned by other naturalists ;
but this I ascribe to the maze of errors in which our ideas on snakes
have so long been enveloped, to the fascination which the marvellous
still has, and the few opportunities possessed by European zootomists

for investigating the subject. I earnestly beg the medical profession

in India to study this subject by dissection of different snakes ;
there
isa distressing absence of information and our text books of com-
parative Anatomy are all but silent on these points to which the
hypothesis of Darwin gives' especial importance.
t These snakes have by some naturalists been classed as the
section Su^peda between the sections Innocua and Venenosa,
 11

mobile and, when pushed forward by the ectopterygoid, the

fang usually lying supine becomes perfectly erect, the angle

moved through being little short of 90°. (The Viperina).

These stages of development are far from being abrupt ;

when the fauna of Australia is taken into consideration,

we find steps between them, both as regards development
of maxillary and fangs, and degree of venomous quality.

The poison apparatus is best studied in the large and

well developed examples afforded by the cobra and the

chain-viper. On examining the mouth of the cobra, dis-

which are given in Plate III, the peculiarities to
sections of
—
be remarked are the gingival envelope of the fang, the
depression in the lower lip for the reception of the fang
when the mouth is shut, and the absence of any teeth
(except a rudimentary one) behind the fang. Slit up this

gingival fold and the fang will then be exposed it will be ;

seen to be fixed in very much

the same position as a dog's

fang, though curving more backwards, and to fit into a

depression in the lower lip. Now dissect the skin off the
cheek of the cobra, from the nostril in front to the anerle
of the mouth behind. A large flask-shaped gland will be
exposed on the cheek, extending for half an inch or more
behind the eye it is continued by a duct along the lower
;

edge of the orbit as far forwards as the nostril a dense ;

fibrous sheath covers the gland and forms a point of attach-

ment to fibres of the temporal muscles. Cut through the
duct at its
beginning, just behind the eye, and a canal of
very small calibre will be seen in its axis pass a fine ;

bristle down the canal, and by careful manipulation this

probe will be seen to go to the end of the maxilla, turn down-

wards over it, and enter the mouth inside the crinsrival
envelope of the fang, and in front of an orifice in the base
of the fang. This examination requires careful dissecting
 12

and manipulation in the Elapidce, but in the vipers

skilful

the arrangement is on a larger scale and much easier of

demonstration.

we now
If dissect away the soft parts and expose the

maxillary, we shall see a great modification in its form com-

pared with the normal type. It barely reaches as far back
as the hinder part of the orbit, its shortness being compen-
sated by increased length of the ectopterygoid. A short
tooth is found at its hinder part, but this is rarely percep-
tible until dissected down to, and appears to be rudimentary.
The shape of the maxillary resembles that of a comma ^
the open space protected by the thin curved part being

occupied by the matrix of the fang the thick part in front

;

bears the fang. This part of the bone is thick and wide, and
it bears, side, depressions for two fangs; one, the
side by
outer socket, generally occupied by the fang in use, the
is

other by the fang in course of growth. When the fang in use

has only recently set it may be found to occupy the inner
socket, whilst the outer socket, from which the old fang has
just fallen is vacant, and remains so until the new fang has
worked its way outwards. Sometimes these two fangs are
found perfect at the same time, then one of them, generally
the outer or old fang, will be loose. This occurs at the time
of casting the skin, and I have several times removed the old
fangs easily with the finger and thumb or a small forceps.

The fang is slightly curved backwards and inserted at an

angle so as to form a hook in the jaw. It is in shape like
a short elephant-tusk and does not exceed 28-hundredth3
of an inch in the longest specimen I have seen. In struc-
tiu'e it difi'ers from other teeth in having, when fixed, two

orifices communicating with the interior. The pulp cavity

is atrophied, and in front of it there is a complete canal.
Both canal are in front, the upper close to
orifices of this

and forming part of the base, the lower at a distance from

 \ PLATE IIL

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6. Poison fang of the cobra.

a. Back view.
a. „ part of the outer
Anatomy of the jaws of the cobra. layer removed.
Fig. 1.
Gape of the jaws. h. Front view.
2.
Fig. Superficial muscles and poison gland. c.
Section, enlarged.
3.
Fig. Deep muscles, the glands removed. Fio- 7. Poison fang of the Dahoia
i^ig. 4. Palate and pterygoid muscles.
viper.
Fig. 0. Base of the skull.
 IS

the point equal to about one-tenth of the length of the

fang a groove connects the orifices, or rather did connect

;

them during the growth of the fang, at which time the

canal, originally open in its entire length, became closed.
The canal only occupies the front of the fang the hinder ;

part is a bony column giving considerable strength to the

structure.

In the Viperhie snakes a transition takes place, gradu-

ally culminating in the most perfect form of poison-

apparatus, viz., a long fang usually lying supine along the
jaw, but capable of full erection The genus Trime-
sums is not nearly so complete as this, the fang is long,

^
but the erection imperfect the maxillary consists of an
;

open shell communicating with the exterior of the cheek and

forming the pit characteristic of the crotaline snakes. But
it is in Dahoia that we see the perfection of mechanism ;

on removal of the skin covering the cheek, we come at once

across the strong jugal ligament lying below the eye it ;

binds the upper part of the maxillary to the prefrontal and

postfrontal bones, thus affording a fulcrum for the action

of the erectile apparatus. The maxilla is found to be con-
siderably modified in form ;
it is no longer placed below the
orbit, this position is occupied by the elongated ecto-
pterygoid, whilst the maxillary, only one-fifth of an inch long
(in a large Dahoia) but double that in height, is placed at
the end of this bone like a hammer-head at the end of its
handle.

Imagine a hammer-head with the claw downwards (repre-

senting the fang,) and hinged at its junction with the handle
(the ectopterygoid bone). Now if the top of the hammer-
head be fixed by a ligament to a fulcrum, protrusion or
retraction of the handle will cause the claw to be either
erected or depressed.

The muscles by which the ectopterygoid bone is thus

 u
moved forwards in order to erect the maxillary and fang are
the same as those which move the ectopterygoid and maxil-

lary hones in harmless snakes wdiile swallowing their prey.

The action is principally effected by the postfrontopter^^goid
and presphenopterygoid muscles (Ji and i in the plates) and
these are antagonized by the ectopterygoid, entopterygoid
and presphenopalatine muscles, /, g and j.

In the vipers the fang is much

longer than in the cobra
and other Elapidoe, but length has
its been greatly exagge-
rated, as it rarely exceeds half an inch in the largest species.
It is however so long that it cannot, as in the Elapidce, be

received semi-erect into a pit in the lower lip hence the ;

necessity for its complete depression when the mouth is ^

shut. This is effected b}^ the aid of a slip of the ecto-

pterygoid muscle passing to the mucous envelope. The

tube of the fang is also of larger calibre and the poison duct
is plainly seen to open into the mouth just in front
of the basal orifice the duct winds round a groove in the
;

surface of the maxillary, (Plate lY) and a bristle passed along

its canal, from behind forwards, will be seen to pass out by

the orifice at the base of the mucous envelope of the fang.

The mechanism of the bite of a poisonous snake may

differsomewhat in the viperine families from that usual
with the Elapidce. The cobra bites just as a dog does, the
re-curved position of the fangs rendering a slip impos-
sible whilst the vipers, though biting also, are able to strike
;

sideways with their long erected fangs. In either case the

effect is the same, though a bite will be much more effectual

than a mere prick without any counterpressure from the

lower jaw. The mucous envelope of the fang is mechani-
cally puckered up, and by its contraction forces the poison-
ous saliva, as it issues from the duct, to flow into the canal
of the fang by its basal orifice. Muscular pressure and
spasmodic action of the gland cause an ejection of poison
 PLATE IV.

'i::r^'^^

Dahoia cJegons, {Viper Ida') Dissections of the Lead.

|k#*>^

Fjg. 1. ^. Skill and part of gingival

t'uvolopc removed.
h. Poison gland exposed.
c. Lacrymal gland exposed.
Fig. 2. Deep dissection.
Fig. o. Palate and pterygoid muscles.
Figs. 4, 5 & 0. Skull from above, below, and left side.
 15

into the fang and through it into the wound. But if there
be no obstacle to pucker up the mucous envelope, then the
poisonous saliva finds its way into the mouth just like the
saliva of the other glands, running down the inside of the

gingival fold along the outer surface of the fang. I have

seen the saliva ejected by an enraged cobra in quantities

which could not have passed through the fang, for experi-
ments enable me to affirm that a cobra could not inject

through the fang with more force than would be necessary

to expel one drop (a minim) in three seconds, so fine is the
inferior orifice of the fang. A viper,
however, could inject
the same quantity in half a second, and fluid may be forced

through its fang in a fine stream, whilst small single drop-

.lets can alone be ejected from the cobra's fang.

The poison of the venomous snakes is secreted by the

large parotid gland. But a curious observation has been
made by Maj^er and corroborated by Mr. Stolicska of the ,

Indian Geological Survey, that a species of Callophis (C.

intestinalis) has supplementary poison glands in the
thoracic cavity they extend one-third down the body, keep-
;

inof close to the crullet on the ventral side, and reach as far
as the heart where they are thicker than above. I am not
aware, however, of any experiments as to the character of
the secretion furnished by this gland. I suspect it is a

salivary gland to the gullet.

There is no difficulty in forcing a venomous snake to yield

the poison accumulated in the parotid glands. Pressure on
the glands while the fangs are erected over the edge of a

watch-glass will cause a flow of the saliva, generally in large

drops from between the fang and the mucous envelope,
more rarely in a fine jet from the apical orifice of the
fang. This a viscous yellowish fluid, of faintly acid
is

re-action ;exposed to the air it dries rapidly, the film cracking

all over and thus separating into yellow crystals not unlike
 16

those of santonine. The form

only apparent,
crystalline is

it isanalogous to that of the various pharmaceutical citrates

of iron, which though uncrystallizable appear to be crystal-
line from the solution having been evaporated on glass plates.

A recently captured cobra will yield from six to twenty

in wet
grains weight of poison, the quantity being greatest
weather ; the crystalline residue is from twenty to sixty-six
per cent, on the fluid poison. The following extremes and
average were obtained in the course of some hundreds of
experiments :

A cobra gave 8 grains of poison, yielding 1*6 grains residue.

Do. 7 do. 47 do.
Do. 22 do. 6 6 do.

Average quantities 6 do. 2 do.

When being brushed off the watch-glass on which it was

dried, the fine particles of dried poison have a pungent
action on the nostrils the taste is slightly bitter and causes
;

an increase of saliva having a feel of frothy soapiness. I

have never found any ill effects from tasting it or from the
action on the nostrils but if any gets into the eye
;
it causes
a painful inflammation which however soon passes off.

The properties of this substance will be given more fully

in Part III, Chapter IV.

Before concluding this part of my subject, I may give

an account of the structure of tlie poison fang, prefacing it
with the description given by the odontographer of the
first

age. Professor Owen.*

"
A true idea of the structure of a poison fang will be
formed by supposing the crown of a simple tooth, as that of a
boa, to be pressed flat and its edges to be then bent towards
each other and soldered together so as to form a hollow
cjdinder, or rather cone, open at both ends. The *****
duct which conveys the poison, though it runs through tho

*
Anatomy of Vertebrates, Vol. I, p. 397.
 17

centre of a great part of the tooth, is really on the outside

of the tooth, the canal in which it is lodged and protected
being formed by a longitudinal inflection of the dentinal

parietes of the pulp-cavity. This inflection commences a

little bevond the base of the tooth, where its nature is

readily appreciated, as the poison duct there rests in a slight

groove or longitudinal indentation on the convex side of
the fang as it proceeds it sinks deeper into the substance
;

of the tooth, and the sides of the groove meet and seem to
coalesce so that the trace of the inflected fold ceases, in
some species, to be perceptible to the naked eye ;
and the
fang appears, as it is commonly described, to be perforated by
the duct of the poison-gland. In the ffydrophis the groove
remains permanently open. From the position of the
poison-canal it follows that the transverse section of the
tooth varies in form at difierent parts of the tooth at the :

base it is oblong, with a large pulp-cavity of a correspond-

ing form, with an entering notch at the anterior surface ;

further on, the transverse section presents the form of a

horse-shoe, and the pulp-cavity that of a crescent, the horns

of which extend into the sides of the deep cavity of the

poison-fang a little beyond this part the section of the

:

tooth itself is crescentic, with the horns obtuse and in con-

tact, so as to circumscribe the poison -canal ;
and along the
whole of the middle four-sixths of the tooth the sec-
tion * * * shows the dentine of the fanor inclosinof the

poison-canal, and having its own centre or pulp-canal in

the form of a crescentic fissure situated close to the concave
border of the inflected surface of the tooth. The pulp-
cavity disappears, and the poison-canal again resumes the
form of a groove near the apex of the fang and terminates
on the anterior surface in an elons^ated fissure."
On one point this description is somewhat imperfect and,
''
I may venture to say, unsatisfactory it speaks of a canal
;

in which it [the poison duct] is lodged and protected" and

3
 IS

further on, Professor says Owen ''

the inflected surface of the
tooth can be exposed to no other pressure than that of the

turgescent duct with which it is in contact." Now, accord-

ing to my observation, the poison duct ends at the bottom of
the mucous envelope of the tooth and between its orifice
and the basal orifice of the tooth there is no continuity ;

the two orifices are in apposition and, at the moment of a

bite, the saliva, having no other exit, passes through the

fang-canal. A
continuous canal could not exist when we
consider that it would be broken at the first sheddinof of the

fang and there no ground for supposing any peculiar

is

reparative powers inherent in this duct. No explanation on

this point is given in Professor Owen's account of the

development of the fang.

"
In the posterior part of the large mucous sheath of the
of this tooth are always to be
poison-fang, the successors
found in different stages of development the pulp is at ;

first a simple papilla and when it has sunk into the gum,

the succeeding portion presents a depression along its

inferior surface, as it lies horizontally, with the apex
directed backward the capsule adheres to this inflected
;

surface of the pulp and the base of the groove of the loose

growing poison-fang is brought into the same relation with

the duct of the poison-gland as the displaced fang which has
been severed from the duct." This description of the growth
of the fang is perfectly correct.

I may add that the inflected part of the capsule lining

the cavity of the poison-fang appears to play a great part in
its nutrition while the pulp-cavity becomes obsolete (or
;

nearly so) from the apex backwards as fast as the fang grows,
the capsule remains vascular until the fang is nearly perfect.
The more highly developed the fang, the greater this
nutritive function of the capsule appears to be. Thus, in the
cobra; the pulp-cavity is visible for more than half-way
 19

down the full-grown fang, whilst in the Daboia this cavity-

disappears very quickly, and is only marked by the darker

appearance of the centre of the tooth. In fact the remains
of the obliterated cavity are just traceable along the posterior
wall of the canal and only appear plainly below the termina-
tion of the latter.

The structure of the poison-fang can be studied in

the imperfect fangs often met with in the cobra it ;

frequently happens that the fang is found divested of a part

of the outer wall of the pulp-cavity, so that the wall of the

poison-canal is seen nearly isolated from the outer part of

the fang except at the base.

CHAPTER IV.— Internal Organs.

The cavity, thoracic and abdominal in one, of snakes may
be divided into four parts, of nearly equal length. The
first part contains the windpipe, gullet, heart and lungs,

the second contains the liver, the third contains the stomach
with the pancreas, spleen, gall-bladder and small intestine,
the fourth contains the large intestine and the urino-
frenital organs. See Plate V.

In front of the windpipe lies the sheath of the tongue ;

to the lower extremity of the sheath is attached the point

of the long V shaped hyoid bone the upper parts of this

;

slender bone being acted on by the geniohyoid muscle

and the sheath itself by the genioglossal muscle, the tongue
is jerked up and protruded.

The windpipe has numerous incomplete cartilaginous

rings in its structure. The lungs consist of a lacework of
air-cells lining the walls of large air cavities spread out

along the back of the abdominal cavity from the heart to

the liver. Their shape and extent vary considerably; they
are most extensive in the sea-snakes, a kind naturally
 20

requiring a large supply of air to be able to stay long under

water. In most snakes there is but one lung, the other

being atrophied. They breathe at considerable intervals ;

and many kinds can remain under water for nearly half
an hour at a time. During the intervals between each
inspiration, respiratory movements of the ribs will be
observed ;
the lungs acting as reservoirs of air, these move-
ments are for thepurpose of changing the air in the cells of
the luDg-tissue. The air breathed by the nostrils passes

through the trachea or windpipe, the upper part of which

lies on the floor of the mouth and is closed by two
cartilages. The vertical slit between them forming the
glottis is just opposite the inner orifice of the nostrils when
the mouth is shut
the rapid expulsion of air through
;
it is

the glottis which produces the hiss of some snakes when

they are angry (the noise, is something between a hiss and

the spit of an angry cat).

The heart is situated at about one-sixth of the distance

down the body. It is composed of one ventricle incom-
pletely divided, and of two auricles (atria). The division
of the ventricle is suflScient to enable the pulmonary and
the systemic circulation to be carried on in very much the
same way as in the higher classes of vertebrata.

The stomach appears to be merely the distended part of

the gullet there is little difference perceptible between
;

them. The combined organ is well lubricated by the

secretions of the jaws and its own proper secretions and
is Digestion appears to go on
capable of great distension.
principally at the lower end, where that part of the animal
which was swallowed first passes into a state of solution and
the rest gradually comes down as the space becomes vacant.
The intestinal canal, very little convoluted, occupies the
hinder half of the abdomen ;
the mesentery is plentifully
loaded with fat, which becomes a reserve of nutriment for
 21

the long fasts which snakes often undergo. The liver lies
alongside of the gullet and
stomach it is a long organ, in
;

two longitudinal lobes, of the usual hepatic colour and

texture reaches upwards nearly as high as the heart,
;
it

and terminates below opposite the middle of the stomach.

The gall-bladder, with the other digestive glands, is situated
a little further down, at the lower end of the stomach. The
end of the bowel opens into a short cloaca, the common.
passage of the intestinal canal
of the ureter and of the
ovarian or spermatic ducts, according to sex.

Just behind the end of the intestine is a little prominence

in the mucous membrane of the cloaca. Below this are the

urethral, above it the ovarian or spermatic orifices.

The testes are two elongate white vesicular organs, not

unlike full-grown silkworms in appearance. The spermatic
ducts, of tortuous structure, descend close along side of the

kidneys and thence accompany the ureters. The kidneys

are elongate multilobular organs situated nearer to the vent.
These four genito-urinary glands alternate, the right testis
and kidney being each higher than the same organ of the
left side.

In the female the ovaries when unimpregnated are found

in the position corresponding to that of the testes each ;

consists of a series of colourless vesicles lying behind the

intestines. When eggs are mature the ovary extends often
more than half-way up the body quite eflfacing the intestine.
The number of eggs found may vary from 5 or 6 to SO and
upwards. When the number is small I have generally
found one ovary unoccupied.

The male snake has a double organ of copulation lodged

in the tail (which is generally longest in males) ;
when
protruded by pressure from behind forwards it is seen in the
form of two highly vascular protuberances armed with
 22

spines, emerging each from a depression at the side of and

behind the
anus. No canal passes through these, the
spermatic ducts terminating some distance within the cloaca.

Nearly all these organs are liable to be infested with

entozoa. The mouth, lungs, and digestive canal bear little
red round worms of several kinds but Tropidonotus quin-
;

cunciatus is remarkable for having its cellular tissue and

abdominal cavity inhabited by numbers of small tape-worms
about 6 inches in length. I believe that they are developed
from cysts in frogs and fishes. Both kinds of entozoa per-
meate the muscular tissues I have found them emersrino:
;

from under the skin of the tail, both in the abovementioned

snake and in a tree-snake.*

Perhaps this Chapter will be the most fitting place for a

short notice of the monstrositiesmet with in this order of
vertebrates. By far the commonest monstrosity is the
possession of a double head, each head being perfectly
formed and the two placed side by side. These double-
headed snakes are by no means uncommon they have been
;

met with in America, Australia and Europe, they do not,

however, appear to survive their birth long, the specimens to
be found in museums being of small size.

There is a young two-headed Tropidonotus quincunciatus

in the Madras Museum, its origin is unknown, as I found it

amongst a large number of snakes accumulated in the store-

rooms of the Museum. This monstrosity is, apparently,
rather common amongst the sea-snakes. It is possible that

a double-headed snake originated the fable of Ananden

the thousand-headed naga, and his humbler representative
the Sesha or seven-headed naga so often represented in
Hindoo religious art.

*
Snakes are externally troubled with the dog-tick. This parasite
gets between the scales and fastens on to the skin.
 rLATJJj V,

ft .

^1

mm

FiiX. 1. Tntonial organs of Tropidonotns quincunciatns, female

Fio;. 2. Lower abdom
f)wer abdominal organs of a tree-snake, male; tlie intestinal fat is

drawn aside
 23

CHAPTER v.— The Senses.

Sight appears to be the only sense which is well developed

in snakes, at least according to the conventional standard.
The scaly tegument can hardly
be endowed much with

sensibility from their

;
habit of swallowing food whole, it is

probable that their taste cannot be very delicate the nasal ;

cavities are but little provided with expansions of mucous

membrane and hearing cannot be an important sense con-
;

sidering the rudimentary state of

the external ear. The

only remaining portion of this organ is a subcutaneous

capsule attached to the tympanic bone from this a long ;

slender bone, the stapes* conducts any vibrations of air

that may have penetrated the scales and muscles of the head
tx) the expansion of the auditory nerve. There is no external
orifice or tympanum.
well developed in those snakes which live above
The eye is

ground, although it varies in size and adaptation according

to the mode of life which it is destined to serve. It is

covered by a transparent layer of epidermis, which is cast

along with that of the general integument. It is unprovided
with eyelids, and is moved to a slight extent by the usual
muscles. The pupil varies in shape and size ;
in most

snakes it is round, but it is elliptical and erect in the

LycodontidcB, the Pythonidoe, the Viperina and some of the

tree-snakes and in one family of the latter it is elliptical
;

and horizontal.*!'

* The is not readily found as it is a mere filament of elastic

stapes
bone projecting backwards towards the tympano-mandibular joint,

lying deep below the tympanic muscles. See Plate IV, fig. 6.
t Of the three families of colubrine tree-snakes the Dendrophidoe
have a round pupil, the Dryiophidce a horizontally elliptical pupil,
the Dipsadidce an erect pupil. It is doubtful whether an elliptical
pupil is a sign of specially nocturnal habits. I may mention that Mr.
Gerard Krefi"t considers it is ;
he calls the Australian Dendrophidoe
'the day tree-snakes' and the Dipsadidae 'the night tree-snakes.'
All snakes are more or less nocturnal animals.
 24

The iris is often tinged with various colours, yellow and

in Lycodon, it is so black that the
green being frequent ;

shape of the pupil is most difficult to see.

In the Typhlopidoe, the eye is hardly visible at all, being

very minute and covered by the lateral head-shields.
The tongue is probably a tactile organ; and in some

snakes there is a prolongation of the snout apparently acting

as an organ of feeling (Passerita, Herpeton).

CHAPTER YI.— The Integuments.

The skin of snakes is a smooth soft tissue, generally

white, sometimes coloured, numerous scales
giving off
(squanicB) which are generally contiguous and often ion-
hricate or overlapping one another to some extent. In
snakes which can expand the neck this skin is seen dotted

over with separate scales at some distr^.nce from one another.

In most viperine snakes the scales are dull, stiff and suffi-
ciently imbricate to make a rustling noise if the skin is
crumpled; in the burrowing snakes, a cuirass of smooth
polished scales leaves hardly any interval visible ; in the
sea-snakes, the scales become tuberculated. In most snakes
the skin is shown between the interstices of the scales

during the respiratory movements.

On
the lower parts of the body the scales become broad

(in the higher types), expanding into ventral shields (scutce)

and, beyond the anus, into subcaudal shields (scutellce).

On a few snakes, Erycidce, Acrochordidce,

the head
Viperidce and others, have scales like on the rest of the
upper parts, but the majority have the head covered with
plates (non-imbricate shields) varying but little from a
normal pattern, and, when varying, doing so with sufficient
regularity to form characteristic distinctions.
 2o

The squamous coveiing of these three regions, the upper

parts, the lower parts and the head, afford together such a

large proportion of the characters used in classification that

they require attentive study.

We have already seen that each pair of ribs supports and

moves a ventral shield to each also appertains a corres-
;

ponding transverse row of scales. The ribs not being fixed

at a riofht
O angle
O to the vertebral column, but rakinor more
row
''CD
of scales corresponding
or less backwards, the transverse
to each pair is inclined backwards in a similar manner. If

this incline is at an angle of 45°, the rows of scales will be

crossed by lines at an equal angle in the opposite direction ;

the scales will be of a rhombic or lozenge shape, and the

rows capable of being counted in two cross directions at
about equal angles of inclination. But if the ribs be inclined
at a slight angle to the spine, then the scales will be more

nearly square ;
whilst an excessive incline causes them to
be rhomboidal or elliptic, and the rows to be more or less
longitudinally inclined. In the neck of the cobra, for
instance, the ribs lie down like the ribs of an umbrella, the
scales are consequently arranged in such acutely inclined
rows as to become quite linear and imbricate ;
when
the snake raises the ribs, expanding the skin of the
neck into what custom calls the hood, the scales are
seen dotted like long grains of linseed on the stretched
surface.

The number of scales in each transverse series is variable

but very regular. The extreme range is from 12 to 100 or
thereabouts, but IS to 25 is the range in the great majority
of snakes. A number above 31 is only found in the Erycidce,

Pythonidce, Acrochordidce some of the Homalopsidce and

Hydrophidce. In conjunction with other characters, the
number of scales in each transverse series, or, as it is com-
4
 2G

mouly called, the number of rows (longitudinal)* of scales

is a valuable distinctive character, as it is
comparatively
rare that individuals of the same species should have a
different number of rows.

In Part II it will be seen that the number of rows of

scales is generally the first element in the diagnosis of species.
When the physiognomy of a snake does not indicate its

family the collector begins at once to count the number of

scales in a transverse series along the course of a pair of
ribs but in the tree-snakes and some others it will be
;

found more convenient to count across the ribs.

This number is nearly always odd, the vertebral row

being azygos, and often of a different shape in only two ;

genera {Zaocys and Peltopelor) is there a double row of

vertebral scales, and, consequently, an even number in the
transverse series. An even number of scales consequent on
the doubling of the vertebral may be present as an anomaly
in individual snakes. I have a Dipsas gokool with 22 rows

of scales instead of 21. The number of rows should be

counted at a distance from the head equal to about one
quarter of the length of the body, as the number on the neck
exceeds the normal number by two or more the number ;

settles down
at a point varying from the tenth to the
thirtieth ventral shield and remains constant for at least

half-way down the body; then, sooner or later, the scales

begin to diminish, always in uneven number, down to the

root of the tail. There several rows may be observed with-
out corresponding ventrals, three or four being rudimentary
or deficient where the anal orifice is covered by its large
shield. The number of scales on the tail is nearly always
even, beginning with about ten and diminishing by pairs to
four or two.
* The number of transverse series is not counted the number of
;

ventral shields is, practically, more constant and is stated instead, at

least ill the snakes with ventral shields.
 27

In some snakes the number of rows of scales settles down

very soon to the normal number which continues till very
near the tail, in other snakes barely four-tenths of the trunk
is occupied by the normal number. Thus, in Bungarus
fasciatus and the genus CallophiSy the number of row^s
down, at about the tenth ventral, to the normal
settles

number 15, and remains at that quite down to the vent ;

but the more common arrangement is shown in

the following

diagram, dividing into tenths the body of a snake with 19

rows of scales :
—
Tenths, Bead.
No. of rows. 21
123456789
19 19 19 19 19 17 17 17 15
10
10
Tail.
8 6 4

,We have seen that the scales may be more or less over-

lapping or imbricate ; another important character is the

presence or absence of a raised keel along the centre of each
scale. This keel is very capricious in its presence or

absence, and does not correspond to the habits of the snake.

It isfound in ground-snakes, in water-snakes, and in tree-

snakes, indifferently, and in each of these groups, the

snakes with smooth scales appear to progress just as well as
those with keels. The viperine snakes have generally
strongly keeled scales. These keels are generally most
marked on the dorsal rows, they become faint towards the

abdomen, and rarely appear on the outer row of scales.

This row is generally of larger size than the others. In the
Erycidoe, the keels on the caudal rows of scales are so
strongly marked as to form sharp longitudinal ridges and ;

as they rake backwards like the teeth of a ratchet-wheel,

they would apparently be of great use as aids to progression

in burrowing.

The presence of an opposite feature

—grooves — is fre-

quently noted they are far from obvious, and are best seen
;

by letting the light glance off the scales; they are then
visible as one or two minute gougings at the apex.
 28

The ventral shields are narrow at their first appearance

between the chin shields ;
the first one or two are often
bifid, and as many as ten to twenty rows of ordinary scales
often intervene before they begin. (All the scales which
intervene between the last pair of geneial shields, and the
first undivided ventral are called gular scales). The ventrals
are absent, rudimentary or narrow in the burrowing snakes,
the grovelling snakes, the pythons and the sea-snakes,
whilst they are most developed in tree-snakes and others
of active habits. In these latter they become broad, turned

up at the sides, and often have on each side a lateral keel

so well developed as nearly to divide them into three

sections. The last of the ventral series is the anal shield ;

it is generally bifid, and this character, when it occurs, is

Still more regular is the single or double
very regular.
condition of the subcaudal shields, scutellce ; they are gene-

rally double, being

divided down the centre by a zigzag line.

To this rule the following are exceptions :

—
Families. Genera.

^ , .7 f Aspidui'a,
Calamaridce -
rr 7
'

( Haplocercus.
Lycodontidcc Cercaspis.
...
AmhlycephalidcV' Amhlycephcdus.
-
ErycuK^ /> 7 7.
(
(jongyloplnH.
i Bung arus.
J^lmdce....'. < Megcerophis, ^^^
|
[^ Opkiopliagiis, 3

Vipcridoe Echis.

In OpMophagiis, and occasionally in Naga, the last few

ventrals may be double, though the anal is always single.

The number of ventrals and subcaudals corresponds close-

Iv with that of (he vertebr?e. The number is variable, not
 29

only in diflferent species, but in individuals of the same

species yet it is a valuable diagnostic
;
mark. In some species
the number of ventrals does not vary more than five per
cent., in others it is very variable. Thus Tropidonotus
quhicunciatus has very constantly either 137 or 145
ventrals, whilst T. stolatusheiS from 121 to 161. The genus
Ahlahes is most irregular in this respect, the species having
from 122 to 245 ventrals. And the genus Tragops, a
well-defined genus of tree-snakes, consists of three species

having respectively about 151, 190 and 220 ventrals. The

number of subcaudals is very variable, it is generally greater
in males than in females owing to the increased length of
the tail in the former sex.

The tail ends in a single shield. In most snakes this

shield is not remarkably developed, but in the Uropeltidce
it becomes a broad disk either naked or covered with keeled
scales, and in Plectrurus it ends in a forfical bispinous
shield. In some snakes with rather short tails, it may be
found quite pointed, sufficiently so to prick the skin slightly
if roughly handled. The Crotalidoe have this point well

developed, though the tail is not provided with the rattling

appendages peculiar to some American genera of the family.

It is remarkable however that the Indian Crotalidce have
a habit of vibrating the tail when excited, and if it strikes
against any hard substance a slight noise is produced.

In the sea-snakes the tail is compressed laterally forming

a vertical fin like that of an eel.

The extremity of the tail is liable to accidental mutilation,

and it frequently happens, in consequence, that the number
of subcaudals is found much below the regular number.*

* The Indians have a fable that the cobra loses an inch of its tail
each time that it bites a man. Stumpiness of tail is not however
confined to this snake and amongst the less agile species a large
 30

The head is covered either with scales like on the rest of

the body, or with large plates of regular form, or with various
srradations between these two classes of coverinsf.

In the greater number of vipers, there is no trace of the

regular-shielded crown possessed by the majority of snakes,

the head being scaly like the rest of the body; the Frycidce
and Acrochordidce have also scaly heads the burrowing ;

snakes have an incomplete shielded covering. In two snakes

of very opposite habits, the head -covering is composed of
large scales simulating the arrangement of shields ; Xeno-
jpeltis unicolor,
a burrowing snake, and Peltopelor macro-

lepis, a tree- viper,

both solitary species of their genus,
have large triangular scales occupying with considerable
regularity the place of the head-shields in the latter snake
;

they may indeed be said to be shields simulating scales.

The lowest family of snakes, the Typhlopidce,is
distinguished
a
by type of head-shielding quite different from that found
'
in other families these blind' snakes have become deofraded
:

by an entirely subterranean life. The normal arrangement

of head-shields, about to be described, is sketched out in
the skinks, a family of lizards of Ophidian appearance, from
which the snake-class has evidently developed.

The head-shields appear to have formed round a central

which is of a shape departing but little
shield, the vertical,
from that of a pentagonal heraldic shield, base in front,
apex behind. It sometimes becomes bell-shaped by the
rounding of the posterior angles or hexagonal by the
addition of a salient angle in the base-line. Behind this
are the two occipitals, large, elongated, and either rounded

proportion are found to be deficient in this member. I have seen

several cobras with as little as two inches left of tails which should
have been nine inches in length. It is probable that this mutilation
is caused by a mungoos biting off the tail of a snake which has fled

into a hole not quite large enough to shelter his whole length.
 31

or truncated behind. In front of the vertical are two pairs

of shields, the "posterior frontals more or less square, and
the anterior frontals of similar form, but smaller and liable
to encroachment in front and at the sides. On either side
of the vertical are the two supraciliaries, of regular and
crescentic shape, shading the eyes.
They complete the oval
of the crown, covering the space between the postfrontal
and prefrontal bones.
These four pairs of shields with their centre, the vertical,
form the crown the other shields are on the sides of the
;

face.

The muzzle is covered by a convex triangular shield, the

rostral, which often extends up a little way between the
anterior frontals ;
it is broad at its base with a slight chink
in the middle for the exit of the tongue without the mouth
being opened.

Behind the rostral on either side are two series of shields,

one above the other ;

the lower series is that of the labials,

(upper) varying ordinarily from five to nine in number, and

increasinof in size from before hindward. One or more of
them enter the orbit when there is no subocular. In the
Pythonidoe, the labials and rostral are indented with deep
pits in the shape of a comma.
The shields between the labials and the crown on either
side are the nasals, the loreal, the oculars, and the tem-
porals. The nasal is sometimes single, being pierced by the
nostril, but more frequently there are two nasals with the
nostril between them. In the water-snakes, Hoonalopsidce
and HydrophidcB, where the nostrils are superior, the nasals
of either side are often contiguous, excluding the anterior
frontals from contact with the rostral.

The loreal (frenale) is absent in the venomous snakes ;

and in some harmless snakes, the Calamaridce, Tetragono-

soma, Xenopeltis and several genera of tree-snakes it is
 32

either absent or merged into the neighbouring shields.

But in the harmless snakes it is present, as a rule, and in
some it is double or triple {Ptyas, Zaocys.) Sometimes
it wedges itself between the preoculars into the orbit and ;

conversely a preocular sometimes wedges it out from contact

with the labials. This irregularity is frequently found in
Tropidonotus plicmhicoloi\

The i^reocidars (or ]preorhitals) are variable in number ;

one or two is the usual number the upper is generally the

;

larger and often reaches on to the crown, and more rarely

as far as the vertical the lower

;
is smaller and often seems
to be a
fragment of The postoculars
a lower labial.

number usually from one to three, and extend lower down

than the preoculars. The lower border of the orbit is
sometimes occupied by a subocular, but this completion of
the orbital ring rare (Zameiiis, certain Homalopsidce and
is

Aonhlycephalidce) ;^ the rule is for one or more labials to

enter the orbit.

Behind the postoculars are the temporals, variable in

number, shape, and arrangement. They are counted back-
"
wards in vertical rows thus 2 + 2 -f 3 temporals" means
;

that behind the postoculars are two shields, one over the
other, then two more, similarly placed, and lastly a set of

three. They sometimes have to be counted thus f -}- a >

this verges on total irregularity.

These temporals are often irregular as they are transi-

tional to ordinary scales. In one snake (Ophiophagus) the

temporals join in a complete ring round the occipitals by

the addition of two large shields behind them. This some-
times occurs in the cobra, a snake to which Ophiophagus
is closely related.

* I have observed this once in a cobra it was an aberrant

;

specimen in other respects. See note to Naga, Part III.

 PLATE VL

'/. X Tovidx/ruiius (^7Mn/:uru:iaAot> .

OccipilaJ-a yh.7i.]\/asals.

y yef''ccc(l t >ore^t

pi'. Tost^y-^iin" -fro7?2eUs .

2.Tttc/(ZS' yTLu€i>sus.
c/

Tkfy lirre^il' , I l.t./ U' trifsle.-

a?id- tkc.f-e (xj^a 2 p-rexjatlars /p. o.^

Types of the Head- Shielding in Colubrine Snakes.

 S3

The shields covering the lower jaw are also regularly

arranged. In front, corresponding to the rostral above, is a

single shield, the mental, and from it the lower labials go
backwards, edging the lip on either side. The pair of first
labials nearlyalways meet in the median line behind the
mental, but the other lower labials, are separated by two

pairs of longitudinally disposed ^e^iem^ shields

one behind
the other. The geneials of either side are separated by a
tolerably deep mental groove in all but the lower types.
One or more pairs of scales (gular scales) usually
intervene

between the geneials and the first ventral shield.

The shields above described are found in most of the

hit^her types of snakes. Their place is sometimes filled by
scales especially in the lower types, but a redundancy of
shields is rarer the multiple shields may be increased or
;

diminished in number, but the intercalation of abnormal

shields is not often met with. Zamenis diadema and the
Pythonidce ofier almost the only examples of redundant
shields on the crown. Sub-division of shields often occurs,
but very rarely is the character constant ;
it is usually an in-
dividual aberrance to be commonly found in certain species.
The generally resident in the
colour of the integument is

scales, although it frequently happens either that the true

skin partakes of the colour of the scales or that the scales
show between their edges the ground colour of the skin
beneath. This skin is usually white, but black cross-bands
on it are not uncommon, as also reticulated patterns in-

yellow, red, or The two latter colours come

pale blue.

and go in the same manner as the colours of a turkej^'s

wattles, and they are often interchangeable in the same

individual, e. g. Tropidonotus stolatus. The scaly coat has

generally a ground-colour of olive brown in various shades
and tints. Other colours also commonly occur, black, brown,
yellow, green, white and more rarely red and blue. Green
5
 84

is the usual colour of tree-snakes ;

it is very delicate, and
rapidly passes through changes from tender green to bronze
and blue. In a few cases the colours are dead, but generally
they are shining, even iridescent in certain lights, and afford
a beautiful play of colours.

The patterns which these colours are arranged are

in
often very difficult to describe, and it is by no means easy
to imagine the actual pattern and colours of a snake from
a verbal or written description however accurate. The
entrance of an interstitial pattern from the skin below, the

secondary patterns produced by dark tinged margins to the

scales, and the play of colours in different lights, sorely tax
the word-painter's power of description.

The patterns are formed by stripes and by series of dots, of

ring-spots, of ocelli or of other shaped marks in a longitudinal

or in a transverse direction, or in both. The longitudinal lines

may cross the transverse lines or vice versa, and the points
of crossing may be marked by a different colour. Cross-
bars are often ocellate, that is, including eyes in their course,
and a fasciolated pattern is common it consists of cross-
;

bars of variegated colour produced by darker or lighter

tips to certain series

of scales. It frequently happens that

cross-patterns are unsymmetrical, the bars of either side

not meeting exactly at the median line.

Cross-markings rarely extend all round the body, except

in a few snakes encircled by rings generally the under-parts
;

are of a different pattern, plain, mottled, banded, or spotted.

The throat is also of a different colour, lighter, often yellow.
The head is sometimes marked with fillets, and streaks
frequently pass downwards or obliquely backwards from the

eye to the throat. Collars are very common, either shaped ^

(point forward) or •< shaped (point backward).
The exact period at which snakes cast their skins is very
variable, but about two months appears to be the average
 3^

interval between each cast. At the approach of the casting,

the colours of the snake become somewhat dull, and a white
film is seen over the surface of the eye. When the skin,
or rather the epidermis (for it is the colourless scarf skin

which separates, like in human beings after an attack of

scarlet fever) is ready to be cast, the snake rubs the skin
back from his nose and chin, and seeks some projecting
point such as would be afforded by a split bamboo, some
stiff thatch, or a heap of stones, on which to catch the
loose skin perhaps adhesion is aided by the application of
;

glutinous saliva anyhow the snake manages to stick the

;

loose skin of the nose and chin to some convenient object,

and then proceeds to peel himself out of his epidermis
which of course remains inside out like an eel's skin after
—
the involuntary exit of its tenant with this difference,
that the snake has had numerous opportunities, denied to
the eel, of becoming used to the process. The cast skins
are beautiful objects, there is often not a break in them
from nose to tip. The epidermal covering of the eye comes
off along with the rest of the skin, and every scale, every
keel is distinctly marked ;
colour alone is absent,* but even
without it the kind of snake to whom the skin belono^ed
can often be identified. "f" They arevery delicate and
fragile, and are liable to destruction by mites unless kept
shut up along with camphor. The cast skin of a Ftyas
mucosus, 9 feet long, weighs 130 grains or a little over a
quarter of an ounce.
* The of the Python and of some Dipsadidce is visible in
pattern
their cast skins.

t WhenI was stationed at Kamptee in 1868, the house I occupied,

jointly with a brother-officer, also gave shelter to a cobra and a pair

of Biuigarus arcuatus. I never saw them, but easily identified them

by the skins they periodically cast. The cobra lived on my friend's

side of the house, the other snakes lived in a hole in the wall under

my dressing table.
 m

PART II.-CLASSIFICATION.

CHAPTER I— Principles.
Thefollowing synopsis of the families of Indian snakes
with their sub-divisions is here presented in order to give
a general idea of the system of classification in use, before

entering into the details of the Descriptive Catalogue :

ORDER. OPHIDIA.
First Sub-order. HARMLESS COLUBRINE SNAKES.
(Serpentes colubriformes non-venenati.)
A. Snakes of low type. Ventral shields absent or
NARROW. Head shielding defective or abnormal,

Fam. I. Typhlopid^. Blind Snakes. Genera.

Small and quite cylindrical, resembling at
^^¥/^'^-
first sight earth-worms rather than snakes. Onychocephalus.

Eyes rudimentary, no ventral shields, forepart

of the head covered with shields of a peculiar

type. Rudimentary hind limbs, hidden. Bur-

rowing snakes, rarely appearing above ground.

Fam. II. Tortricid^. Short-tailed Earth snakes.

Oplindrophit.
Body cylindrical tail very short, conical.
;

Eye small. Head shielded, but only one pair

of frontals; ventral shields beginning to appear.
Palatine teeth ; Median groove at the chin.

Rudimentary hind limbs visible. Burrowing

snakes, occasionally found above ground.
 37

Fam. III. PYTHONID.E. Pythons.

Body very thick head depressed, abnor-

;
Python.

mally Labial
shielded. shields pitted. Yentrals

very narrow, 240 or more. Scales smooth, 65

or more. Rudimentary hind limbs visible,

Fam. IV. ERYCiDiE. Sand Snakes.

Body thick, tail very short, narrow ventrals, Gongyiophis.

Cursoria.
numerous rows of scales. Crown of the head JEryx.

scaled. Eudimentary hind limbs generally

present

Fam. Y. Ackochordid^. Wart Snakes.

Head small eye small nostrils superior.

; ;
Acrochordus.

Entirely covered with small tubercular or

spiny scales, no ventrals or subcaudals. Tran-
sitional to the sea-snakes.

Fam. VI. Uropeltid^. Rough-tailed Earth Snakes.

Body cylindrical ;
head short, conical ;
tail
^^^^ophis.
very short, endinsj in a rough or scaly disk, ^jybura.

generally obliquely truncated. Head shielded, Meianophidium.

but only one pair of frontals ;
ventral shields

apparent. No palatine teeth. Burrowing

snakes, living at some distance under ground.

Fam. VII. XENOPELTiDiE. Iridescent Earth Snakes.

Body cylindrical ;
tail short, tapering ;
head ^enopeius.

flat, depressed, covered with large triangular

shield-like scales. Burrowing snakes transi-
tional to the more highly developed families.
 38

B. Snakes of intermediate type. Ventral shields

FAIRLY developed. HeAD-SHIELDING DEFECTIVE OR
ABNORMAL.
Fam. VIII. Calamarid^. Grovelling Snakes.
Body cylindrical; head small; tail short Caiamaria.
'
,
•
T^ ,, . , , , Macrocalainus.
tapering. hyQ small ; ventral and subcaudal Oxycaiamus.
shields well developed head shielded, but with; Jspidura.
one or more shields absent (generally one or or^i new'^getiSa^
more anterior frontals, and the loreal). Small
snakes, living on the surface, under trees,
stones, &;c.

Fam. IX. HoMALOPSiDiE, Eiver Snakes.

Body cylindrical ;
tail
moderate, compressed Fordonia.
Cantoria.
at the root. Ventrals rather narrow. Nostrils Cerberus.

superior, provided with a fleshy valvule. Ferania.

Head-shields often irregular, anterior frontals mphtS!^^'

encroached on by the large nasals. The last mrpttm.
tooth is transitional between a tooth and a
poison-fang. Rarely found far from the water.
Fam. X. Amblycephalid^e. Blunt-headed Snakes.
Body compressed, slender ;
head short and ^mUycephahis.
thick. Often a complete orbital ring of shields.
Cleft of the mouth small, lower jaw not expan-
sible, no mental groove.

0. Snakes of high type. Ventral shields fully

DEVELOPED. HeAD-SHIELDING NORMAL.*
Fam. XI. Oligodontid^. Filleted Ground Snakes.
Head normally shielded, with peculiar mark- oitgodon.
ings. Teeth few in number, in one genus no
palatines.

* With a few
exceptions in the genera Ablabes, Atretium and
Zameyiis, of the family Colubridae, the crown and orbital shields are
always normal in the families of this section.
 39

Fam. XII. Lycodontid^. Harmless-fang ed Snakes.

Head depressed snout spatulate and flat, i^codon.
;

Ej'^e small, generally with vertical pupil. A^Leptorhytam.

\J J) ft i C \/S •

large fang in front of the maxillary and mandi- Cercaspis,

hie, but not grooved or hollow.

Fam. XIII. CoLUBRiD^.

This family comprises all those harmless

snakes which do not present any striking cha-
racter, are fair and moderate in their propor-

tions, and have none of the qualities necessary

for their admission into other families. Their
head-shields are normal, with the exception
of a few species on the debatable ground
betwixt this family and the Calamaridae they ;

have not the compressed and slender body of

the tree-snakes, yet some of them climb and
have a green coloration they have not the;

superior nostrils and aquatic build of the true

fresh- water snakes, yet some of them are am-

phibious. They are divided into the following

groups
— :

Group I. —CCRONELLiNA. Grouud Colubers.

Of small size, with smooth scales ;

in some ^f>^abes.
Cyclophis.
genera aberrant species approach the Calama- Odontomua.
., ..
m /..I ii«iT Nymphophiditm.
ridae imperiect nead-shielding. EiacUstodon.
Corotiella.

Group II. —COLUBRINA. Agile Colubers.

Attain a ° size.
lar^je Their scales are keeled, ^^/"^f '.'•

Elaphxs.
they are active enough to climb and swim on Compsosoma.
. . Cynophis.
occasions, and are swift in their movements Ftyas.
Xenelaphis.
alonjx the jxround. Zamcms.
 40

Group III. —Dryadina. Bush Colubers.

Their compressed body, numerous ventrals ^ocys.

(200 or more), and general green coloration

show that they are transitional to the families
of true tree-snakes.

Group IV. —Natricina. Amphibious Colubers.

These lead off to the river-snakes :

'
their Tropidonotus.
Atretium.
nostrils are often superior
^
: their scales are Xenochrophis.
Frymnonnodoy%,
always more or less keeled the ventrals con-
;
Cadmus.

siderably less than 200 long teeth at the back

;

of the maxillary.

Fam. XIV. Dendrophid^. Tree SnaJces.

Body
J slender,' snout rather long
& but rounded Gonyosoma.
_ Phyllophis.
fairly ; eye moderate or large with round Dendrophis.
GhrysopeUa.
pupil. Ventrals broad with two lateral keels.

Fam. XV. DRYiOPHiDiE. Long-nosed Tree SnaJces.

Body •^ excessively
"
slender ; head narrow with Ti-opidococcyx-.
\ Tragops.
the rostral shield developed into a snout often Fasserita.

of some length. Eye moderate with horizon-

tal pupil.

Fam. XVI. Dipsadid^e. Broad-headed Tree Snakes.

Body slender, much compressed. Head very ^ipsas.

distinct from the neck, short and broad. Eye
moderate, with vertical pupil.

Fam. XVII. Psammophid.e. Desert Snakes.

A class of Psammophis.
° the tree-snakes Fsammodynaittt,
snakes resemblinor
in their form, but of terrestial habits. Body
slender, head very distinct from the neck, head-
shields normal.
 41

Second Sub-oiider. VENOMOUS COLUBRINE

SNAKES.

(Serpentes colubriformes venenati.)

Snakes in which the front of the onaxillar^j is fuiniished

luith a short poison-fang ahuays more or less erect.

Fam. XVIII. Elapid^e. Venomous Coluhrine Land

Snakes.

Land-snakes. Head normally

" shielded, but ^^^f^ ,

Ophiophagus.
no loreal. Bungarus.
)
Xenurclaps.
Megosrophts.
Callophis.

Fam. XIX. Hydrophid^e. Sea-Snakes.

Tail compressed
^ into a paddle.
^
Head-shields ^^«^»>«*-
-Aipysurus.
Disteira.
tolerably regular, nasals generally contiguous.
Acalijptus.
Ventrals narrow or none. Scales tubercular Hijdrophis.

and dull. Eye small ;

nostrils superior. Feiamit.

Third Sub-order. VIPERINE SNAKES.

(Serpentes viperini.)
Snakes with a long poison-fang, capable of complete
depression.

Fam. XX. Crotalid^e. Crotali or Pit-Vipers.

Broad thick head, very distinct from the Trimesurus.

' *'
_ Peltopelor.
neck, and orenerally scaly or imperfectly Caiioseiasma.

shielded. A deep pit between the eye and the Hypnaie.

nostrils, corresponding to the antrum maxillo2.

Fam. XXI. Viperid^. Vipers.

Broad thick head, scaly. No facial pit.
e^cmI'^'

The order in which I have arran2:ed these families differs

somewhat from that adopted by Glinther the improvement, ;

if any, is very slight, for it is difficult, especially when the

Indian cfenera are alone considered, to arrano^e the families
6
 42

in groups which will show the affinities of the families which

compose them. But the present arrangement is less dis-
onant from the order of development shown by the families
when compared with the primitive lacertilian type, and it
renders diagnosis of an unknown snake easier than when
the families are arranged in entirely empirical order. I

imagine that the process by which development has taken

place must have been somewhat on the system shown
below, and I have no doubt that a consideration of general
ophiology and not that of India alone, would fill
up many
hiatus at present evident.
 43

^
 CHAPTER II. —Diagnosis of an unknown Snake
AND METHOD OF DESCRIPTION.

The student of Ophiology should take some common and

well-known snake such as Ptyas onucosus and practise
making the description of it with a view to familiarize him-
self with the various characters. He should also practise
drawing the head-shields to do this correctly, he must
;

begin by drawing the vertical, and then gradually build up

the other shields round it to draw a snake full length in a
;

natural attitude is a task to any but a cunning

difficult

limner ;
but an exact representation of the head and neck is
possible to any one w^ho will take a little trouble about it.

Colouring the drawing accurately is far from an easy task,

and requires some study of the natural process by which
the colours have become blended.

When an unknown snake is required to be identified, the

firststep determine the family to which it belongs.
is to
This can be done readily by means of the synopsis given
in the preceding Chapter. If the snake be found to belong
to the harmless Sub-order its place in the three Sections into
which I have divided tlie families should be first determined

after which the diagnosis of family, genus and species can

be completed by reference to the Descriptive Catalogue
further on. If it does not appear to belong to any of the

species described, an accurate description should be drawn

up, while the specimen is fresh, for future reference in

case it should turn out to have been hitherto undescribed.

It is necessary to lay down a system of description for

snakes in general which will prevent useless details being
given and direct the attention to the important points.
Accurate description be given very neatly in Latin ; we
may
must try and imitate in English the conciseness of the more
 45

classical description. The following scheme Vill give an

idea of the way in which the description should be arranged.

Date Place

Length : tail . Sex

Scales rows ; smooth, keeled, or with apical grooves ;

imbricate ? rounded, oval, linear, rhombic or rhomboidal ;

vertebrals enlarged ? at what distance in tenths of length

the number diminishes.

Ventrals, number ;
broad or narrow (in proportion to the

circumference) ;
keeled ? turned up at the sides ? Anal,

single or bifid. Subcaudals, number ; single or double.

Head, distinct from neck ?

high, flat, broad, narrow ;

snout acute, obtuse; eye large, small, moderate; pupil

round, erect, horizontal ; iris, colour.

Head shields, note peculiarities of crown shields ;

normal ?

loreal present, absent, single or multiple nasal single or ;

multiple, position of
nostril. Preoculars, number, does the

upper one reach to the crown to the vertical ? (Subocular),

—
Labials, number, how many enter the orbit, peculiarities ;

temporals, number, arrangement. Lower jaw labials, —

number, first pair not contiguous ?
geneials, number of

pairs ; gular scales, number.

Ground colour.

Longitudinal pattern. Stripes or streaks, number, breadth,

Series of spots, of ring-
position (vertebral, dorsal, lateral).
spots, size, margins, disposition.

Transverse pattern. Cross-bars or cross-bands, sagittal,

fasciolated, quincuncial, decussating, ocellated, margined ;

series of rings (number).

Interstitial colourino:.
 46

Belly and ventral row of scales, throat, subcaudals

—
ground colour, plain, marbled, marbling, striped, spotted, &c.

Head, ground colour ; cross-bands, fillets, > or <: mark-

ings ; postocular, subocular or nuchal streaks.

Teeth, number (fixed), equal, increasing, decreasing ; any

longer teeth before or behind ; separated by any interval ;

palatine teeth.

CHAPTER III. —Descriptive Catalogue.

In the following catalogue I have considerably abbre-

viated the full description, giving in most cases only the
colour and the distinctive features. In the more common
kinds of snakes, such as are ordinarily met with, this

description is somewhat enlarged in order to admit of

their more ready recognition, whilst in those of which only
one or two specimens exist in museums, I have given a
description just sufficient to show the specific differences,
but yet full enough, I hope, to cause their recognition as
rarities in case they should be perchance met with.

I have given the descriptions as succinctly as possible,

and to avoid any mistake I may remind the reader that the
lateral halves of a snake being symmetrical, I have, as a

rule, described only one side. If I say that a snake has a

vertebral, a dorsal and a lateral stripe, it must be understood
that on each side of the single vertebral stripe there is a
dorsal and a lateral stripe.

First Sub-order. HARMLESS COLUBRINE SNAKES.

Family I.— TYPHLOPIDiE.
Of small size ; body cylindrical, thicker behind ; tail not

longer than the breadth of the head, ending in a minute

spine. Body covered with equal scales, no ventrals. Head
 47

covered with shields of a peculiar type. The rostral is

prolonged backward ;
on either side of it, are four labials
and four large shields, the nasal, the fronto-nasal, the
preocular, the ocular ;
behind it, are some small frontal and
supraciliary shields. The eye is rudimentary, often quite
Mouth very inferior,
invisible through the ocular shields.

jaws hardly dilatable, no mental groove, a few maxillary

teeth only. Kudiments of hind limbs, not visible being
hidden beneath the skin.

TYPHLINA, Wagler.
Rostral large, rounded in front ;
7io "preocular ; nostril
inferior.

T. LiNEATA, Boie.
Scales 22. Transverse rows, 405. Length 18 in,, diame-
ter ^j (of length.) Reddish olive with numerous brown
lines ;
snout and belly j^ellow.

Straits.*

TYPHLOPS, Dumeril and Bihron.

Rostral large, rounded in front •

nostril lateral.

T. NiGRO-ALBUS, B. and B.
Scales 26. Transverse rows, 326-358. Length 14 in.,

diameter y^- Bluish black, belly yellowish.

Straits.

T. HORSFiELDii, Gray. Plate VII, fig. 1.

Similar to the preceding, but nasal and fronto-nasal united

above, and colour shading more gradually below. In Burma,
I have found a snake with the character of this species, but
colour pearl-gre}^ above, white below.

* When the Straits are mentioned as a habitat, thej^ include

the Malayan Zoological province generallJ^
 48

T. BOTHRIORHYNCHUS; QunthcT.
Scales 24. Diameter j^^. Four sutural grooves in the
lower part of the snout. Uniform brownish olive.
Penang.

T. STRIOLATUS, FctCTS.

Scales 24. Each scale with a yellow, posteriorly black-

edored, cross-streak.

Bengal.

T. siAMENSis, Gthr.

Scales 22. Diameter ^\. Greyish olive, yellowish below.

T. BRAMINUS, Daudin.
Scales 20. Diameter -f%. Fronto-nasal not in contact
with labials. Brown, paler below.

T. PAMMECES, Gthr. Plate YIT, fig. 2.

Similar to the preceding. Diameter y^g-.

Madras.

T. MiRUS, Jan.

Scales 18. Diameter j\-.

A subocular present. Bro,wn
with 3^ellow snout.

Ceylon.

ONYCHOCEPHALUS, D. and B.
Nostril inferior. Rostral with an anterior trenchant
edge.

0. ACUTUS, D. and B.

Scales 28-29. Longitudinal rows, 500. Diameter ^\f.

Light bronze, each dorsal scale has a pale centre ;

yellowish below.
South of India.
 PLATE VJL

"M^ XT
iJ'JIi^-iJ'

•^

i»---

;<_y^"

.
^yc-s:^^^)^^

;1^>5yj

>- m^

^^^F:-r^-^

6-
^f-^iy-c

*.— •.-! JZ^^::iS^—--

'-
...^

*:<:ri^

•'3
w
'
::;>^$^'
,.J#^
^
:',

I
/) .1

Pf
ii •"^i
i

Fig. 1. Tijphlo2JS horsfieldii.

Fig. 2. T. ijammeces.

Fig. 3. Ehinopliis sangidneits, with a view of the tail from one side.
Fig. 4. Sihjhura ocellata. Do. do. above.

Fig. 5. Fledrurus iierrotetii. Do. do. one side.

Fig. 6. Geophis micrroccvladus.

 41)

Family IL— TORTRICID^.

Body cylindrical; depressed rounded head not distinct
from neck ;
tail
very short, conical, its end smooth.
Rudiments of hind limbs visible. Scales smooth, polished ;

ventral row little larger than the others. Head shielded, but
only one pair of frontals six labials. Eye small. Cleft of
;

the mouth moderate palatine teeth mental groove.

; ;

CYLINDROPHIS, Wagler.
Nasals single, contiguous. Occipitals small. Frontal
enters the orbit.

C. EUFUS, Laurentius.
Width between the eyes greater than the length of snout.
Scales 19-21. Ventrals 184-200, subc. 6-9. Brown; belly
has irregular white cross-bands extending up the sides.

Burma and Straits.

C. MACULATUS, Liniiceus.
Width between the eyes equal to the length of snout.
Scales 21. Ventrals 186-196, subc. 5 or 6. Brown, with a
network of black lines and cross-bands. White below.
Ceylon.

Familit III.— PYTHONID^.

Body rounded head distinct from the neck snout long,

; ;

rounded. Eye moderate, pupil erect. Head shielded. Some

of the labials pitted. Scales numerous, smooth. Ventrals
narrow. Rudimentary hind limbs visible. Premaxillary
teeth present.

PYTHON, Daudin.

Body grows to a large size. Occipitals rudimen-

stout ;

tary forepart of the crown with intercalated shields.

;

Rostral and labials pitted. Anal entire. Ventrals very

narrow.
7
 50

P. RETICULATUS, Sclineidev. The Malayan Pythoyi, Plate

VIII, fig. 8.

Scales about 75. Ventrals 300-880, sube. 82-102. Two

or three pairs of shields intercalated between the vertical
and posterior f rentals. Labials about 15 (7)* first 4 pitted.
Brown with an irregular vertebral chain of black rings, from
each of which depends a black bar enclosing a white ocellus.
A thin black line prolonged along the median line of the
head ; postorbital streak. Grows to 10 feet and upwards ;

probably 20 feet is the maximum ;

tail one-eighth.
Burma, Straits.

P. MOLURTJS, L. The Indian Python. Plate VIII, figs.

1 & 2.
Scales about 6o. Ventrals 242-262, subc. 60-72. Inter-
calated crown shields. Labials about 12, 2 pitted.
first A
subocular sometimes present. The pattern consists of three
rows of quadrangular brown spots (one median), separated
by narrow buff lines or it may be considered as brown with
;

longitudinal dorsal butf stripes, and irregular transverse

bands above and below. A
brown spot formed by a bufi or
yellow > offset of the reticulations occupies the head. Size
about the same as the preceding.
India, Burma.

Note. —I think that the exaggeration of travellers as to the length

of these snakes arises from the disproportionate thickness of adult

specimens. When in Rangoon I kept a Python violuriis which in the
middle was fully as thick as a stout man's arm and a person deriv-
;

ing his ideas of proportion from large Colubridse would naturally

suppose, on seeing a snake of this thickness either coiled up or moving
through the jungle, thatit must be at least 20 feet long ; yet it was

in reality only 9 feet long, very little longer than a dhdman of an inch
and a half in diameter. The capacity of these creatures' jaws is also
exaggerated. The above-mentioned individual had a throat only
wide enough to take in a fish of about 8 inches long ; so that it is

probable that his prey when at liberty consisted rather of rats and
birds than of goats or deer.

* means that the seventh labial enters the orbit.

(7)
 A
p. FLxVFE VII t:

t¥

f^i

pi

Fig. 1. Fython molurus, one-sixteenth of life-size.

Fig. 2. „ „ head of young specimen (5 ieet), full-size.
Fiff. P. reticidatus, ,, „ full-size.
 51

Family IV.— ERYCIDiE.

Body moderate, rounded tail very short ; head with a

;

broad snout. Eye small with vertical pupil. Head scal ed.
Scales small in numerous rows. Ventrals narrow, sub-
caudals single. Rudimentary hind limbs visible, as in the

Python, but only in the male.

GONGYLOPHIS, Wagler.

Head flat, oblong, scarcely distinct. Scales keeled. Chin

~ ~ "
scaled, luithout mental groove.

GL_coNicus, Schneider. The Red Sand-Snake. Plate IX, fig. 3.

'U
/^
Scales 41-53.Yentrals 168-186, subc. 17-23. Small
]»abials, 15, a rostral and two small frontals are the only
head-shields the orbit is surrounded by scales. Grey with,
;

an irregular vertebral chain formed by dorsal coalescing ijlM'^^'

rows of reddish brown blotches belly white. Grows to, ^
;
L,i
8 feet, of which the tail 1 J inches. h/^
Common in Southern India.

CURSORIA, Gray. hjitit) Vc^^ C

P^^'
Similar to the preceding genus, but with smooth scales.

C. ELEGANS, Gray.

Scales 36. A solitary museum specimen.

ERYX, D. and B.

Head hardly distinct, snout obtusely conical, with a

sharp transverse edge. Scales keeled, but much less than
in Gongylophis. A mental groove.
9

E. JOHNii, Russell. The Black Sand-Snake. Plate IX, fig. 4.

Scales 50-65. Yentrals 189-209, subc. 19-36. Similar to

Gongylophis but the scales are much smoother and the tail
more cylindrical. Dark olive above and below with
numerous black blotches or unsymmetrical cross-bars.
 52

It is by mutilating the stumpy tail of this snake that

exhibtors of double-headed snakes manufacture their speci-

mens. Grows to four feet, of which tail one-twelfth.
Much less common than GongyloiMs.

Family V.— ACROCHORDIDiE.

Body moderate, rounded, or slightly compressed ;
tail

short ;
head small, not distinct. Eye small. Nostrils

superior. Head scaled. Scales small wart-like, tubercular,

or spiny. No ventrals.

ACROCHORDUS, Hornstedt
Tail slightly compressed, without any fold of skin below.

Each scale with a triangular keel, ending io a spine.

A. JAVANicus, Hornstedt
Nasals simple, contiguous. The mouth has a bull-dog

arrangement of the lips, there being a central notch above,

and a notch below on either side, with corresponding pro-
tuberances. Brown with large confluent dark spots. This
extraordinary snake grows to 8 feet, is quite terrestial (and
even frugivorous) though of pelagic appearance and vivipar-
ous.

Java, Straits.

CHERSYDRUS, Cuvier.

Tail compressed, and expanded by a fold of skin running

along the lower side. Each scale

with a short tubercular
keel.

C. GRANULATUS, Schneider.
Scales above a hundred. Only the ventral scales are

spiny ;
otherwise like Acrochordus. Dark grey above,
colour sending out short alternate
yellowish below, each
cross-bands. Aquatic.
Rivers and coasts of Burma and the Straits.
 PLATE IX.

^^ '/

^. T^
^r^Mm^^^^'

i>-

?F
!ir^^
5t^£^2^£<e^g^^
^

CS?^.,

Fig. 1, lA. Lycodon aulicus.

Fig. 2. Xenojpeltis unicolor.
Fig. 3. Goncjijlophis conicus, half natural size.
Fig. 4. Eryxjohnii, do, do.
 53

Family YI.— UROPELTIDiE.

Body cylindrical, with a short narrow head not distinct

from the neck; tail veiy short, truncated, terminating in a
roush naked disk or covered with keeled scales.
Scales round, polished ;
ventral row scarcely larger than
the others.

One pair of frontals ;

four labials. Eye very small.

Maxillary and mandibular teeth, no palatine ; generally no

mental groove.

RHINOPHIS, Remjmch.
Tail cylindrical, covered with smooth scales and ending
in a convex, scaleless, rough shield. Head conical supra- ;

ciliary and postocular confluent; nasals separated by the

rostral. Scales 17-19. Ventrals 150-228 ;

subcaudals 4-10.

Length 10-14 inches.

Ceylon.

R. OXYRHYNCHUS, Schneider.
Rostral nearly half as long as head, keeled above. Nearly
uniform brown.

R. PUNCTATUS, Milller.

Similar to the preceding. Yellowish with black scale-

dots.

R. PHiLiPPiNUS, Cuvier, (planiceps, Peters.)

Rostral shield not half as long as head, and without keel.
Short. Uniform blackish olive.

R. TREVELYANUS, Kclaart.
Similar to the preceding. Black, with white triangular
lateral spots ; belly white, black spotted.

R. SANGUINEUS, Beddoiue. Plate YII, iSg. 3.

Similar to the preceding rostral shorter. Black above

; ;

belly with lateral scarlet streak caudal shield black with

;

yellow streak and red margin.

 5i

R BLYTHii, Kelaart.
Caudal shield small, not half size of head, sometimes
keeled.
Common in Ceylon.

R. PULNEYENSis, Bedclome.
Snout obtuse caudal shield very
;
small. Brown with
yellow lateral band and spots.
UROPELTIS, Cuvier.

Head conical ;
nasals centiguous ; supraciliary and post-
ocular confluent. Tail cylindrical, obliquely truncated as

if severed by a knife ; the disk flat, rough, scaleless.

U. GRANDis, Kelaart.
Scales 23-21. Ventrals 138-148, subc. 7-8 bifid. Length
20 inches. Brown with occasional white or yellow spots.

Ceylon.
SILYBURA, Gray, Peters.
Head conical ;
nasals contiguous ; supraciliary and post-
ocular confluent. Tail subcylindrical, the scales on its ii]f)per
side are shield-likeand keeled, forming a flattish disk ending
in a horny bi-spinous scale. Length 6-14 inches.

Hills of South of India.

S. MACROLEPis, Peters.
Scales 15.Ventrals 137. Black, with an irregular lateral

yellowish stripe.

S. BEDDOMII, Othr.
Ventrals 178. Rostral longer than the vertical,
Scales 17.

slightly keeled. Brown, lateral and ventral white dots ;

short yellow lateral stripe vent and tip yellow.

;

S. OCELLATA, Bcddomc. Plate VII, fig.

4.

Scales 17. Ventrals 200. Rostral shorter than the vertical.

Olive or brown, with numerous transverse series of four

yellow, black-edged ocelli.

 oo

S. ELLiOTi, Gray.
Scales 17. Ventrals 143-168. Rostral shorter than the
vertical. Brown, short yellow lateral streak, yellow caudal
ring.

S. BICATENATA, GiJlV.

Scales 17. Ventrals 135. Rostral very short, vertical,

rhombic. Black above and below, with yellow dorsal scale
dots, and yellow lateral stripe.

S. SHORTTii, Beddome.
Scales 17. Ventrals 139, twice as broad as other scales.
Fourth labial lono^er than hiorh. Black with irresfular white
scales ; yellow lateral stripe and caudal ring.

S. BREVis, Gthr.
Scales 17. Ventrals 122. Body short. Brown, yellowish
below, subcaudals black with white lateral line.

S. CANARiCA, Beddome.
Scales 15. Ventrals 154. Caudal disk laterally com-
Pledrurus and,
pressed as in as in it also, ending in two
spines one above the other. Variable colour; brownish
with 3^ellow anterior markings, yellow below.
Hills of South Canara.

PLECTRURUS, D. and B.

Head conical ;
nasals contiguous siiioraciliary and post-
;

ocular distinct. Posterior part of tail compressed, covered

with keeled scales and ending in a horny scale with tico

points one above the other.

P. PERROTETii, B. and B. Plate VII, fio-. 5.

Scales 15, sometimes irregular. Ventrals 147-161, subc.

10-12. Uniform brown. Length 10-12 inches.
Nilsjiris.
P. GUxNTHERi, Beddome.
Similar. Purple, yellow below ;
with lateral yellow trian-
o^ular markincys.

Nilgiris.

MELANOPHIDIUM, Gilnther.

Snout rather obtuse ;

nasals contiguous ; supraciliary and
postocular confluent. A mental groove. Tail slightly,

compressed, ending in a very small, smooth, horny point

slightly turned upwards.

M. WYNADENSE, Bcddome.
Scales 15 or 17. Ventrals 180, thrice as broad as the
other scales. Black, belly black and white behind.

M. BiLiNEATUM, Beddome.
Scales 15. Beautifully iridescent, with yellow lateral
streak the whole lensfth. Lensrth 8 inches.
Peria peak, WynA^d.

M. PUNCTATUM, Beddome.
Scales 15. Ventrals 186-191, subc. 15-17. Iridescent,
three lateral black lines ; belly whitish. Length 18 inches.
Travancore.

Family VII.— XENOPELTID^.

Body cylindrical and stout; tail short, tapering; head

depressed, not distinct from the neck, rounded. Scales large
and polished. Ventrals narrow, the outer row of scales
enlarged to nearly half their size. Head-shields of scale-
like appearance. Eye small. Teeth small and very numerous.
*

XENOPELTIS, Reinwardt
Head-shields simulating scales
preocular ; large ;
no
loreal. Scales 15. Anal and subcaudals bifid.
 57

X. UNicOLOR, Reimo. The iridescent Earth-Snake. Plate

IX, fig. 2.

Ventrals 180, subc. 20-30. Behind the triangular vertical

are other similarly shaped large scales. Colour brown, with
remarkable iridescent effects ;
below white or yellowish.
Grows to upwards of 3 feet, tail one-twelfth.

Common in Burma and the Straits, where it replaces

the larger Calamaridce and the Erycidce.

Family VIII.— CALAMARID^.

Body more or less cylindrical ;

head short, not distinct
from the neck; tail short, tapering. Scales 13-17 rows.
Ventral shields well developed, generally less than 200, anal

generally entire subcaudals single or double. Eye small

;

with round pupil. Normal number of head-shields always

reduced by absence or confluence of one or more, generally
the anterior frontals or loreal. Mental groove. Palatine
teeth present. Length 12-24 inches.

CALAMARIA, Boie,

Nostril in a single nasal. Loreal none, merged in the

frontal; 1 preocular, 1 postocular. Only one pair of
frontals, 4 or 5 labials. Scales 13, smooth. Subcaudals
double.

C. siAMENSis, Gthr.
Ventrals 179-190, subc. 12-20. Labials 4. Brown, with
7-11 black lines ;
black collar with white or yellow edges ;

belly white, brown-spotted.

Burma, Siam.

C. QUADRiMACULATA, D. and B.
Ventrals 136-145, subc. 13. Labials 4. Similar to pre-

ceding ;
2 pairs of white caudal spots.
Java, Burma.
8
 58

C. ALBiVENTER, Gvay.
Ventrals 160-166, subc. 16. Labials 5. First pair lower
labials not in contact as usual. Brown, with white (red ?)

stripes and belly.

Penang.

C. NIGRO-ALBA, Gthv.
Ventrals 147-166, subc. 25-80. Labials 5.
Upper parts
black, belly white.

Penang.

C. LEUCOCEPHALA, D. and B.
Ventrals 136, subc. 87. Similar, but head white.

C. CATENATA, Blyth.
MACROCALAMUS, Gilnther.

Nostril between the nasal and the first labial. Loreal

none, merged in the frontal ; 1 preocular, 1 postocular ;

only one fair of frontals ; S lahicds. Scales 13, smooth.

Anal entire, subcaudals double.

M. LATERALIS, Gthv.
Ventrals 118, subc. 20. Brown; lateral, dark, white-dotted
line.

A solitary museum specimen.

OXYCALAMUS, Gilnther.

Head narroiu, iiointed. T%uo "pairs of frontals ; loreal

merged in postfrontal ;
1 preocular, 1 postocular ;
5 labials.

Scales 15, smooth ;

subcaudals double.

O. LONGICEPS, Cantor.
Ventrals 131, subc. 26. Uniform brownish black.

Penang. A solitary museum specimen.

GEOPHIS, Wagler.
Tvjo pairs of frontals, nostril between two nasals ;
1 or 2

postoculars ; preocular and loi^eal confluent. Scales 13-17,

smooth, anal entire, subcaudals double.
 59

G. MiCROCEPHALUS, Gthv. (Platyptevyx invvotetii ! D. anclB.)

Plate VII, fig.

6.

Scales 13. Ventrals 144-148, subc. 16-80. Dark brown ;

lower scales and ventrals white-edged yellow buccal streak ; ;

brown below. Grows to 2 feet, tail one-twentieth.

Madras (?) Nilgiris.

ASPIDURA, Wagler.
One anterior frontal ; loreal merged in the frontal 2 ;

postocular, 1 preocular (sometimes merged in the frontal,)

5 or 6 labials, two small nasals. Scales 15-17, smooth, those

near the vent sometimes keeled ;

anal and subcaudals entire.

Length 14-16 inches. "

Ceylon.

A. BRACHYORRHOS, Boie. ^

Scales 17. Ventrals 148-154, subc. SO. Preocular distinct.

Yellow olive with two dark lateral stripes; vertebral
series of white dots. Belly white.

A. copii, Gthr. ^

Scales 17. Ventrals 128, subc. 34. Preocular merged in

postfrontal ;
3 pairs of gular shields. Brown with dorsal
row of black spots ; belly white, marbled.
A solitary museum specimen.
A. TRACHYPROCTA, Co^e.
Scales 15. Ventrals 128-144, subc. 10-23. Preocular very
small ; postfrontal enters the orbit. Brown with a verte-
bral and two dorsal rows of dark spots.

HAPLOCERCUS, Gilnther.

One anterior frontal merged in the frontal 2

;
loreal ;

postoculars, 1 preocular 7 labials

two very small nasals.
; ;

Scales 17, keeled anal and subcaudals entire.

;

H. CEYLONENSIS, Gthr.
Ventrals 208, subc. 45. Brown with vertebral narrow
 60

black stripe, and dorsal row of black spots ;

white black-
edged neck-streak belly yellowish.
;

Ce3'lon.

NEW CALAMARIDiE.
Mr. Theobald has made two new genera of Calamaridse
for two aberrant specimens, a third new genus for an
aberrant Ahlahes and he restores Glinther's abandoned

genus Trachischiuni for Ahlahes fuscus.

Falconeria gen. nov. (Theohald).

Scales 17, keeled. One anterior frontal ; postfrontal enters

the orbit ;
labials 5. Anal and subcaudals double. Loreal
present. F. hengaleiisis.

Blythia gen. nov. {Theohald).

Scales 13, smooth. Two pairs of frontals. Loreal and

preocular none, both merged in postfrontal. Anal and

subcaudals bifid.

B. reticulata, formerly Calaraaria reticulata, Blyth.

Grotea gen. nov. {Theobald).

Proposed for Ahlahes hicolor.

Family IX.— HOMALOPSID^E.

Body cylindrical ;
head thick, not very distinct from the
neck ; moderate, compressed at the root.
tail Scales often

strongly keeled ventrals rather narrow, anal bifid.

; Eye
small, prominent. Nostril superior, small, valvulated nasals ;

large,encroaching on the size of the anterior frontals (which

are often confluent). Head-shields generally tend to deviate
from the normal arrangement. The last tooth is transi-
tional between an ordinary tooth and a fang, but there is
no evidence that the saliva is poisonous. They live in rivers
and estuaries, rarely coming to land.
 Gl

FORDONIA, Gray.
Head shielded, nostril superior in a single nasal. Ante-
rior frontal single, small, in contact with rostral. Five
labials. Scales smooth, 25-29.

F. UNicoLOP, Gray. Plate X, fig. 2.

Scales 25-27. Ventrals 140-156, subc. 26-37. Labials 5

(3). No loreal (in my specimen). Brown ; belly and outer

scales whitish.

Straits, Burma.

F. BicoLOR, Theobald.
Labials 5 (5). Yellowish grey, dark spotted ;
sides and
belly white.
*

Ransroon.

CANTORIA, Girarcl

Head shielded ;
anterior frontal single, in contact with
rostral. Eye very small. Orbital circle complete. Five
labials. Scales 19, smooth.

C. ELONGATA, Gthv.
Ventrals 278, subc. 84. Reddish violet, with cross-bands
of white dots ;
whitish below.
Straits.

C. DAYANA, Stolieska.
Ventrals 286, subc. 56. Anterior frontal almost linear.
Vertical large six-sided 2 postoculars the lowest also sub-
;

ocular; Dull yellow with broad blue-black cross-bands,

yellow anterior fillet yellow below.
;

Amherst.

CERBERUS, Cuvier.

Occiput scaly. Anterior frontals two, small ; nasals two^

large, contiguous ;
orbital circle complete ; posterior labials
divided transversely. Cleft of the mouth turned up behind.
Scales strongly keeled, 21-25.
 G2

C. RHYNCHOPS, Schneider, Plate X, fig. 1.

Scales 23-25. Ventrals 132-148, subc. 54-62. Vertical

broken up ;
labials 9-10. Dark ash, with darker cross-
bands posteriorly ; under-parts whitish with marbled ash
cross-bands.

Common in East Indian estuaries. It often goes some

distance from the water; I have a specimen which was

brought half-alive to me, having been just caught in a com-

pound nearly two miles from the Kangoon river.

HYPSIRHINA, Wagler.
Head shielded ;
a single anterior frontal, nasals half-
divided, large, contiguous. Seven or eight labials. Scales
smooth, 19-23.

H. PLUMBEA, Boie.
Short and thick. Scales 19. Ventrals 120-131, subc.
29-44. Greyish olive, often with vertebral row of black
spots ;
outer scales and belly yellowish, with black median
subcaudal line.

Straits, China.

H. ENHYDRis, Schneid&r\ Plate X, fig. 3.

Of very variable form, the male said to be slender, the
female stout with ogival snout. My specimen has a sharp

triangular head, slender and very elongate neck posterior ;

part very stout, tail very thin. Scales 21. Ventrals 159-166,
subc. 54-69. Colour variable, that of my
specimen is as
follows :
—Plumbeous, with posterior dorsal light lower line ;

parts and outer scales whitish, with salmon-coloured stripe

along the second row of scales, dark stripe along median
and lateral line of ventrals.

Rivers and irrigated fields in Burma and Siam.

H. JAGORii, Peters.
Scales 21. Ventrals 128, subc. 66. Brownish grey above,
 PLATE X.

9>
A

<^:^^f^^^0S^^:-:M^^ ?9C

Cs5,

Fig. 1. Cerherus rliyncops. Fig. 4. Gerarda hicolor.

Fig. 2. Fordonia unicolor. Fig. 5. Ilydwphis cyoMOcincta.

Fig. 3. 6.
IIij'psWMna enhydris. Fig. Enlujdrina hengcdensis:,^
 o
6''

belly and four outer rows of scales blackish with a yellow

lateral stripe and white median ventral stripe.

Siam. A solitary specimen.

H. BENNETTii, Gray.
Scales 21. Ventrals 160, subc. 50. Anterior frontal small,
does not touch the loreal. Brownish grey with transverse
series of black spots ; belly and three outer scales white ;

each ventral with median and lateral black spots.

China.

H. CHiNENSis, Gray.
Scales 23. Ventrals 150, subc. 45. Anterior frontal as

large as a posterior frontal. Blackish ash with small black

sppts ; belly and outer scales whitish, with black lateral

band.
FERANIA, Gray.
Head short, body stout, head shielded. Nasals large,

single, contiguous. Ti'jo small anterior frontals. Scales

smooth, 27.
F. siEBOLDii, Schlegel.
Ventrals 147-156, subc. 48-55. White with about 32
(vertebral) large, brown, black edged spots ;
small dorsal

triangular spots in the intervals. Head brown with two

diverging white lines.

Bengal, Straits.
HOMALOPSIS, Gray.
Head flat, triangular ; body stout. Head shielded ;

anterior frontal single nasals single, contiguous.

; Orbital
circle complete. Posterior labials transversely divided. Cleft
of mouth turned upwards behind. Scales 37-47, keeled.

H. BUCCATA, L.

Ventrals 160-171, subc. 70-84. Brown with about 30

narrow white cross-bands. Belly and outer scales white ;

head markings.
Burma, Straits.
 64.

HIPISTES, Gray.
Head short; neck slender; tail stout, tapering. Head
shielded ;
anterior frontal single, in contact with the rostral ;

nasals semi-divided. Scales smooth, 39 ;

ventrals narrow,
zuith sliavp lateral keel.

H. HYDRiNUS, Cantor.
Ventrals 153-161, subc. 34. Occipitals multiple. Greenish

yellow, with about 48 black cross-bars.

Straits. Semi-pelagic.

GERARDA, Gray.
G. BicoLOR, Gray.
A snake caught at Rangoon is believed by Mr. Theobald
to belong to this reputed West Indian genus.

My own specimen thought to be a new Cala-

I at first

maria, though of amphibious appearance, as it was found in

a dusty street of Rangoon. Plate X, fig. 4.
Ventrals 156, subc. 18. Scales 17. Anterior frontal
sinsle, elono-ate, convex-ended, concave-sided. Nostrils

superior, in a single shield slightly split. Shining lead

colour above, white below.

HERPETON, Lacepede.
Snout ends in tvjo flexible cylindrical tentacles. Head
shielded; two small anterior frontals ;
nasals single, conti-

guous. Orbital ring complete. Scales 37, keeled. Ventrals

narrow with lateral keel.

H. TENTACULATUM, LacSpkle.
Ventrals 133-136. Brown with 3 dorsal stripes ;
the

uppermost connected with its fellow by cross-bars ; belly

yellowish with dark lateral stripes.
Siam.
 Family X.— AMBLYCEPHALID^.
Body and taiJ slender, strongly compressed head thick ;

large, very distinct. Eye moderate with vertical pupil.

Nostril in a single nasal ; rostral very high. Head-shields
often increased above the normal number. Cleft of the
mouth smaller within than without lower jaw not expan-
;

sible ;
chin shields unsymmetrical, no mental groove.
Scales generally smooth 13-15. Maxillary small, with few
,

and small teeth other teeth

; strong.

AMBLYCEPHALUS, Wagler.

Head short, thick, high, with convex lips. Crown shields

have often small shields intercalated; several loreals; a

complete orbital ring. Scales 13, smooth, elongatei^ verte-

brals larofe, hexagonal. Anal and suhcauclals entire. Teeth
few ;
a long anterior palatine and mandibulary tooth.

A. BOA, Klilll.

Ventrals 152-170, subc. 88-112. Loreals 8, one above the

other. Purplish, marbled and dotted with brown cheeks ;

and lips carnation, with vertical subocular streak. Grows

to 3 feet.
Straits. Climbs, and lives on insects.

PAREAS, Wagler.
Cleft of mouth very short. Crown shields regular. Scales

15, generally smooth vertebrals larger.

;
Anal entire, sub-
caudals bifid. Nasal generally simple.

P. CARINATUS, Reinwardt
Tentrals 160-174, subc. 52-74. E-esembles Amhlycepluxlus
in itstumid lips and complete orbital ring. Greyish brown,
with reticulated black cross-bands black post-orbital streak.
;

Java, Cochin-China.

P. MONTicoLUS, Cantor.
Ventrals 194, subc. 87. Loreal none, replaced by a large
 of shields incomplete below. Brown,
preocular orbital ring
;

with black nuchal ring and shaped cross-bars.Y

Assam.

P. L^vis, Kuhl.
Yentrals 150-1G4, subc. 84-46. Loreal none, replaced by

the Two labials enter the orbit. Brown, marbled

preocular.
with black in irregular cross-bands ; belly brown, or white
with blackish lateral spots.
Java, Cochin-China, Khasya Hills.

P. MACULAR I us, Bhjtk.

Resembles P. carinatus in complete orbital circle and
its

general appearance. The young

and adult differ in colour,
and it is said in the disposition and shape of the head-
shields. Ochrej^ brown, with traces of cross-bands. In the
vounor, rich reddish brown with fiisciolated cross-markinsfs

in white and claret colour ;

white collar, mottled with claret-
red ; belly brown, spotted and mottled.
Martaban.

P. MODEST us, Theobald.

A band- like subocular. Posterior frontal enters the orbit.
Median scales faintly keeled. Uniform brown, pale yellowish
below.
Ranoroon.

Family XI.— OLIGODONTID^.

Body subcylindrical, with a short head not distinct from
the neck, tail moderate or short. Scales smooth, rounded,
15-21. Ventrals of moderate breadth, rarely above 200,

generally much fewer subcaudals double. Eye moderate,

;

pupil round. Head-shields normal.* Teeth few, increasing ;

no palatine teeth in Oligodon. Head nearly always with
symmetrical markings> belly often with square sj-m-
;

metrical dark spots on the ventrals.

* In a few no
species of Oligodon there is loreal.
 67

OLmOBO-^ , Boie.

Nostril between two partly confluent Hcasals. One pre-

ocular, one or two postoculars. Rostral produced backwards.
Scales 15-17. Length 10-20 inches. No imlatine teeth.

O. SUBGRISEUS, D. and B, Plate XI, fig. 1.

Scales 15. Ventrals 180-202, subc. 48-54. Labials 7

(3 and 4).* Brown with numerous narrow dark fasciolated
cross lines, crossed by a vertebral and dorsal whitish
stripe ; belly white ; head-markings. Grows to 18 inches,
tail one-seventh.
South of India, Anamullies ;
rather common.
0. SPiLONOTUS, Gthr.
Scales 15. Ventrals 155-162, subc. 50. Labials 7 (3 k> 4).

Vertebral series of about 17 brown 8-shaped spots, with

alternate thin cross lines ; belly white ;
head -markings.
South of India.

O. ELLIOTI, GtllT.
Scales 15. Ventrals 156-169, subc. 30-45. Labials 7 (3
and 4). Vertebral series of about 37 large rhombic black

spots giving off cross streaks, or of dark fasciolated cross-

streaks belly white ; head-markings.
;
Allied to 0. suh-

griseus.
South of India,
0. suBPUNCTATUS,!). and B.
8 labials (4, 5 and 6). Grey with vertebral series of
round black white-edged spots; belly white with lateral
black dots head-markings.
;

Western Coast.
0. SPINIPUNCTATUS, Jan.
Scales 17. Ventrals 193, subc. 62. Labials 9 (4, 5 and 6).
Similar to the preceding, but no ventral dots.
A solitary museum specimen.
* and means
(3 4) that the 3rd and 4th labials enter the orbit.
 68

O. FASCiATUS, Gthr.
Scales 15. Ventrals 180, subc. 40. Labials 7 (3 and 4).

Brown; about 27 broad black-edged cross-bands; a

narrow vertebral stripe ; belly white with small brown

spots head-markings
; indistinct.
South of India.
0. SUBLINEATUS, D. and B.
Scales 15. Ventrals 150, subc. 82. Labials 7 (3 and 4).
Brown, with dorsal series of brown white-edged spots ;

belly with 3 punctulated brown streaks.

Common in Ceylon.

O. AFFiNis, Gthr.
Scales 17. Ventrals 134, subc. 25. Loreal none. Labials
7 (3 and 4). Brownish grey, with short thin black cross-
white with square black (ventral) spots
bars, belly ;
head-
markings with longitudinal streak.
Aiiamullies.

O. TEMPLETONII, GtllT.
Scales 15. Ventrals 135, subc. 31. Labials 7 (3 and 4)
5th and 7th contiguous below. Brown, with light vertebral
band, and about 18 dark cross-bands, belly white, square
spots.

Ceylon.
0. MODESTUS, Gthr.
Scales 15. Ventrals 158, subc. 41. Anal single. Labials
6 (3). Loreal none, one postocular. Brown, with posterior
ft

light vertebral stripe light collar, belly white with square

;

black spots ;
head -marking obscure.
Ceylon (?) Solitary museum specimen.
0. DORSALis, Gray.
Scales 15. Ventrals 168-173, subc. 40-60. Labials 7
(3 and4). Brown, punctulated with black yellow vertebral
;

stripe bordered with black spots black dorsal line belly

; ;

white, with square black spots which often coalesce.

 PLATE XL

Y\^.
J.
±Q. 1
X OUgodon elUoti

Fig. 2. Simotes russellii.

Fig. 3. )S'. cruentatus; C, under part of the tail.

Fiir. 4. 6'. hicafenatus C, reiitrals.

;
 69

0. BREVICAUDA, Gthr.
Scales 15. Ventrals 172, subc. 30. Only one pair of
frontals ;
rostral reaching far backwards. Labials 7 (3 & 4).
Loreal none. posterior whitish vertebral
Greyish violet ;

stripe, bordered with black spots black lateral stripe.

;

Belly same colour, with square black spots head-markings ;

distinct.

AnamuUies. Solitary museum specimen.

SIMOTES, D. and B.
Anterior frontals short, transverse ;
rostral produced back-
wards between them ;
nostril between two nasals. Scales
smooth, 17-21 rows. Ventrals often have a slight lateral
keel. Head-markings of the family always present.
Palatine teeth. Generally 7 labials (3 and 4). Found in
India, but more common in Burma, Si am, &;c.
Generally
larger than Oligodon.

S. VENUSTUS, Jerdon.
Scales 17. Ventrals 142-145, subc. 31-35. Anal bifid.

Brown, with 3 rows of round black yellow-edged spots ;

belly white with square black spots head-markings. ;

Western Coast.
S. RUSSELLii, Daudin. Plate XI, fig.
2.

Scales 17. Ventrals 160-190, subc. 47-56. Anal bifid.

Brown, with 20 to 30 broad black, slightly white-edged,

cross-bands belly white head-markings very distinct a
; ; ;

black through the eyes ; a 5» rising from the throat,

fillet

the point on the vertical, the first cross-band forming

another s* behind it. Grows to 2 feet, tail one-seventh.
India, Ceylon ;
common.
S. BiNOTATUS, D. and B.
Scales 17. Ventrals 181, subc. 41. Anal bifid. Rhombic
black-edged spots on each side of vertebral line, smaller spots
in the intervals belly white three angular head-markings.
; ;

Western Coast.
 70

S. ALBIVENTER, Gthv.
Scales 17. Ventrals 179, subc. 45. Anal bifid. Loreal
none. Brown above, white below, subocular spot.
Ceylon.

S. SIGNATUS, Gtlir.

Scales 17. Ventrals 149-157, subc. 47-59. Anal entire.

Brown, with about 15 white cross-bands, the middle of each

wide and pointing forwards.

S. CINEREUS, GtllT.

Scales 17. Ventrals 165. Anal entire. Labials 8 (4 & 5).

Grey above, white below.
Cambodia.

S. swiNHONis, Gthr.
Scales 17. Ventrals 158-168, subc. 35-39. Anal entire.

Keddish olive with indistinct dark reticulated cross-bands

white below.
China.

S. T^NiATUS, Gthr.
Scales 17. Ventrals 150-166, subc. 30-44. Anal entire.

Brownish olive, brown

vertebral stripe inclosing a light
median line ; black spot on root of tail, another on tip belly ;

white with square black spots.

Siam.

S. CRUENTATUS, Theobald. Plate XI, fig. 3. The Coral-tail

Snake.
Scales 17. Ventrals about 163, subc. 36. Anal entire
or bifid. Olive brown ;
dark vertebral stripe, sometimes
enclosing a lighter stripe ;
lateral thin stripe ; belly greenish
yellow with square blue-black spots subcaudals coral-red
;

with black spot at the root and near the tip. Punctulated
head-markings, often not unlike a mask. In the young,
there are the superior tail-marks of the
preceding species.
Common in Burma.
 71

S. TRILINEATUS, D. CUld B.
Scales 17. Ventrals 145,subc. 54. Anal entire. Brown,
with a vertebral yellow stripe and a dorsal white stripe.

S. PUNCTULATUS, Gray.
Scales 19. Ventrals 180-202, subc. 52-62. Anal entire.

Brown, with about 20 light, black-edged cross-bands or pairs

of spots belly with square spots.
;
Head whitish, with the
usual head -markings. Grows to upwards of two feet in
leno-th.

Himalayas.
S. BiCATENATUS, Gth\ Plate XI, fig. 4.
Scales 19. Ventrals 161-180, subc. 86-47. Anal entire,

slight ventral keel. Labials 6, 7, or 8. Of stout habit.

Light reddish brown, with three darker stripes ; the verte-
bral stripe encloses a light median line and extends on the

vertical, separating two oblique head-markings that convei*o-e

from the dorsal stripes. Fillet across the eyes. Belly
white or fawn with alternate square spots. Grows to 2|- feet.
Common in Burma.
S.ALBOCINCTUS, CautOT.
Scales 19. Ventrals 175-181, subc. 47-65. Anal entire.
Brown, with about 18 white, dark-edged cross-bands, narrow
black cross-bands alternating ; belly white or spotted ;

usual head-markings.
Assam.

S. FASCIOLATUS, Gthv.
Scales 21. Ventrals 163, subc. 42. Anal entire. Yellowish,
with black irregular cross-bands light dorsal stripe, median
;

wdiite line on tail ; belly white ;

usual head-markings.
Cochin-China.
S. COCHINCHINENSIS, GtllV.

Scales 21. Ventrals 216, subc. 47. Anal entire. Grey,

with about 12 black cross-bands; belJy white ; head-
marking black.
 72

S. TRiNOTATUS, D. and B.
Scales 21. Ventrals 183-189, subc. 49-51. Anal entire.

Brown, with three series of dark, black-edged spots belly ;

yellow with square black spots head-markings indistinct.

;

Straits.

S. AMABILTS, Gthr.
S. THEOBALDi, Gth\ are also recorded. Ann. and Mag.
Nat. Hist., 1868.
Mr. Theobald has made species S. ohscurus and S. crassus
of two solitary museum specimens, but they appear to be
aberrant varieties of /Si. hicatenatus. (J. A. S., 1868.) Indeed,
nearly the species of this genus may be referred to two
all

tj^pes, S. hicatenatus and S. russellii.

Family XII.—LYCODONTID^.

Body moderate or slender, head distinct, moderate, with

depressed and elongate snout. Eye small, generally with

vertical pupil. Head-shields regular. large fang (harm- A
less) in front, both
in the upper and lower jaws.
These snakes are a degraded family of Coluhridoi.

LYCODON, D. and B.

Body rather flattened, head distinct, depressed, with flat

spatulate snout. Scales 17, smooth. Pupil erect.

L. AULicus, L. The Lycodon. Plate XI, fig. 1 and la.

Ventrals 183-209, subc. 57-77. Anal bifid. Antocular

reaches the vertical.

so black that it is nearly impos-

Eye small and beady ;

sible to distinguish the pupil. Colour chocolate brown with

numerous white or yellowish cross-bands decussating later-
ally the first forms a broad collar belly very transparent
; ;

white with interstitial flesh colour. Length 1-2 feet.

 73

A common snake both in India and in Burma ;

it is often
found climbing the angle of the jamb of a door, or about
dark places in godowns. It is of uncanny appearance, but
is perfectly harmless.
The coloration is variable in shade, sometimes approach-

ing that of a light coloured Bungarus arcuatus ; but the

decussation of the cross-bars and the beady appearance of
the eyes distinguishes it at once. In old specimens the
cross-bars sometimes disappear.

L. LAOENSIS, Gtlir.
Ventrals 185, subc. 68. Snout shorter and posterior
frontals much
shorter than in the preceding. Black with
white cross-bands.
Siam.

L. STRiATUS, Shaw.
Ventrals 167-174, subc. 46-48. Preocular does not reach
the vertical; posterior frontal short; otherwise much like
L. aulicus.
South of India, Anamullays.

L. ANAMALLENSIS, Gthv.
Anal entire. Two loreals. Greyish
Ventrals 202, subc. 74.
brown with white brown-edged cross-bars.
A solitary specimen.
L. RUFOZONATUS, Cantor.
Ventrals 200, subc. 72. Loreal enters the orbit. Anal
entire. Crimson, dotted and cross-banded with brown;
head-shields marked with yellow; brown post orbital
streak. Stout, above 3 feet.
China.

TETRAGONOSOMA, Gilnther,

Head-shie]ds regular; loreal none. Scales smooth, 17.

Ventrals above 200, angulated. Anal entire.
10
T. EFFRENE, CautOT.
Ventrals 215-228, subc. 72-101. Black above and below,
with complete buff rings, and buff labial streak.
Solitary museum specimen from Penang.

T. ATROPURPUREUM, CautOT.
Ventrals 257, subc. 91. Purple, marbled with black and
white.

Solitaiy museum specimen from Tenasserim.

LEPTOEHYTAON, Gunther.

Loreal present; nasal single, pierced by the nostril.

Scales 17, smooth. Anal bifid.

L. JARA, Shaw.
Ventrals 167-175, subc. 56-63. Brown, each scale with
two white dots ; generally a white collar ; belly white.
Assam, Ganjam, Anamullays.

OPHITES, Wagler.
Loreal present ; preocular sometimes absent. Scales 17,
keeled. Anal bifid.

O. SUBCINCTUS, Boie.
Ventrals 198-221, subc. 69-82. Loreal enters the orbit,

re-placing the preocular. Black, with whitish cross-bands

and collar.

Straits.

O. ALBOFUSCUS, D. and B.
Ventrals 256, subc. 204 Preocular present.
(tail J). Light
reddish, with broad brown cross-bands; reddish white
collar.

Straits.

CERCASPIS, Wagler.
Scales 19, strongly keeled. Ventrals angulated ;
su6-
caudals entire.
C. CARINATA, Kuhl.
Ventrals 188-193, subc. 53-60. Black, completely encircled

by white rings.

Ceylon.

C. TRAVANCORicA, Becldome.
Like Lycodon striatus, but with entire subcaudals.

Family XIII.— COLUBRID^.

This family is a general refuge for snakes with none of

the characters necessary for their allotment to the other
families. Their head-shields are normal, they have not the

ekceptional dentition and head-markings of the Oligodon-

tidse, they have no trace of fangs, they have not the com-

pressed and slender body of the tree-snakes, nor the hydro-

phidian build of the true fresh- water snakes. Nevertheless,
several genera lead off to other families. Some of the group
Coronellina (grovelling colubers) are hardly removed from
the Calamaridge, the group Dryadina (bush colubers) lead
off to the tree-snakes, and the group Natricina (water

colubers) are a transition towards the Homalopsidse. The

other group, Colubrina, although ground-snakes, are exceed-

ingly agile, and able to swim and climb with facility they ;

are the highest type of the Sub-order of harmless snakes.

Eye moderate or large, pupil round.

Group I.— CORONELLINA.

Colubrine snakes of small size with smooth scales ;
some
genera approach the Calamaridse in imperfection of the
head-shields.

ABLABES, D. and B., Gthr.

Body rather slender ;

head moderate, more or less distinct
from the neck ;
tail moderate. Head-shields normal except
in A, fusciis and hicolor. Nostril between 2 nasals ;
1 loreal ;
 76

1 or 2 preoculars, 2 postoculars. Scales 13-17 smooth,

ventrals 122 to 245, anal and subcaudals double. Teeth
normal, numerous, small, equal. Length 12-24 inches.

A. BALIODIRUS, Boie.
Scales 18. Ventrals 122-132, subc. 65-72, labials 7 (3 &; 4).

Brown, with anterior dorsal series of black, white ocellated

spots ; belly pearl colour.

Straits.

A. TENUiCEPS, Blyth.
Scales 13. Ventrals 137, subc. 39. Labials 6 (3 and 4).

Scales about the vent and root of the tail are keeled.

Blackish ash, belly white.

Himalayas.

A. Fuscus, Bhjth.
Scales 13. Ventrals 154-161, subc. 34-42. Labials 6

(3 and 4). Scales about the vent and root of the tail are
keeled in the male. Posterior frontals united into one
shield, (whence Giinther at first allotted this to a new
senus of Calamaridss, under the name of Trachischium

fuscum). Black above, whitish below.

Himalayas.

A. RAPPii, Gthr.
Scales 15. Ventrals 191-198, subc. 60. Labials 6 (3 & 4).

Black above, white below ;

when young, grey with black
bars and collar.

Himalayas.

A. BicoLOR, Blyth.
Scales 17. Ventrals 210-221, subc. 75-80. Labials 6

(3). Frontals united into two transverse plates (whence

Mr. Theobald makes this a genus of Calamaridse and has
named it Grotea bicolor). Brown above, white below.
Assam.
 77

A. OLivACEUS, Beddome.

Scales 17. Ventrals 224, siibc. 75. Labials 5 (3). Dark

greenish olive, paler below ;
four dorsal series of small
black dots.

Nilgiris.

A. SAGITTARIUS, Cantov.
Scales 17. Ventrals 216-245, subc. 57-70. Labials 7
(S and 4). Reddish or greyish olive blackish dorsal line, ;

beneath which the colour darkens vertebral series of dots

; ;

head brown dark ;

collar edged with yellow ; belly yellowish,
with a blue lateral line and ventral dots. l

Penang, Benf^al. /I

A. HUMBERTI, Jan. '^^^

Scales 17. Ventrals 175, subc. 55. Labials 10 (4, 5 & 6)
7th and 9th contiguous below. Reddish olive punctulated ;

'

dorsal line, beneath which the colour darkens vertebral ; ^ a „

series of black yellow-edged dots ; black, yellow-edged .^

collar belly white, dotted.

;
-

South of India, Ceylon. ,—<

Vr o-i

A. coLLARis, Gray.
.'^

Scales 17. Ventrals 177, subc. 102. Tail nearly one-

third. Labials 10 (4, 5 and 6). Greyish brown, with
anterior vertebral series of black dots broad black collar ;

with posterior yellow edge, produced forwards to the eyes ;

bellv white, dotted.

Himalayas.

A. MELANOCEPHALUS, Gray.
Scales 17. Ventrals 152, subc. 65. Labials 10 (4, 5 & 6)
7th and 9th contiguous below. Light brown, with two
anterior white stripes commencing from a black collar, and

interrupted by square black spots ; belly white, spotted ;

head brown, lips yellow. Tail one -third (?).

 78

A. NicoBARiENSis, Stolicska.
Scales 17. Ventrals 189, subc. 87. Loreal confluent with

posterior nasal ;
labials 7 (3 and 4). Similar to A. melano-

cephalus, but the lateral spots are smaller and more

numerous.
Nicobars.

A. SCRIPTUS, Blyth, an aberrant specimen of A. baliodirus.

The genus Ablabes approaches the Calamaridse in the
tendency of the frontal and cheek shields to fuse. Hence
ingenious zoologists can make out of aberrant species, new
genera enough to immortalize the names of all their friends*
I confess to a wish that the Greek lexicon were not so

neglected in the nomenclature of genera specific names are ;

quite sufficient for any amount of mutual admiration.

CYCLOPHIS, Gilnther.

Body slender, tail moderate or long, head rather distinct

from the neck. Head-shields normal, but only one nasal,

pierced by the nostril. Scales 15, smooth. Anal bifid. Eye

moderate.

C. MAJOR, Gthr.
Head narrow, not very distinct. Ventrals "175, subc. 78.
Uniform green, paler below.
China.

C. FR^NATUS, Gthr.
Head distinct from the slender neck, broad with short
snout. Ventrals 165, subc. 95. Olive with 3 anterior
dorsal black stripes, the lateral pair are zigzag ; yellowish
below.

Afghanistan ;
Khasi hills.

C. RUBRIVENTER, JevdoU.
Ventrals 127-135, subc. 33-38. Nasal
post- split. Two
oculars. Brown with pale lateral band from eye to tip of
tail ;
below this a mottled brown and yellow band ; throat
yellow, belly red.
 79

C. CALAMARIA, Gthr.
Head scarcely distinct, with obtuse snout. Ventrals
129-138, subc. 50-83. Loreal fused in the long single nasal.
Frontals broad and short. Labials 7 (3 and 4). Preocular

single. Light olive, with a reticulated pattern formed by a

black edo^e to each scale. This reticulation forms two thick
dorsal and two thin lateral lines ;
alternate with these are
five white lines (on each side). Belly white. Grows to
about 12 inches, tail one-fourth.

Ceylon and South of India.

C. NASALis, Gthr.
Ventrals 149, subc. 77. A variety of the preceding, with
the preocular divided in two.

C. MONTICOLA, Cantor.
Ventrals 125, subc. 44. Brown with yellow collar.

A solitary museum specimen.

Mr. Theobald makes a genus Chlorophis for a
Cyclophis
with two nasals.

Chlorophis Oldhami. Labials 8 increasing, (4 and

5).
Uniform bronze-brown.

ODONTOMUS, R and B.
Body slender, strong^ compressed head moderate,
;

distinct from the neck. Ventrals above 200,

angularly bent
at the sides. Scales 13-15 smooth. Head-shields regular;
nostrils in a half-divided nasal. moderate.
Eye
O. NYMPHA, Baudin.
Scales 13, apical groove. Ventrals 234-243, subc. 82-87.
Labials 8 (3 and 4). White, with about 38 brown cross-
bands.
South of India.
O. SEMIFASCIATUS, Gthr.
Scales 13, apical groove. Ventrals 232, subc. 84. Labials
7 (3 and 4). White with about 50 broad dark-brown cross=
bands.
 80

0. GRACILIS, Gthv.

Scales 15. Ventrals 234, subc. 81. Anal entire. Labials

8 (3 and 4). About 38 broad black cross-bands ;
intervals
white, marbled with brown.
South of India.

NYMPHOPHIDIUM, Giliither,

Only differing from the preceding genus by the three

last teeth beincr
*Q strono: and trenchant.
'^*'-^*-J3

N. MACULATUM, GtllT.

Scales 15. Ventrals 244, subc. 107. Anal entire. Loreal

long, enters the orbit. Light brown, with a dorsal series of

large brown spots ;
lateral series of dots,
belly white.

ELACHISTODON, Reinhardt

A genus distinguished by the possession of gular teeth

formed by the projection of the anterior vertebral spines
into the gullet. The genus
sometimes grouped with an
is

African genus possessing similar characteristics to form a

family of the Dasyioeltidoe. The necessity of this is somewhat

doubtful, considering that the genus Nymphophidium has a
"
commencement of this gular set of teeth in the two obtusely
conical prominences on the base of the skull, one behind the
other, not covered by the mucous membrane of the mouth."
— [Gunther).
E. WESTERMANNi, Reinhardt.

Scales 15. Ventrals 217, subc. 59. Anal single. Two

nasals ;
loreal long, enters the orbit ; 7 labials (3 and 4).

Teeth few, small. Brown; yellow vertebral stripe; yellow

line from the snout along the crown to the angle of the

mouth ; yellow sagittal collar ; yellow below.

The only known specimen was obtained at Rungpore,

It was 31 inches long. Described by Reinhardt.
 81

CORONELLA, Gunthev,

A genus of doubtful occurrence in India. C. Icevis was

discovered in England a few years ago.*
C. ORIENTALIS, Gthv.
Scales 17. Ventrals 163, subc. 65. Last maxillary tooth

strong. Greyish brown, with 2 dark dorsal stripes, confluent

posteriorly narrow white collar belly white, black spotted.
; ;

Group II.— COLUBRINA.

Snakes of moderate or large size and active habits, with
scales in 15 or more rows, and generally more or less keeled.

Head-shields generally regular. Eye moderate or large.

COLUBER, Giinther.

of moderate proportions tail one-fifth or

Body rounded, ;

less. Head-shields regular, crown shields large 1 preocular. ;

Scales smooth or feebly keeled in 19 or more rows. Anal

bifid. Teeth equal. Peculiar head-markings.

C. RUFODORSATUS, CautOT.
Scales 21. Ventrals 174-178, subc. 50-52. Anterior frontals

pointed. Brownish grey with 4 series of irregular brown

spots confluent posteriorly into stripes. Head with 3 black
> bands. I
China.

C. MANDARINUS, CantOT.
Scales 23. Ventrals 222, subc. 62. Scarlet, with a series
of about 44 dorsal, black, yellow-centred, rhombic spots ;

head with serpiginous black fillets.

China.

C. PORPHYRACEUS, Cautor.
Scales 19. Ventrals 189-211, subc. 56-70. Olive, with

*
Increasing the English snakes to three—the viper Pelias her us
the ringed snake Tropidonotus natrix, and Coronella Icevis.
11
 82

about 22 dark cross-bands, and posterior dorsal stripe head ;

with 3 black streaks, one median, the others postocular.

Assam.

C. PiCTUS, Carlyle ; C. nuthalli, Theohalcl.

Scales 23. Vertical and supraciliariea large. Labials 9

(5 and 6). Reddish grey with four anterior dorsal series of

rhomboidal black ocellated spots posteriorly four dorsal
;

dark bands with white intervals. Oval black postocular

spot.
The snake obscurely described by Blyth as Platyceps
semifasciatus is here placed by Mr. Theobald and more fully
described :
—
C. SEMIFASCIATUS, Blytk
Scales 19. Ventrals 187. Labials 9 (5 and 6). Occipitals

very large ;
vertical with very concave sides. Pale olive

grey, with anterior dark cross-bands

and alternate dark
spots, fading posteriorly. cj mark on occipitals ; belly
white.
Subathoo.

ELAPHIS, D. and B.

Body elongate and compressed, head distinct from neck.

Tail moderate. Scales 23-25 keeled. Ventrals 200 or more,

plain or slightly keeled anal bifid. Eye moderate, pupil

;

round. Head-shields regular ; 2 nasals ; 2 preoculars.

Maxillary teeth equal.

Central Asia and China.

E. DiONE, Pallas.
Brown or olive, speckled with red ; dorsal series of black

rings, vertebral and dorsal black stripes ; head with brown

oblique cross-bands.

E. SAUROMATES, Pallas.
Broad black cross-bands with yellow intervals. Head
and belly often yellow with black markings.
 PLATE XIL

'
v^^

"^:is.
-—-^^2:^

— ^-Kj:is:_

/
'\ '.
1 -
-
V-

^-^ I
'
(
:^>^^,'p^^<^^
—'* K-J

-
— i:
-<>• it

^'-„/ V

Fig. 1. Pfyas mucosus.

Fig. 2. F. horros.
Fig. 3. Zaocys fuscus.
Fig. 4. Comiisosoma radiatum, half-size ;
Aa is natural size.
 83

E. T^NiURUS, Cope.
Olive, with black interrupted dorsal stripe and caudal
black stripe inferiorly margined with white.

COMPSOSOMA, D. and B.

elongate, compressed, head narrow, snout long, tail

Body
moderate. Eye moderate. Scales 19-23 keeled. Ventrals
above 200. Anal generally entire. Head-shields normal;

generally 1 preocular; 2 nasals. Teeth numerous, equal.

Of large size.

C.^RADIATUM, Remivcmlt. Plate XII, fig. 4. The red dhdman.

Scales 19, middle rows strongly keeled. Ventrals 222-248,
subc. 67-95. Labials 9 (4, 5 and 6).

Preocular and loreal have a rough porous appearance.

Frontals square. Iris golden. Colour bright chestnut, dark-
the
ening posteriorly; three anterior black dorsal stripes,

upper broad, the middle interrupted, the outer interstitial.

From the eye radiate three black streaks, one down, one
downwards and backwards, one horizontally along the occi-
pitals joining a broad black nuchal band. This snake puffs
out throat vertically and rises like a cobra, showing the
its

beautiful interstitial pattern of the neck, and looking aslant.

Hence known by the Burmese as the side-looking snake
(gnan zow). Grows to six feet, tail one-fifth.

Common in Burma.
C. MELANURUM, Schlegel.
Scales 19. Labials 9 (4, 5 and 6). Brown anteriorly,
black posteriorly; anterior yellow black-edged vertebral
stripe; three inferior ocular streaks; belly yellow, black

posteriorly.
Java and Archipelago.

C. RETICULARE, Cccntov,
Scales 21 (or 19) rows. Anal entire. Labials 8 (4, 5 & 6).

Brown, behind black ;

with whitish cross-bands, sometimes
 84

reticulated ; belly yellow marbled with black. The head-

shields have a tendency to coalesce.

Assam.

C. HODGSONii, Gthr.
Scales 23. Anal bifid. Labials 8 (4, 5 and 6). Brownish
olive ;
black interstitially,
Himalayas.
A new species C. semifasciatum has been described, but
as was very young (being only 11 J inches long)
it its

position is somewhat doubtful.

Scales 19 with apical grooves. Ventrals 211, subc. 119.
Anal bifid. Labials 9 (5 and 6). Olive grey, with numerous
short broad transverse bands interrupted laterally, alternate
lateral spots, all disappearing at the posterior two-thirds.
Head brownish with dark occipital markings. Belly whitish

spotted.
Simla.

CYNOPHIS, Gray.

Body slender and compressed ;

head narrow, snout elon-
gate ;
tail moderate ;
scales 25-27, with slight keels or apical
grooves. Ventrals above 200 ;
anal entire. Eye moderate.
Head-shields regular, two nasals, one preocular.

C. HELENA, Dauclin. Plate XIII, fig. 2.

Scales 27, slightly keeled. Reddish olive, with about 80

anterior reticulated black cross-bands, each enclosing 3 white
ocelli on either side between the cross-bars is a reticulated
;

lavender pattern ; the whole principally interstitial, fading

posteriorly into a broad lateral brown stripe neck with 2 ;

black throat stripes ;

black postocular streak. Grows to

upwards of 3 feet, tail one-fifth.

Ceylon, South of India.

C. MALABARicus, Jevdon.
'.Vtitii.

differs from the preceding principally in

This species its
 85

smaller more pronounced ocellate cross-bars (connected d^- ^

size,

by curved ventral lines) and having only 25 rows of scales. I ?>

The throat streaks have a white interval, and between the

two pairs is a black cj mark.
Malabar and Anamullays.

This beautiful genus is closely allied to Compsosoma ; it

belongs to South India, the later being a Malayan genus.

PTYAS, Fitzinger.
Body elongate, somewhat compressed ; tail one-fifth to
one-third ; head distinct from neck. Eye moderate or large,
well sheltered by Head-shields regular two
supraciliaries. ;

preoculars, the upper reaching to the crown two or three ;

loj-eals, 2 nasals. Scales 15-17,smooth or slightly keeled.

Anal bifid. Maxillary teeth about 12, increasing. Of large
size.

P. Mucosus, L. The (stout) dhdman* Plate XII, G.g. 1.

Scales 17, the middle rows keeled towards the tail ;

ventrals 196-208, subc. 108-134. Head rather short and

broad ;
3 loreals, more rarely two ; all shields, especially the
8 labials, with black margins. Brownish or yellowish olive,
with interstitial skin-colouring of yellow and black ;
scales
with black tips forming a fasciolation posteriorly and often
a reticulated pattern on the tail belly greenish or yellowish
;

white. It is very common in India, less so in Burma. It

is fierce and intractable. My largest specimen was 74 feet
(tail 2 feet) girth 5 J inches ;
but I have a cast skin, found
by Lieutenant Kensington, K E., at Kolar, which measures
9 feet 1 inch.
When young this snake often has a delicate green colour,
unlike the adult.

P. KORROS, Reimc. The slender dhdman* Plate XII, fig.

2.

Scales 15, smooth, with apical grooves ;

ventrals 176-184,

* For Indian
synonyms, see Part III.
 8G

subc. 138-147. (I have seen subcaudals 57 only). Slender

neck, narrow head eye large loreals 2, rarely 3 colour
; ; ;

uniform brown olive no black margins to head-shields,

;

scales. Grows to 0-7 feet. My

slightly to the caudal largest
specimen was 6 feet 9 inches, (tail 2 feet.)
Common in Burma, rare in India.

XENELAPHIS, Gunther.

Body elongate, not compressed ; tail long head distinct, ;

rather short. Head-shields regular, 2 preoculars. Scales

17, smooth, the vertebrals large, six-sided. Anal bifid. Teeth
numerous, sub-equal.

X. HEXAHONOTUS, CautOT.
Ventrals 191-197, subc. 148-179. Loreal lonor wedofed
between the preoculars. Labials 8 (4). Brown with anterior
faint black cross-bands ; belly yellowish.
Burma, Straits.

ZAMENIS, Waglev,

Body and tail elongate head distinct, flat eye moderate.

; ;

Head-shields have a tendency to divide, the temporals

to be small and scale-like the gular scales are numerous.
;

There are 2 preoculars, 2 postoculars, suboculars often

present. Scales smooth or slightly keeled. Ventrals 200
or more, anal generally bifid. Teeth numerous, the last

generally largest, and separated by an interval.

Z. DiADEMA, Schlegel.
Scales 29, keeled. Ventrals 237, subc. 110, anal entire. Four
small shields transversely intercalated between the vertical
and the frontals ; 3 or 4 loreals labials 14 orbital ring ; ;

completed by 4 or 5 suboculars. Yellowish olive, with verte-

bral line of round brown spots, and a lateral brown stripe.
Brown fillets, and head-spots.
Sindh.
 PLATE XI11.

w
\^

C"<\

>^

Cs)

<->i

is

V.

Fig, 1. Zamenis fasciolatiis.

2.
Fig. Gynophis helena.
Fig. 3.
Fsammodynastas jndverulentus.
 87

Z. CLIFFORDII.

Scales 29, smooth. Ventrals 222-236, subc. 74-80. Anal

entire. No intercalated crown shields. Quincuncial pattern
formed by four rows of elongate spots, the central pair
coalescinor.

Africa ;
found in collections from Aden.

Z. VENTRiMACULATUS, Gray.
Scales 19, smooth. Yentrals 205-220, subc. 90-102, anal
bifid. Labials 9 (5 and 6). Occipitals truncated with small
'
semi-circular post occipitals. Yellowish olive, with black
cross-bars, and black head-markings ; belly yellowish, later-
ally dotted.
South-Western Asia, found in collections from Aden.

Z. GRACILIS, Gthr.

Scales 21, smooth. Ventrals 219, subc. 120, anal bifid.

Labials 9 (5 and 6) the fourth gives off* the preocular.

with vertebral row of large round black
'

Yellowish olive,

spots, becoming short cross-bars posteriorly ;

black fillets ;

belly yellow, laterally dotted.

Deccan, Sindh.

Z. FASCiOLATUS, Shctiv. Plate XIII, fig.

1.

Scales 21-23, apical grooves. Ventrals 201-229, subc.

73-95, anal bifid. Labials 8 (4 and 5). Yellowish reddish or

olive brown, with anterior, narrow, white and dark fascio-
lated cross-bars ; belly yellowish.
«

South of India. Common in Mysore and as far West

as Coimbatore. A specimen is recorded from Mergui.
Group III—DRYADINA.
The compressed body of these snakes, their agility, their
numerous ventral shields, and green colour, show that
they
lead oflf to the true tree-snakes, whilst their head-shields are
those of the Coluhridce,
 88

ZAOCYS, Cope.

Body elongate and compressed, tail moderate head very ;

distinct, high. Eye large. Scales 14-16, the median series

sometimes keeled. Ventrals about 200, anal bifid. Head-
shields regular ; supraciliaries large, convex ;
2 preoculars,
the upper large and high. Loreal often multiple.

Z. CARINATUS, GtllT.

Scales 16, the 2 median rows keeled ;

ventrals 209, subc.
110. Labials 9 (5 and 6). Loreals 8. Anteriorly brownish

olive, with reticulated white cross-bands ; posteriorly black,

with 2 lateral series of white spots. Grows to 10 feet.
Borneo.

Z. Fuscus, Gthr. Plate XII, fig. 3.

This snake, hitherto assigned to Borneo, is, according to

the opinion of Dr. Giinther, the same as a snake found by
Mr. Vinton in the jungle near Kangoon, and to which I
intended to have given the name of Z. fasciolatus. The
following is its description :
—
Scales 16, the 2 median rows faintly keeled. Ventrals
210, subc. 123. Head oblong, high gape wide
eye very
; ;

large and prominent pupil round,

; iris dark green. Loreals
3. Labials 9 (5 and 6), the sixth extending high behind
the orbit. Dark green, with narrow fasciolated cross-bands
of lighter and darker
colour, and yellow vertebral spot on
each ; posteriorly the cross-bands merge into a general

greenish black with 2 lateral rows of yellow spots under- ;

parts nearly black head dark green, with an appearance

;

of bloom, throat white, yellow orbital circle.

Z. DHUMNADES, CautOT.
Scales 14 or 16, the 2 median rows keeled. Ventrals
189-199, subc. 92-98. Loreal single. Greenish anteriorly,
with a yellow, black-edged vertebral stripe ; posteriorly
black ;
indistinct black lateral stripe.
China.
 89

Z. NIGROMARGINATUS, Bhjtll.

Scales 16, elongate and pointed, the 4 median rows keeled,

others with apical grooves. Ventrals 193, subc. 126. Green

above, paler below, with 2 posterior broad black stripes.

Himalayas.

HERPETOREAS, Gunther.

Body compressed; head elongate, rounded in

slender,
front. Eye moderate. Scales elongate, 17 or 19 ventrals ;

bent up at the sides, above 200 anal bifid. One preocular,

;

head-shields regular. Last tooth the longest.

H. SIEBOLDII, Gthr.
Scales 19, slightly keeled. Ventrals 216, subc. 90. Loreal

single. Labials 8 (3, 4 and 5). Greenish brown, belly yel-

lowish.

Himalayas. A solitary museum specimen.

An snake called Coluber prasinus by Mr.

ill-described

Blyth, perhaps belongs to the above species. There is some

reason to consider that the genus is a refuge for aberrant

young specimens of Ftyas viucosus. I named three such

specimens of this snake Herpetodryas prasinus, and did

not see my mistake for a long time, though its possibility
was pointed out to me by Dr. Giinther.

Group IV.-^NATRICINA.
These snakes lead off to the Homalopsidae they are ;

ground-snakes, but many of them frequent the water, and

have the nostrils rather superior. Scales always more or
less keeled ventrals considerably less than 200, anal bifid.
;

TROPIDONOTUS, KuM.
Body rather stout, head distinct from the neck, gape wide.
Eye moderate. Scales generally 17-19, keeled, especially
towards the tail. Teeth numerous, increasing.
12
 90
i

T. QUiNCUNCiATUS, Schlegel The Checkered Snake. Plate

"
XIV, fig.
1

Scales 19, keeled. Ventrals 129-149, with the subcaudals

"^ often 137 + 85 or 145 + 77, the total not being far from 222.
Tail often much shortened in females. Loreal rhombic ;
1

preocular, 3 postoculars, labials 9 (4 & 5) ;

anterior frontals
form a triangle. Crown narrow.

Variety Olive brown, with black checkers formed by

a.

6 alternating rows of square black spots belly cream- ;

coloured with lateral black ventral margins ; 2 black streaks

go backward from the orbit.

Variety b. The outer row of checkers alone distinct ;

black
they are high, intervals red ventrals tinged with red,
;

nuchal streak 2 black post-orbital

;
streaks.

Very common throughout the East Indies variety h in ;

its most marked form is peculiar to Burma. An inter-

mediate form is variety a with the ground colour bright
yellow. Generally speaking, those individuals which live
nearly entirely in the water have a tendency to brighter
colours. Grows to four feet my largest specimen (Banga-
;

lore) was 51 inches, of which the tail

12 inches.

T. ANNULARIS, Hallowel.
Scales 19. Ventrals 158, subc. 54. Upper parts plum-
beous; lower parts red with about 40 black cross-bars,

extending up the sides.

China.

T. TRIANGTJLIGERUS, Reiuw.
Scales 19. Ventrals 140-148, subc. 70-90. Labials 9

(4, 5 & 6). Dark brown, reddish anteriorly, with lateral

triangular black spots, apex resting on the ventrals.

Straits.

[The remaining snakes of this genus have the last tooth enlarged
and enveloped in a well-marked gingival fold.]
 FLATE XIV.

^Sl

'"^m
ii^'
Y>.

:"ir<-<.-w:v^.^^j:j;
^j?^^^$^&ff^\
y^ '^J^^'ii^

h\^i 1.
Tropldonotus quincunciatm.
l^'ig. 2. T. punchilahis.
^ig. 3. Airetium schisfosum.
 91

T. MACROPHTHALMUS, Gthv.
Scales 19, nmerous on the neck, wliich is dilatable, like
that of the cobra. Ventrals 162, subc. 78. Eve laro-e. Dark
brown dark vertebral spots and an indistinct >• collar ; belly
with anterior square spots.

Himalayas.
T. DORS A LIS, Gth\
Scales 17. Ventrals 143, subc. 52. Eye lar^e. Resembles
the preceding species.
China.

T. MACROPS, Blyili.
Scales 17. Ventrals IGi, subc. 13. Eye very large. Dull
red, with a vertebral series of yellow spots and black lateral

spots ;
variable.

Darjiling.

[The following species have the last tooth enlarged and separated
by a distinct interval.]

T. PLATYCEPS, Blyth.
Scales 19, feebly keeled. Ventrals 173-186, subc. 90-96.
Brown, with a pale dorsal stripe ;
a red and a black lateral
ventral stripe ;
black or yellow postocular streak ;
variable.

Himalayas.

T. SUBMINIATUS, Rcinw. Plate XV, figs. 3 &; 4.

Scales 19, keeled. Ventrals 142-168, subc. 61-88. Light
brown, with an interstitial colouringof bright red on the

neck, of black and yellow on the rest of the body yellow ; >
collar ;
head green, cheeks pink, green and black double
post-orbital streak, throat yellow. When young it resem-
bles T. stolatus with yellow collar.

Burma, Assam, Straits.

T. HIMALAYAN us, Gthv.

Scales 19, strongly keeled. Ventrals 171, subc. 85.

Brownish olive, with dorsal series of transverse yellow spots ;

yellow collar and throat.

 02

T. ANGUSTICEPS, Blytll.

Scales 17. Ventrals 167-172, subc. 57-67. 2-4 antoculars,

4-5 postoculars. Head narrow. Dark, spotted uniformly
with black.
Assam, Burma.

T. STOLATUS, L. The Chameleon Snake. Plate XV, fig. 1.

Scales 19, strongly keeled. Ventrals 121-161, subc. 50-79.

Labials 8 (3, 4 and 5). Brown with numerous cross-bands
of black, the intervals having an interstitial colouring of

red, or of pale blue, or of both, the red prevailing in the first

four or five intervals. These bars are crossed by a dorsal
light brown stripe, the point of intersection of the black bars
being still lighter. Belly white with lateral black dots oh
alternate ventrals ;
throat yellow ;
black marks on the
labials.

This snake only shows these beautiful colours when

excited at other times it is brown with a light dorsal stripe.
;

Grows to 2J feet, tail one-fifth. The gentlest of snakes.

Very common in India and Burma.

A
variety common in Madras has 121-130 ventrals ;

and the first one or two bars at such wide intervals as to

form sagittal collars. The Burmese variety has about 150
ventrals. The varieties found in Malabar and Burma show
the finest play of interstitial colours.

T. MONTicoLA, Jerdon.
Scales 19. Ventrals 142, subc. 82. Green, with about 28
black cross-bands, crossed by a green dorsal stripe white ;

spots at the intersection white inter-orbital fillet with two

;

white spots in front.

Wynad.
T. JUNCEUS, Cantor.
Scales 19. Ventrals 154, subc. 86. Greyish oHve, with
 93

a dorsal row of round white spots belly white with lateral

;

dots. Throat yellow >• yellow collar.

;

Straits.

T. CEYLONENSIS, Gthv.
Scales 19, strongly keeled. Yentrals 137, subc. 60. Brown-
ish olive, with about 20 unsymmetrical cross-bands, each
enclosing a lateral yellow ocellus, black post-orbital streak.

T. BEDDOMII, Gthv.
Scales 19, strongly keeled. Ventrals 146, subc. 70. Labials
9 (4, 5
6). Brown, with dorsal transverse orange bars
and ;

nuchal yellow cross-bar, and yellow black-edged post-orbital

streak.
»

Nilgiris.

T. NIGROCINCTUS, Blytli.
Scales 17. Ventrals 160, subc. 81. Olive grey, passing
into green near the head, with about 50 narrow black cross-
bands and nuchal black band preceded by a pale or red
collar ; belly grey, darkening posteriorly.
Burma.

T. FLAViPUNCTATUS, Halloiuel.
Scales 17. Ventrals 128, subc. 78. Uniform dusky yellow,
spotted with yellow above and with black below; black
nuchal band, and two black post-orbital streaks.
China.

T. ZEBRiNUS, Blyth.
Scales 15. Ventrals 137, subc. 96. Plumbeous, spotted
and cross-banded with black ;
labials with trianofular black
spot at their junction above ;
nuchal band.
Tenasserim.

T. TiGRiNus, Boie. ^
Scales 19. Ventrals 152-168, subc. 62-80. Olive, with a
vertebral and a dorsal row of square black spots, reddish
 9t

lateral intervals anteriorly ; belly black- spotted ;

black post-
orbital markings.
China.

T. LEUCOMELAS, Gthv.
Scales 19, strongly keeled. Ventrals 129, subc. 61. Black
above, white below, with about 23 narrow white rings rising
across the back; head greenish olive, with black collar,

3^ellow-edged posteriorly.
Straits.

T. PLUMBICOLOR, Cantor. The green ground-sncike. Plate

XV, % 2.

Scales 25 (23-27), strongly keeled. Veriti-als 150-162,

subc. 35-47. The loreal sometimes wedges between
itself

the preoculars, entering the orbit and conversely the lower

;

preocular sometimes pushes in between the loreal and the

labials. Bright green a broad yellow black-margined
;
>
collar ;
narrow black cross-bars with alternate black spots
and, frequently, alternate white interstitial cross-lines. These
beautiful colours are said to fade in the adult (hence T.

2>lumhicolor, Cantor instead of Xenodon viridis the name

given by Dumdril and Bibron) but in Bangalore, where ;

the snake is ver}'- common I have not observed this change.

My largest specimen, 28 inches long (tail 3 J inches) was

bright green only the interstitial colours beginning to fade.
Belly white.
Southern India, and as far north as Nagpore.

T. PUNCTULATUS, Gthr. Plate XIV, fig.

2.

Scales 17, obtusely keeled. Ventrals 140-156, subc. 68-83.

Tail compressed at the root. Upper parts either jet black,
or (in old specimens) brown irregularly spotted with white ;

belly and outer 2 rows of scales white, with a zigzag black

or brown line along the junction of the ventrals and outer
scales ;
labials white ;
subcaudals have a black posterior

margin. Grows to 30 inches. •

Burma.
 PLATE XV.

X
K ^1.'
/ / A.

^ lUV

^^^o-^T"

Ai.^- .«'".^ *»-'' -T*t

jjj;^ -l^"*

e^
:'.:^:i-^
^s*'^.—

^t^:5^* *

'i^^-siimi*^^'
/
>-
*-: -...

^-ulii^:aKSS ii^-^

Fig. 1. Tropidonotus ptolatus.

Fig. 2. r. phimhicohr.

Fig. 3. T. suhminiahis ; Scr, young specimen.

 95

T. MORTONi, Theobald.
Scales 19, strongly keeled. Dark brown, with dark
vertebral stripe and interrupted cross-bars of yellow or
white spots.
A solitary museum specimen, source unknown.

T. STRIOLATUS, BlytJi.
Scales 19. Labials 8 (8 and 4), postoculars 3 or 4. Colour

pale olive brown,

a dark patch below the eye, a dark leaden

stripe extending from behind the eye all down the side,
with a second narrower one, below it, through the second
row of scales. Belly white, no spots.
A solitary specimen from the Andamans.
. T. natrix is tlie common harmless snake of England,

ATRETIUM,
Cope.
ATropidonotus distinguished by having the anterior
frontals united into one broad triangular shield (in contact
with the rostral). Other head-shields regular. Scales 19,

short, rhombic, keeled. Ventrals broad, anal bifid. Teeth

numerous, increasing.
A. SCHISTOSUM, Daucl. Plate XIV, fig. 3.
Ventrals 146-150, subc. 67-82. Dark slate-colour with
interstitial crimson dorsal stripe; lips, outer IJ row of scales
and belly yellow, throat yellow, thin long black post-orbital
stripe.
Grows to 2 feet, tail one-fourth. South of India, Ceylon.

Gunther states, on the authority of Cope, that this is a

fierce snake dilating its neck laterally when about to attack.

My experience is far from confirming this. I have kept

several specimens which were very gentle; they were
sociable and fond of climbinof
O on the necks of two vounor
o ft/

cobras who were at

constant enmity and addicted to standing
facing one another in a menacing manner.

XENOCHROPHIS, Gunther.
A Tropidonotus with the middle teeth longest, and with-
 96

the nostril in the upper part of a single shield. Scales 19,

keeled. Anal bifid.

X. CERASOGASTER, CautOT.
Ventrals 141-149, subc. 60-69. Shields of the crown elon-

gate. Labials 9 (4). Brown, with lighter dorsal stripe or

dorsal series of dark spots belly purple, marbled bright
; ;

yellow lateral line beginning at the snout.

Bengal, Assam, Straits.

PRYMNOMIODON, Cope.
A Tropidonotus with minute teeth much enlarged ante-
riorly. Head-shields normal. Scales 19, keeled.

P. CHALCEUS, Cope.
Ventrals 152. Green. A solitary museum specimen.
Siam.
CADMUS.
A genus made by Mr. Theobald for a Tropidonotus of
stout form, with 27 rows of smooth scales. Rostral large
and penetrating between the small anterior frontals.

Labials 7 (4).

C. CUNEIFORMIS, Thcohald.
Olive brown, with two dorsal rows of black spots.
A solitary museum specimen.

Family XIV.— DENDROPHIDiE.

Body and tail either much compressed or very slender ;

head rather long, flat, and distinct from the slender neck ;

snout moderate or long, rounded. Eye moderate or large,

pupil round. Head-shields normal scales much imbricate; ;

ventrals with two keels ;

anal bifid.

GONYOSOMA, Wagler.
Body long, compressed, head moderate. Loreal some-
times absent, preocular one. Scales generally smooth. Ven-
trals above 200.
 97

G. OXYCEPHALUM, Boie.

Scales 25, elongate, with a pair of apical grooves. Ven-

trals 236-263, subc. 138-149. Labials about 11 (2). Green,

paler below dark labial line ;

;
tail brown, with yellow
anterior rinof. Leno^th 5-7 feet.
Tenasserim and the Straits.

G. GRAMINEUM, GtJl7\
Scales 19, with apical grooves. Ventrals 203, subc. 100.
Labials 9 (4, 5 and 6). Green, paler below tail reddish. I ;

have a specimen, source unknown, corresponding closely to

the type description. The only material difference is that

the anal is single. Ventrals 208, subc. 105. Length 14
inches.

Khasya hills.

G. FRiENATUM, Gray.
Scales 19, the dorsals faintly keeled. Ventrals 203,
subc. 120. No loreal. Green, paler below, black labial

stripe.

Khasya hills. A solitary specimen.

PHYLLOPHIS.
Body and tail elongate, much compressed. Head-shields
normal ;
two preoculars ;
oiasal single, nostril in the centre.

Scales 23, keeled, Ventrals above 200.

P. CARINATUS, Gthr.
Ventrals 223, subc. 97. Greenish olive; dark nuchal

spots, and vertebral dots, whitish below.

China ;
rare.

DENDEOPHIS, Boie.

Body and tail very elongate, slender, compressed. Eye

larcre. Head-shields reojular. Scales 13-15, smooth, imbri-

cate, the vertebral scries large, polygonal. Ventrals nearly

square at the keels.

13
 98

D. PICTUS, Gmelin. The blue tree-snake. Plate XVI, fig.

1.

Scales 15. Ventrals 160-187, subc. 87-156. Eye moderate

(or large when young). Colour rather variable ;
either

deep blue, with a bright yellow lateral stripe, ventrals

yellowish, with a lateral spot at regular intervals (Malabar)
or, bronze with blue margins to the scales under the imbri-
cation, yellow belly and outer scales, with dark lateral

stripe from eye to vent. (Burma). Grows to 4 feet, tail

one-third.
Common in India and Burma.

D. CAUDOLiNEATUS, Gray.
Scales 13. Ventrals 183-188, subc. 105-110. Bronze, with
black lateral stripe, two dorsal posterior stripes, superior and
inferior median caudal stripe.

CHRYSOPELEA, Boie.

Body and tail slender and elongate head elongate, snout

'

rounded. Head-shields regular. Scales 15-17, smooth,

rhombic. Ventral keels sharp, with a notch at the hind

margin.

C. ORNATA, ^haw. The golden tree-snake. Plate XVl, ^g. 2.

Scales 17. Ventrals 180-236, subc. 96-147. Head black,

with yellow punctulated cross-bands body black, with a;

flowered pattern formed by bright yellow dots on each scale,

or with yellow punctulated cross-bars. Grows to 4 feet, tail

one- fourth.
More common, I think, in Burma than in India.

C. RUBESCENS, Gray.
Scales 15. Ventrals 187-225, subc. 108-146. Purple,
dotted with brown and black spots ;
head with brown
stripes.
Straits.
 PLATE XVL

'^'^1^>£5?K5:'
^^i:?:^.**^^^^

'S^

Gj^'i^ [il^^-^

,r

^' ,^ir?^^

Fig. 1.
Dendrophis pidus, (the head from a young specimen).
Fig. 2.
Chrysopelca ornata.
Fig. 3. Passerita myderizans.
Fig. 4.
Tragops prasinus.
Fig. 5.
Dipsas gokool.
Fig. 6. Z).imdHmaculafa.
 99

Family XV.— DRYIOPHID^E.

Body and tail excessively slender snout much elongated
;

and tapering. Eye moderate, with horizontal pupil. Head-

shields normal, nostril in a single nasal.
Scales 15-17,

narrow, much imbricatethe vertebral series large, fan-

;

shaped. Ventrals broad, not much keeled. Anal bifid. Tail

often nearly as long as the body.

TROPIDOCOCCYX, Gunther.

Snout tapering, but without any appendage. Loreal none.

Both frontals come down low and concave.

T. PERROTETi, D. and B.

Scales 15, smooth, last dorsals sometimes keeled. Ventrals

140-143, subc. 66-82. Grass-green ; yellow lateral stripe ;

belly yellowish.
Nilgiris, where it replaces Passei'ita mycterizans,

TRAGOPS, Wagler.

Snout very long, but without any appendage. Loreal

present, its region concave. Scales 15.

T. PRASINUS, Reinw. The huff tree-snake. Plate XVI, fig. 4.

Ventrals 212-234, subc. 176-203. Colour variable, some-

times green, with white lateral stripe a not uncommon ;

variety is light ochre, belly white, with a lateral ochre stripe,

under the tail yellow, with white lateral stripe. It also

occurs of a pure white, with interstitial black markings.

Bengal, Burma, where it replaces Passerita mycterizans.

T. DISPAR, Gthr,

Ventrals 151, subc. 100. Males bright green, females

bronze-coloured ; black interstitial skin yellow lateral stripe*
;

Anamullays.
 100

T. FROMTICINCTUS, Gthv.
Ventrals 190, subc. 140. Rostral small, nasals elongate,

contiguous. Grass-green or bronze, with black yellow-edged

lateral stripe.

Swamps in Arakan.

PASSERITA, Gray.
Snout very long, ending in a flexible apijendage ; no
lorecd ; preocular region concave. Head -shields regular.
Scales 15.

P. MYCTERizANS, L. TliG common green tree-snake. Plate

XVI, fig.
5.

Ventrals 172-188, subc. 140-166. Grass-green, with yellow

lateral stripe ; paler below black and white cross-bands, on
;

the interstitial skin. This is the most common tree-snake,

"
and is eye-snake," in consequence of
sometimes called the
an idea prevalent amongst otherwise sane Englishmen that
it is in the habit of hanging by the tail from a branch of a

tree for the purpose of hitting passers-by in the eye. It is

rare in Burma and hilly parts. Grows to G feet in length,

the o four-tenths.
tail beins:

p. PURPURASCENS, Gthv.
Ventrals 194, subc. 154. Brownish grey, marbled with
purple and dotted with brown.
Ceylon.

Family XVI— DIPSADID^.

Tree-snakes with vertical pupil, short broad head, very
distinct from neck, body compressed, elongate. Head-shields
regular. Scales smooth, imbricate, the vertebral series

enlaro-ed. Anal entire. Last tooth elon^'ate and cjrooved : the

front tooth also elonci'ate sometimes.
 101

DIPSAS.
D. CYNODON, Olivier.
Scales 28. Ventrals 275-287, subc. 141-162. Anterior
palatine and mandibulary teeth enlarged. Brown; dotted
with black, and with rhombic black cross-bands or reddish ;

olive, with a vertebral series of large black ocellate spots.

Burma, Straits.

D. FORSTENi, D. and B.

Scales 25-27. Ventrals 260-275, subc. 106-131. Teeth

as in the preceding. Brownish olive,with black fasciolated
cross-bands ;
median and lateral black head stripes.

Anamullaj^s ; very rare.

. [The anterior palatine and mandibulary teeth of the following

species are but little enlarged if at all.]

D. BOOPS, GtliV.

Scales 21. Ventrals 265, subc. 160. Eye very laro-e.

Keddish olive, spotted with black and brown in transverse
and longitudinal bands ; belly marbled witii purple.
Bengal, Straits ;
rare.

D. DENDROPHILA, Reimv.
Scales 21. Ventrals 211-229, subc. 90-112. Black, irides-
cent, with numerous
narrow yellow cross-bands ; throat
yellow ; belly black, or marbled with black.
Straits.

D. BUBALiNA, Klein,
Scales 21. Ventrals 249-252. Green above, orreenish
olive below ;
black interstitial skin.
China or Assam ;
rare.

D. MULTiMACULATA, ScJikr/el. The Burtuese hroiun tree-snake.

Plate XVI, fig. 6.

Scales 19, sometimes 17. Ventrals 202-245, subc. 80-106.

Dark fawn, with a numerous dorsal series of round dark
spots with black and white margin ;
the spots often have
 102

black pendants and alternating small dots; head with a

black >• and post-orbital streak or with a broad arrow
;

enclosing a large round spot; belly white mottled with

fawn. Grows to above 3 feet, tail nearly one-fifth.
Burma, Straits, China. In Burma it appears to replace
D. gokool.

D. TRIGONATA, Schneider.

Scales 21. Ventrals 235-269, subc. 79-102. The preocular

reaches nearly or quite to the vertical. Yellowish or greyish
olive, with dark brown quincuncially sagittal cross-bars.
Head mottled, with occipital spots and post-orbital streak ;

belly white, with lateral brown dots.

Common in India. Grows to 4 feet.

D. MULTIFASCIATA, Bhjth.

A variety of the preceding.

A solitary museum specimen.
D. GOKOOL, Gray. The common hroiun tree-snake. Plate
|.h>M,v XVI fig.
5.

Scales 21, vertebrals enlarged. Ventrals 211-231, subc.

78-85. Preocular does not reach the crown. Yellowish or

greyish brown, with a series of irregular buff vertebral dots,

> from the sides of each of which drops a black fasciolated Y
mark ; belly yellowish, with black lateral dots ;
the head has

f
a large brown [x mark, divided by a yellow >h . Grows to

,
Ki^ '3 feet, tail one-sixth.

Common in Southern India.

I
Ja Much confusion has existed between D. gokool and D.
^
trigonata. The former is distinguished by the lower pre-
'

ocular, peculiarand decided head-markings, fewer ventrals

and the fasciolated shading forming the posterior arms of
the Y dorsal marks. It is the more common of the two.
 103

D. CEYLONENSIS, Gthv.
Scales 19. Ventrals 220 + 108. Grey, with black verte-
bral spots, each emitting a down-streak black head blotch
;

and post-orbital streak.

Appears to be the Ceylon variety of D. gokool or

trigonata.

Family XVII.—PSAMMOPHID^.
Body and generally elongate, head very distinct, with
tail

the loreal region very concave. Eye moderate, pupil round

or vertical. Head-shields normal ;
loreal present ; posterior
frontals rounded or angulated behind ; supraciliaries promi-
nent. Anterior teeth longest, the last grooved.

Ground snakes approaching the Dipsadidse in form, with

ventrals much less than 200.

PSAMMOPHIS, Boie.

Body and tail elongate ; long and rather pointed snout.

Vertical long and narrow; loreal elongate. Pupil round.
Scales smooth, 15-19. Anal bifid.

P. coNDANARUS, Mervem.
Scales 17, lanceolate, with minute apical groove. Ventrals
176-182, subc. 80-90. Nasals generally double, sometimes

single. Buff or light brown, with a dorsal and a lateral

mottled black-edged stripe belly yellowish, with a very
;

thin lateral black stripe, sometimes a supra and an infra

orbital yellow streak from nose to neck.
India, Burma; rare.

PSAMMODYNASTES, Gilnther.

Body and tail rather stout; snout short, vertical long,

anterior frontals very small, nasal single, pierced by the
nostril. Pupil erect. Scales 17, short, rhombic^ smooth.
Anal entire.
 104

p. PULVERULENTUS, Boie. Plate XIII, fig. 3.

Ventrals 146-167, subc. 50-59. Head long, crown flat,

snout obtuse. The second or third tooth long and enveloped

in a large mucous envelope so as to simulate a poison-fang.
Labials 8 (3, 4 & 5), the first General appearance
3 high.
and colour not unlike a narrow-headed Dlpsas. Light
short,
brown, mottled ;
when young a black vertebral stripe, with
an edging of black and white spots this disappears with age
; ;

belly and sides yellow with a median and two lateral rows
of brown mottling or lines ;
throat white, mottled ; k^ mark
on head.

I caught one specimen while it was swimming across the

Ranojoon lake. Adult lenorth 1 foot, tail one-fifth.

Assam, Burma, Straits.

Second Sub-order—VENOMOUS COLUBRINE

SNAKES.
Family XVIIL—ELAPID^.
Body moderate, tail rather short. Head-shields normal,
but no loreal. Eye small or moderate, with round pupil.
An erect poison-fang in front of the maxilla there being
one or more simple teeth behind.

NAGA.* (Naja, Lauventius).

Anterior ribs elongate, erectile, dilating the skin of the
neck. Head short and rounded. One rudimentary tooth
behind the poison-fang. Ventrals less than 200.-I- Anal entire.

* as the Avord is probably derived from

Usually Avritten Kaja ;

nCigam. I prefer to write it Naga.

t In a bleached specimen which I found in the Madras Museum
stores, there are 209 ventrals and only 21 rows of scales
both on the

body and the neck. It has also a fourth postocular completing the
orbital circle. I have not made a new genus for it.
 PLATE XV11.

^n •^
-y,:^0^M0ks
mo

is A

Ife-

Naga tripudians, the cobra.

 105

N. TRIPUDIANS,* Merrem. The Cobra.

Scales 21-23 on the four-tenths of the body below the
first tenth or expansive portion, but as
many as 33 on the
broadest portion of the cervical disk. The preocular and
the anterior frontal are somewhat fan-shaped, the posterior

angle of the latter resting on the broad part of the former.

There are two distinct varieties of this snake, if not two
species.

Variety a. The Binocellate Cobra. The Sj'yectacled Cobra.

Gohurra of Bengal. Plate XVII.

Scales 23. They are 31-38 at the ocelli, 25 at the black

posterior edge of the hood. Ventrals 184-197, subc. 53-69.

The neck is marked between the 10th and 17th transverse
series of scales with a white, black-edored d or *s enclosinar
at either extremity a black ocellus. This pattern is entirely
on the steel-brown skin, and is only seen when the cervical
disk is expanded ;
then the scales are distant from one
another like grains of linseed symmetrically arranged in
rows at other times the scales are imbricate and conceal
;

the pattern. The general colour varies from light olive, or

even buff, to dark brown :this colour is entirelv on the
the interstitial skin being white, occasionally with
scales,
dark cross-bands. A
common variety has numerous narrow
light cross-bars, generally in pairs. Under-parts ash or
dark mottled anteriorly
;
a lateral black spot corresponding
to the position of the ocellus on the neck two or three ;

series of ventrals between the 15th and oOth are very dark,
nearly black. The colours are variable in shade, but they

merely mark 'caste' as the Indians say, and a dozen

different castes can be made out of a large '

bag of cobras

* to dance on the toe (Hyde Clarke's English

Tripiidiate, v. i.

Dictionary.) Ex.
" —
tripudiant matrons" (Saturday Review.) French
zoologists, who translate literally the Latin names of animab, call
this snake Naje haladine.
14
 lOG

brouorht in for reward. As a rule the cobras found on the

coast are much lighter than those of inland districts.

This binocellate variety is found in the South of India

and on the coast generally. I found two specimens in
Burma ; but, from their fangs being absent and the fang
matrices cicatrized, they had evidently been imported by

jugglers and had escaped. My

largest specimen is 5 feet
8 inches lons^. There are few Enojlish residents in India
who cannot vouch to having seen specimens of 6 feet and
upwards ;
but the application of a foot-rule has a very

dwarfing effect on snakes of great apparent length.*

Variety h. (6 of Giinther). Naga moiiocellata ? The Mono-

cellate Cobra. Kiotia of Bengal. Pi ate XVIII, fig.
2.

Scales they are 25-27 at the ocellus.

21 ;
Ventrals
185-191, subc. 53-59. Instead of spectacles, this variety
bears a plain white ocellus, with black centre and margin.
The colours are very much the same as in the other variety,
but generally darker. This one does not grow to so large a
size ;
I have only once seen a specimen above 4 feet 6
inches and the tail is rather shorter, one-seventh instead of
;

one-sixth. It is the cobra of Burma, but is found also in

Bengal and the Central Provinces.

OPHIOPHAGUS, Giinther,

The neck is dilatable, but to a less extent than in JSaga.

Occipitals surrounded posteriorly by three pairs of large

* Out of cobras brought to me at Bangalore for the Govern-

1,200
ment reward, there were only four which exceeded 5 feet 6 inches in
—
length. These were respectively a male 5 feet 6^ inches— a male
—
5 feet 1\ inches a female 5 feet 8 inches (tail 12 inches), weighing

21 lbs. —a male 5
feet 6f inches, weighing 3j lbs. The first three
were perfect, the last had a rather stumpy tail reconstructing it,;

from the number of subcaudals, I found that had not the cobra met
with some accident he might have been 2 inches longer, which would
have brought his length up to 5 feet 8| inches.
 PLATE XVIIL

>m>'

r VAX V^Y V
A -'

VVj

^^•;^
;=ij:

'^^ ^#^

¥:.

1^
'*J

* '
*.«•.-

¥mmi
irf^^i«f^'..

Fig. 1.
Oi^hiophagus elajps.
Fio- -7
Naga trlpudians var. monocellata.
 107

shields, the two anterior being temporals. Scales smooth,

large, 15 rows. Ventrals above 200.

O. ELAPS, Schlegel. The Hamadryad. Plate XVIII.

Scales 15 ;
on the hood there are about 19. Ventrals
215-262, subc. 80-100 ;
about the first ten subcaudals are
entire, and sometimes the last few ventrals are two-rowed.
There are two varieties distinguished by the Burmans, the
dusky gndn bok and the banded gndn hiva. The former is
of general brownish olive colour. The latter is yellow, with
about 50 bands formed bv black interstitial skin and black

margins to the scales, the latter increasing until towards the

tail the colour becomes black, with yellow bands, lower
parts yellow, posteriorly black. The young snake is
jet
black, with bright yellow bands ;
in addition there are three

yellow bands on the head, one through the occipitals, one

through the vertical behind the eyes, and one through the
anterior frontals the two posterior of these consisting of a
;

large yellow spot on each shield.

This snake grows to 12 feet in length; when at bay its

head stands about two feet off the ground. From its large
size it is much less manageable than the cobra, but Burman

jugglers make it go through much the same performance.

It will eat other snakes, and there appears to be enmity
between and the cobra, the latter (I am credibly informed)
it

attacking it with fatal effect. When watching its eggs it is

very savage, and will drive away by hostile demonstration,
or even pursuit, any passers-by ;
at other times it is peace-
able enough. It is found in the jungles of Cuttack and

Burma, and in the Anamullays.

BUNGARUS, Daiulin.

Tail short, head small, hardly distinct from the neck, the
skin of which is not dilatable. Eye small. Scales 15, smooth,
the vertebrals large aiul hexagoiud. Ventrals above 200
 108

Anal and subeaudals entire. Oue or two teeth bebind the

poison-fang.

B. CiERULEUS, Schneider. B. arcuatus, D. and B. The

Indian Bungarus. Plate XIX, fig. 1.

Ventrals 201-221, subc. 38-56.

Upper parts jet black;
lower parts white, throwing white arches over the back.
(Hence B. arcuatus is a far preferable name, as there is not
the slightest cserulean colour about the snake). The first
arch is generally an incomplete collar, the next three are

single then they divide into pairs, of which there are about
;

30. This normal pattern is subject to variation sometimes ;

the arches remain single, and in one variety are incomplete.

This snake grows to about 4 feet long, but is rarely found
above 2 feet, tail one-eighth young specimens are very
;

handsome. It is found in most parts of India, but is rare

in Burma, where it is replaced by the following :
—
B. FASCI AXH^, Schneider. The Malayan Bungarus. Plate
XIX, figs. 2 & 2a. 36
Ventrals 200-233, subc. 23-37. Tail very short and
stumpy, even swollen at the tip. Body of triangular section ;

spinous processes t)f vertebrae very prominent. Black, with

about 20 yellow cross-bands completely encircling the body
and tail. Head black, with a }•
ellow > converging upwards
«^
from the throat. Grows to above 6 feet Ion 2^. Common in

/• Burma ; specimens are found along the coast of Chittagong

and Orissa.*

B. CEYLON icus, Gthr.

Similar to the first species, but with complete black rings
and narrow white intervals.

* The
Malayan fauna creeps up the Chittagong coast and down the
Coromandel coast. Thus specimens of Ophiopluigu^ and Bungarus
fasdatus are found as far south as G an jam and the JVaga monocellata
has spread into Bengal and the Central Provinces. The converse
invasion is rare.
B. SEMIFASCIATUS, Kuhi
Also similar to B. cceriileus, but the tail has complete
black rings round it.

China.
XENURELAPS, Gilvr.

Similar to Bungarus, but with double subcaudals.

X. BUNGAROiDES, Cantov.
Ventrals 224-237, subc. 44-46. Black, with
Scales 15.
narrow white cross-bands directed forward white bands on ;

belly white, with irregular cross-bands,

the head ;
or red,

with black spots.

Assam and Khasi Hills.

MEG^ROPHIS, GraTf.
Form similar to Bungariis, but with 13 rows of scales, the
vertebrals large, hexagonal. Anal and anterior subcaudals
entire.

M. FLAViCEPS, Reinhardt.
Ventrals 209-226, subc. 88-52. Black, with a vertebral line
and zigzag lateral stripe, white anteriorly, red posteriorly ;

head and neck red belly red, sometimes black anteriorly.

;

Straits.

CALLOPHIS,* Gray.

Body very long and slender ;

head short, obtuse, not dis-
tinct from the neck ;
tail short. Scales 13, vertebrals not

enlarged ; anal generally bifid ;

subcaudals bifid.

C. BIVIRGATUS, Boie. ^
:^^^'

Ventrals 248-284, subc. 38-50. Head, belly and tail, red ;

body black, with a lateral zigzag white blue-margined stripe.
Upwards of 4 feet in length.
Straits.

*
Formerly elaps but this name i.^ now restricted to the American
section of the genus.
 110

C. iNTESTiNALis, Laur.
Yentrals 223-271, siibc. 24.-26. A red black-edged verte-
bral stripe ;
a buff, black-edged lateral stripe. Belly alternate
pale yellow and black.
India, Straits.

C. GRACILIS, Gray.

Ventrals 238-311, subc. 21-28. Grey, a brown vertebral

line, with small button-like swellings a white, black-centred,
;

and black-margined lateral stripe between these stripes is

;

a series of black, white-edged spots belly pale yellow, with

;

black cross-bands tail red below, with an anterior and

;

posterior black, white-edged ring.

Straits.

C. PENTALiNEATUS, Bcdclome.
Cherry red, with 5 black stripes ;
neck black ;
head with
black markings, belly red. Very thin, 3 feet long.
Travancore hills.

C. MACCLELLANDII, Reiuh.
Ventrals 196-224, subc. 25-34. Head black, with a yellow
fillet ; body reddish brown, with black vertebral line ; belly
yellow, with variable black pattern.
Assam.

C. ANNULARIS, Gthv. Plate XIX, fig. 3.

Ventrals 208-234, subc. 27-33. Head

black, with a yellow
fillet body
;
reddish brown, surrounded by about 40 narrow
black rings, often interrupted on the belly these are doubled
;

by alternate ventral cross-bars.

Malabar ?

C. TRIMACULATUS, Daudiu.
Ventrals 245-274, vsubc. 30-35. Brown ;
head and neck
black, with yellow spots; belly red an anteriorl and pos-
;

terior caudal ring, the two connected below by black spots.

Tcnasserim (and Malabar ?)
 PLATE XIX.

''^iZuw
nrnyrpsx c2jL^

2a

I ''^'

Fi^. 1. Bungarus arcuatifs, (cocruleus) .

Fig. 2. B.fasciatus, one-sixth natural size; 2a, natural size.

Fig. 3. Go.llopliis annularis.

 Ill
I

C. MACULICEPS, Gthr.
Ventrals 205-247, subc. 24-32. Brown ;
3 black lines run
from the snout to join a broad black collar ; belly red ;
tail

black-rinored.

Straits.

C. NIGRESCENS, Gthv.

Ventrals 232-247, sjibc. 33-45 ;

anal generally entire.
Upper parts blackish, lower parts red ;
head marbled with
black ;
a black cj collar ;
a black, yellow-edged dorsal line.

Anamullays.

Family XIX.— HYDROPHIDiE.

Body cylindrical, compressed posteriorly tail strongly ;

compressed, forming a vertical fin. Head-shields pretty

regular, and usually only a single pair of
but no loreal,
frontals nasals generally contiguous. In most genera there
;

are no ventrals. Scales generally tubercular and dull. All

provided with a poison-fang, followed by 3 or 4 ordinary

teeth. Eye very small.

PLATURUS, Latreille.

Head-shields normal 2 pairs of frontals, nostrils lateral,

;

nasals not contiguous. Scales smooth, ventrals well developed,

anal bifid subcaudals present.
;

P. scuTATUS, Laur.
Scales 21-23. Ventrals 213-241. Generally an azygos
shield between the posterior frontals. Black rings, head
yellow, with black postocular stripe and median stripe.

P. FISCHERI, Jan.
Scales 19. Ventrals 232-241. No azygos shield. About
30 black rings, and median head stripe.
 112

AIPYSURUS, Lacepkle.

Body not much compressed the ventrals are well deve-

;

loped, and have a sharp median keel. Head-shields gener-

ally divided; one pair of frontals; nasals contiguous.
Scales smooth, subcaudals broad, entire.

Belongs to the Polynesian fauna.

A. ANGUILLiEFORMIS, Schmidt.
Scales 17. Ventrals 142. Brown, with vellow cross-

bands.

A. LiEVis, Lacep.
Scales 21. Yentrals 151-154.

A. Fuscus, Tschiidi
Scales 19. Ventrals 157-166. Brown.

DISTEIRA, Lacepede.
A pair of anterior frontals between the nasals. Scales
imbricate ; ventrals very small, with double keel.

D. DOLIATA, Lacep.
Scales 39-41. Ventrals 234. Brown cross-bands.
A solitary museum specimen.

ACALYPTUS, B. and B.

Croivn scaled ; a pair of frontals, nasals contiguous ;

no
ventrals.

A. suPERCiLiosus, D. and B.

Rare ;
found in the Pacific.

HYDROPHIS, Baudin (sp.)

Head short, shielded. One pair of frontals, nasals conti-

Scales generally tubercular. Ventrals rudimentary
guous.
'
in a com-
or absent. (They are said to be broad,' purely
parative sense.)
 pi
11

This extensive genus comprises by far the greater num ber

of the sea-snakes met with. The range of these animals
being unlimited by the circumstances which confine land-
snakes to particular localities, it may fairly be said that
every sea-snake of the Indian and Pacific oceans may be
found on the East Indian coasts therefore these individuals;

not actually found on these coasts are still included in the

East Indian fauna. I may here mention that 6 to 7 feet is
the adult size of the largest of the species at present known.
Their colour is generally buff or dirty white, with black or
dull sea-blue cross-bands. One species is represented in
Plate X.

is by no means complete and any

Their classification

description ofthem can hardly be satisfactory. I recommend

persons desiring to study them (and they offer a fine field
for study) to refer to the detailed description in Giinther's

Reptiles of India here I shall content myself with quoting

;

his synopsis of the species :

1. Scales more or less distinctly imbricate.

A Scales large, in not more than 17 longitudinal series

round the neck :
Kerilia, Gray.

Jtleaci snort ... ... ».. ... ... ^. JerdonU.

B Scales much hnhricate, rather small, in 43 to 47 series

round the neck ; ventral shields split into two :

Plydrus, (Shaiu), Gray.

Body stout ... ... ... ... . . . jy. stokesn.

C Scales in 23 to .38 series round the neck ; head not very

small) anterior loart of the body {neck) not, or moderately
slender: Hydrophis, {Daud.), Gthr.

Head rather short and broad, neck and body

of moderate length One postocular. Belly
with only a few ventral shields. h. major.

15
 114

Head of moderate size and width ;

neck and
body not elongate. One postocular. Ventrals

broad, 310. h. robutta.

Head of moderate size and width ;

neck and
body of moderate length. Two postoculars.
Ventrals broad, 817; scales with a short keel;
terminal scale of the tail very large. ,, hekkeri.

Head rather small neck and body some-

;

what elongate. One postocular scales strongly

;

keeled. Ventrals not much larger than the

adjoining scales. „ cm-uiescens/

Head of moderate size and Avidth ;

neck and
body somewhat elongate. Two postoculars ;

scales strongly keeled, the keel of each scale

with two tubercular prominences. ^^ aspera.

Head and width neck and

of moderate size ;

body somewhat elongate. One postocular.

Back with a series of round black spots,
alternating with black cross-bands. ,, spiralis.

Head of moderate size and width ;

neck and
body rather elongate. Two postoculars scales ;

faintly keeled. Ventrals broad, 320-426 ter- ;

minal scale of the tail small or of moderate

size. ,, cyanocincia.

Head rather small and short, neck and body

elongate. One
postocular 27 series of scales
;

I'ound the neck. Ventrals twice as large as the

adjoining scales. Trunk with 60 broad black

rings, nearl}?- suppressing the ground-colour. ,,
meiamsoma.

Head rather small and narrow; neck slender.

Two postoculars ;
23 series of scales round the
neck. Ventrals not twice as large as the

adjoining scales. Trunk with 41 cross-bands, „ sukincta.

 115

Head small ;
neck slender. Two post-
oculars ;
27 to 29 series of scales round the
neck. Ventrals not twice as broad as the

adjoining scales. Trunk with from 43 to 61

^- mgrocinda.
black-rings, not tapering on
the sides.

Head rather small ;

neck slender. Two
of scales round the neck,
postoculars 28 series ;

ventrals more than twice as broad as the

adjoining series. Trunk with from 42 to 48

cross-bands. -
„ elegans.

Head rather small ;

neck slender. One
postocular ;
83 to 35 series of scales round the
neck ;
vertical short. „ torquata.

D Head very small ; neck exceedingly slender :

Liopala, (Gray), Gthr.

The length of the thin part of the body is

more than one-third of the total. One post-
ocular 31 to 33 series of scales round the neck.
;

Trunk encircled by from 59 to 67 blackish

chlori*.
rings. ,,

The length of the thin part of the body is

one-third of the total. One postocular ;

31 to
33 series of scales round the neck. Trunk
with from 48 to 58 blackish cross-bands

extending to the middle of the side. „ Undsayi.

Two postoculars ;
26 to 28 series of scales
round the neck. Ventrals 376. Trunk with
from 60 to 64 rhombic blackish cross-bars ;

sides and belly not banded. ,, aMceps.

 116

One postocular; 23 series of scales round

the neck. Trunk with 38 broad black cross-

bands, confluent on the back and belly. jet. latifasciata.

One postocular ;
19 to 23 series of scales
round the neck. Trunk with from 53 to 59

complete blackish rings. „ coronata.

Two postoculars ;
33 series of scales round
the neck. Trunk with 62 blackish rings. ,^ diadema,

2. Scales not imbricate^ placed side by side.

A Head very small ; neck exceedingly slender :

Microcephalophis, (Less.), Gray.

One postocular. Ventral shields 228-249,

those on the hinder half of the body split into
two. „ gracilis.

Two postoculars. Ventral shields 316^ all

undivided. „ fasciata.

One postocular. Ventral shields 412-440,

those on the hinder half of the body split
into two. „ cantoris.

B Head of "moderate size ; anterior paH of the body not^

or moderatdy, elongate :
Thalassophis, (Schmidt), Gthr.

Head narrow, elongate ; body rather slender.

Two postoculars. Ventral shields twice as

broad as the adjoining scales, 350 in number. ,, lapemaides.

Head narrow, elongate ; body rather slender.

Two postoculars. Ventral shields twice as

broad as the adjoining scales, 271 in number.
Scales keeled, „ longicejof.
 117

Head narrow, elongate body rather slender.

;

One postocular. Ventral shields distinct, only

the interior being twice as broad as the adjoin-

ing series, 398 in number. h. stncticolHs.

Head rather narrow and produced ; body

somewhat elongate. Two postoculars. Ventral
shields twice as broad as the adjoining scales,
252-260 in number, scales with a central
tubercle. The first upper temporal shield
much lono^er than hio*h. omata.

Head rather thick and short, body of mode-

rate length. Two postoculars. Ventral shields

nearly twice as broad as the adjoining scales,

253-258 in number. The first upper temporal
shield is not much long^er than hi^jh 35 or 37
;

series of scales round the neck. ^^ emota.

Head and body of moderate width and length.

Two postoculars ;
nasal shields longer than
broad. Ventrals more than twice as broad as
the scales, 258 in number. The first upper
temporal shield longer than high ;
28 series of
scales round the neck. „ pachycercus,

Head of moderate size and Avidth ; body of

moderate length. Two postoculars ;
nasal
shields as broad posteriorly as they are long ;

anterior ventral shields broad. „ viperina.

Head rather short ; body moderately stout.

Two postoculars. Ventrals distinct, but not
twice as broad as the adjoining series. Back
and sides with large round spots, each with a
lighter centre. „oceUata.
 118

Head short and thick; body rather stout;

shields of the snout irregular. Two post-
oculars ;
scales with a strong white keel. Ven- "*-

trals bicarinate, not larger than the adjoining

scales. JJ. anomala.

Head short and thick; body stout. One

postocular. Ventral shields nearly twice as
broad as the scales of the adjoining series. „ curta.

Head short and thick; body stout. One

postocular. No distinct ventral shields. Trunk
with from 41 to 43 blackish cross-bands, not
exceeding downwards to the belly.
*

^^ hardivickii.

Head short and thick ; body stout. One

postocular. No distinct ventral shields. Trunk
encircled by from 29 to 84 (37) black rings. ,, loreata.

The following species have lately been added to the

ojenus :-

H. fayreriana.
H. tuherculata.
H. crassicollis.

H. steivartii.

H. nigra.

ENHYDRINA, Gray.

Differs from Hydrophis in having a deep notch in the

lower jaw.

E. BENGALENSis or VALAKADYEN, Gray. Plate X, fig. 6.

The rostral is lobulated and fits into the deep mental
notch. Scales 48-50.
Common on the Burman coast.
 119

E. SCHISTOSA (?)

Wider gape, longer head, shields less granular. Scales 58-60,

PELAMIS, Dcmclin (sp.)

Head with long spatidate snout, a pair of

flat, frontals,

nasals contiguous no ventrals.

;

P. BICOLOR, Schneider.
Black above, light brown below, with a yellow lateral
band. Each scale sometimes impressed in the middle.

Third Sub-order.—VIPERINE SNAKES.

Family XX.— CROTALIDiE.
Body stout, tail moderate or short. Head broad, sub-

triangular, generally scaly or imperfectly shielded. deep A

pit on the side of the snout corresponding to the cavity of
the maxilla. Eye moderate, with erect pupil. Poison-fang
long, no simple teeth behind it.

TRIMESURUS, Gray. (Trimeresurus, Gilnther.)

Head shielded only in the supraciliary and rostral regions.
Body and head covered with more or less keeled scoJes ; 17-27
rows. Anal entire, subcaudals double.

T. GRAMiNEUS, Bhaiu. Plate XX, fig. 3.

In this and the following five species the second labial

forms the front of the facial pit. The small supranasals are

separated by a small azygos shield. Scales 19-21. Ven-

trals 158-170, subc. 58-71. Grass green, belly paler, yellow
lateral stripe.

Burma, Straits, China, Assam.

T. ERYTHRURUS, CautOT.
Scales 21. Ventrals 150-164, subc. 54-70. Supranasals
contiguous. Same colour as the preceding, tail red or ruddy,

lips often white.

Bengal; Burma, China.

 120

T. CARiNATUS, Gray.
Scales 23-25.Ventrals 161-167, subc. 45-68. Head scales

small, strongly keeled supranasals not contiguous.

;
Grass-

oreen, paler below, with or without a white lateral stripe,

tail often reddish, belly often white. Grows to about 3 feet

lono-, tail one-fifth or less.

Burma, Assam.
I consider that the above three species are merely varie-
ties of a species. T. viridis, the green tree-viper. Their
colour is delicate and variable ;
the keeled scales, the reddish

tail, and the side stripe may be present or absent in either

of these varieties.

T. MUTABiLis, Stolicska.
Scales 21. Ventrals 156-167, subc. 48-62. Reddish brown,
with numerous greenish white cross-bands and two longitu-
dinal lateral stripes of the same colour.

Andamans, Nicobars.

T. CANTORIS, Blyth.
Scales 29. Ventrals 174-184, subc. 55-76. Green, with
alternating fquincuncial) series of dark spots often a lateral;

white or white below tail prehensile, com-

line, greenish ;

pressed.
Andamans, Nicobars.
T. PURPUREUS, Gray.
Scales 25-27. Ventrals 162-171, subc. 65-70. Dull reddish

brown, pale green on the sides, yellow lateral stripe, ven-

trals and subcaudals marked with brown.

Straits.

T. ANAMALLENSIS, Gthr.
Scales 21, more or less keeled. Ventrals 148-158, subc.
49-55. Supranasals generally separated. Yellowish green,
with vertebral series of rhombic black spots variegated with
yellow. Head marbled with black, post-orbital streak.
Anamullays, Wynaad.
 121

T. MONTICOLA, Gtho\

Scales 23, slightly keeled. Ventrals 137-141, subc. 41.

Dark ash or brown, alternating dorsal series of black spots ;
sides black-spotted, yellow post-orbital streak ; yellow kj

mark on the neck, belly mottled brown.

Himalayas.

T. CONVICTUS, Stolicska.

Scales 21, keeled. Ventrals 132, subc. 29. Hardly

different from T. monticola ; cj mark on the neck.
Straits.

T. STRIGATUS, Gray. The hroiun tree-viper.

Scales 21, keeled Ventrals 136-142. The second labial

does not form the front of the facial pit. No supranasals.

Brown, with large irregular mottled dark spots and white
angular JD mark on the neck.
Nilgiris, Coimbatore. Formerly Trigonocephalus nilgi-
rieiisis.

T. WAGLERi, Schlegel.

Scales 23-25. Ventrals 139-150, subc. 42-53. The

second labial does not form the front of the facial pit. Head
scales keeled. Variable in colour ;
when young, green
with short, reddish buff cross-bars ;
the adult is black, with
about 35 yellow cross-bands ; yellow post-orbital streak.

Straits. Formerly Trigonocephalus sumatranus.

T. TRIGONOCEPHALUS, Merrem.
Scales 17-19. Ventrals 147-152, subc. 57-63. The ante-
anal is notched or divided. Green, with black vertebral
stripe emitting alternate cross-bars ;
black post-orbital and
head streaks ; pale green below.
Ceylon.
16
 122

T. ]\iucROSQUAMATUS, Cantov.

Ventrals 219, subc. 91. Brownish grey, with black ring-

spots.
Assam. A solitary museum specimen.

T. ANDERSONi and T. OBSCURUS are noted by Mr.

Theobald, but they would appear to be varieties of T. pur-
pureus and of T. ivagleri, respectively.

PELTOPELOR, Gilnther.

Head covered with large shield-like imbricate scales.

Body scales 12, large, keeled.

P. MACROLEPis, Beddome. Plate XX, fig. 4.

Ventrals 134-138, subc. 53-56. The large head scales

are arranged very much like shields, there being a vertical

and frontals. Uniform green, paler below, with yellow side

streak.

Anamullays, Nilgiris.

CALLOSELASMA, Cope.
Head normally shielded. Scales 21, smooth. Tail ends in
a long spine.

C. RHODOSTOMA, Reimo.
Ventrals 13S-156, subc. 36-54. A subocular present.
Reddish olive, dotted with brown; black vertebral line;
dorsal series of erect triangular black spots flesh-coloured ;

streak from the snout above the eye ; lips reddish olive.
Grows to 3 feet.
Siam, Java.

HALYS, Gray.
Head normally shielded. Scales 21-27 heeled. Tail ends
in a long spine.
 123

H. BLOMHOFFii, Boie.

Scales 21. Ventrals 136-150, subc. 43-56. Three large

temporals separated from the occipitals by scales, and conti-
guous to last 3 labials. Brown, with a dorsal series of large,
round dark spots belly marbled brown.
;

Japan,

H. HIMALAYANUS, GtllV.

Scales 23. Ventrals 162-166, subc. 43-51. Temporals

separated from occipitals by scales, and confluent with the
last 3 labials. Sometimes an azygos shield before or behind
the vertical. Dark brown, with band-like spots black ; post-
dorbital streak ; belly black, marbled with yellow.
H. ELLiOTii, Jerdon.
Scales 23. Ventrals 151-43. Green, white below.
Nilgiris.

HYPNALE, Fitzinger.
Snout covered with numerous small shields ;
crown with
the normal shields but triangular and scale-like. Scales 17,
keeled. Tail ends in a small conical scale. i?

H. NEPA, Lcmr.

Ventrals 140-152, subc. 31-45. Brown, grey, or olive,

with a dorsal series of dark sag ittal spots. Sides and

belly mottled with brown brown post-orbital streak, with

;

whitish upper margin.

Ceylon, Malabar, Anamullays.

Family XXI.— VIPERID^.

Body stout ;
tail short ;
head broad, scaled or imperfectly
shielded. Nofacial int. Eye moderate with erect pupiL
poison-fang very loug, no simple teeth behind it
 124

DABOIA, Gray.
Nostril large, between 3 shields ; head completely scaled.

Body scales 29-31, much imbricate, strongly keeled.

D. ELEGANS, (russellii), Gray. The Chain-viper.^' Plate

XX.
Ventrals 163-170, subc. 45-60. Grey, with 3 series of large
black white-edged ring-spots, the vertebral series often

irregular and confluent. In young specimens the spots

have a beautiful velvety lustre. A yellow s» converges
towards the snout. Belly spotted with brown. Grows to
5 feet long, tail one-sixth.

South of India and Burma. The Indian Daboia is of

more brilliant coloration than the Burmese variety. More
common on the coasts than inland or above the ghats.

ECHIS, Merrem.
Head scaled ;
a pair of very small frontals ; nostril small

in a single shield. Scales 25-29, strongly keeled, much

imbricate. The lateral rows of scales, except the outermost
two, point downwards and the keel on them consists of a
line of dots. Subcaudals single.

E. CARINATA, Schneider.
Ventrals 149-154, subc. 21-26. Grey to light brown, with
a vertebral series of white, brown-edged spots, below each
of which is a semi-circular white streak enclosing a brown

spot. The pattern often less marked, consisting of a

is

chain of light arches on each side, connected in the median

line by a light spot. Broad brown > head-mark ; belly
white, spotted. 1-lJ foot, tail one-twelfth.
Not common, but widely spread.

* For Indian
synonyms, see Part III.
 PLATE XX.

L'Mv

mm

r>/'..'''

j?:ir?jr:^'=i

fis^

k>*.i

•t/.vl

Fig. 1. Trimesurus gramineus. Fig. 3. Dahoia eletjans.

Fig. 2.
Feltopelor macrolepis. Fig. 4. Echis carinafa.
 PART III-NATURAL HISTORY.

CHAPTER I.— The Snake at liberty.

We have but little knowledge of the habits of snakes when
at liberty, owing to the difficulties attending the observation

of such animals in tropical climates ;* vigilant and patient,

they mostly remain during the day io a state of repose,

seeking their prey at those hours when most animals have
relaxed from their usual watchfulness and are at rest for the

night. Whether ground or tree-snakes, they remain patiently

in the same attitude until their prey approach, then, gently

gliding over the short distance which intervenes, they

pounce on the unsuspecting victim. The approach is so
imperceptible that doubtless a certain amount of curiosity
must often fix the attention of animals on perceiving the
snake for two or three seconds before they become aware of
their danger ;
but of fascination as it is called, there appears
to be none.

The habits of snakes are so retiring and so little apt to

attract attention, that they rarely obtrude themselves on our
notice. The only occasions on Tvhich we observe them are
when they imprudently venture near our habitations, or
when the eye of the sportsman is quartering the ground
anxiously for the first movement of game. At other times
* From the
eagerness of people to look for the marvellous in all
that concerns snakes, the observations of non-scientific enquirers are

always open to suspicion. On this subject, the safest plan is to

believe nothing that yon hear, and only half what you see yourself,

guarding carefully against the liability of your visual impressions

being influenced by your expectations and pre-conceived ideas.
 126

they generally elude notice unless a European has sharp

;

siorht and habits of unconscious observation of what is pfoino"

on around him as he walks, he may live for ten years in

Indian stations without seeing ten live snakes otherwise than
in the hands of the juggler. My own experience is hardly
a fair criterion as I am
very short-sighted I cannot, there-;

fore, attach much importance to the fact that I do not once

a year come across a snake accidentally although, if I go
;

out snake-hunting, keeping a sharp look-out, I rarely fail

to bag a specimen of some sort. But cross-examination
of persons long resident in India leads me to conclude that
one snake per annum is a fair average estimate of the number
seen accidentally by Europeans living habitually in stations ;
4

s^Dortmen, of course, have a much larger field of observation..

The rainy season is the time when snakes are most lively;
in the hot and dry weather they retire to cool and moist

places. Season does not, as far as I have observed, affect

the casting of the skin in Indian snakes with regard to
;

the laying of eggs, its effect is variable. Young are pro-

duced once a year the period between the impregnation of
;

the female and the birth of her young is uncertain, but it

would appear to be from four to five months. In the
majority of snakes the eggs are extruded after about three
months gestation, the development of the embryo taking
place, as in birds, in the period between laying and hatching.
But while most snakes are consequently oviparous, certain
of them do not extrude the eggs with the embryo unde-

veloped, but retain them until maturity more or less perfect.

Between the strictly oviparous snakes and the ovoviviparous
snakes which extrude the foetus perfectly developed, there
are various gradations. The name viper was applied '

originally to all venomous snakes under the idea that this

class was distinguished by its viviparous habit ;

this has

been, however, proved to be quite erroneous, for though

most of the viperine snakes arc viviparous so are many
 127

harmless snakes, whilst the venomous colubrine snakes,

such as the cobra and the hamadryad, are perfectly
oviparous. Amongst viviparous may snakes be mentioned
the sea and fresh-water snakes (at least most of the latter) ;
the new Enorlish snake Coronella Icevis and some tree-snakes
are also ovoviviparous. Mr. Theobald records a specimen
"
of Tragops fronticinctus containing seven foetuses" each
one-sixth of its length.

The time of laying varies in different snakes, as will be

seen by the following examples *
:
—
The cobra, at Bangalore, is impregnated about January ;

the eggs are hatched in May and up to the beginning of

June. As manv as 19 younoj will be found in a brood.

APython molurus in the Paris Zoological Gardens, was

impregnated in January and February, laid 15 eggs on May
6th, of which eight were hatched on J uly Srd. — (Gilnther.)
Ptyas mucosus found containing 13 eggs, May, Bangalore.
Do. do. 9 do. do.
Do. 12 eggs hatched Sept. do.

Tro2ndonotus qidncunciatus lays Jany. & Feby., Piangoon.

Tropidonotus stolatus found containing eggs, May do.
Do. do August, Bangalore.
Tropidonotus suhminiatiis do. Nov., Bangoon, {Theobald).
Tragops py^asinus do. March, do. {Theobald).
Pipsas midtimacidata do. July, do.

Hypsirhina enhydris do. March, do. {Theobald),

Tritnesurus carinatus do. Dec, do. {Theobald).

The eggs are of the regular ellipsoid form of a silk cocoon,

the shell being of a tough parcliment-like material. In a

large Ptyas onucosus they were two inches long and 1-| inch
in the short diameter. The eggs are usually laid in a
hidden spot, such as a hollow tree, where some decomposing
^ I
regret that the loss of a note-book containing the observa-
tions made during my stay in Burma prevents my giving more
complete information on this point.
 128

vegetable substances will afford equable warmth with suffi-

cient moisture to prevent the egg drying up through its thin'

covering. The eggs are frequently watched by the mother ;

some snakes (Pythonidse) incubate their eggs, while the
hsuneidrjSidOphiophagus,SiS I am informed on good authority,
makes a nest '
wild plantain' shrubs which by their
of

rotting give off heat and moisture. With regard to the

incubation observed in the case of the python, I do not think
that much stress can be placed on this point, the heat
shown to be imparted to the eggs, though of some use
in temperate climates would be scarcely needful in the
natural climate of the snake. I have frequently observed

Tropidonotus quincunciatus, when it has laid eggs in

captivity, to lie on them apparently incubating them but ;

I should not infer that it would do so when at liberty, and

moreover the eggs so incubated were all shrivelled up. The
same fate awaited all eggs which I have kept in sand or
sawdust, whether dry or moist to hatch the eggs artificially
;

they should be placed in dung heap compost.

When the young snake is mature it makes its escape
from the shell by means worthy of attention. A tooth
isdeveloped on the premaxillary for the purpose ;* it is flat
and horizontal, being used like a leather-knife with it the ;

snake makes several cuts in the end of the parchment shell

until, two cuts meeting, a valvular opening is formed by this ;

the young snake escapes. In many cases the young snake

retains for some time the remains of the navel string (the
vitelline duct), and the navel after closing is long visible as

a slit in three or four ventral shields at about the thirtieth

ventral from the vent e.
g., the young cobra.
;
But Ptyas
mucosus emerges from the egg with the navel closed and no
trace of vitelline duct.

* This tooth falls off soon after the birth of the snake. It must be
remembered that in the lower types of snakes the Pythonidce bear
teeth on the premaxillary.
 129

Ifc be taken as a rule that at birth the young snake is

may
H about one-sixth of the adult length the cobra, adult length
;

66 inches, is 11 inches at birth; the Ptyas, adult length

about 8 feet, is 15J inches long at birth. Young snakes
grow rapidly during their first year, more
than doubling in

length. Out of 1,000 cobras brought to me at Bangalore

between August, there were 230 young of the
May and
season, from 12 to 16 inches long; above this length there
were one of 29 inches long and six between 30 and 36 inches ;

all the remainder were above three feet long, mostly from
four to five feet. This great gap in the lengths found at the
same season shows 1° that the cobra produces young only
once a year and at about the same month, 2° that the young
iheasurinor less than one foot at birth attain for the most

part a length of three feet by the next hatching season.

After theyear growth is slower Lenz, from observa-

first ;

tions on the indigenous snakes of Europe, concluded that

maturity is attained at the fourth year, (i. 6.,

three years of

age), when Of the age to which

the snake begins to breed.
snakes attain, we know little; as they grow older they
increase, but slightly in length, but wax fat and heavy.*

Snakes feed upon small animals of any description as long

as they are of proportionate size. Frogs are the principal
food of the large and middle-sized ground-snakes, toads do
not come amiss to them ; rats, birds' eggs, and mice are also

* " A reticulatus lived in the menagerie of the Zoological

Python
Society of London for fifteen years ;
when brought to England it was
11 feet long, and in ten years it had attained to a length of 21 feet,
afterwhich no further growth could be observed. According to
observations made by Bibron on young rock-snakes born in the
Garden of Plants in Paris, this specimen would have been about four
years old at the time when it was 1 1 feet long." Gilnther. It is
—
unfortunate that in the Zoological collections of our Indian cities
there is no serpentarium in which the snakes of India can be system-
atically observed.
17
 130

favourite articles of food, whilst young birds, lizards, tree-

frogs and grasshoppers are the food of the tree-snakes. The fL

water-snakes live on and the amphibious land-snakes,

fish,

such as Tropidonotus quincuoiciatus, catch the fish which

inhabit the mud of marshes and irrigated fields.* A large

python might possibly manage a kid, or a fawn of the smaller

species of deer, but the stories of their swallowing goats,
stags, men, and oxen are pure travellers' tales. A full

grown cobra is very much distended when it has managed

to swallow a rat of half a pound weight, that is, about
one-fourth of its own weight. Many of the burrowing
snakes live on worms and insects, and some snakes actually
live on their brethren, at least on other snakes they are ;

probably hard up for food at the time. There is no reasoti

why a snake should not swallow another snake nearly as
big as himself he gets the chance I have seen two snakes
if ;

who had caught the same frog between them manoeuvre

very cleverly when their noses met the one who got his;

head within the other's jaw would certainly have gone down
alonsf with the froof if he had not freed himself from the fros
and the snake too by a sudden eflfort. When young, snakes
live on larvaB, flies, young geckoes and other lizards until they

are big enough to manage the usual prey of their species.

Snakes drink water freely ;

I have frequently counted
above a hundred gulps of water go down before the drinker
was satisfied. I have never succeeded in inducing a snake
to drink milk, though, when water was afterwards offered, it
drank eagerly. The stories, ancient and modern, of snakes'

sucking cows' teats and robbing dairies appear to be doubtful.

I not altogether satisfied with the common account of
am
the manner in which some snakes (the Pythons) are said to
kill their prey, viz., by crushing it in their folds. The pres-
sure which the largest snake can exercise is very mild indeed,

* Piscibus atram

Improbus inglmdem ranisque loquacibus implet.— VirgiL

 131

just sufficient to hold tlieir prey if necessary and prevent it

escaping the only inconvenience of having a nine-foot
;

python or hamadryas coiled round one is that he is apt to

make a mess on one's clothes. Neither do snakes lick their

crushed prey ('
slaver it over' is the term used in story and
simile) before swallowing it if the prey is active, after
;

catching it with their teeth they throw a few folds round

it simply to
prevent it from struggling, and then bolt it head
foremost just as they would a frog.

Chapter II. —The Serpentarium.

The collector of snakes must study their habits if he
wishes to be successful in his search for specimens and I ;

ban only give a few indications as to the likely places for

them. Dry nullahs leading down to tanks are a good find
foramphibious snakes such as the Tropidonoti; tussocks
of grass in wet paddy-fields often afford shelter to the

ground vipers ;
the neighbourhood of houses is affected by
Lycodon the old galleries of white ants' nests are the refuge
;

of various kinds of snakes, cobras included ; the earth-snakes

are to be found under large stones, and the hollows of old
trees containing decaying vegetable matter are often chosen

by snakes as a nest for their eggs. The squeals of a frog

caught by a snake can never be forgotten if once heard, and
they often enable the collector to surprise a snake at his
meal. Snakes may often be captured while swimming, as

they are readily detected in the water.*

But the European in India can do little himself beyond
keeping a sharp look-out whilst walking for exercise or
after game ; by far the greater part of collections are made
by employing the patience and acuteness of Indians in this
* Most snakes take to the water
readily, either to capture frogs, or
to cross over to some other spot. I captured a snake which rejoices
in the highly terrestial name of Psammodynastes pulverulentus, the
dusty king of the desert, while itwas swimming across the Rangoon
lake.
 132

laborious pursuit. In stations where a reward is given by

the authorities for every cobra that is killed, other snakes
will often be brought in, and an arrangement with the police
will bring these to any one willing to give a small reward.
Where public money is not devoted to this philanthropic
object the best way is to make generally known amongst
toddy-drawers, fishermen, grass-cutters and Indian camp-fol-
lowers in general, that a reward will be given for every snake
that is brought in, varying in amount according to the rarity
of the soake, whether it be in good condition, and alive or
dead. By giving an extra reward for live specimens, all

unnecessary destruction of the harmless common snakes will

be avoided ; and the attention of the snake-catchers can be
diverted from these kinds by having some specimens kept^
for their inspection in the verandah live snakes or skins in
;

the case of the larger kinds, preserved specimens of the

smaller. Notice can thus be given that these kinds will
not obtain any reward.

I may here observe that Indians, those of the South at

least, to my knowledge know very little about any
certain
snake but the cobra, have no names for any but three or
four, and can give nothing but erroneous information.

The Moors know nothing about snakes, not troubling

themselves about any branch of zoology unconnected with
sport while the veneration of the Hindus being concen-
;

trated in the typical ndgam they know little about any

other snake. Snake-charmers and jugglers tell a lot of
nonsense ; and low Indians wishing to show off their intelli-

gence before master, find little trouble in evolving from their

inner consciousness a name for any snake pointed out to
them. They have perceived that it is a point of honour
with most Englishmen to have a name ready for every strange
beast, and they humour this weakness by having a name

ready for every snake, and also a wonderful account of the

deadly eiOfects produced by its bite or by a blow of its tail.
 o
m
© o
a
V©

rd
OQ
• I—(
r— <

to
d

d
• ^^

d
 134

The terms viriyan, mandali, dnali, are used indistinctly

in Tamil and the kindred languages for any snake supposed
to be venomous the etymology of the first term is obscure,
;

the others signify either a ringed or decorated pattern.

Water-snakes receive the prefix nir or jla to the above

names a tree-snake may perhaps be distinguished as mavum
;

pdmhu. Burmans are often very intelligent in ophiology the ;

cobra, the hamadryad, the dhaman, the chain- viper, the

black-striped red dhaman ComiDsosoma, have all names in
the Burmese and Karen languages, and the people are well

acquainted with their habits.

Some snakes allow themselves to be caucrht without the

slightest attempt at resistance. The gentle Tropidonohts

stolatus,suhminiatus, and plumhicolor allow themselves to
be taken up, and in dry weather the ofier of a drink of
water will at once gain their hearts. But most snakes are
strongly opposed to being captured, and some show their

independence by snapping viciously. Tropidonotiis quin-

cunciatus and Ptyas both fight for their freedom even at
the earliest age, and, though they resign themselves philoso-

phically to a domestic life, are always a little uncertain to

handle ;
their bite is, however, quite harmless, and not very
painful.

The need provide himself with no implements

collector
a
beyond bag and his walking-stick, which, if placed on the
neck of any snake, will permit of its being grasped without
trouble. If the specimen has to be carried any distance and
is too large to bestowed into a pocket, no bag being at
hand, a piece of string to bind him to the stick will be
found useful, as holding a large snake by the tail is incon-
venient, and holding him by the neck becomes irksome,
especially in the case of a venomous kind. It must be
remembered that the great mobility of the maxillaries will
often enable a snake to turn round on your fingers when
 1 *^x
loo

you think he is quite secure therefore, take care to place

;

your finger and thumb on either side of the neck, never

above and below it.

A cobra standing at bay can be readily captured put the ;

end of a stick gently across his head and bear it down to the
ground by a firm and gradual pressure he will not resist
; ;

then place the stick horizontally across his neck and take
him up. You must not dawdle about this sharp is the ;

word in dealing with snakes, and they have as much respect

for firm and kind treatment as contempt for timidity and
irresolution. When, however, an active snake carries on a
running fight, the only way to capture him is to give him a
tap across the back sufiiciently hard to take the go out of
him without injuring him. If you wish to capture your
specimen alive, err rather on the side of mercy and see how
gentle a blow will suffice to put him hors de combat. Even
if you want the snake for the museum and not for the

menagerie, it is still important to secure him with as little

injury as possible.

The juggler or snake-exhibitor keeps his snakes in flat

baskets of just sufficient size to hold a cobra when coiled up.
However convenient this basket may be for portability and

exhibition purposes, it is not suitable for other snakes than

the cobra, and it is only admissible as a temporary lodging.
The best habitation for snakes would doubtless be a verandah
fenced to a sufficient height with wire gauze ; it might be
divided into compartments in order to separate snakes of

ophiophagous habits from the rest of the community, and be

provided with water and shrubs sufficiently to gratify the
desire for coolness and shade.
Such a serpentarium would
enable interesting observations to be made on the habits of
snakes.* The floor should be strewn with sand it would ;

* Observations
regarding the casting of skin and teeth, the laying,
incubation and hatching of eggs, the oviparous or ovoviviparous
nature of various snakes are very much needed.
 136

not often require renewal owing to the inoffensive nature

of the uric acid excreta of snakes.*

Next above arrangement, the best serpentarium

to the

consists of wooden boxes, old wine cases, in which the wood

is replaced as much as possible by glass and wire gauze or
perforated zinc. A flat-bottomed pan of water should always
be kept in the box, for not only do snakes drink freely, but
they also like the cool shade to be enjoyed by coiling them-
selves closeround the pan. If a small pot of water be also
given them, some snakes will proceed to inhabit it. It will
not be uncommon to see half a dozen Tropidonotus quin-
cunciatus coiled down comfortably in the pot of water and

staying there for days together ;

a head coming up occa-
sionally to breathe, and sinking down again directly.

A few pieces of brick must also be provided in order to

facilitate the periodical casting of the skin ; failing these
convenient points of attachment, the skin will come off in

fragments instead of being cast in its integrity.

To take a snake out of the box, when he is not sufiiciently

domesticated to be taken up with the hand, lift his body
with a hooked stick, and, as his tail glides over take hold
of and deposit him on the floor or in a spare box. If you
it

wish to tame the snake, he must be taken out daily and

gradually accustomed to being handled ; if you could

persuade him to drink milk, the offer of it would become a
great inducement to good behaviour. A
cobra must always
be taken out daily and gradually tired out of his wildness,
but in the intervals of his performances he should be left
alone and not worried. There is very little danger about
handling this snake, nerve is all that is required. I have

* Snake's
dung was, some years ago, of value ; about three shillings
per lb. was the price, if I remember right it was used as a source of
;

uric acid for the manufacture of mitrexide, a brilliant purple dye.

This was shortly before the discovery of the aniline dyes.
 1 *^*7

very little of it myself, and can never handle venomous

snakes Avitli confidence; I have often envied the nerve of a
friend in Rangoon, who, emboldened by the possession of a
fancied antidote in case of accident, handles cobras with

perfect freedom he puts his hand into a narrow-mouthed

;

basket containing several cobras, and picks out the one he

wants without the slightest objection on the part of the
snake beyond the usual hard swearing.

When the cobra is on the floor, squat down before him and

bring him to attention, if he is making tracks, by a smart

smack on the back then, by a side-to-side movement of the
;

knees or gently moving in front of him a piece of chalk or a

rolled up handkerchief held in the left hand, he can be kept
steady for a long time, following your movements. If your
attention relaxes, he calms down and backs away catch ;

hold of him by the smack him on the back, and he

tail or

will come to attention again. Keep him occupied with an

object in front of him, and you may do anything to him ;

place your right hand above his head, and you can bring
him flat to the ground, but without any attempt at resist-
ance. After he has stood up for some time, it is easy to

provoke a strike this, however, is rarely done viciously,

;

and the injury inflicted is generally confined to his own

nose most captive cobras have their noses barked raAv from
;

frequent hits against hard substances.

The country music played by snakes-charmers durino- the

cobra's performance is, I need hardly say, quite superfluous,
and, from the very imperfect condition of the auditory
apparatus, it is highly probable that, far from enjoying music,
he has very little The Burmese put
appreciation of sound.
him through the same performance without the aid of
music, and without extracting the snake's fano-s, a
also

precaution generally taken by the Indian jugglers. These

men not only take out the fangs, but, aware of their repro-
18
 138

duction, often cauterize the fang-matrix in some evidently ;

escaped cobras which I have in my

collection, there is not
a trace of fang or matrix.

A feast and a fast is more the custom of snakes than

frequent feeding ;
their prey is generally sufficiently large
to ^afford their digestive organs exercise for several days,
and during this time they take their ease lying in wait for
another meal. The possibility of keeping snakes in captivity
entirely depends on their temper some snakes feed readily,
;

others are sulky and obstinately refuse food. Amongst the

latter are cobras I do not know how they
; manage with
them in Zoological Gardens, but I have never seen a cobra
feed, and I think that, unless fed by force, he will starve
himself to death. The chain- viper Dahoia is very sulky ;

if cauo^ht when in e^ood case it will live for six months or

more without food or drink; but the cobra does not
survive its voluntary starvation for more than a month or
six weeks. Jugglers either feed their cobras by cramming
them with milk or curds, or else let them loose when the
lives of their captives are endangered probably their ;

experience in snake-catching enables them to re-capture

their prisoners at a future time.

If a snake will not feed himself after beinor two or three

weeks in captivity, he must be fed. The most convenient
food for the purpose is fish ;
catch the snake by the neck,
the finger on one side, the thumb on the other present the ;

head of a convenient-sized fish to him, he will easily be

induced to make a bite at it, then force it down his throat,

guiding the tail with a forceps when it comes within range

of the teeth. I need hardly say that the fish should not be

cooked, and need not be alive. If the snake, on being

released, throw up the fish,* you must begin again, and give

* Asnake on being captured generally throws up any recently

indigested food, and some timid snakes must not be disturbed after
their meals lest their digestion be deranged in a similar way.
 139

liim two fish (on the chance of his retaining at least one)
and coax them gently down his gullet. Leaving the back-
fin untrimmed may also mechanically prevent the rejection

of the fish.

Most of the ground colubrine snakes feed freely in

captivity Ptyas viucosits especially is very eager at his
;

food,* and will bolt frogs of very large size, I feed these
kinds of snakes once a week I put two frogs per snake
;

into the boxes, and let them divide the total number
amongst themselves. Pythons need only be fed about once
a month ; bio: froGfs, chickens, or bandicoots are the best
food for them.

CHAPTER III.— The Museum,

The collector will rarely be obliged to kill a snake for the

purpose of examination. He will generally have quite

enousfh snakes broug^ht to him dead, and most snakes can
with very little trouble be identified while alive; he will

only have to kill are quite new to him or

snakes when they
are rare specimens worthy of preservation. The best wa}'-
to kill a snake is to poison it or to asphyxiate it by a
narcotic vapour ; interesting experiments may be made by

causing it to be bitten by venomous snakes, and an easy

in a
and painless way of killing a small snake is to put it

sufficiently large bottle and pour in a few drops of chloroform.

* was once drawn by the cries of four weaver-birds

My attention
(Plocem hay a) who were in a cage in my verandah. On going out I
found that a large Dhaman had lifted the lid of his box, carelessly
left unfastened, and had got out ; but instead of making instant
use of his liberty, he could not resist the temptation offered by this
the bars, and was
cage of birds; he insinuated himself between
bolting the second bird when 1 came to the rescue he caught hold;

of the third before I could secure him again.

 140

If taken out directly insensibility is complete, the anesthesia

will remtiin for an hour or more, and then pass away with-
out injury to snake but this temporary ansesthesia
the ;

should, of course, be avoided. Another convenient way of

killing a snake without injury is by blowing into its mouth
a drop or two of the oil from a dirty tobacco pipe, or
administering a few drops of strong decoction of tobacco.
But the systematic collector will find that carbolic acid affords
the readiest mode of killing specimens for the museum. The

liquid should be passed down the throat of the snake by

means of a glass pipette about nine inches long. Twenty
drops thus administered will a
destroy large cobra in a couple
of minutes. The snake is put to no apparent pain it soon ;

shivers, Ijccomes insensible and dies with paralytic symp-

toms.

When you have your dead specimen before you, you can
take down its description, diagnose it, draw or paint its

portrait (a plan strongly recommended to officersAvho are

disinclined to trail large bottles of specimens about the

country) or even photograph it but photography is not, I

;

find, a very successful delineator of snakes, and it does not

give the slightest clue to the pattern of their coloration. The

only snakes which can be photographed successfully are
those with lustreless scales, such as the Hydrophidce, some

Homcdopsidce, and the Vi2')eri7ia.

Either the whole snake, or merely its skin, may be pre-
served of stuffing I do not speak perhaps, on their arrival
; ;

in England some cunning taxidermist may be able to make

something better than a hideous sausage of your snake
skins,* but that is beyond the limits of my subject.
Snakes may be preserved entire by substituting glycerine
mixed with carbolic acid for the natural fluids of the body.

* Some a-cid exam})les of taxidermy applied to snake-skins may be

seen in tlie Madras Museum.
This process is, however, very troublesome, and I only use
it for small specimens and dissections these keep perfectly;

moist and fresh. One-eighth of carbolic acid added to the

is sufficient.
glycerine

The other methods of preserving specimens are, either by

putting them bodil}^ into spirit or other antiseptic fluid or

by preserving the skin only.

If spirit be used, should be strong, about 40 degrees

it

over proof (sp. gr. 870). Brandy and arrack are not nearly
strong enough for the purpose. But considering that strong
spirit is by no means easy to procure in India, that it
corruo'ates the tissues so as to render them difficult to

dissect, and that it weakens by evaporation thereby spoiling

the specimens, I prefer in all cases to use the following

antiseptic fluid,namely, rum or arrack of the strength it is

usually made in India (20 to 80 under proof) to which I
add either 4 per cent, of carbolic acid or 2 per cent, of
carbolic acid and 1 per cent, of arsenic. The latter is the

best addition, but specimens preserved in this arsenical

spirit should be dipped in water before being handled or

dissected, as the solution may blister the skin of the hand.

If the snake is known by experience to be perishable in

spirit, it up and the whole of the interior
should be slit

removed, otherwise a few incisions into the abdomen for

the purpose of removing any half-digested food and to let
the spirit penetrate everywhere will be sufficient, especially
in the case of small specimens. It should be removed to a

permanent location in fresh spirit after a week's soakino- in

the first or depot bottle. Tree-snakes are particularly diffi-

cult of preservation, and,however great care be taken, their

beautiful colours generally fade, and their epidermis
peels
off" in a very annoying manner.
Bright light is fatal to the
colours ;
the bottles should be kept covered up from the

light or a uniform dirty white will soon be the general

 142

colour of the collection. Unless the stoppers of the bottles

fit very accurately, it is well to prevent weakening of the
spirit by sealing the stoppers with soft wax.

you wish to show the teeth or poison apparatus of a

If

specimen, its mouth must be kept open ^vith a gag before

putting it into spirit, as otherwise you will find it a matter
of no small
difficulty to open the mouth after the muscles
have become rigidly fixed.

I think that the best collection is that where there are

two specimens of each snake, one in spirit, the other

consisting of the skin only it is well to avail oneself of a

;

leisure day to dissect and skin a duplicate specimen instead

of simply popping it into a bottle.

Begin by dissecting the skin from off the head, taking

care not to cut further down than the subcutaneous tissue
if you want the head for subsequent dissection. Slit the

snake down from chin to tip with a pair of sharp scissors,

keeping carefully in the median line of the ventral shields ;

as far back as possible on each

separate the skin carefully
side, and then take off the skin from the head downwards,
relieving the tension by frequent strokes of the knife on
the subcutaneous tissue. When you have skinned as far as
the vent, the skin must be carefully separated from its
anal attachments ;
and if it does not peel readily off the

tail, dissect it off rather than run the risk of breaking it.*

* The only snake whose

body-skin comes off with difficulty is
Bungariis fasciatus ; the neural spines are so long and so firmly
attached to the vertebral row of scales, that each has to be separately
dissected out, no slight matter when two hundred have to be so
treated ;
even then, button-holes will occasionally be made. In the
dhaman thereis a most intimate union betwixt the tail and its skin ;

on coming to the tail, the skin must be dissected off, do not attempt
traction.
 o
14:

When removed, it must be pinned out with

the skin is

the inner surface upwards on a board with a pin at every

3 or 4 ventrals, taking care to stretch the skin as evenly as

possiblethe subcutaneous and fatty tissue must then be

;

removed if the snake be at all of laro-e size. The best wav

to do this is to scrape from the cut edges of the ventral
shield towards the median line. When this is done, the
whole surface must be brushed over with a preservative
solution made by dissolving about half an ounce of corrosive
sublimate in a reputed pint bottle of spirit.*

This will coagulate any remaining subcutaneous tissues,

and will effectually preserve the skin against the attacks of

rp.ts or insects. Do
not get any on your nails, as it dyes
them a brown colour. Then complete the pinning out of
the skin with a pin to every one or two ventrals, according
to size, and let it dry in-doors until next day it may then ;

be taken off the board and transferred to the collection.

Small thin skins may be gummed on to large sheets of

paper, the others are best kept between two boards, as they
otherwise curl up in the hot weather.

If it be desired to preserve the skeleton of a snake there

is no alternative between laboriously dissecting away all
the soft parts and obtaining the bones clean, but separate,

by means of maceration. A.fter the skin, inside, and greater

part of the muscle has been removed, the snake should.

* Corrosive sublimate
(bichloride of mercury) being often required
for these purposes, I may mention that it is procurable in the drug
bazaars under the name (Tamil) of Shavirum. In Hindustani, the
name is stated to be Easkapur (meaning mercurial camphor) but ;

this name is frequently and more properly applied to a sulphate of

mercury. This substance is insoluble in spirit, and water changes it

into the insoluble yellow subsulphate {turpetlnim minerale) ; this

raskapur would have to be sublimed with common salt to change it

into bichloride of mercury. I have known many persons disappointed
at getting this substance when they wanted corrosive sublimate.
 144

be placed in a pan of water kept, covered, in some place

where bad smells are of no consequence. The water should
be changed occasionally, and after about a month's macera-
tion the bones will be obtained perfectly clean but entirely

separated ;
it is difficult even to save the skull from
separation into its component bones. It is said that placing

a dead snake in an ants' nest will produce a perfectly clean

articulated skeleton, but this is hardly possible unless you
can ensure that ants and ants alone shall have access to
the specimen. I find that while ants are free enough with

things not intended for them, their predatory instincts are

hardly amenable to useful application.

CHAPTER IV. — Snake-poison and antidotes.

In a preceding Chapter we have seen the structure of the

poison apparatus possessed by certain snakes and the

mechanism of its employment. A sketch of its effects is

required in order to complete the present brief account of

the subject.

When we take into consideration the entire series of

poisonous snakes, it will be seen that the toxic effect produced

by their bite varies considerably in degree and in quality.
For example, in the Australian genus Hoplocei^halus the bite
of one species, -H". cuvtus, is fatal to human life, whilst another

species, H. vaviegatus, can hardly

the smallest quadruped,
kill

and on man its bite

only produces a violent headache which
may be averted by simply sucking the wound.* Amongst
Indian venomous snakes the Trhnesxiri, a genus akin to the
rattle-snakes of America are harmless against any but the
smallest animals though possessing a poison apparatus more

liighly developed than that of the deadly Naga ; the effect

too is different great swelling and some pain are the only

*
Gerard KrefFt, the /Snakes of Aust7'ali((, page 57.
 14.-)

sensations .produced without any toxic symptoms, tlii;-;

being just the contrary of the effect produced by the bite of

the latter snake. Nevertheless, if the bite be inflicted by
any snake of highly venomous character, the constitutional
effects appear to be much the same, that is to say, intense

depression of the vital powers followed by loss of conscious-

ness, convulsions and probably death. Bleeding from the

mucous membranes of the mouth and alimentary canal is a

frequent pathological feature. Experiments have always

been made on animals, and cases of snake bite from well
identified species come so very rarely under medical observa-
tion that our information is very incomplete.
The following is a sketch of it such as it is :
—
Naga tviioudians, the cobra, possesses a poison fatal to all
vertebrate animals with the exception of a few other
venomous snakes; the harmless snakes mostly succumb to
its effect. It is hardly necessary to remark that a mongoos,

if fairly bitten by a cobra, most certainly dies. A fair bite

killsa dog in 5 to 60 minutes.* A

man survives from two
to twelve or even twenty -four hours. If the bite is a fair

one, that is, made willingly and viciously by a vigorous

snake on a part uncovered by clothing, the quantity of
be sufficient to produce
poison injected will almost certainly
fatal results unless active local measures are at once adopted.

Beyond a slight burning pain in the bitten part the patient

usually suffers but little.
It would appear from the following case, one of the few
extant in the records of white troops, that death may occur
in a healthy European after as little as two hours :
—
"
The death from a snake-bite occurred when the res^iment

* One of Dr. Shortt's

experiments would seem to show that \ grain
dry poison, equal to \ drop of fresh poison, has no effect on a large
full grown dog, and that about | grain, equal to 1^ drop of fresh

poison, is required.
19
 14G

was in camp for cliolera. All the information I can elicit is

that the patient reported himself at 10 P. M., an hour after

the occurrence, and when the usual symptoms were rapidly
advancinof,and died at 11 P. M. The blood on examination
was found to be dark and fluid tlie wound wa& under;

the right nipple and the snake was reputed to have been
;

a cobra." — Annual RepoH of the lOUh Regiment fc/)' 1862,*

Dahoia elegans. Bites from this snake often occur in

Burma where it is rather common ;
I am informed that in
the Tharawadi district the Burmans when working* in the

rice fields, wear stout

boots- in order to avoid unpleasant

should they accidentally tread on one. It is a

consequences
sluggish snake, not easily provoked to bite. A case of death
from its bite occurred while I was in Burma in the person

of a strong gunner of the battery stationed at Thyetmya

The account which I received of the accident states that
"
Soon after day break as he was entering the fowl-house,f
which in close proximity to the barracks, he observed a
is

dark thick-set snake of about two and a half feet in length

[afterwards identified as a dahoic(] and that he took up a
piece of bamboo and began teasing it, whereupon the reptile
turned and bit him on the fino^er. The snake held on for a

* This case was the

only one of the three Bengal deaths from
snake-bite amongst white troops during the period 1861-72 which I
was able to obtain. I sncceeded in obtaining it through the kind
assistance of Surgeon-Major Gibbon, officiating Secretary to the

Inspector General B. M. S.^ Madras. The case is recorded in the

A. M. D. Bluebook for 1862 but with the remark ''no particulars are
given." Tlie two other cases are not mentioned in the Bluebook for
the year. The only other case in India during the same period is

the Thyetmyo case recorded above.

t Eggs are so dear in Burma that many soldiers keep fowls to

supply themselves and the officers with new laid eggs. The fowl-house
is a small hut made of planks
put roughly together, and a good deal
of rank vegetation usually springs up round it.
 U7
short time and was with some little difficulty the man
it

shook it off.*** The man came at once to hospital, being

advised by one of his comrades to do so, when on the way he
became very weak. The apothecary saw the patient on his
arrival at hospital. supposed that a lapse of 20 minutes
It is

must have occurred from the time he received the bite until
he reached the hospital and nothing had been done mean-
while in the The Apothecary immediately
way of remedies.
scarified the freely, made tlie patient suck
wounded finger
the wound and administered ammonia." For twelve hours
no prominent symptoms appeared beyond swelling of the
arm, restlessness and slight feverishness. Next morning he
was found in a state of collapse, soon became unconscious
*

and died 27 hours after the bite.

Buoigarus arcuattis. Little is known about the effect

of the poison of this snake on man, for the snake is very

inoffensive and large specimens of it are rare out of 10,810 ;

deaths by snake-bite registered in 1869 in Bengal and the

Provinces under the Supreme Government, 359 were ascrib-
ed to the '
krait.' From experiments on animals appears to
it

be as deadly as the cobra. A case of snake-bite admitted

into the Madras hospital in May 16th, 1871, the man having
been " bitten by a snake the character of which he could
not recognize, on the dorsum of his left foot at 7 P. M. last
night"* is attributed by Dr. Shortt to this snake. The man
was admitted 9 hours after the accident, put on Dr. Shortt's
potash treatment 17 hours after (when we may say that im-
mediate danger had passed) and recovered slowly from the
secondary consequences in four days. In the words of Dr.
"
Shortt, This is the 8rd case of snake-bite cured by the

potash treatment, the two first were occasioned by cobras

and the present one by a Bungarus." (Madras Medical —
Journal, May 1872.) The ground for the presumption that

* Dr.
Paul's Report, Madras Medical Journal^ August 1871.
 I
148

the snake was a Bungaviis is that ha3morrhage from the

mucous membranes was a prominent feature in the case.

Bungarus fasciatus is said by Dr. Fayrer to be some-

what less venomous tban B. arciiatus. It is a much larger
snake nothino- is known about the effects of its bite on
;

man, as it belongs to the Malayan fauna and is very rare out

of Burma and Chittag-ono-.

Ophiophagiis elcvps is so rare, even in Burma, that

accidents from it are not often recorded. According to the

available accounts it is as venomous as a cobra ;

it is said that

an elephant bitten by it died in about three hours. I have

seen a Burman snake-catcher get bitten when playing,
with one (fighting is the more correct expression as this
splendid snake
was above 10 feet long and reared its
head at least a ground). He used his
yard oft' the

ordinary remedy, chewing dried vegetable pulp and

a

applying the quid to the wound

and was none the worse
for the bite.* I may observe that this class of Burmans
are little affected by these accidents, and I believe they
have a remedy against them. The nature of this I could
not find out ;
it is ascribed to the drug chewed, but I believe
that gradual inoculation of cobra-poison is the secret. *[*

This man, though quite careless about the bite of the cobra

* The snake was in perfect condition. I kept it for some time

but had to kill it on my departure from Burma its head is now in ;

my collection.

t In the Madras Medical Journal for November 1870, 1 pointed

out the possibility of careful inoculation with the poison of a snake
being an antidote against the effects of a bite from a snake of the
same family. Since then, March to July 1871, Dr. Shortt appears to
liavc made-an experiment on this point. A dog was inoculated on —
18tli March with one-sixth grain dry cobra-poison on 13th May with —
one-twelfth grains— on LStli ]\Iay with one-seventh grain. No ill

effect was produced. On 4th July half grain was inoculated, and the
 149

or the liamadryad, was very cautious in handling the

Dahoia ; he considered that he was not proof against the
poison of that snake and said that a finger, the absence of
which I had observed, had been chopped off to save him
from the effects of a bite he had received in handUng it.

The Callo^liides. Of the effects produced by the bite of

these snakes we know little or nothing. They are very small
and have such short fangs that fatal results are not much
to be feared. They are by no means common in India.

Sea-snakes, The Hydroioliidce are, as far as we know,

all venomous. A case is on record, where a sailor of a man-
of-war anchored at Madras, was bitten by a sea-snake 7^
feet lono- while handlino: it. Two and a half hours after-
wards he was seized with black vomit and spasms of the
throat and he was dead in four hours after the bite.
;

These snakes are usually very inoffensive though the ;

Indian coasts swarm with them it is extremely rare that

any happen to the fishermen. Out of the water
accidents

they are blind and sluggish. In the following case, re-

corded by Dr. Fayrer, the person was bitten while bath-

ing,and curiously enough had not the slightest idea of

how his illness occurred until a Burman remarked that his
symptoms were those of the bite of a sea-snake. The case is
that of a ship Captain at Moulmain, who while bathing at
8 P. M. felt a bite which he thought was that of a crab.

dog died in 18| hours, the symptoms coming on slowly. But, as

Dr. Shortt observes, the experiment was irregularly carried out.

It may be asked why I do not make these experiments mj^self. The

reasons are 1°that I have a great dislike to anything like cruelty
to animals. 2° That in experiments on snake poison the shglitest

approach to the discovery of an antidote appears to affect that part

of the brain in which phrenologists locate the faculty of judgment.
I do not wish to expose myself to the risk of this mental aberrance.
 150

Up to 10 p. M. he was quite well ;

in the night rigidity of

the muscles came on and at 4 A. M. vomiting. In the

morning at 8 o'clock, the bite, on the foot, was discovered ;

he had rigidity and spasms of the muscles all day. On the

next day he remained in the same state, at 6 P. M. spasms
set in and at 7 p. m. he died —
49 hours after the bite.*

The treatment of the bite inflicted by the highly ven-

omous snakes is an unsatisfactory and a very unpleasant
subject to deal with. Amongst the medical men of India
and Australia who have made a speciality of snake-bite
and its treatment, several antidotes have been found and
used with great success by their respective inventors.
From the days of the Tanjore pill to the year 1873 the

story to be recorded is much the same. Numerous Medi-

cal men have found the external and internal administra-
tion of ammonia to be a specific ;
but experience on man
and experiment on animals have shown it to have little if

any eflTect. Dr. Halford, of Melbourne, proposed to inject

ammonia into the veins, and his treatment has been

adopted with great success by some Australian Medical

practitioners ;
moribund persons rise at once, walk and eat.

Unfortunately there is another side to the question not in ;

a single case was there evidence that the snake was

of a deadly character, and it is well known that Austra-
lian venomous snakes have such short fangs that bush boots
or even ordinary cloth trousers are an efiicient protection

against accident from them. Moreover the experiments of

Drs. Fayrer (Calcutta), Hilson (Bijnour) and Richards (Bala-

sore) on animals bitten by cobras show that the remedy

has not the slightest efiect.

The treatment used by Dr. Shortt and which he claims

has cured the three men on Avhom it was used is the ad-

* Not 71 hours as stated by Dr. Fayrer, unless there be a mistake

ill the dates.
 151

ministration of potash internally and externally, by

draughts, enemata, fomentations, baths, &c. Suffice it to say,
that of the three cases thus treated, one was Dr. Shortt's
own second was a pariah coachman
snake-catcher, the
bitten inthe evening by a snake which the man said
was a cobra, the third was the case attributed to the
bite of a Bungarus and to which I have already alluded.
In the first case the local treatment (incision and suction)
at once adopted appears to deserve more credit than the
antidotal treatment afterwards employed ;
in the last two
cases the evidence is very unsatisfactory. Dr. Shortt considers
that potash neutralizes snake poison brandy administered
;

"
along with it roused the nervous system, excited the
circulation,and thus carried the potash into it as rapidly as
possible and enabled it to overtake the poison in the blood."
— {Madras Medical Journal, May 1872). Unfortunately
for the theory as well as for the practice of the treatment it
does not succeed even in the hands of its inventor, for the
cobra-bitten dogs into the blood of which Dr. Shortt injected

potash died as surely as those into which he injected

ammonia or those he left alone. The only dog which
survived (and it had a narrow escape) was injected with
somewhat less than a grain of dry poison dissolved in two

drachms of water and then mixed with half a drachm of

solution of caustic potash.* Now
we know that caustic
potash in tolerably concentrated solution destroys many
organic principles (such as that of hyoscyamus), so this

solitary exception easily accounted for.

is A drachm of
Liquor potassse added to a draught containing hyoscyamus
would by destroying the narcotic prevent it from takino"
effect, but there would be chance indeed of draughts
little

containing Liquor potassse having any beneficial efiect on a

patient who had taken an over-dose of hyoscyamus. It is
*
Reports of Dr. Shortt's public experiments, Madras Medical
Journal, March, April, May, 1870.
 152

evident that neutralization of the faintly acid cobra-poison

is quite ineffectual, for it is as readily neutralized by

ammonia as by potash ;
but as the former alkali has no
tendency to destroy it,cobra-poison mixed with Liquor
ammoniie shows no diminution of activity whilst that
mixed with Liquor potassse may show an appreciable
diminution. If further proof were needful, I might mention
tliat the blood is sufficiently alkaline of itself to neuturalize
the acidity of any amount of cobra-poison.*

The last antidote proposed is to the effect that artificial

respiration and galvanism has been tried with success in dogs

affected cobra-poison. This is evidently on the theory that

by
cobra-poison acts by paralyzing the respiratory muscles and
that enable the patient to tide over
artificial respiration will

the the
crisis untilpoison becomes naturally eliminated. This
idea, borrowed from Mr. Waterton's experiments with the

* man
It may appear singular that a medical should fall into the
error of supposing that the secretion of a salivary gland could consist

lorincipally of an acid capable of being rendered inert by neutrahza-

tion with an alkah. But really what can we expect when we find

that Dr. Shortt's notions on the gland and its secretion are so vague
that he imagines the former to be a little bag situated at the base of
the fang, capable of being removed not only without injury to the
snake but without any trace of the operation being visible except on
the closest scrutiny, and also capable of reproduction so perfectly
that the operation can be repeated once a month. (M. M. J., Nov.
1871, pages 346 and 347.) That this gentleman should have neglected
to prepare himself for his experiments by some study of
ophiology
is so httle credible that I quote the passages :— " Some
[snake
charmers] go further and cut out that portion of the jaws which
contains the poison gland."—" My curiosity being excited, I examined
the mouth of the snake again more carefully, and found a small
cicatrix at the base and a little beyond the fang, and a more scruti-
nizing examination discovered to me that the entire poison gland
had been removed, although the fangs were left unmolested : and I
also learned that this operation of removing the poison gland is
resorted to once a month and that it was effected by an iron style."
 153

wourali poison, does not promise much indeed it has before

;

been tried without success. The wourali owes its toxic

effects toan alkaloid curarine producing muscular paralysis

by a specific action on the motor-nerves, whilst snake-poison

appears rather to act as an animal ferment exciting
diseased

action in the blood the affection of the lungs is quite

;

secondary to that of the blood. The action of snake-poison

appears to be not dissimilar in kind from that of mad-dog
poison ;
both are toxic principles residing in a natural
salivary secretion and the analogy will be more apparent if
;

itbe remembered that hydrophobia has been produced in

man by the bite of a dog not apparently affected with rabies.*

My own opinion regarding the nature of snake-poison

'

may be thus stated :

—
In certain of the salivary glands of
snakes there is secreted a ferment analogous to the 2^tyaline
of the salivary glands of mammals. This ferment belongs
to the class of albuminoid substances in which several other
ferments are comprised, pty aline, pancreatine, pepsine,
diastase, emulsine, &c., and like them its power is limited

(that is, it becomes exhausted when it has produced an

effect proportionate to thedose used, not being renewed at
the expense of the substance acted on as in the case of most

vegetable ferments). There are several kinds of it which

*
Such
cases are rare, but there is not the sHghtest doubt that they
occur. Since writing the above lines, I saw in the Lancet of 29th
March 1873, an account of a death from hydrophobia, in the person
of a medical practitioner in Jamaica ; he had been bitten a few
months before by a pet dog, which was in perfect health at the time
of his death. Another case is recorded in the Madras Medical Journal
for March 1872. There is ample evidence that a dog free from any
symptom of rabies may secrete saliva producing hydrophobia when
inoculated in man ;
but there is no evidence to show whether the
secretion of the toxic saliva was spontaneous or consequent on the
bite of a dog either rabid or similarly affected. If it arose spontane-
ously, might not the property become hereditary 1
20
 154

may be called elapine, viperine, crotaline, &c., accord-

ing to the suake by which it is produced. Its toxic eftect

varies in each of these kinds and at present we have little

knowledge as to its mode of action, I am inclined to think

that, in the cobra-poison at least, the effect of the ferment

is to set up a diseased action in the blood rendering it

incapable of circulating through the lungs. Hence the

symptoms of death from asphyxia.

Considering that snake-poison can be obtained in consider-

able quantity and that it preserves its properties when dried,
one may reasonably be surprised that it has not been better
studied. Unfortunately sensationalism has invaded this
branch of medical inquiry and the prominence of the antidote
question has prevented the systematic examination of the
poison which would prepare the way for the discovery of the
antidote. There is no excuse for the neglect of systematic
examination of the subject in the course of empirical research
after a remedy, for this object, if attained, is by no means
so practically useful as would at first sight appear. One
misrht almost count on the ten fin^i^ers all the authentic
venomous snake-bite which have occurred amongst
cases of
on
Europeans in India during the last half-century and ;

the five fingers all those attributable to accident only. With

the exception of the Army cases of which I shall presently
has been
speak, I only know of one case where a European
bitten otherwise than through his own imprudence he ;

recovered and the snake is said to have been a cobra.

Apart
from the interest of the subject, when studied in a scientific
manner, I think that snake-poison experiments do harm by
keeping up a sensational excitement and by diverting medical
in seeking a
energies which would be far better employed
remedy for diseases more obnoxious to Europeans in a week
than the snake-bites of a century. Europeans do not need
all

antidotes, and the black population of India are out of their

reach. If all the real cases of deadly snake-bite which come
 155

under medical observation in India were cured, the mortality

from this cause would not be reduced by one per cent.

The annual Indian mortality from snake-bite is stated to

be not far from 20,000.* This sounds alarming, but it must
be remembered that occurs in a population of 251 millions,
it

nearly one-quarter that of the whole world. Reduced to

sober death-rates it signifies a mortality of 80 per million.
This number corresponds very fairly with the mortality from
the same cause in the Madras Presidency in which the

reported deaths
from snake-bite are about 2,000 annually.

* In 1869 the deaths from snal^ie-bite in Bengal and the Provinces

'under the Supreme Government were reported to be as follows
:
—
Mortahty per
million.

Ill

70
44
111
73
53
 156

In 18G9 they were 2,192 which, on a population of 26,000,000,

gives 82 per million.

Taking rate for granted (although snake-bite covers

this

a multitude of suspicious deaths in the mofussil,) we must

compare it with other causes of mortality

still ;
we thus
have for the Madras Presidency —
82 deaths by snake-bite, per million,
23 do. by wild beasts,
176
 Though we are exposed to a horrible death, causing a

mortality amongst us ten times greater than that caused

by snake-bite, and perhaps twenty times greater if we
exclude accidents from imprudence, yet we take no heed
of the obvious and preventible danger, reserving all our
zeal for the comparatively insignificant and perfectly un-

preventible danger caused by the presence of snakes in the

land.

The time, thought, and money wasted on the chimerical

endeavour to reduce the mortality from snake-bite would
be better employed in diminishing the deaths from pre-
ventible disease. While it is
authoritatively owned that
a million of lives could be annually saved by placing
quinine within reach of the whole Indian population, I
am at a loss to imagine how any one can obtain the ear of
Government to such a trifle as the mortality from snake-
bite. But the subject is a sensational one and there is
more rejoicing over a dubious case of cobra-bite recovered
than over a diminution of death-rate signifying a hundred
thousand lives saved. As long as Englishmen in India
wear their feet shod and their legs clothed the risk of
death from snake-bite is small indeed. I may thus exem-

plify it: —An Insurance Company could afford to pay

£1,000 in case of accidental death from snake-bite, for an
annual premium of one penny from each English person

would be easier than to exterminate the breed were the measure

vigorously carried out directly by destruction and indirectly by a
any one can see that the rewards paid for dog-killing
license-tax, yet
are perfectly wasted and that the system is too often one of time
honoured peculation. If there is practically such difficulty in keeping
down the number of these animals, every one of which is bred
amongst the habitations of men, how much more difficult must it be
to effect any appreciable diminution in the case of animals which
swarm in the country without attracting observation and are entirely
independent of man.
 158

in India. As regards the Indian population, our philan-

thropy might, as I have before said, find better objects
than the mortality from a cause of which the sufferers do
not complain and which is practically unpreventible.

It be asked, however, what is to be done in case a

may
servant is bitten by a venomous snake. Well, supposing
this very rare accident to occur (for the bitten man's own
statement is not often worth much) the circulation of the

part bitten should be isolated as much as possible by a

string or twisted handkerchief tiorhtlv tied round it, the
wound laid open and vigorously sucked if it can be ;

cauterized at once either by a hot iron, the explosion of

gunpowder, a strong acid or alkali, this may be done but

—
it is no use inflicting this painful treatment unless it can
be done —
immediately which is practically all but impos-
sible. After this,the patient take his chance, as it
let

is quite possible that the snake was not a venomous one or

that the patient did not receive a fatal dose of poison. He

may be perfectly certain that it was a cobra, or a hati
viriyan or a mandali, &c., &c., &;c., and yet it may have
been only a dhaman or the harmless little Lycodon aidicus,
I never met an Indian who didn't declare the latter snake
to be very deadly besides it
;
is often very like Bvungariis
arcuatus in coloration, and the length of its anterior

maxillary teeth might easily lead Europeans examining it

to believe that it possessed poison-fangs. From its habit
of lurking about dark places, it is often disturbed by
servants entering godowns and bath-rooms the man treads ;

on it, feels that he is bitten, sees this snake scuttling away,

and then rushes out half-dead with fright, crying out that
he was bitten by a venomous snake. Every symptom of
really venomous ^nake-bitc may come on and in weak or ;

nervous subjects death might possibly occur. But in the

large majority of such cases remedies are applied, the patient
recovers, and the antidote used is in high repute.
 159

In an avei'age case of snake-bite the following points are

in favour of recovery :
—
1° The person may have been bitten through clothing.
The penetration of a cobra's fangs is hardly more
than one-eighth of an inch, never a quarter of an
inch, so that a very thin cloth will reduce the

depth considerably, perhaps sufficiently for the

apical orifice of the fang (which is nearly j\ inch
above the point) to be scarcely beneath the sur-
face of the skin.*

2° The bite may have been a scratch rather than the

strong and vicious bite necessary for the injec-

tion of poison.

3° The snake mav not have been venomous kind.

of a
Unless the snake is produced and recognized as
a fairly grown specimen belonging to the kinds
fatal to human life, there is no certainty. The
statement of Indians is rarely worth anything."|-

Of land-snakes, the cobra, the dahoia and large specimens

of Bungarus arcuatus are practically the only Indian snakes
danoferous to human life. In Burma the last mentioned
snake is replaced by B. fasciatus.

In an undoubted case of deadly-snake bite, I do not consider

that any good is done by other measures than the immediate
local treatment. There appears to be not the slightest use in

* Here is one fallacy of the Australian cures. The longest fanged

Australian snake has fangs about half the length of a cobra's, so
that the penetration could never exceed one-eighth inch, and would

generally be about one-sixteenth ; the most flimsy cloth would in the

majority of cases prevent the bite taking effect.
1 1 have seen an intelligent Englishman, considered rather an
authority on snakes, declare that a Ptyas mucoms just brought to me
was a cobra ;
he even pointed out the poison-fangs.
 160

the administration of stimulants ;

it is best to let the patient
lie quiet, giving him plenty of cooling drink such as lemon-
ade, soda water or effervescent draughts.

To illustrate how may chances there are in favour of the

bitten person, even when the snake is certainly venomous,
I may quote the following cases which occurred within the
last three months :

A kuruven who was in the habit of brinorinor cobras for

the Government reward, was bitten in the ball of the thumb
by a cobra whilst in the act of handing it to me. One fang
penetrated and the wound bled freely. By the time I could

dispose of the snake and get my instruments, at least three

minutes had elapsed. I tied a string round the base of the
thumb and with a sharp-pointed knife followed the track of
the fang down the wound, which had penetrated to its full

depth below the skin. I told him to suck the wound, which
he did in a very nonchalant manner. Not the slightest
symptoms appeared. In the meantime I took up the cobra,
which was in perfect condition, squeezed out the poison from
the glands and despatched it as usual. By the time half an
hour had elapsed, the man got tired of sitting sucking his
thumb and went off. He has been perfectly well ever
'
since.

Two pariahs, who used to bring- snakes, got drunk one

Sunday and were bitten whilst playing with the snakes they
were keeping to bring me on the morrow. They came to
me in great fright. One had two lacerated fang marks on
a finger, his hand being also swollen the other was slightly
;

scratched on the leof. The former had fastened a string

round the finc^er above the wound ;
the latter had done

nothing, the scratch being trifling. The seriously wounded

man wanted medicine ;
as the wounds were inflicted about
a quarter of an hour before, I did not see much use in inter-
 161

ference,and as the man had a good quantity of arrack

inside of him I contented him by means of a draught of
water coloured pink with dentifrice lotion, and they soon
took their departure without any constitutional symptoms
appearing. The man's hand was swollen when I saw him
next day. The cobra by which these men had been bitten,
and which they brought with them, was in perfect condition.

In these cases the cobras had evidently bitten without

injecting poison; I have no doubt that this happens
frequently and that many of the authentic recoveries
ascribed to antidotes are really due to the want of malice
on the part of the snake. Had I been an antidote enthusiast
1 might have made some nice cases of cure out of these
accidents.

CHAPTER V .—Schemes of extermination.

At a time when Government is
continually been urged
to undertake the extermination of the venomous snakes in
India, a few words on the subject may not be out of place.

The idea is, preposterous and

I consider, theoretically

practically impossible of execution moreover, attempts to

;

carry it out result in the waste of public money sadly

needed for much more important sanitary objects.

The idea that Government is to

spend large sums on pro-
tecting people from animals which a child can destroy by a
blow with a stick is preposterous. Rewards for the destruc-
tion of wild beasts one can understand, as the service
demands both courage and skill, but one cannot
seriously
listen to a proposal the effect of which would be to turn
half the labourers of the country into snake-hunting
loafers,
and to spend money which could be much more advan-
tageously employed.
21
 162

The outcry against venomous snakes I have shewn to

be purely sensational, and the persons who raise it have
not the faintest idea of the waste of public money they are

urging on Government. A medical man who should know

"
better, writes,, is there no benevolent individual in this

Presidency who would give a few rupees to rescue the lives

of somany of our fellow-creatures so suddenly and rapidly
put out of existence ?"* and proposes to raise a subscription

fund, the interest of which should be expended for the

purpose of destroying noxious snakes (M, M. /., Feby. 1871).
One cannot but give credit to Dr. Shortt for wishing to
effect the destruction by voluntary subscription, however
much the proposal to wage warfare with Rs. 250 per annum
a 1/

may remind one of the energetic old lady's assault on the

Atlantic Ocean with her mop. The outcry for the exter-
mination of venomous snakes is rarely so modest and, if

the system urged on Government were ever carried into

effect, the funds required would amount to many thousand

times as much as the above moderate estimate. But Indian

estimates are always small at first.

I will now
give a few facts to show the utter absurdity
of these schemes and the waste of public money caused by
the sensational outcry against the ravages of venomous
snakes.

In Banco ora, a small district of Lower Bengal, no less

* Dr.
Shortt, who writes to the above effect, and says that a snake
which has bitten one person " is permitted to use its deadly fangs
on many more" (as if there were man-eating cobras going about) has
"
the sense to own that even if an antidote sure and certain in its
effects as a remedy, be discovered, it would not save the lives of the

hmidredth part of the people who are now killed by snake-poison ;"
that is to say, that not one Indian in a million would be on the

average benefited by the discovery (themortaUty from reputed snake-

bite being, as we have seen, considerably under 100 per million

annually).
 163

than 44,450 venomous

(?) snakes were brought in for
reward between May 29th and December 7th, 1869. As
the reward was for the greater part of the time at the rate
of 4 annas a head, not less than Rupees 10,000 must have
been spent in this attempt at extermination. Let us now
make a little the district swept of snakes being
calculation ;

that immediately round the kucherry, could hardly have

been more than 100 square miles in extent but let us say 150
square miles ;
now supposing that this extermination were
carried out all over India, an extent of about 1,500,000

square miles, we should have 10,000 such areas each costing at

the rate of Eupees 17,000 per annum for snake extermination,
thus making a total item of 1,700 lacs of rupees in the annual

tudget. I have estimated the snake-yielding area of

Bancoora very liberally ; supposing it to be only 15 miles,
a more probable extent, there would be 100,000 such
areas.

It may be objected that the Bancoora snakes could not

all have been venomous. Granted they were probably not ;

so, but we cannot make a department of ophiologists to

superintend the disbursement of rewards, and must needs
confide it to the civil authorities. Supposing the rewards
were in every case to be disbursed by an officer versed in
ophiology and devoting his whole time gratuitously to the
extermination — then really venomous snakes would alone be
paid for but the rates must, of course, be higher than when
;

any snake is accepted as venomous on the dictum of a

kucherry peon,* and from my experience in Bangalore I may
say that it could not be fixed at less than four annas. Now, in

* I found that in the

Bangalore municipal snake extermination of
1871 about 5 per cent, of the snakes paid for were really venomous.
In the present year, the destruction was transferred to me by the
Mysore Government for experiment and report. Every snake re-

corded in Appendix B was examined and registered by me.

 164

Bangalore, a station where Rupees 550 were spent in 1870

and Rupees 500 in 1871 on this very object, no less than
1,400 venomous snakes were brought in for reward (1,225
to myself) between 1st May and 80th September 1873.
In August they were brought in at an average of 32
daily, and the expenditure became so great that the reward
was reduced from 8 annas to 3 annas. Notwithstandinor
this reduction, the venomous snakes still come in (at the

present date) though at a slower rate, and I have not the

slightest doubt that for years to come 2,000 cobras annually
could be produced by the 20 square miles comprising

Bangalore and the immediate neighbourhood. From obser-

vations on the numbers of cobras produced at each breeding
season and the small extent of the ground actually
hunted over in the destruction of the 1,400 cobras, I

estimate the cobra population of this station at 1,000 to each

square mile Bangalore is, however, no worse off than the

;

average of other parts of India the only difference is that

the cobra is nearly the only venomous snake found in
Bangalore (See Appendix) while in coast stations venomous
snakes are generally more numerous and in greater variety.
Now with a venomous snake population which I may
fairly estimate at an average of 1,000 per square mile, four
times the human population, the cost of exterminating the
breed can be readily calculated. In these hard times a lac of

rupees cannot be thrown away hundred of lacs would have

;

to be spent before any diminution in the venomous snake

population could be appreciable. One slight compensation

might be found a good deal of the money spent in rewards
;

would return to Government in the shape of duty on

spirituous liquors.
 165

CHAPTER Vr.— Snake mythology.

In nearly every part of the world there exist legends show-

ino- the wonder, fear, and veneration inspired by snakes. In

many instances the ophidian nature of the legend is hidden

by changes and overgrowths, but it can generally be traced

to the form it possessed in other times or countries. Most
of these legends are of distinctly Asiatic origin, evidently

carriedby Aryan or Turanian emigrants to the countries

they peopled and nowhere can they be better studied than

;

in India where the habits of these races have changed com-

paratively but little. The Amravati sculptures show Tura-

nian (Dravidian) worshipping the many-headed
people
naga, and Mr. Ferguson in his work on Tree and Serpent-

worship considers that this form of religion is essentially

Turanian and was abhorrent to the Aryan race. This, how-
ever, is more than doubtful. All that can be said with

certainty is that whilst the aboriginal and the Dravidian

races of India are strongly disposed to serpent-worship pure
and simple, the veneration of the Aryan races for the serpent
is largely caused having become a phallic symbol
by its

with them. In the early ages of man, serpents naturally

became endowed with supernatural attributes and shared
with the heavens and meteorological phenomena the awe of
the superstitious. The mysterious death caused by the
venomous kinds, their silent gliding motion, and the curious

periodical casting of the skin inspired probably the first feel-

ings of idolatrous worship and, exploited as these have been

by the priest-craft of all ages, uncivilized man stiU looks on
snakes with awe whilst civilized man, often not less io-no-

rant, regards them with fear and hatred.

Whether in consequence of occurrences similar to that

recorded in the story of Tiresias or simply from priestly
 166

devices, the serpent early became connected with phallus-

worship and thus acquired still greater religious significance.
In the Mexican tradition of the serpent-mother of mankind,
in the Hebrew legend of the temptation of the first woman,
in the Karen story of her cohabiting with the python, in the

Sanskrit account of the churning of the ocean by means of

the eternal naga Ananden, we find the serpent occupying a
similar place in cosmogony and the origin of the human
race. This phallic symbolism of the serpent took consider-
able development and was adopted in nearly every religion
of antiquity. It was introduced, with many other heathen
symbols into christian rites, its phallic source being masked

by its significance of eternity, of the resurrection, &c.*

When by the '

decentralization' of the attributes originally

belonofinor to the Hindu Trimurti, each member of it, or

two of them became invested with the powers of

at least,

creation, preservation and destruction formerly allotted

separately to the three members, we find the symbolical
serpent sharing in the multifariousness of functions and
appearing as a symbol of the three supreme attributes he ;

is a creator, a preserver, a destroyer. In the phallic form

of serpent- worship the creating and preserving attributes
are adored, and this worship widely spread in India is found
in other countries, even in Germany. Considered as a

destroyer, the serpent-demon inspires no less awe than the

serpent-creator and guardian obtains reverence. The monster
emerges from the waters to devour women, the night-dragon
tyrannizes over the earth and is slain by solar heroes. The
christian devil, bearing an Aryan name and an adaptation
of Siven's trisul, ends in a serpent's tail. In modern times,

especially in Europe, where snakes are less common than

in Asia, the phallic form of serpent- worship is often dis-

* See the curio as notes on this

point in de Gubernatis' Zoological
Mythology.
 167

guised by transference to fishes the snake (anguis) is

its ;

replaced by the eel (anguilla), the twin-serpents of Mercury*

by the twin-fishes sacred to Venus.

Hindoo mythology constantly refers to the Nagas, a race
of beinsrs intermediate between snakes and men and cor-

responding to the fallen angels of Semite mythology they ;

have a king, the eternal serpent Ananden or Vasuki, also

called Nagendren, Sarpendren^-f &c., &;c. they live in a ;

world or Lokum of their own, the capital of which is

Bhogavati. The affinity of these Nagas to snakes, especially
to naga the cobra, is one practical reason of the respect

paid to snakes by Hindoos ;

for the Nagas, like fairies and
demons, are very malicious, though beneficient to those
who pay them proper respect. An injury done to naga
the cobra would, in the mind of a good Hindoo, certainly

bring down on him the vengeance of the Nagas.

The apparent contradictions constantly met with in

Hindoo mythology owing to the decentralization of the
Trimurtic attributes extend also to the mythical snakes.
Thus Siven, in his destroying personation, wears a necklace
of nagas emblems of death but as destruction is only
;

apparent and results in the re-appearance of force and matter

in new shapes, he is also a creative power and is adored
as such under the symbol of the lingam, with which the
snake in its phallic aspect is closely connected. Again,
Vishnu is by many names significative of his reposing
called
on the great snake Ananden, whilst his vahum (carrier)
Garuden, kinor of the birds, is known bv names, derived
from his enmity to snakes. The great snake Ananden or

* " Preller and Kuhn have already proved the phallical signification
of the caduceus (tripetelon) of Hermes, represented now with two
wings, now with two serpents," (de Gubernatis, vol. ii, page 399^.
t With Sarpendren, King of serpents, compare Sapengro in the
Gipsy language.
 168

Vasuki, sometimes represented as the supporter of the

world is said to have accompanied Vishnu in his avatars.

According to this view, Lakshmanen, Ramen's brother, and

Balaramen, Krishnen's brother, were both avatars of the
snake An an den.
Krishnen when bathing in the Kavery river, was attacked
by a great snake named Kaliyen, but he vanquished it and,
on its submitting, condemned it to exile.*
In Mysore there is everywhere to be found most distinct
evidence of serpent- worship being of a phallic nature.

Nearly every tope of trees about Bangalore contains a group

of stones with figures of snakes sculptured on them most ;

people observing these would imagine them to be

'

samy^
stones,'mere peace-offerings to demons. They are in reality
votive offerings set up under the following circumstances :
—
A barren woman desirous of offspring has three stones
carved and deposited with certain votive ceremonies in the
well of the house. Should her barrenness cease the stones
are taken up and placed with much ceremony (including
presents to priests)
on a mound made between a peepul
{Ficus religiosa) and a neem tree (Azadirachta indica); for
this purpose a young neem tree isgenerally planted near
a full grown peepul tree. The middle stone bears the
imaf^e of the goddess Balyama or Minachi (the fish-god-
dess) a personification of Parwadi,
wife of Siven ;f the lower
half of her body is scaled and ends in a fish's or serpents'

* This Krishnen
episode is often seen in temple sculptures.
stands on the serpent's head holding its tail in his uplifted hand.
In correct pictures Kaliyen is represented as a spotted water-snake.
But there is a story that the spectacles on the cobra's neck are the
marks of Krishnen's feet, and Hindu artists who accept this account
often make Krishnen stand on the cobra's head as a pedestal.

+ According to some accounts Minachi was an avatar of Ananden

who accompanied Vishnu in his fish-avatar as in the Ramen and
Krishnen avatars.
 169

tail. One of the side stones is sculptured with the figure of

the sesha, a five or seven-headed cobra (a representative of

Ananden) the other bears the twin-serpents of Mercury's

caduceus. On one of these figures, generally in the upper-
most of the rings formed by the entwined pair of snakes, is
the lingayoni, the combined generative emblem of both
sexes; and in another ring is a radiated circle which, I
imagine, represents a cluster of snake's eggs.*

The legends on the subject of snakes, especially the naga,

are endless the following basilisk-myth which I gathered
;

in Malabar, is an example out of a number.

When a cobra finds a pot of gold (the naga demons are

guardians of under ground treasures) he lies down on it and
guards the gold shrinks, and after many years concen-
it ;

trates itself into dust and a single luminous gem of immense

value called the mdnikkum. By this time the cobra has
also shrunk to a small size, he takes the mdnikkum in his
mouth and flies away to bathe, his track
being shown by the
radiance of the gem. Shooting stars are thus accounted
for. He goes to bathe in the north-sea. It is considered
unlucky to see him flying North, but lucky to see him
o from that direction.
returninor

Sometimes this cobra is killed for the sake of the mdnik-

ku7)i. To ascertain the value of the gem, gold is poured
over it ;
it floats on the surface of the gold until its full

value has been poured; it then sinks.

Some of the stories told about the sand-snakes Gongylo-

phis conicus and Eryx johnii appear to be connected with

a solar myth. These stories originate in the old idea of

*
Compare de Gubernatis on the reverence in which snakes are
still held in some parts of Germany as domestic guardian genii,
bestowing welfare and fruitfulness on the family, especially its

female members.
9-^
 171)

the Am'pldshcena, a snake supposed to walk forwards and

backwards with equal facility its extremities were also
;

supposed to exchange functions every year, and it died

on producing its young. The double-headed' snake is '

manufactured by snake-jugglers and exhibited to the

credulous, European or Indian.
The '
male cobra' {Ptyas nnucosus) and the
fiction of the

many marvels told about venomous, or supposed venomous,

snakes do not demand anv notice as far as I have seen ;

their absurdity is not redeemed by any interesting circum-

stance of origin.

The reverence paid to the ndgaon is dying out in India

with the decay of the Hindu religion, but it is still wide-
spread. It is considered a lucky thing if a cobra takes

up its abode in or near the house and the snakepro- is

pitiated by of eggs and milk if it does not

offerings ;

c.onsume these, it yet appears to appreciate the feelings

which prompted their offer and to refrain from any injury
to the occupants of the house. It certainly does good by
keeping down Accidents sometimes happen from
the rats.
a person treading in the dark on one of these half-tame
cobras, but they are by no means frequent, and the Indians
who do not re^^ard the cobra with feelinirs of love at least
have sufiicient respect for it not to wantonly incur the
vengeance of the serpent-demons by doing it harm.^'

In Malabar the legend of Parasuramen teaches forbear-

ance towards the naga. According to the Keralolpatti,
Parasuramen (an incarnation of Vishnu) standing on the
heights which then formed the coast of the Western sea,

*
Of course I speak here of respectable Hindoos ; for amongst the
pariah castes and the aboriginal tribes commonly known as 'jungle
people,' there is no hesitation in kilhng a cobra for the sake of the
reward. But in the absence of this motive,, even these people show
towards .'inakci the passive humanity usual to Indians.
 171

threw his hatchet into the sea ;

it flew as far as Gokarnam,
and so far the sea receded, all along the coast. He then
rendered the land stable by foundations of gold and brought
in Brahmins from diflferent countries but the newly formed
;

land was so infested with snakes that the colonists would

not stay and returned to their own countries, leaving
Kerala to the Nagattanmar (nagas or naga-demons). Para-
suramen went in search of new colonists, and having brought
Arya Brahmans he divided the land into 64 gramams,
(parishes) and in each allotted a part to the snakes.
He
ordered that the snakes sh.ould be propitiated by puja and

regarded as household divinities, and this being done the

colonists were troubled by them no more.

When we find leojends of this kind interwoven with the

religion and history of the people it is not to be wondered

at that destruction of snakes is them as
as unpopular with
it is popular with us. Snakes do us no appreciable harm
but the majority of English people hate them for religious
reasons as much as the Hindus venerate them for religious
reasons ; however, before we attempt to carry out our
fanatical or prejudiced hatred of them, it iswell to see
whether such measures might not possibly be injudicious,
from a moral point of view, as well as impotent and wasteful
of public money. The Hindu religion is decaying from
contact with western civilization, the veneration for snakes
is dying out, and, before long, whenever these become
a decided nuisance, people will at once proceed to thin their
numbers without scruple and without the incitement of
reward. In the meantime let snakes be studied by the light
of science, free from the influence of legend and prejudice.
 172

APPENDIX A.

Table showirig the mortality from Snake-bite and from

Dog-bite amongst White troops in India in
the 12 years 1860-71.
 a.
CO

^ CO

o ^
Pi ^^^
CO

^^ ^

CO a
05
o o
<-^

o •<
O
12;
<
PQ

O
 174

per
o
average

million.

^
•<>> mortality

Annual

P3
O
o

PQ

CO

« CO

•ft

CO

Pi
Pi

o
a> I

O
CO

^
 "
IT10

APPENDIX C.

List of common snakes found about Bangalore and

Rangoon.

Bangalore, (Mysore). Rangoon, (Pegu).

*
Atretium schistosum. Bungarus fasciaUis.

B'wngarus arcuatus, not common. B. arcuatus, occurs, but rarely.

Cyclojjhis calamaria. Compsosoma 7'adiatum.

Cynophis helena. Chrysopelea ornata.

Dipsas gokoolJ^ Dend7'ophis pictus.

Daboia elegans. Dipsas midtimacidaia.^

not common.
'Echis carinata. Daboia elegans*

Gongylophis conicus. Homalopsidce, various.

Lycodon aulicus* Lycodon aulicus.

Naga tripudians* Naga monoceUata.*

Oligodoii subgriseus. Ophiophagus elaj^s.

Ptyas mucostis* Python reticulatus.

Passerita mycterizans. P. molurus, occurs, but rarely.

Simotes russellii. Ptyas korros.*

Tropidonotus quincunciatus.* P. mucosus, occurs, but rarely.

T, stolatus* Psammodynastes pulveridentus.

T. plumhicolor. Simotes hicatenatus.

Zamenis fasciolatus.'^ S. cruentatus,

Tropidonotus quincunciatxisC^

T. stolatus.*

T. subminiatus.

Tra^gops prasinus.

Trimesurus carinatus, dec*

Xenojyeltis unicolor.
* Very common.
 INDEX.
Page.
Ablabes baliodirus 76

tenuiceps ih.

fuscus ih.

rappii ih.

bicolor ih.

olivaceus 77
Sagittarius ih.

humberti ih.

coUaris ih.

melanoceplialus ih.

nicobariensis 78
scriptus ih.

Acalyptus superciliosus 112

Acrochordidce... 37,52
Acrochordus javanicus 52
Aipysurus anguillseformis 112
laevis ih.

fuscus ih,

AmhlycephalidcB 38,65
Amblycephalus boa 65
Aspidura bracliyorrhos 59
copii ih.

trachyprocta ih.

Atretiuni schistosum, Plate XIV 95

Blytliia reticulata , 60
Bungarus arcuatus (caeruleus), the Indian hungarus, Plate XIX. 108
f asciatus, the Malayan hungarus, Plate XIX ih.

ceylouicus ih.

semifasciatus 109
Cadmus , , 96
23
 178

Page.
Calamaridce 38,57
Calamaria siamensis 57
ib'
quadrimaciilata
albiventer 58
ib'
nigro-alba ,

ib-
leucocephala
catenata ib.

Callophis bivirgatus 10&

intestinalis 110
gracilis ib,

ih.
pentalineatus
macclellandii • - ib,

annularis, Plate XIX ib.

trimaculatus ib.

maculiceps Ill
ib,
nigrescens
Calloselasma rhodostoma 122
Cantoria elongata 61
ib.
dayana
Cerberus rbyn cops, Plate X 62
Cercaspis carinata 75
travancorica ib.

Chersydrus granulatus 52
Chrysopelea ornata, tlie Golden tree-snalce, Plate XVI 98
rubescens >.. ib.

Coluber rufodorsatus 81
mandarinus ib,

ib.
porphyraceus
pictus 82
semifasciatus ib.

Colubridoi 39,75

Coluhrina •••• 39,81

Compsosoma radiatum, the Red dhdman, Plate XII 83

melanurum ib»

reticulare ib.

hodgsonii 84
Coronella orientalis 81

Coronellina 39,75
Crotalidce 41,119
Cursoria elegans ^1
 179

Cyclophis major 78
fraenatus ib-

riibriventer ih.

Cylindropliis rufns
•
49
maculatus ih.

C5''nopliis lielena, Plate XIII 84

malabaricus ... ih.

Daboia elegans (russellii), the Chain-viper, Plate XX 124

Dendrnphidce '
40,96

DendropMs pictus, the Blue tree-snake, Plate XVI » 98

caudolineatus ih.

Dipsadidce 40,100
101
Dipsas cynodon
forsteni ih.

ih.
boops
ih.
dendrophila
bubalina ih.

multimaculata, the Burmese hrown tree-snake, Plate XVI-.. ih.

trigonata 102
multifasciata ib.

gokool, the Common hro2vn tree-snake, Plate XVI ih.

ceylonensis - 103
Disteria doliata 112

Drijadina 40,87
Bryiophidae, 40,99
Echis carinata 124
ElacMstodon westermanni 80
Elaphis dione 82
sauromates ih^

t^niurus 83
Elapidce 41,104
Enliydrina bengalensis, Plate X 118
scMstosa , 119
Err/ddcB 37,51
Eryx johnii, the Black sand-snake^ Plate IX 51
Falconeria bengalensis 60
Ferania sieboldii 63
Fordonia uuicolor, Plate X 61
bicolor ib,

Geophis microceplialus, Plate VII 59

 180

Page.
Gerarda bicolor, Plate X 64,
Gongylopliis conicus, the Red sand-snake. Plate IX 51
Gonyosoma oxycephalum 97
gramineum , ib.

fraenatum ib.

(Grotea) 60
Halys blomlioffii 123
himalayanus ib.

elliotii ib.

Haplocercus ceylonensis 59
Herpeton tentaculatum 64
Herpetoreas sieboldii 89
Hipistes hydriniis 64
Homalopsidce 38,60
Homalopsis buccata 63
Hydrophidce :
41,111
Hydrophis jerdonii 113
stokesii ib.

major ib.

robusta -
114
belcberi ib.

caerulescens ib.

•
aspera •
ib,

spiralis ib.

cyanocincta, Plate X ib.

melanosoma ib.

subcincta ib.

nigrocincta 115

elegans ib.

torquata ib.

chloris ib.

lindsayi ib.

atriceps ib.

latifasciata 116
coronata ib.

diadema ib.

gracilis ib.

fasciata ii>'

cantoris ib.

2^.
lapemoides •
 181

Page,
Hydropliis longiceps 116
stricticoUis 117
oniata 'i^.

ellioti -• ih.

ib.
pachycercus
viperina ib.

ocellata ib.

anomala 118
curta ib.

hardwickii ib.

loreata ib.

fayreriana ib.

tuberculata ib •

crassicollis ib.

stewartii ib.

nigra ib.

Hypnale nepa 123

Hypsirhina plumbea 62
euhydris, Plate X ib,

jagorii ib.

bennettii 63
cMnensis ib.

Leptorbytaon jara 74
Lycodontidce 39,72
Lycodon aulicus, the Lycodon, Plate XI 72
laoensis 73
striatus ib.

anamallensis ib.

rufozonatus ib.

Macrocalamiis lateralis 58
Megseropbis flaviceps 109
Melanopbidium wynadense 56
bilineatum ib.

punctatum ib.

Naga (Naja) tripudians, the Binocellate cobra^ Plate XVII 105

monocellata, the Monocellate cobra^ Plate XYIII 106
Natricina 40,89
Nympbophidium maculatiim 80
Odontomiis nympba 79
semifasciatus ib.

gracilis ,.,.. 80
 182

Page,

Oligodontidoe 38,66

Oligodon subgriseus, Plate XI 67

ih.
spilonotns
ellioti ib.

ib.
subpimctatus
ib.
spinipunctatus
fasciatus 68
sublineatus ib.

affinis ib'

ib.
templetonii
modestus ib.

dorsalis ib.

brevicaiida 69

Onycliocephalus acutus - 48.

Ophiophagus elaps, the Hamadryad, Plate XVIII 107

Ophites subcinctus 74
albofuscus ib.

Oxycalamus longiceps 58
Pareas carinatus 65
monticolus ib.

Isevis 66
macularius = ib.

modestus ib.

Passerita mycterizans, the Common green tree-snahe, Plate XVI.. 100

ib.
purpurascens
Pelamis bicolor 119

Peltopelor macrolepis, Plate XX 122

Phyllophis carinatus 97
Platurus scutatus lU
fischeri ib.

(Platyceps semifasciatus). See Coluber semifasciatus,

(Platypteryx perroteti). See Geophis microceplialus.

Plcctrurus perroteti, Plate VII 55

guntheri 56
Prymnomiodon chalceus 96

Psammodynastes pulverulentus, Plate XIII 104

Psammoi)hida3 40,103
Psammophis coiidanarus 103

Ptyas mucosus, the Dhdman, Plate XII 85

korros, the Slender dhdman, Plate XII

«^«
 183

Page.
Pythonidce :
37,49
Python reticulatus, the Malayan python^ Plate VIII 50
molunis, the Indian python^ Plate VIII ih.

KMnophis oxyrlij-nchus 53
punctatus ih.

philippinus (planiceps) ih.

trevelyanus ih,

sanguineus, Plate VII ih.

blythii 54
pulneyensis , ih.

Silyhura macrolepis ih.

beddomii, Plate VII ih.

oceUata ih.

eUioti ,„ 55
bicatenata ih.

shorttii ih,

brevis ih.

canarica ih.

Simotes venustus 69
russellii, Plate XI ih.

binotatus ih.

albiventer 70
signatus ih.

cinereus , ih.

swinhonis ih.

tseniatus ih.

cruentatus, the Coral-tail snake, Plate XI ih.

trilineatus 71
punctulatus ih.

bicatenatus, Plate XI ih.

albocinctus ih.

fasciolatus ih.

cochinchinensis , ih.

trinotatus 72
amabilis ih.

theobaldi.. ,, ih.

Tetragonosoma eifrene 74
atropurpureum ih.

Tortricidce 36,49
(Trachischium fuscum). See Ablabes f uscus.
 184

Page.

Tragops prasinus, the Buff tree-snake,

Plate XVI 99
i^J-
dispar
f roiiticinctus 100
Trimesurus graminens, the Green tree-viper, Plate XX 1 19

do. ih.
erythrurus,
carinatus, do. 120
mutabilis • ib.

cantoris ih.

ih.
purpureus
anamallensis ih.

monticola 121
convictus ih.

mutabilis ih.

strigatus, the Brown tree-viper ., ib.

^

ih.
wagleri
trigone cephalus ih.

mucrosquamatus 122
andersoni ib.

obscurus ih.

Tropidococcyx perroteti 99

Tropidonotus quincunciatus, the Checkered snake, Plate XIV ... 90

anularis ih.

ih.
trianguligerus
macroplithalmus 91
dorsalis ih.

macrops ih.

platyceps ih.

subminiatns, Plate XV ih.

himalayanus ih»

angusticeps 92
stolatus, the Chameleon snake, Plate XV ih,

monticola ih.

junceus ih.

ceylonensis 93
beddomii ih.

nigrocinctus ih.

flavipunctatus ib,

zebrinus = ib.

tigrinus ib.

leucomelas 94
 185

Page.
Tropidonotus plumbicolor, the Green ground-snake, Plate XV. 94
puuctulatus, Plate XIV ib.

mortoni 95
striolatus ib,

Typhlina lineata c 47
TypMopidce 36,46
Typhlops nigro-albus 47
horsfieldii, Plate VII ib.

bothriorliynclius « 48
striolatus %b»
siamensis ^6.
braminus > ,.... ib.

pammeces, Plate VII »•.-...% »

ib^
miras lb,

Uropeltid(x 37,53
Uropeltis grandis •
64
t
Vi2^eridce 41,123
Xenelaphis hexahonotus , c 86
Xenoclirophis cerasogaster • ,,.. 96
Xenopeltidce, , •
37,56
Xenopeltis unicolor, the h'idescent earth-snake, Plate IX......... 57
Xenurelaps bungaroides 109
Zamenis diadema • 86
ventrimacnlatus 87
cliffordii ib,

gracilis ^ ib,

fasciolatus, Plate XIII , , ib.

Zaocys carinatus :
^s
fuscus, Plate XII .,. ib,
dhumnades ib.

nigromarginatus 89
 CORRIGENDA.

Page 3. The TypJilopidcB should, strictly speaking, have been

included amongst the families possessing rudimen-
tary hind limbs ; but these organs, though present,
are imperceptible except by dissection, whilst in the
three other families mentioned they are plainly visible.

4, The parietal and frontal bones should be included in the

bones forming the walls of the cranial cavity.

8, line 15. The reference letter k should apply to the basi-

vsphenotympanic muscle.

16, line 9 from the bottom. For prefacing it with read prin-
cipally from.

72 and 181. The Lycodon is represented on Plate IX and not

Plate XI.

102, line 8 from the bottom. Omit the first ><.

* *
133. Cobra monila' is perhaps a corruption of cobra manilha,
bracelet snake, (Dr. Shortt).

138, footnote. For indigested read ingested.

156, footnote. Foi' invested read infested.

161, line 16. For been read being.

168, last line, For sei-pents' read serpent's.

 POSTSCHIPT,

Note A.
Page 16. Daboia elegans shows a tendency to
The poison of

crystallization during drying much more marked than in the case of

cobra-poison. This snake being rare in Mysore I have had no oppor-
tunity of examining its poison while revising this manual.

Note B.

Page 29. It will be

observed, by reference to the scheme of
development at page 43, that I have assigned to the Di2)sadid(B a
place not far removed from the Crotalidoe. I have remarked that the
brown tree-snake Dij^sas gokool, when angry, vibrates its tail in the
same way as the tree-vipers ; I have not noticed this action in the
other families of Colubrine tree-snakes.

Note C.

Page 147. Echis carinata is so small a snake that one might

naturally suppose its bite to be of little danger to man. Along with

some specimens of this snake sent me from Arconum by Mr. H.
live
R. P. Carter, one of the Resident Engineers of the Madras Railway,
I received the following interesting note :
—
" servant was bitten by one about a week ago w^hen catching
My
it. He but although
of course nearly died of fright, not of poison,
the snake only managed to strike and draw blood and not to seize or
bite, the thumb was numbed
—
and that the blood was affected was
curiously proved. The boy had cut himself some days before on the
hand which was not bitten ; the cut appeared to be all right but two
burst which kept bleeding for
days after being bitten a small artery
12 hours before I found it out."
Note D.
162. Madras
It w^ould appear that in five districts of the
Page
Presidency— Nellore, Chingleput (and Madras), North Arcot, Bellary

and Tanjore— comprising about one-fifth of the area of the Presidency

were
or about one-thirtieth that of British India, Rupees 1,57,290
1872 in two-anna rewards for snakes
expended during the year
destroyed.
 188

Note E.
Page 173. Up to the end of February 1874, when the funds at my
disposal were expended, cobras continued to be brought in for reward.
From the 1st to the 26th a total of 168 were paid for. In the females
eggs were well developed, being about an inch long in most those
examined. A month later, eggs were found of full size, but the foetus
hardly distinct.
JSIOTE F.

Page 171. The excuses made by Englishmen for the indiscrimi-

nate destruction of snakes may be divided into those of religion, of
disgust, of philanthropy. I am sorry to say that of these the
and
religious excuse is not uncommonly avowed. I have known persons
who took as holy a relish in beating a snake to death as their grand-
fathers might have taken in drowning a witch. They considered
that they were fulfilling prophecy on a small scale.

The excuse that snakes are nasty, disgusting, or slimy reptiles is

an example of the force of prejudice and we know that "a good
sound prejudice is not to be contradicted by mere eyesight and
observation." — {Friends in Council). Its efi'ects are well illustrative

of the following passage from Mr. Alexander Bain's work on the

"
Emotions and the Will. The enunciation of disgust is a favourite
* * * The
exercise. objects thus sought out need not offend the
senses in any way ;
if they can only furnish a slight pretext for
being nasty or unclean, it is enough for letting off the charged
battery of the powerful organ of disgust. If any class of living
beings onould happen to provoke this out-burst, terrible is their fate.
No limits are set to the promptings for evil of this sentiment." —
Chap. XV.
The philanthropic excuse, if meant in regard to the Indian popula-
tion, I would answer in the words of Dr. Johnson
" —
My dear friend,
:

clear your miiid of cant. You may tcdk in this manner it is a mode of;

talking in society ; but don't think foolishly." If made in regard to

the European population the excuse is a very poor one. The person
who kills a snake on the chance of its being venomous, would exercise
his philanthropy to more purpose by shooting every dog that comes
across his path ; for we have seen that amongst white people in India
the chance of death by dog-bite is ten times as great as that by
snake-bite.
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