Modern Welding Technology PDF

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Modern
Welding
TECHNOLOGY
SIXTH EDITION
Howard B. Cary
Scott C. Helzer, PhD
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey

Columbus, Ohio
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Cary, Howard B.
Modern welding technology / Howard B. Cary, Scott C. Helzer. — 6th ed.
p. cm.
ISBN u- 13-113029-3
1. Welding. I. Helzer, Scott C. 11. Title.
TS227 . C37 2005

671.5'2—dc22 2004017082
Executive Editor: Ed Francis

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ISBN: 0-13-11302ÿ-3
Welding COntinues to be the preferred method of joining ments are being utilized in the aircraft industry. Nonmetal-
metal parts. As welding becomes more digital, the tech- lic materials are advancing. Plastics have been greatly im-
nology becomes more complex, but its application as a proved, and there are now composite beams available to
process becomes simpler and more efficient.Worldwide, build bridges. Ultimately, the most suitable material for the
welding continues to grow, and that growth is dependent lowest price will be used for every application.The weld-
upon the growth of the steel and other metal industries. ing industry will determine the welding method.
Since the la t edition of Modern Welding Technol- Welding education and training are changing. Today
ogy, much has changed in the world of welding. New there is less emphasis on skill training for manual weld-
processes have been born, and others have gotten mar- ing, but more emphasis on technology training. We must
ried. There are now combinations of welding processes be able to select the proper application of welding to in-
known as hybrid welding. Welding power sources have crease productivity. A more thorough understanding Is
continued to get smaller, more efficient, lighter, and more needed. That Is the purpose of this book.
controllable. Some welding processes have become more A major breakthrough has been accomplished by
popular and others more refined. For example, the laser the joint American WelcUng Society CAWS)and the Weld-
is more widely used, especially for cutting, and a new ing Research Council program for providing the opti-
process, stir friction welding, is starting to be used to join mum way to make a quality weld. Standard welding
aluminum for automotive and space applications. procedures have been issued that show the preferred
The need to improve weld quality and reduce weld- way to make a particular weld. As a result, welding costs
ing costs continues to drive the welding industry. This is should be greatly reduced because standard 'procedures
the highest priority because of improved materials and save the expens of duplicating qualifying procedi ..rres
fabricating m thods. Semiautomatic welding has largely and allow the portability of welding credentials. It is a
replaced manual welding, and automatic and robotic great step forward.
welding are finding more applications in the industry. The American Welding Society continues to make
AW\pti. e control is rapidly becoming more widely used. welding-related occupations more professional. Through
Mor pow rftd computer ontrols and more rugged sen- standardizing the qualification and c rtificatton of per-
ors c re being II d. All of this has helped take the human sonnel, public confiden e in welding will increase.AWS
welder farth r away from the arc and fumes and ha has become the weldingauthority in the United Stat s
h lp d cl an up th ;..r kl r' environment. and is provtding ways to ducate welding inspectors,
Through ut the World many n w alloys are being teachers, technictans.and englneers.Thts is done through
developed. Metals .ompctc With plastics, composites, ceo Increa ed training, testing, and cernncauon of knowl-
ramtcs, and ny mat rial that will serve the n ed. The end dge, based On proficiency testing.
r sult is th roo t oaomical mat rial for a given applr- The Original oncept of this book hasbeen main-
arion, Many new t and alloys are being welded tained, with emphasis on the arc w lding pro e s sand
today, tn Iuding higher str ngth til rmo-mechanl aU t11 use of steel for industrial and onstrucuon 'U • The
processed steels. Steels With. lower arbon and lower book stillfollowsiaithfully the standaeds, 'odes, and spec-
impurity elements are available with high strengths based itktttions provided by the I\WS; It a,Uows t11" ..r~ader~ to
on the part! war heat treatment; New st cis for high- keep up-to-date asw kUng techntc~l ·itl{Qrt1latiOn "~Uld
temp rature applications have been d veloped, New technology Improvements advan ... 'JJ:uly~the illdtlstt~t1s
gmd S 0 stainless St el that ombat ortosion are app ar- moving rapidly, an I th ' , lding pl'oce '5 1s hnpr()veq and
illS. New altlJ'llinums ontaining lithium mld other Ie. 111 re pIodu tlv ,
· r·
This edition marks the passing of one of welding indus- The Welding Journal has allowed the use of many
try's great talents, Howard Cary. As part of the group new photos in this edition. Mr. Andrew Cullison, the
known as the greatest generation, he contributed much Welding Journal editor, and Mr.Chris Pollock, Director of
to the welding industry. If you listened carefully as Education, have been most gracious with granting access
Howard spoke, he spoke of many processes and tech- to graphics.
nologies in the first person. They were his processes I also want to thank the reviewers of this edition for
and his improvements and his inventions. He certainly their helpful comments and suggestions: William L.
exemplified the traits and characteristics of the greatest Galvery, jr., Orange Coast College; Dave Hoffman, Fox Val-
generation. One day Howard noted that my university ley Technical College; and Wendall Johnson, Mount Hood
welding lab was in need of welding equipment, and he Community College.
then chastised me for not letting someone know the Finally, I want to thank the many other people who
needs I had. I Simply said that we were getting by, and furnished information and pictures. Many thanks to each.
economic times were tough for the welding industry, The list is long and I hope that I have not missed anyone.
and Idid not feel comfortable asking for equipment dur-
ing these times. He responded by asking, "If you could Accra-Weld Controls
have more modern technology, what would you like to Advanced Manufacturing Engineering Technologies
implement in your program?" Three months later a semi AGA Gas, Inc.
pulled up at the university and unloaded my complete Airflow Systems, Inc.
reques t, plus more. The note from Howard said that our Aluminum Association
future depended on our investment in students, and if American Iron and Steel Institute
we never invested, it would never get better. Howard American Petroleum Institute
Cary wa tbat kind of man. Iwas fortunate to have had American Society for Metals
him help shape my career and my vision for the weld- American Society forTe ting and Materials
ing indll try as a younger person. Howard, as an indus- American Society of Mechanical Engineers
try, w wilt miss you, but I will miss you as a friend and Arc Air Co.
as a m ntor.
Ar marie Integrated Systems
Welding has always played an important role in my Association of Iron and Steel Bngineers
Ufe: from the first ar. that I struck at the age of six un- Automated Production. Concepts, Inc,
d r my grandfather's watchful eye and steady hand, to
the one r made just yesterday-some 40year later. Yes, Batelle Columbus I..aboratories
welding is changing. hut in many ways it is still the same. Berkeley Davis, Inc.
Like the satisfaction y u f, el when you raise your hel- Berner, Susan
met and ee rh w Id that you just 1 reduced, the one Bethl hem Steel ..orp.
tho t: Is the right size, the right shape ... the one that will B tterman Stud \'VI Iding
bebolding tho e parts in place long after I have left this Boeing Aircraft
planet. Boeing Petroleum SeM1cesCo., .
To mak this bo k technically sccuraee.uie official aterpillar In .
termin 1 b'Y Of tll American Welding Soci ty is used, The CBI Industries; Inc.
bo k in tudes information from many AWS standards and C. C.P ck and . o.
.odes. 11 so i ty 1 as graciously allowed the us of this oastal AD and Blueprin In .
IOiofQ'l4tl n to help 1.18 all communicate welding Infer- mcinna ti Milacron
.nl tton mote accurately. My thanks to the society. . eRe Automatic
Dearman Div. of Cogsdille Tool Products Co. National Safety Council
Design Technologies & Mfg. Co. Nederrnan Inc.
DuPont-Aldyl Piping System Newport News Shipbuilding
DuPont-Metal Cladding Section
Oregon Graduate Institute
Dual Draw Clean Air Work Station
Panasonic Factory Automation
Eagle Arc Metalizing Corp.
Pandjiris, Inc.
Edison Welding Institute
PHOENIX Products Company, Inc.
Engelhard Corp.
Pitt-Des Moines Steel Co.
ESABAutomation, Inc.
Pow Con Inc.
Eutectic Corp.
Prestolite Electric Power
Explosive Fabricators, Inc.
Preston-Easton Inc.
F. Bode and Son Ltd.
Ramstud (USA) Inc.
Frommelt Safety Products
Sellstrom Manufacturing Co.
General Electric
Servo Robot
Gulleo International
Smith &Associates
Heckendorn, Larry Smith Welding Equipment, Division ofTescom
Henning Hansen Inc. Corporation
H&M Pipe Beveling Machine Company, Inc. Stillwater Technologies
Hypertherm, Inc. Stress Relief Engineering Company
Superior Flux Co.
InTech R&D
IlWWelding Products-McKay TAFA,Inc.
Taylor Diving & Salvage Co., Inc.
Jefferson National Expansion NHS/National Park
Tee Torch Co.
Service
Teledyne Precision-Cincinnati
Jet Line Engineering Inc.
Teledyne Readco
KATBAK·GuUco Inti. TEMPIL
Keen Hinkel Inc. Therrnadyne Industries, Inc.
Koike Aronson Inc. Thermosolda
Krall, Linda 3M Company-Industrial Specialities Division
Krautkramer Branson Thompson Friction Welding Ltd.
Torsteknik
Laramy Products Co.
Trinity Marine Group.Trinity Industries Inc.
Leybold Vacuum System, Inc.
TRW Nelson Stud Welding
Lin .oln Electric Co.
L-Tcc U.S. Navy
Lumonics National Processing Corp.
Vacuum/Atmospheres Co.
Magnate h,The DSD Co. Victor quiprnent Co.
Magnetrode COl1")·
Welding Design and Pabricatton, Penton Publf
Maintenance Engineering Corp.
TIle Welding Institute
Manufa turing Techn logics Inc.
Welding Services, Inc,
M "Creery Corp.
Wi IdLine Automation
Mtcroweld Products Co. Weldmatic, Inc.
MlJl r Electric Manufacturing o.
Weld Mold Co.
Mitsllb1 hi Las r
Weld Tooling Corp.
Mot:oman In .
West!.ngh us Electr! orp.j Industrlal Bquipn;
NASA Div.
. N.a:~ionalJotnt Steamfitt· ·t-Pipefitter Apprentice hlp
.Yaskawa ElecrricAm ri .a.Inc ..
Cornmttt e
1 3~3
3~4
3-5
Where Welders Work, 33
Training Programs and Schools, 33
Qualifying and Certifying Welding
WELDING BACKGROUND, 1 Personnel, 37
1- 1 The Importance of Welding, 1 Questions, 40
1-2 Welding Joints All Metals, 2 References, 40
1-3 Historical Development of Welding, 4
1-4 The Welding Industry 10
I
1-5 The Future of Welding, 11

Questions, 16
References, 16
4
SAFETY AND HEALTH OF WELDERS, 41
4~1 Personnel Protection and Safety Rules, 41
4-2 Electrical Shock Hazard, 45
2 4-3
4-4
Arc Radiation Hazard, 49
Air Contamination Hazard, 52
FUNDAMENTALS OF WELDING, 18 4-5 Fire and Explosion Hazard, 57
4-6 Compressed Gases Hazard, 61
2-1 Welding Basics, 18
4-7 Weld Cleaning and Other Hazards, 63
2-2 Welding Processes and Grouping, 20
4-8 Safety for Specific Welding Processes and
2-3 Methods of Applying Welding, 22 Occupations, 63
2-4 Welding Procedures, 24
Questions, 64
2-5 W 'ding Phy ics and Ch mistry, 25
Referen es, 64
Questions! 29
3 5
ARC WELDING WITH A , < .
WELDING PERSONNEL, TRAINING, NONCONSUMABLE ELECTRODE, 66

AND CERTIFICATION, 30 .
5..1 h_ Non onsumabl Widing Arc, 6
,.1 Th Work of th W Id r,30 5..2 Gas Tungst nAr .Welding, 6 .. "
3,,2 Th· Job Outlook for Welders, 33 5~3, PlasrnaArcW.Ic;Jtng, rr.. ...
5-4 Carbon Arc Welding, 81
5-5
5-6
Stud Welding, 83
Other Nonconsumable Arc Welding
8
Processes, 87 RESISTANCE, ELECTRON BEAM,
Questions, 88
AND LASER BEAM WELDING
References, 89
AND CUTTING, 192
8- 1 Resistance Welding, 192
8-2 Electron Beam Welding, 202
6 8-3
8-4
Laser Beam Welding, 207
High Energy Beam Cutting, 21 0
ARC WELDING WITH A Questions, 212
CONSUMABLE ELECTRODE, 90 References, 2 13
6- 1 The Consumable Welding Arc, 90

6-2 Metal Transfer Across the Arc, 95
6-3 Shielded Metal Arc Welding, 102
6-4
6-5
Gas Metal Arc Welding, 116
Flux-Cored Arc Welding, 126
9
6-6 Submerged Arc Welding, 136 WELDING-RELATED
6-7 Electroslag Welding, 147 PROCESSES, 214
6-8 Electrogas Welding, 153
9- 1 Oxygen Cutting, 214
6-9 Other Consumable Electrode Welding
9-2 Arc and Plasma Cutting, 218
Processes, 1 56
9-3 Water Jet Cutting, 223
6-10 Arc Welding Variables, 157
9-4 Automatic Shape Cutting, 224
6- 11 Arc Welding Process
Selection, 162 9-5 Thermal Spraying, 227
Questions, 163 9-6 Adhesive Bonding, 230
Referenc 5, 163 9-7 Joining Plastics, 232
9-8 Joining Composites and Ceramics, 236
9-9 Preheat and Postheat Treatment, 237
9-10 Mechanical StressRelief, 240
7 Questions, 241
References, 241
GAS WELDING, BRAZING,
SOLDERING, AND SOLID-STATE
WELDING, 165
7..1
7-2
Oxyfu. , Gas Widing,
Brazing, 171
165 10
POWER SOURCES FOR ARCH
7..3 Soldering, 179
7..4 .Th rmit Welding, 183 WELDING, 242
7,,5 Solid..St t Widing,184 10-' Arc Welding I ctriclty, 242
7~6 Mis, lIaneousW rding Proc 5S 5, 189 10-2 Widing Arc Requir m nts, 245
Qu sti ns, 190 10..3 Types of Welding Ma hines, 250
R. ferences,.~91 ' 10..4 Rotating Widing Ma hines/ 232 .
10-5 Transformer Welding Machines, 25"3
, 0-6
, 0-7
Rectifier Welding Machines, 257
Inverter Welding Machines, 261
13
10-8 Selecting and Specifying a Power ELECTRODES AND FILLER
Source, 264 METALS, 336
10-9 Installing and Maintaining a Power
Source, 265 13-1 Types of Welding Consumables, 336
Questions, 267 13-2 Covered Electrodes, 339
References, 267 13-3 Solid Electrode Wires, 334
13-4 . Cored Electrode Wires, 346
13-5 Packaging of Electrode Wires, 347
13-6 Welding Fluxes, 349
11 13-7 Other Welding Materials, 352

Questions, 353
OTHER WELDING
EQUIPMENT, 268
11-' Arc Welding Guns and Torches, 268
11-2
11-3
Electrode Feed Systems, 271
Welding Cables and Clamps, 280
14
11-4 Auxiliary Welding Equipment, 284 GASES USED IN WELDING, 354
11-5 Weld Monitoring, 286 14-1 Shielding Gases, 354
Questions, 288 14- 2 Fuel Gases for Welding and
References, 288 Cutting, 359
14-3 Atmosphere Gases, 363
14-4 Gas Containers and Apparatuses, 364
Questions, 370
12 References, 370
MECHANIZED, AUTOMATED, AND

ROBOTIC ARC WELDING, 289
12~1
12-2
Automation of Welding, 289
Arc Motion Devices, 292
15
12-3 W rk Motion Devices, 296 METALS AND THEIR
12-4 5t, ndardized Automatic Arc Welding WElDABllITY, 371
Machines, 301 .
12-5 Dedi ated Autom tic Arc Welding 15-1 Properties of Metals, 371
Equipment, 304 ' 15-2 Metal Specifications 'and Steel
12-6 lexibl Autom tion of Widing, 310 Classifications, 378
12..7 Arc WeldingR bots, 31,2 15-3 Identificatiqn of Metals, 3a6
12,.8 Controls for Automati Arc 15 ..4 Heat andWeldrng, 389., .
Wlding,323 15..5 Welding MetaliurgYt 393
12..9 S nsors and Adaptiv Control, 327 15.6 ,Weldability of Metals, 403
12-1 Iingand ixtur 5,333 . Questions, 405
. Qu 5tions,335 References, 406 ,
16 19
WELDING STEELS,407 DESIGN FOR WELDING, 484
16- 1 Welding Carbon and Low-Alloy 19- 1 Advantage of Welded Construction, 484
Steels, 407 19-2 Weldment Design Factors, 485
16-2 Welding Alloy Steels, 410 19-3 Welding Positions and Weld
16-3 Welding StainlessSteels, 415 Accessibility, 490
16-4 Welding Ultrahigh-Strength Steels, 421 19-4 Design of Weld Joints and Welds, 494
Questions, 427 19-5 Influence of Specifications on Design, 504
References, 428 19-6 Design Conversion to Weldments, 506
19-7 Computer-Aided Design (CAD), 510
19-8 Weldment Redesign to Reduce Cost, 512
19-9 Welding Symbols, 513
Questions, 5 19
17 References, 5 19
WELDING NONFERROUS
429
METALS,
17-1 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys, 429 20
17-2 Copper and Copper-Base Alloys, 442 COST OF WELDING, 520
"17-3 Magnesium-Base Alloys, 449
17-4 Nickel-Base Alloys, 451 20-1 Weldment Cost Elements, 520
17-5 Reactive and Refractory Metals, 452 20-2 Weld Metal Required for Joints, 521
17-6 Other Nonferrous Metals, 460 20-3 Filler Metal and Materials Required, 525
20-4 Time and Labor Required, 528
Questions, 461
20-5 Power and Overhead Costs, 530
References, 462
20-6 Weld Cost Formulas and Examples, 531
Questions, 533
18 21
WELDING SPECIAL AND DISSIMILAR
METALS; 463 QUALITY CONTROL AND EVALUATION
OF WELDS, 534
18-·' Cast Ir n c nd Other Irons, 463
18..2 To I Ste Is, 467' 21-1 Quality Control Program, 534
18M3 . Reinforing Bars, 470 21~2 o structive Testing, 536
.. 18~4 Co t d S~ Is, 473 21 ..3 Visuallnsp ction, 538
18·5 th r Metals, 475 21·4 Nondestructive Testing, 543
18..6 CI d M tis, 477 21-5 Corre tiv A tlons for W Id H cts, 550
.18,.7. .Dissimil r .Metals, 480 21-6 Workmanship Sp cim ns and
Que.stions, 483 Standards, 559
21-7 Nondestructive Examination Symbols, 565 24-2 Developing a Rework Procedure, 625
Questions, 567 24-3 Making the Repair Weld, 627
References, 567 24-4 Rebuilding and Overlay Welding, 630
24-5 Surfacing for Wear Resistance, 633
24-6 Surfacing for Corrosion Resistance, 638
22 24-7 Other Surface Applications, 639

Questions, 640
References, 64 1
WELDING SPECIFICATIONS,
PROCEDURES,
AND QUALIFICATIONS, 568
22-1 Weld Reliability, 568 25
22-2 Welding Codes and Specifications, 569
22 -3 Welding Procedures and Qualifying
WELDING PIPE AND TUBING, 642
Then"572 25-1 Tubular Products, 642
22-4 Standard Welding Procedure Specifications 25-2 Pipe and Tube Welding, 647
(SWPS),582 25-3 Manual and Semiautomatic Pipe
22-5 Qualifying and Certifying Welders, 589 Welding, 652
Questions, 593 25-4 Mechanized Pipe and Tube Welding, 653
References, 593 25-5 Automated Pipe Welding, 656
25-6 Tube to Sheet Welding, 661
Questions, 663
23 References, 664
WELDING PROBLEMS
AND SOLUTIONS,
23-1 Arc Blow, 595
595 26
23-2 Welding Distortion and Warpage, 597 SPECIAL WELDING
23~3 Heat Forming and Straightening, 606 ApPLICATIONS, 665
23-4 Weld Stressesand Cracking, 609
26·1 Arc Spot Welding, 665
23-5 In-Service Cracking, 612
26-2 Sheet Metal Welding, 670
23-6 Welding-Painting, 616
26-3 One-Side Welding, 672
Qu stions, 6 17
26-4 Narrow Gap Welding, 675
References, 618
26..5 Underwater Welding, 677
26-6 Welding in Space, 682
26-7 Microjoining,683
24 Questions, 684
References, 684
FAll(JR~ ANALYSIS, REPAIR WELDING,
AND SURFACING, 619 ApPENDICES, 687 <
24.,1 W Id ailure Analysis, 619 INDEX, 703 <

OUTLINE
the defense of our nation. It is often said. that more than
1-1 The Importance of Welding
50% of the country's gross national product is related to
1...2 Welding jotns AIl Met:rus welding in one way or another. Welding is the most eco-
1-3 HLtorical Development ofWeldlng nomical and efficient way to join metals permanently.
1- Th Welding Industry Welding began as a repair or maintenance tool and.
I-STIle Future ofWeldin.g has become one of the most important manufacturing
methods as well as the most essential construction method.
Almost everything made of metal is welded, Because of its
strength and versatility, welding is used in the manufacture
'-1 THE IMPORTANCE of almost all the products we use in our daily lives-and to
OF WELDING construct the vehicles that transport us and the products
we use.We take welding for granted.Without welding many
Welding is the most common method of joining two or citizens could not afford me cost of the goods and servic s
more pieces of metal to make them act as a single piece. they need to earn a living. Construction equipment such as
It allows the production of a monolithic structure that is the bulldozer and dragtine are all welded, as are railroad
strong in all directions.Welding is used. to join all the com- freight cars. The fipnOllS trans-Alaskan pipeline is com-
mercial metal and alloys and. to join metals of differ nt pletely welded from end to end. A super-tanker, tJ1C world's
types and str agths. It is vital to our national economy and largest moving weldrnent, would' not be possible without
welding. Elevated storage tanks for water supply systems
are welded, Motorized and sailing yachts, hydrofoil boats,
FIGURE 1-11.ong span bridge done with welded patio Chairs, and even the tallest btlUdm.,gIn the Ut}iteq
construction, Courtesy of AWS Welding Journal. States, the Seats Tower in Chlcago, are w Ided.
. Today's automobile would be much more- 'Kpen·
slve .jf it were not for welding; The $teel: bodYfltld franle ,
of today's carIs S,PONvcld 'd by robot, and arc.w labl-'
and laser' beam welding at', also used, . olH ion .repair.
work is also done 'With w lding.The spa~ program Ists
be aus of welding. The Int mati anal spa e Si<l;tion was '
welded to!lether on arth a;ndtmltspOl.'t ,d to~pac~lal\d ,
theti final asser:p,bly w~14~. wer¢, done In. spa:cfi,~.. s,ll\lt:-
tl it.itclf,Irotll therockctenmnes 'tothe ~terO;~Lf\z1 l~: '
required spe i~ze(l procedures forwc.(clihS ~.oy ~1~1·
rntnum Without defects.lons"sp3n.bridgs ~ tbe 011 ift
Figur ' 1 ...11 whicb US\-lally have 1 rge girder , tl,r~ nll-
welded as embUes atlo tnay be fi.e1d-wel~ a Qt J1 ld- ,
bolted,~ost larg~~l~es inc1\ld~ mucll~ergirt,g, e.~11
FIGURE 1-3 Welding in the vertical position. Courtesy
of AWS Welding Journal.
FIGURE 1-2 Welded construction made the space
shuttle program possible. Courtesy of AWS Welding • It is the lowest cost, permanent joining method.
Journal. • It affords lighter weight through better use of ma-
terials.
• It joins all commercial metals.
though the all-welded plane is not yet here. The landing
gear, jet engines, engine mounts, and much of the special- • It can be used anywhere.
ized equipment is welded, but the plane body is riveted. • It provides design flexibility.
Some military planes like the space shuttle in Figure 1-2 It is also important to know the limitations of weld-
are largely welded. Finally, welded equipment makes posing. These limitations are:
sible the manufacture of miniature components for elec-
troni equipment and telecornmunicatlon equipment. • Procedures must be provlded for all metals and ap-
The use of welding ranks high among the metal- plications.
working processes that include machining, forging, form- • Manual welding depends on the human factor.
ing, and casting. While it appear to be simple, welding • Internal inspection is often required to ass Ire
invc lves more s tences and variables than any of the quality.
other industrial processes. Only when welding is under-
stood doe it become the most economical and efficient These limitations can be overcome by means of
.wa to join m tals.Th purpo of this book is to provide nondesrrucrive evaluation, good supervision, qualified
iJJ£or'mation concerning welding processes and the ap- procedures, qualified p rsonn 1, and the use of mecha-
Ilcauon t d uses of welding. The book provides in or- nized welding methods.
mation c ncernmg all of the popular proc sses, the A well-de Igned, properly constructed weldrnent is
prQperties ofmetalrweldJng's ef.ficts on bas metal prop- the best and lowest co tS Iuncn for the ass mbly of any
erties, the design of weldrnents, and gen ral USCI' of' weld- metal prod Jct.Welded products willremain imp rtant to
ing to r d\' . ~produ tion costs. th e anomy as long as quality designed and produced
Ttl 'r are many dil'ferent welding pro .esses, many products are availabl .
typ s 'of welds, and many ways to make a: weld. The
, weld; r beltl11d:th~ hood in Figure 1-3 is llsinga popular
weldf;ng proce-arc w lcling. Some welding processes. , ..2 WELDING JQI~S ALL METALS
,do notcau e sparks, u~ 1 ctrt jty, or require add ed heat.
'~eldingb£l$ be om . complex and technical. It requires .Most.m tal' can b j Ined by on. w lding pro es or arr-
.J~t'lpwl Ig" to etc t the prop 't' welding proc s for eacl other.The metals that are asHy weldabl 'an be welded
~:11pn'tttiOn;1bi hook ls d sign'dtohell,>:youl nrnab ut in a wide rang of th! 'kn ss s from the rhmn st to the
we1dtrtg so thilt y'o\.1 co.nuse Its m'u:y adWlotag s. otneof hi k se pi'odu ed. Met~ds CM auo b wdd"'d in all po. 1"
,:::,;tb~~~ij:\i,a!1talsq~: " I;' , tiOll ~$shown in Figur 1-3.The dlfl1cult;"tcr\Velclm. tals
~ -- '. - '
require special procedures and techniques that must be minum aUoys have differing properties and require spe-
developed for specific applications. cific procedures for welding.
Some metals may never be welded or joined. Later Copper and copper-base aUoys such as brasses and
chapters will provide the properties of metals, such as bronzes make up the next largest group.These metals are
melting temperature, density, thermal conductivity, ten- used when electrical conductivity, corrosion resistance,
sile strength, and ductility. These properties provide in- or heat conductivity is important.
formation about the ease with which a metal can be Stainless steel and cast steels are tied for the next
welded. For example, mercury is a liquid at room tern- position. Cast steels are normally welded like rolled steels
perature and cannot be welded. Physical and mechanical of the same composition. The many different types of
properties, availability, and price determine if a metal will stainless steels have specific properties. Figure 1-5 offers
be used in applications where welding is required. The one example,
more abundant and stronger metals are normally welded. Nickel and nickel alloys represent the next largest
Figure 1~ shows the commercial metals according to group, a small but important percentage since certain
their annual production in the United States.This may be nickel alloys are the best metal to use for special service.
somewhat misleading since many metals used in the The magnesium group is the smallest, though it plays
nited States are imported. However, the ratio of metals an important role.As the lightest structural metal, rnagne-
is important, and it i likely that these ratios represent use slum has many applications where welding is required.
and are similar in most industrialized countries. The remaining metals represent smalJ percentages,
Plain carbon steel is by far the most widely used but they are used when their particular characteristic is
metal. This book provides much information for welding required; these applications often require that they be
ordinary mild steel. Iron castings are the second largest welded.
type of metal produced, but most iron castings are used Steel is produced in many different forms. Figure 1-6
without welding. Sometimes, iron castings are joined or shows the production ratios of the various forms of steel.
repaired, 0 it is nece sary to know how different types
Thicknesses of steel are described using the tenus plate
of cast irons are welded. Alloy steels make up the next and sheet. The designation for plate includes materials that
largest group, which includes many special types such
are 1/4 inch and thicker. Those thinner are referred to as
as low-alloy high-strength steels, heat-treated steels, and sheet or gauge.AS the gauge number gets larger, the mate-
ultrahigh-strength steels. Each type of alloy steel involves rial becomes thinner. Sheet steel represents the greatest
different welding procedures.
volume.This is not surprising considering that most of the
Aluminum and aluminum alloys represent the next steel used in automobiles, trucks, buses, home appliances,
largest group and are continually finding wider applica-
tion, especially when weight is a factor. The different alu-
FIGURE1-5· Welding on stainless steel piping, Courtesy
of AWS Welding Journal.
FIGURE1-4 Metal production by types in the United
States.
FIGURE 1-6 Steel production by types in the United
States.
office machinery, and furniture is sheet steel. It is also used

for many cans and other containers. FIGURE 1-7 Welded high-speed locomotive. Courtesy
Steel bars represent the second largest product of AWS Welding Journal.
form. Many bars are machined or cut and used, but a siz-
able portion of bars go with structural shapes, the fifth
largest group, and are used in the construction industry. the metal to be added in making a welded, brazed, or sol-
Steel plates represent the third largest group and dered joint and includes electrodes and welding rods.
are used to make tanks, boilers, machinery, ships, and
other weldments.
Pipe and tubular products represent the fourth
largest group. All large-dfarneter pipe and much of the 1-3 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
smaller pipe is joined by welding. OF WELDING
The remaining groups-wires, rails, and others-
may not involve much welding. However, rails are now As one of the newer metalworking technologies, welding
being welded for the railroads. can trace its historic development back to ancient times.
Note the broad use of metal, especially the steels, The earliest example comes from the Bronze Age. Small
and how welding relates to them. It is important that we gold circular boxes were made by pressure-welding lap
know how to weld each metal in any form. Information joints together. It is estimated that these boxes were
about each metal is provided by sp ciflcations that are ma.de more than 2,000 y ars ago; they are presently on ex-
originated by engineering soclettes, technical groups, and hibit at the National Museum in Dublin, Ireland. During
rrade associations. the Iron Age, the Egyptians and people in the eastern
A s~mlIp.ary of metals is given in Table 1-1. They arc Mediterranean region learned to weld pieces of iron to-
lat d to the ommon welding' processes, and a rating gether- Many tools that have been found were made in ap-
sy tern indica '5 how they are welded. Most metals can proximately 1000 B.. TIleseitems are on e:xhibit in the
be welded,~but 'oroe-are easier to weld than 'others. In British Museum in London. Other examples of early
othet worls; they possess welwlbtlity, defin d a the ca- welded art are displayed in mu eurns in Philadelphia and
. PSrci1;yof n;l1\t ri~l to b welded under th imposed fab- Toronto, Items of iron and bronz that exhibit intricate
pcat{oncol1d,j.tIons Al'lto~tsp ciflc, suitallly' designed forging and forgeweldtng' OPC1".t.tiOllS have been founed in
~tTU(,'.ttl:reand to prt'ovm satisf;! ot'ily in the intended the pyramids of ·gypt.
During the Mlddl Ag the art of blacksmithing
" rvi e. All metals cannot be join d by aeh welding
pr S$. SomewelcUng pro ess S Were d velop d to join was developed, and many Items of icon that were welded
t4pe~if1~iJ;l. tals, .rtairl me al 'arc. kn wn as "diffi \lIt to by hammering were produced. One of the largest etds
(!ld,;' W ; ell lnean~·tha~ pt;clfic precautions and proce- . from this period was the Iron, Pilk1.f. of Delhi in IndL'l,
.' equlr~~,," c ", '" . . which -was erected abour.th y ar:~.J), 310; It was made
w ;lding indusd,,' de",,-loped tn~terja16 called fr m iron billets welded togem r. IUs a.Pl'toxi mat Jy 25 ft.
'/#1;r mel:alG to jOillttt (t~tJ; us mebtls
and alloys. Th se (7.6111) t;tll wit.b, a diaU1.'ter of 12 in. (500 min) at the top
t')lat thll fill tlie weld joint and pr 'vide joims as strong as ;md 16 in. ( 00 mm.) at 'the b [tom, Its total wight is
tl m tals b 41g jOin ·d. 'I'll ' term ftller' metl/f.ls r 1'S to . 12.000 Ib (5, metrj' ton). t:h r pil1ars w r rected itt
TABLE 1-1 SUMMARYOF METALSWELDEDBY VARIOUSPROCESSES
Welding Processes
Base Metals Welded SMAW GTAW PAW SAW GMAW FCAW ESW BW OFW
Aluminums C A A No A No Exp B B
Copper-base alloys
Brasses No C C No C No No A A
Bronzes A A B No A No No A 8
Copper C A A No A No No A A
Copper nickel B A A No A No No A A
Irons
Cast, malleable, nodular iron A B B No B 8 No A A
Wrought iron A B 8 A No A
A A A
Lead No B B No No No No No A
Magnesium No A 8 No A No No No No
Nickel-base alloys
Inconel A A A No A No No A B
Monel A A A C A No No A A
Nickel A A A C A No No A A
Nickel sliver No C C No C No No A B
Precious metals No A A No Exp No No A B
Steels
Alloy steel A A A B A A A A· A
Low-alloy steel A A A A A A A A A
High- and medium-carbon steel A A A B A A A A A
Low-carbon steel A A A A A A A A A
Stainless steel
A A A A A B A A C
Tool steel
A A A No C No No A A
Titanium , No A A Exp A No No No No
Tungsten No 8 A No No No No No No
Zinc No C C No No No No No C
Metal or process rating; A, recommended or easily weldable; S, acceptable but not best selection or weldable with precautions; C, possibly
usable but not popular or restricted use or difficult to weld; No, not recommended or not weldable; Exp, experimental or research.
SMAW - Shielded Metal Arc Welding
GTAW - Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
PAW - Plasma Arc Welding
SAW - Submerged Arc Welding
GMAW - Gas Metal Arc Welding
India at this same time, and a few large weldments made joining lead plates for storage batteries in tlie year 1881;
by the Romans have b en found in Europe and in En- His pupil, Nikolai N. Benardos, ~ Russian working in the
gland. Other w ·Ided works have been found in Scandi- French laboratory, was grunted a patent for welding. He,
navia and in :Jermany.Welding as we know it today was with fellow Russian Stanisl us Olsz w ki, . ured a
invent d tn rhe ntn teenth century. Edmund Davy of En- British patent in, 1885 and anAmerican patent in1$87,(1) .
,gland i credited With the disco ery of acetylene in 1836. The patents show an early electrode bolder {Figutcl~8). r-
The production of an arc b. twe n two carbon electrodes This was the beginning of arbon arc welding. Benardos's
using a battery iscredfted to Sir Humphry Davy in 1800. efforts w re restri ted to carbon ar w l(lltlg, although h
In th mJcf,.nln tenth century, the electric g necator was was able to weld iron as well as lead. Carbon arc welding
invented and at' lighting becam popu.Iar. The late run . became popular during th lat 18905 andeady 19008. ,;
te nth century provided a great nuniber of discov rtee. Apparently, Ben~r90s was not su ces~ful With a
Outing this perto I gas w l(lmg: and. cutting. were (h!vel~ metallic 01 ct:rode,an<:t iri1890. C.L. offin~tu· tr.oi~w. l·
oped. Arc welding with the carbon arc and metal arc was .awarded the first U.S. patetll fQl' anarcwelfllrigprocess .
? veloped, and resistance WIding became a practical ustng a metal Jcctrodc.(2)1his' was the first re iord of til .
JOining process. Auguste De Meritens, w rking in the metal melted from th (:IIctr d carried across th ar to
abor {.a.botatory in Fran e, used th heat of an ar fOr. deposit fillet metat in th joint to make a weld:Ax ~:bout ..
FIGURE 1-8 First electrode holder.
FIGURE 1-10 Resistance spot welding. Courtesy of

Welding Inspection Technology, American Welding Society.
Meanwhile, the resistance welding processes

(Figure 1-10) were developed, including spot welding,
seam welding, projection welding, and flash butt wel cling.
Elihu Thompson originated resistance welding. His
patents began in 1885. He originated a company, the
Thompson Electric Welding Company, and developed the
different resistance welding processes between that time
and 1900. Thermite welding was invented by a German
named Goldschmidt in 1903 and was first used to weld
railroad rails.
Gas welding and cutting were perfected in this pe-
riod.The production of oxygen and later the liquefying of
air, along with the introduction in 1887 of a blowpipe or
torch, helped the development of both welding and cut-
ting. Before 1900 hydrogen and coal gas were used with
oxygen. However, in about 1900 a torch suitable for use
with low-pressure acetylene was developed. The oxyfuel
process is shown in Figure 1-11.
World War I brought a tremendous demand for ar-
FIGURE 1-9 Kjellberg covered electrode. mament production, and welding was pressed into ser-
vice. Many companies sprang up in America and Burope
t manufacture welding machines and electrode to.
the same time, N,·G. SlavianofJ, a Russian, presented the meet thts requirement. The British built the fast all-
sam idea of transferring metal aero s an are, not as a. welded ship, H.M.S, Fulagar, and the Dutch started to
w -ldbut rath r to 'ast metal in a m 1<.1.(3) weld fus lages of fighter planes. 11 most famous in i-
; In about, J9QO, A. P. Strohmenger introduced a dent was the rep~ work on German ships mremedIu
'oat d metal '1 ctrod in Great 13rita:tn.(')A thin coating of New York harbor that were sabotaged. By rr ans of arc
.cla.y or lim provided amore srab! arc. ar Kjellberg of w Iding, thes ships w re quickly repaired and put back
W,. I n Inv 1 t d th cover, d or coat d 1 trod during into s rvlce t d liver material from the United States to
thepetiod1907 to 191 .Figure 1-9 shows his oncept of Eur pe.
, .weJUtllg ~tth ·oated sti ·l{electrod~s.l'hey were produced Immediately. after the war, in 1919; tw nty mem-
"t>yllippmgsllott lel1,gths of bare.iron. wire in thick mlx- bers fthe Wat:time Welding Committee of the Emer-
futs'J>r irJjom t¢!Htnd silicate. andallowtng thee ating
s. gency FIe . orporatton, under the 1 adership of omfort
to diy:M 'rnnilng cur! 11t W~lding W~I$ Invented in 1919 Avery Adams, found d the Amer! anWelding ociety us a
by, ,l.r 16tag/O) bur it did not b· Qme J' Jpular until the llon.profit organizatiQr d di at d t r.h :tdvan 'cment of
.30's wlthi he u . f heavy 4; ate(J 1 ctJ'ode. welditl~ < n<1aUied pr< ce s ~s.
FIGURE1-11 Oxyfuel welding. Courtesy of Welding
Inspection Technology, American Welding Society.
In 1920, automatic welding was introduced. It used

bare electrode wire operated on direct current and arc
voltage as the basis of regulating the feed rate. Automatic
welding was invented by P. O. Nobel of the General Elec-
tric Company.(5) It was used to build up worn motor
FIGURE1-12 Stud welding. Courtesy of Welding
shafts and worn crane wheels. It was also used by the au- Inspection Technology, American Welding Society
tomobile industry to produce rear axle housings.
During the 19208, various types of welding elec- arc welding process. (8,9) They also showed welding with
trodes were developed ..Mild steel with a carbon of 0.20% a concentric nozzle and with the electrode being fed as a
or less was used for welding practically all grades of steel. wire through the nozzle. This was the forerunner of the
Higher-carbon electrodes and alloy steel electrodes were gas metal arc weldtng process. These processes were de-
also developed. Copper alloy rods were developed for veloped much later.
carbon arc welding and brazing. Stud welding (Pigure 1-12) was developed in 1930
During the 1920s there was considerable research in at the New York Navy Yard, speclflcally for attaching
shi lding th arc and weld area by externally applied gases. wood decking over a metal surfa e.(1~) The proces .
111 atmosphere of oxygen and nitrogen in contact with welded studs to the base metal by means of a spe Ial gun
the molten weld metal caused brittle and sometimes whtch automatically controlled the arc, Fluxing elements
porous w Ids; Research work was done using gas-shielding on the end of the stud improved th properties oftlle
t chniques. Alexander and Langmuir dfd work ill cham-
weld. Stud welding became popular in the shipbutldlng
be sting hydrogen a. a welding atrnospher .They used and construction industries.
two el ctrod , starting with carbon but later changing to The aut matic process that became popular was
tungsten. The .hydtog n was changed to atornlc hydrogen the submerged arc welding process.Tlus "under pov der"
in t11 . arc, It was then blown out ofth at, forming an. in- or smothered arcweldlng proc ss waS d, velop d byth
, tensely hot flam of atomic hydrogen bUfnJ-tlg to the mo- National Tube Company: for a pipemijJ· tltMCKeesport,,'·
l cular fotm nod lib l'ating bat. TIlis arc produced half' Pennsylvania. It was designed'to make the longitudlnal
again as much heat a an 0'W<\cctyl ne flame.This became seams in the pip .This I recess was patented by Robipoff
tb atomic hydrogen weld ng pro 'SS. At mic hydrog n in 1930, 11 and it W~l.S latersold to Lil1de Air Pt' du t
nev r became popular but was us d during the 19308 and ompang where it wa renamed Uniohmelt(12Y welding,
19. Os for special appU atlon f Wi 1ding and later on for Submerged arc welding(l<1gur ~1 :"13)wus used ttw'~~
weRling of lste 18,('7) the clef] nsc'buUdupin 1938 Utshi;pyafds an4Jp':or¥an.e.,
H. M. Iiobart and P. K. pevers, were doiuS s!tnilar factories, It is one' ofth most productivweTditig,
W rk bUtllsing atmo pher s of argon' and helium. In.their processes and remains popnlar today.. ..
Pt~t~nt..,applied fOr in 19261 arc weldiJJg uslng gas sup- Gas ttl11gst t'l arc welding· Figut" . 1....1 .) llad its
ph 'd arollnd tb ar W3S a forerllnn r of th g~~stungst n beginnings fronl an id a by,. L., ()x.tin to weld in a
\
FIGURE 1-13 Submerged arc welding.
FIGURE 1-15 Gas metal arc welding.
Engineers of the Northrup Aircraft Company, with

Dow Chemical Company, developed a welding process
for Joining magnesium. The inert gas-shielded process de-
veloped by Hobart and Devers was ideal for welding mag-
nesium and also for welding stainless steel and aluminum.
It was perfected in 1941, patented by Meredith, and
named Heliarc welding, since helium was initially used for
shielding.v " It was later licensed to Linde Air Products,
where the water-cooled torch was developed. The gas
, tungsten arc welding process has become one of the most
important.
The gas-shielded metal arc welding (GMAW)
process (Figure 1-15) was successfully developed at Bat-
telle Memorial Institute in 1948 under the sponsorship of
the Air Reduction CornpanyThis d velopment employed
the gas-shielded at similar to the gas tungst n arc, but re-
placed the tungsten electrode with a continuously fed
electrode wire." ) One of the basic changes that made
the process more usable was the small-diameter elec-
trode wires and the constant-voltage power source. This
principle had been patented arlier by H. E. Kenn ely. IS)
The initial introduction of GMAW was for weldtng non-
ferrous metals. The high deposition rat led users to try
the process on steel, 111e cost of in rt gas wa relatively
high and the cost savings were not itnmediately available.
In. 1953, Lyubavski! and Novoshtlov annoum ed the.
US of welding with consumabl le trodes in an atmos-
~IGURE1-14 Gas tungsten arc welding. Courtesy at
pher of O2 gas." ) The C 2 w lding process Immedt-
W~t<;ll('lg lnsp etlan , Technology; American Welding Society.
.
ately gained favor since it us d quipmenr develop (l for
inert gas mC1111 at: 'W! Iding but could nowb ,used for
.n01'lp~(lJZillg ga,9 aimosphe1'C, which '11 pa ented ill economt llywetdin_g steels. The' 0 ,2 arc is a. hot arc. and
18 ().(~)·~he CQllC,.pt was furth r reftned in. tbe lat the larger ele trode wires requtred fairly" hiSl1 CUrt nts.
, 19~Osby tfobat't, who llsect b Hum for shie.lding, and D • pro
'I'll ess became wid iy used with til Introducti n
. v ~·~I'Wl us d ~rson.l1\e th:re~to(W rid War Il.focused of smaller-dtamet r ele 'trod wires an l term -d pow r
,',On th ne d 1.0' W 'ld magn srum to build fight r planes. 4PllHes.ThJs dev·l pment was the short. It nit at vari-
'.
arion, which was known as Micro-wire, short arc,and dip In 1959, an inside-outside electrode was pro-
transfer welding, aU of which appeared late in 1958 and duced that did not require external gas shielding. The
early in 1959.This ariation allowed all-position' welding absence of shielding gas gave the process popularity for
on thin materials, It. oon became the most popular of the noncritical work. This process was the self-shielding
gas m tal arc welding process vartauons.i'?' process named Innersbteld. Both the gas-shielded and
Another variation was the use of inert gas with self-shielding systems are widely used today and are
small amounts of oxygen, which provided the spray-type growing in populanty!"
arc transf r. It became popular in the early 1960s.The lat- The electroslag welding process was announced by
est variation is the use of pulsed current. The current is the Soviets at the Brussels World's Fair in Belgium in 1958.
switched from a high to a low value at a rate of once or It had been used in the Soviet Union since 1951 but was
twice the line frequency. Now variable frequency is used. based on work done in the United States by R. K. Hopkins,
Thi proces is becoming popular. who was granted patents in 1940.(20)The Hopkins process
Soon after the introduction of CO2 welding, a varia- was never used to a great degree for joining. The process
tion using a special electrode wire was developed. This was perfected and equipment was developed at the Paton
wire, described as an inside-outside electrode, was tubu- Institute Laboratory in Kiev, Ukraine, and also at the Weld-
lar in cross section, with the fluxing agents on the inside. ing Research Laboratory in Bratislava, Czechoslovakia.The
The process was called Dualsbteld, which indicates that first production use in the United States was at the Elec-
external shielding gas was used, as well as the gas pro- tromotive Division of General Motors Corporation in
duced by the flux in the core of the wire, for arc shielding Chicago, where it was called the Electro-molding process.
(Figure 1-16). This process invented by Bernard, was an- It was announced in December 1959 for the fabrication
nounced in 1954 but was patent din 1957, when it was of welded diesel engine blocks.F" The process and its
reintroduced by the National Cylinder Gas Company'I'"
variation, using a consumable guide tube, is used for weld-
ing thicker materials.
FIGURE 1-16 Flux cored arc welding. Courtesy of Another vertical welding method, called Electrogas,
Welding Inspection Technology, American Welding Society. was introduced in 1961 by the Arcos Corporation,(22) It
used equipment developed for electroslag welding but em.
ployed a flux-cor d electrode wire and an externally su]y
plied gas shield. It is an open arc process.since a slag bath
is not involved. A newer development uses self-shielding
electrode wires, and a variation uses solid wire but with gas
shielding.These methods allow the welding of thlnner ma-
terials than can be welded with the electroslag process.
Plasma arc welding, invented by Gage in 1957, is
used for metal spraying and for cutting. It is used for
spraying both wires and powders.
The electron beam welding process, which uses a
focused beam of electrons as a heat SOurce in a vacuum
chamber, was develop d in France. El ctron beam (EB)
welding .has gained widespr ad ace eptance for Welding.
Its popularity is Increasingdue to recen(developme4'lts in '
Japan for Welding heavy-wall pressure vessels. In the
United States the autorn tive and aircraft engtne in ms- ,
tries are major users of EB welding, .
Friction w ldlng, which uses rotational spe id and
ups t pressure to provid friction heat, was dev~lope~ in
the Soviet UniQP. It is a spechllized prot $S and bas ;lppli"
ations only wh re a sufficient volume cif similar parts ~If..
to be weld d because of the inttlal xpense of qtHJ m nt
ana tooling. This proc S8 is also ailed inertia we.lding,
The newest weldin.g proc s.. i$ 1a' r welding, The
laser was odgjnaUy developed In l~;l!Wd wa bsed *.5~,
commuutcanons dv'lc ,lte\Zatlse oftlletremeJ.lt1.oU$~COn.;, ,
ntratton o(enel~ i,n'a srnaUspace~lt proved tobea
pow rful heat sourc el,It,hasb~ Jl, 1,1S d (or "ntting III tal~
and n ~lm'tals.Tbe early pl'oblms. 1n:\/o1'ed· hon j')l,.llses
of n rgYih W vel~~od:lY Qntlnuous.pllJ$, '\[u(prnent {s.
, . ,
\
available. The laser is finding welding applications in au- try groups are the biggest users of welding. This is based
tomotive metalworking operations. on the assumption that the amount of welding performed
Many variations of these processes, which are not at an establishment relates to the number of welders em-
specifically processes themselves, will be developed and ployed. This assumption can be misleading because many
as the need arises they will be adapted to metalworking persons who weld are not classit1ed as welders. This and
requirements. the increasing trend toward welding automation may have
an effect on this data.This classit1cation system provides a
database that, when combined with the population data,
allows us to determine which industries do the most arc
1-4 THE WELDING INDUSTRY welding. However, it doesn't include information about
Just what does the welding industry do for our nation? other welding processes such as electron beam welding
The industries where welding is described as either a pri- and laser welding. Product value and employment data are
mary product or as a critical enabling technology provide gathered periodically by the government.
the backbone for our nation's defense, infrastructure, and The major industrial groups that represent the
economic well-being. As an industry we represent one- welding industry use welding extensively but in different
third of the total u.s. gross domestic product. Combined ways under different working conditions on different
revenues of industries that use welding totaled $3.1 tril- metals and according to different codes and specifica-
lion in 2000. A conservative estimate by the Bureau of La- tions. Each group is briefly described.
bor Statistics (8LS) indicates that industries using
welding provided employment for more than 500,000 Mining and Oil and Gas Extraction
persons living in our country. However, many uses of
(NAICS Number 211-21 2)
welding are not included in statistics, which still leaves
welding as an industry poorly deflned. This group includes mining, both deep shaft and open
The government uses a standardized system to pit, for ores and coal, quarrying stone, sand, and grave1.
gather, tabulate, and analyze data related to all the different This industry group also includes drilling and extraction
establishments throughout the country. An establishment of oil and gas. Welding codes are not normally employed.
is defined as an economic unit at a single location where
business or industrial operations are performed. This Heavy Construction
refers. then, to those that use welding, are considered the (NAICS Number 234)
welder-using industry, or produce welding equipment. In
This group of companies includes those that build tunnels,
tbe past all establishments were given Standard Industrial
subways, dams, powerhouses, chemical plants, structural
Classification (SIC) numbers. WIth the North American
steel bridges, and buildings. Much of the work involves
Free-Trade Agreement (NAFTA), a cooperative system be-
structural welding, which is covered by code. This group
rwe n Canada, Mexico, and the United States became nee- also includes piping contractors for cross-country and
essm;y. A new system, ..known as the North American
other pipelines, which are also governed by strict code.
Industry Classi.fication System (NAI S),began in. 1997 and
" ~igavJlew code numbers to all establishments in those
th:r e Coltntri,cs.This is a profound change fo.r government
Primary Metal Manufacturing
srat.istlcatprogmms and wUl require year to be com- (NArCS Number 33 1)
.,.i . pleted: unfortunately we at' in the chang .perlod and data This group includes steel mills, iron and steel foundries,
• I
is not ,in c omplete synchromzanon. and smelting and :refining plants. These companies pro-
NAICS .numbers are assign d to every operation, du e st 1 plates, structural shapes, tubular products,
and all eelt~blihments engaged in producing the same sheet metal, and, castings of all comrnercial metals. Most
,,' $p~¢ific pl'odu .tor service afegjv~n the same code num- of the weJd.illg in this group is for maintenance repair on
., b f. For ·exatnpl.e •. three~digit numb rs represent major the t cllitles; however, a portlon is reclamation welding of
grouf)S and four-digit numbers repres 11t subdtvi ions. castings,Welding code. are usually not employed.
v'ar.ft;>tls gOVlrtlmen~ agencies peri dically gather statis-
tics f1' tl ea h scabljsnm nt.1'bi Includes the value f Fabricated Metal Products
.: proa~l~LprQ,luc. d atld the numh r ad type 0 mploy+
:,'~~$,l1'11udillgt'11e tlUll1ber ot, weld· rs and flame cutters. .(N~ICSNumber332)
,.~h s 'n~;tnberRI then, Ca1l b ll~eGlfo.refl~eof comparison ThiS iPdustry gr:()1.1P inchldcs roatlufa n~e of power t)oil·
~li ~n,dent{ yl1~Qand lassiCyltlg e tabUshments, ers, p:r s ute vessels, heat chang l'S, tanks, l'e!inel'Y
'0' .~ 'at ~l1tel'es d in the stablishments that use equipment, pJ, te truss S, ITlacbinc basts, she t metal
, W ldlng.'rh .tiLS p,rovides he ,OLltnb r of worK tS, incltl I. work. pc fabdcat d m tal buildings, and architectural
,,Jnkw . d. rS a.n4 f,Jat c utt rs~ "mployed at e. ell 10 auon. and Qrna'01 ntal work. MO$t of the wcJdingis governed by
,:"AttdiJj~r'Y ~$Qfthisclatasl} s which industries andh10tlS>-
.' . J!' _";,
.codes
, and standards.
Machinery Manufacturing Repair and Maintenance
(NAICS Number 333) (NAICS Number 811)
This industry group manufactures machinery: agricul¬ This group is involved entirely with maintenance and re¬
tural, construction, mining, and material handling equip¬ pair welding. A major portion of this welding is done on
ment such as power shovels, bulldozers, cranes, metal automobiles in collision repair shops. However, much re¬
working machines, press brakes,shears, stamping presses, pair welding is done for the maintenance of industrial
and food processing, textile, woodworking, papermaking, and construction equipment, electrical machinery, and
printing, and office machinery. These products are nor¬ buildup surfacing. Welding may be governed by codes
mally built to American Welding Society (AWS) consensus applicable to the product.
codes and to company standards. Most of these products Probably the smallest group, which is not defined, is
arc made of steel using plates, shapes, and castings. involved with the production of welded sculptures. This
group may be unlisted, but it does have an important im¬
Welding and Soldering Equipment pact on the public.The largest and most unusual welded
(NAICS Number 333992) sculpture is the 630-foot-tall stainless-steel St. Louis Arch
(Figure 1-17).The arch is an inverted catenary curve de¬
litis group includes manufacturers of welding power signed by Eero Saarinen and built by a Pittsburgh-Des
sources, gas welding equipment, resistance welding ma¬ Moines steel company for the Jefferson National Expan¬
chines, welding robots, welding guns, tips, torches, sol¬ sion Historical Association. This is the biggest, but many
dering equipment, electrodes, and welding wire. The other welded sculptures and fountains can be found
products must meet strict safety codes. throughout the country.
Since the new classification system and the data
Electrical Equipment collection system are not in complete sync, we have dif¬
ferent industry groups. The number of welders and cut¬
(NAICS Number 335) ters in each more narrowly defined group is shown by
This group includes companies that produce electrical Table 1 -2. However, to more closely define the type of
generators, transformers, switch gear, electric motors,and work performed, we now have an occupational category
household electrical appliances. Welding done by this called Welding Machine Setters, Operators and Tenders.
group includes heavy massive welding and sheet metal This in effect indicates the trend to automatic, mecha¬
Welding. Welding codes are normally not employed. nized, and automated welding. The number of these em¬
ployees in the more narrowly defined industry grouping
transportation— Motor Vehicles is shown in Table 1-3. In time the number of welders and
cutters is expected to decline, and the number of weld¬
(NAICS Number 3361) ing machine setters, operators, and tenders will increase.
This group includes companies that manufacture auto¬ The group rankings of the different industry groups may
mobiles, trucks, buses, and trailers. It also includes those change from year to year, based on the economy and the
companies that produce subassemblies or components health of companies within each industry group.
for building automobiles.These products involve welding
on a mass-production basis.This company is a major user
of automated welding, resistance welding, and welding
robots. Some of this welding is governed by codes.
1-5 THE FUTURE OF WELDING
The growth of the welding equipment and apparatus
Transportation— Railroad Rolling Stock business shows that the use of welding is still increasing
(see Table 1-4, which compares the value of equipment
(NAICS Number 3365)
shipped in 199.3 to 1996 and projects for the year 1999).
This includes manufacture of locomotives, railroad, Arc welding equipment, which includes welding ma¬
street , andrapid transit cars, freight cars of all types, and chines, power sources, and components, represents ap¬
track maintenance equipment.Welding on railroad rolling proximately half of the total welding equipment and is
stock is strictly regulated by code. expected to grow at a 6% annual rate. Resistance welding
equipment, including welding machines, transformers,
Transportation— Ship and Boat Building controllers, and accessories, also has shown a great per¬
centage of growth. (»as welding and cutt ing equipment is
(NAICS Number 3366)
not expected to grow as fast. However, other welding
ship building and repair involve heavy plate and all posi¬ equipment, such as stud welding, laser beam welding,
tion welding. This work is governed by codes or insur¬ friction welding, electron beam welding, and ultrasonic
ance regulations. welding, should grow at a high rate. Robot welding—
Welding Background 11
FIGURE1-17 St. Louis Arch.
TABLE 1-2 NUMBEROFWELDERSANDCUTIERSEMPLOYED
Projected 2012
2002 Employment Employment Change, 2002-2012
Percent Percent
Industry Number Distribution Number Distribution Number Percent
Total employment, all workers 390,524 100.00 456,731 100.00 66,206 17.0
Architectural and structural metals
manufacturing 42,624 10.91 54,459 11.92 11,835 27.8
Employment services 14,934 3.82 26,209 5.74 11,274 75.5
Commercial and industrial
machinery and equipment 17,830 4.57 22,068 4.83 4,238 23.8
Other general purpose machinery
manufacturing 13,741 3.52 17,560 3.84 3,819 27.8
Motor vehicle body and trailer
manufacturing 16,542 4.24 20,267 4.44 3,724 22.5
Mo~or vehicle parts manufacturing 16,747 4.29 19,282 4.22 2,535 15.1
A~rI~ulture, construction, and
minIng machinery manufacturing 19,847 5.08 22,376 4.90 2,529 12.7
Ventilation, heating, air-conditioning,
and commercial refrigeration 10,197 2.61 12,629 2.77 2,432 23.8
Building equipment contractors 7,272 1.86 9,108 1.99 1,836 25.2
Foundation, structure and building
exterior contractors ' 8,379 2.15 10,006 2.19 1,627 . 19.4
Ship and boat building 8,379 2.15 10,006 2.19 1,627 19.4
Machine shops; turned product; and
screw, nut, and bolt manufacturing 11,831 3.03 13,266 2.90 1,436 12.1
Metal and mineral (except petroleum)
merchant wholesalers 9,939 2.54 11,320 2.48 1,382 13.9
Machinery, equipment, and supplies
merchant wholesalers 3,607 0.92 4,494 0.98 887 24.6
Miscelfaneous durable goods
Household and institutional furniture
and kitchen cabinet manufacturing 3,165 0.81 3,909 0,86 744 23.5
Cement and concrete product
manufacturing 2,724 0.70 3,458 0.76 734 26.9
Other specialty trade contractors 3,559 0.91 4,260 0.93 701 19.7
Metalworking machinery
manufacturing 2,497 0.64 3,149 0.69 652 26.1
Self-employed workers, primary job 17,376 4.45 18,000 3.94 624 3.6
Total self-employed and unpaid
family workers, primary jab 17,376 4.45 18,000 3.94 624 3.6
Commercial and service industry
machinery manufacturing 4,344 1.11 4,915 L08 571 13.2
Forging and stamping 2,214 0.57 2,767 0.61 553 25.0
Other fabricated metal product
manufacturing 9,878 2.53 10,423 2.28 645 5.5 '-r,~
UtiHty system ccnstruction 4,393 1.12 4,935 1.08 542 12~4

Alltomotive repair and maintenance 1,831 0.47 2,367 0\52 536 29.3
Office furniture (including fixtures) ".
manufacturing 3,734 0.96 4,209 0.92. 475
oundries 2,274 0.58 .2,]31 0.60 458
Motor vehicle and motor vehicle parts
and supplies. merchant wholesaler 1,918 OA9 2,~62 0.52 443
Lumber and ether construction
materials merchant wholesalers 1,355 0.35
Other miscellaneous manufacturing 3,976 1.02
Motor vehicle manufacturing 7,249 1.86
. Nonresidential buflding constructio~ 6,101 1.56
. Source; Datt:l from Sureauof LaborStatMics, United StatesD~partmerit of Labot,
TABLE 1-3 NUMBEROF WELDINGMACHINESETIERS,OPERATORS,
TENDERS
Projected 2012 Change,

2002 Employment Employment 2002-2012
Percent Percent
Total employment, all workers 61,185 100.00 61,715 100.00 529 0.9
Motor vehicle parts manufacturing 9,977 16.31 10,339 16.75 362 3.6
manufacturing 4,984 8.15 5,732 9.29 747 15.0
Agriculture, construction, and mining
machinery manufacturing 3,668 5.99 3,721 6.03 54 l.5
manufacturi ng 2,748 4.49 3,160 5.12 412 15.0
and commercial refrigeration 2,475 4.05 2,758 4.47 283 11.4
manufacturing 2,347 3.84 2,588 4.19 241 10.3
Boiler, tank, and shipping container
manufacturing 2,433 3.98 2,178 3.53 -255 -10.5
Self-employed workers, primary job 2,763 4.52 2,122 3.44 -641 -23.2
Total self-employed and unpaid family
workers, primary job 2,763 4.52 2,122 3.44 -641 -23.2
manufacturing 2,102 3.44 1,996 3.23 -106 -5.0
Machine ShOPSiturned product; and
screw, nut, and bolt manufacturing 1,513 2.47 1,552 2.51 38 2.5
Office furniture (including fixtures)
manufacturing 1,440 2.35 1,461 2.37 21 , 1.5
Spring and wire product
manufacturing 1,703 2.78 1,358 2.20 -345 -20.3
Ship and boat building 1,301 2.13 1,312 2.13 11 0.9
Semiconductor and other electronic
component manufacturing 1,277 2.09 1,051 1.70 -226 -17.7
Household appliance manufacturing 1,115 1.82 965 l.56 -150 -13.4
Navigational, measuring,
electrornedlcal, and control
instruments 1,139 1.86 955 1.55 -184 -16.1
manufacturing 827 1.35 939 1.52 112 13.5
machinery manufacturing 909 1.49 925 1.50 17 1.8
Other miscellaneous manufacturing 902 1.47 898 1.46 -4 -0.4
Hcusehotd and instltutionat furniture
and kitchen cabinet 710 1.16 789 1.28 79 11.2
, Electrical equipment manufacturing 761 1.24 783 1.27 22 2.9
Self~$mployedworkers, secondary job 717 1.17 693 1.12 -24 -3.4
Iotal sel:fwemployed and unpaid
family workers, secondary job 717 1.17 693 1.12 -24 -3.4
,Employment services 420 0.69 663 1.07 243 57.9
l~ctU$trj~1machinery manufacturing 647 1.06 589 0.95 ~58 -9.0
" Aer,,?space prodpct and p~rt$
' .,'~manpfaeturjng '" 745 1.22· 565 0.91 -lSI -24.2
f'-jardware ma,nufacturing 504 0.82 513 0.83 . 9 1,7
, Sf el produ.ctmanufacturing from
! ..
purphased, steel
,
0,79 438 -9.1
. $OIJ(CI:}:Oat from BLlreay of labor Statistic, Unf'ted States Department of Labor.
;
r
,'
TABLE1-4 WELDING& SOLDERINGEQUIPMENTMFG (NAICS 333992) (MILLIONS OF DOLLARS)
1998- 1999- 2000-

1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 1999 2000 2'001
Industry Data
Value of shipments
(1997 $) 4,445 4,194 4,062 4,021 3,641 -3.10% -1.00% -9.50%
Total employment
(thousands) 22.5 21.1 18.5 20.1 18.3 -12.30% 8.60% -9.00%
Production workers
(thousands) 14.6 13.4 11.4 12.2 11 -14.90% 7.00% -9.80%
Product Data
Value of shipments
(1997 $) 4,127 4,040 3,612 3,347 2,985 -10.60% -7.30% -10.80%
Trade Data
Value of exports 1,141 1,055 1,181 1,212 901 865 11.90% 2.60% -25.70%
Value of imports 904 839 747 846 853 802 -11.00% 13.30% 0.80%
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce: Bureau of the Census; International Trade Administration (ITA).
welding equipment attached to robots-will grow at an stronger and is replacing structural steel in many medium-
extremely high rate, and the value of imports will grow at rise buildings. Composite beams are just now being used
a high rate as well since most robots are manufactured for short-span bridges. Plastics are increasingly used in the
abroad. Since the United States is the world's largest pro- appliance industry for weight and cost savings, replacing
ducer of welding and cutting apparatus, exports will re- many household items formerly made of metal.
m~in strong.There are two groups of welding filler metal: The metal industry is producing many new materials
stick electrodes, which will actually decrease in the fu- and alloys that must be welded. These include the high-
ture, and coiled and spooled welding wire, including solid strength, low-alloy steels used in the construction equip-
~d flux- and metal-cored electrodes, which will greatly ment and transportation industries, and the new high-
mcrease.This is the trend of the future. alloy,high-temperature steels used in the power-generating
Welding use is expected to grow due to its eco- industries. The aluminum industry is producing higher-
nomic advantage. Intelligently designed weldments wilJ strength alloy alurninums, which may eventually be used in
always be less expensive for similar applications than will aircraft construction, bringing about the all-welded air-
products made by other manufacturing methods such as plane. Future uses of weldable metals will depend on the
forged, riveted, and bolted assemblies. Welding is the only comp tition for materials. Metals will be used where their
method that allows the designer to use the proper metal strength and features are ne ded; welding will be used as
Where it is requir d. Welding is the best method to pro- new procedures and filler metals at developed. .
tect and preserve metals by prote ting their surface with Welding will continue to dominate the materials-
SpeCial metal overlays. Corrosion and wear account for joining industry because the productivity of welding is be.
losses running into millions of dollars annually; weld sur- Ing increased. This is due to improved filler metals With
faCing Is widely used to reduce co tJyabrasive and corro- higher deposition rates and the increased us of computer-
sive wear of metal parts, controlled welding equipment and processes, which re-
The true impact of welding in the user industry duce overall labor costs.
ShOtlld b meas ired in t11 amount of money saved by the Each proce s must be onsidered separately when
, \l.C)eof welding over other metal fabrication processes. forecasting th future of weldlpg, b cause each has .it
Thi information is not collected and th refore impossi- own de eloprnent and uses and thus its own eli ttnct fu-
ble to determine. ture.Th nrc welding process wilt continue to dornlnat
TIle futur growth of welding d pends largely on the welding industry. Shi eld d metal arc (sttck) welding is
til future of ach of the diffi r ot w ding-us ee industries rapidly losing ground. to, th wire, and 'or d wire
pr "vj(}usly described and OIl the materials used. The proces e.. The solid wtrel the flux-cored, and the metal-
Worldwide production of steel continues to increase at a cored .Wit pro ·es. s are mpit:lly· g;tini,ng. ~ticau~e tb~X·
steady .rate.Theat110tUlt ofweldtt'lg fill rmetals produced an. be used in robotic and automat d welding prOcc$ses;"
WQrldwjde gains at a proportion.al rate. Both ar expected Gt sUlngst¢f.I arC (TIG) welding will continl,.lelo grow
to ontiuue growing. lowcvcr, t11 production of plastics f~ster than ~he total w tdil1g 1l1arket fOf' t.hree·r asons: (1)
and omposites is als increasing. This js xpe t d since it wtll weld aU metals, 2) it is being us-'d $1 htg1:J-(]l~IHty
th world population js !tier asing and so is the standarq wo.rk..and 3) it '~b usedthrw Iding n "wer,thii'llsp·
()i Uving.()nC17ct is becoming mol' adv:·n cd and t~l'
dally metals. t~t in-'tclJai:rm1y being meCIl~PJZ(;!;1 rom:.
,
and more applications, including miniature products. Robotic arc welding is becoming increasingly im-
Plasma arc welding will also continue to grow but at a portant in automotive and high-volume, mass-production
slower rate because the equipment is slightly more com- industries. Automated welding systems that involve com-
plex.However,plasma cutting will grow at a rapid rate be- puter controls with feedback are increasingly being used.
cause it is replacing fuel gas cutting in many applications. These systems are used for both medium thicknesses and
Laser beam welding is growing quite rapidly due sheet metal applications, as well as on very thin material,
to its unique applications. Laser beam cutting is growing or micro applications.
at a fast rate because it is mechanized and is widely used A new welding process, friction stir welding, is be-
in contour cutting equipment and robot cutting appli- ing used for the welding of aluminum for many applica-
cations for metals and other materials. Resistance weld- tions. It will grow rapidly as more people become aware
ing will continue its slow growth since it is becoming of its capabilities. The computer control of automated
more refined and spot welds are becoming more reli- welding applications is greatly increasing its productivity.
able. Gas welding will decrease because it is expensive, In addition, friction welding, magnetic propelled weld-
but it will continue to be used for certain maintenance ing, diffusion welding, cold welding, and other new meth-
operations. ods will continue to grow for special applications.
QUESTIONS
1·1. What is a monolithic structure? 1-11. What ancient people used welding 2,000 years ago?
1·2. How much of the gross national product of the United 1-12. What important welding discovery was made by Sir
States is related to welding in one way or another? Humphry Davy of England?
1·3. Look around you.What products that are used in and 1-13. Where and when was arc welding invented?
around the home are welded?' 1-14. Who invented metal arc welding?
1-4. What are some of the larger welded products? 1-15. Who invented the heavy-coated electrode and when?
1-5. What metal is not welded? 1-16. What was automatic welding first 'used to weld?
1-6. What metal is welded most often? 1-17. What is the utilization factor of a covered electrode?
1-7. Are aU metals welded with equal ease? 1-18. Why is this utilization factor so low?
1-8. Steel is produced in many forms. What type is the 1.19. Who was considered the inventor of gas tungsten arc
most popular? welding?Whcn was it put into practical use?
1-9. What is weldability? 1·20. What arc welding process is the fastest growing?
1-10. What is a welding filler metal?
REFERENCES
1. U.S, Pat At 363,320, May 17,1887, "Process of and Appa- 8. U.S. Patent 1,746,081, Feb. 4,. 1930, "Arc Welding," H. M.
ratu fo,rWorkil1g Metals by the DlrectAppHcation of the Hobart. Niskayuna, N. Y.
Ele ttl urr nt," N. N. Benardos and S. Olszewski, St. Pe- 9. U.S. Patent 1,746,191, Feb. . 1930, "Arc WeldJng," P. K.
. tersburg, Russia. . Devers, Lynn, Mass.
2. .S.l,>atent419,032,Jan. 7, 1890,"Methods ofWeldin.g by 10. ,5. Patent 2,057,670, Oct. 20.1936, "Apparatus for End-
Electricity," C. . offin, Derrolt, Mich. Welding," J. D. creeca and S. S. Scott, St.Albans, N.Y.
3. J;. Pat ·Ut 57'7,329,eb. 16, 1897, "Electrical Casting of 11. U.S. Patent 1.782,316, Nov. 18, 1930, "Method of Weld·
Met Is," N. SlaV-ianoff.St. P tersburg, Russia, ing," U. S. Robin ff, S. E. Paine, and w. H, Quillen,
.5. Patent 1,0 1.525, t.IS.1912,"EI ctric Depo ltton Mel< e port, Pa.
of Meta-l,"A, H rohm og r, London. t2. U.S.l>at ot 2,04 ,960,]une 9, 1936,"Elc tricWelding," .T.
S. U.S.'J?~~tl1tl,508.711, ept.16,1924/App~tratusforA.r jones. R. E. Kennedy. and M.A.Rotermnnd, Bel;'kelcy. 01Uf.
.·Wi kllng." P, • Nob J, . hcnectady, N.Y.; alsoPatnt 13. U,S,Parent 2,274,6-1. Feb.l4$19 2,"WeldingTotch,"R.
. ' .. j,7H,93(, Oct. 15, 1929, same utventor,but fU d Sept. Meredith,J"os Angele$. CaUf .
. :.> 19i 191.8, H. U.S.Patent 2,50 .86S,ApdJ is; 1950, "HIe tticAr Weld-
.6.," u,s. P. t or J,{)' 3,27 • Sept. 20, 1927, "Weld Rod for Arc ing," A. Muller, G.], Gibson, and N. E. And rson, ssigned
W,·l<;fJ()S:'C.:B. aogstl'Oth and J, 1.Wundcf,Milwauk e,Wls. to Air Reduction ompaoy. .
7, . tr,S,I)'!ltcnt ),,7, ),l96, ehA,1930,"M th d and Appam,t1.1S 15. U.S.Patent 2,5 2.-410 and 2.532,411, Dec. 5, :I 950, "Inert
fI .r r·n tti' At Wi lalng,': ' Langmuir IIAd P. P. AI and .r, Mohatomlc as Shield d M talAt Welding Proc s. ,i and
. ,,$dl1Mtt tad-}') N,y. j ..
/,'0: ,",;-,--~~> .. ,-- ~ .
,.
"Constant Potential Submerged Metal-Arc Welding," H. E. 19. U.S. Patent 2,909,650, Oct. 20, 1959,"Methods and Means
Kennedy, Berkeley, Calif. for Bare Electrode Welding of Alloy Steels," G. G. Landis
16. K. V. Lyubavskii and N. M. Novoshilov, "Welding with a and D. M. Patton, South Euclid, Ohio.
Consumable Electrode in an Atmosphere of Protective 20. U.S. Patents 2,191,471 and 2,191,482, Feb. 27, 1940,
Gases," Autogennoe Delo 24 (1953). "Welding Method" and "Method for Manufacturing Com-
17. U.S. Patent 2,886,696, May 12,1959, "Electric Arc Weld- posite Metal Articles;' R. K. Hopkins, Staten Island, N.Y.
ing," R. W. Tuthill and A. V. Welch, assigned to Air Reduc- 21. "Electro molding Technique;' Steel (Dec. 14, 1959).
tion Company. 22. U.S. Patent 3,040,166,)une 19,1962, "Machine for Auto-
18. U.S. Patent 2,777,928,Jan. 15, 1957,"ArcWelding Method matic Upward Electrical Welding of Vertical Joints," W.
and Means," A.A. Bernard, Chicago, Ill. Krieweth and K. Dohm, assigned to Arcos of Belgium.
OUTLINE
form of rolled shapes, sheet, plate, pipe, forgings, or cast-
.2':"lWeldi;ng Basics ings. To produce a usable structure or weldment there
~..2 . Welding Processes and Grouping must be weld joints' between the various pieces that
2..3 Methods of Applying Welding make the weldment.The joint is the junction of members
2';'4 WI Idlng Procedure or the edges of members that are to be joined or have
been joined. Five basic types of joints are used to bring
.Weldin.g fhysicsan(J Chemistl;r
two members together. These joint types are also used by
other skilled trades.
The five basic joints are shown in Figure 2-1:
2..1 WELDING BASICS • Butt joint, A: two parts in approximately the

To understand welding it Is necessary to be familiar with same plane.
the basic terms used by the industry. The American Weld- • Corner joint, B: two parts located approximately
ing Society CAWS)provides the majority of definitions; at right angles to each other.
many of these are given in. this chapter and throughout • T-joIn t, C: parts at approximately right angles, in
the book-The official definitions used can be found in the the form of aT.
AWS document A3.0:2001. Ther ate. however, some • Lap joint, D: between verlapping parts in paral-
slightly obscure definitions and slang terms.These and the lel planes.
AWS terms ate presented in Secttcn A-I of the Appendix. • Edge joint, E: Between the edges of two or more
Welding is a joining process that produces coales- parallel parts.
c ence of matertals by heattng them to the welding tern-
perature, with 01' with or the application of pressure 0,1' by It is important to distinguish b tween th joint and
the applic. non of pressure alone, and with or without the the weld-each must be defln d to describe a weld joint
use offillerrnetal, It ~ used to make weld. ,A weld is a 10- completely. There are many different types of welds, and
. ariz d . Dille cence of metals or nonmetals pr duced ' i~ they are best descrfb d by their shape when shown in
ther by h 'ating mate:dals to the welding temperature, with cross section. Th most popular w old is the flllet weld,
or Without tl e appll arion of pressure, or by the applica- named aft r its cross-sectional shap . Th second most
tion of press 'It" aJ n and with· or without th use offl.ller popular i tb groove weld, whl h encompass S s yen
ma~l~jal. Coal esc nee refers to the growing together or baste types, Other, typ s of weld' Includ the flange
gfQWtlt irito oflcbody of the materialspeing welded.The 'weld, the pIllg weld, the sJot weld;, th seam weld, the
. word, .~'dtes ;ence is' nOtJll'led in aU the welding pro ess surfacing weld, and the bacldng weld,
defitliti9n5, sine ttl tie d .fmh:ions I' the word weld. In making a weld, fill r metal may or may not be
A we{dql m Is an assembly whos component us d and heat with or without pr ssur is us d, btl the
, l)art-s nrc jdin 1by weldlng.Aweldmcl'lt can be made of result is a ontimdty of solid meta1.JoiI ts ar ombin d
. .' ,mnt'lY Or -11W me all'arts~A w klm'n(_ {nay ontain m tals ;with welds to make weld j ints. Welds and joints ar . de-
. , .\._...;r.:- " qi,
. --~
diffetnt
-; - '. _
-_>'" ~ :
,oQ.lposltiOfl and the plec :$ may be in the
-'_".~,
-- -' '.'
$ctibed
, ompietely jp .hapter 19.
",'
• Vertical-position of welding in which the weld
axis is approximately vertical.
• Overhead-position in which welding is per-
formed from the underside of the joint.
(A) 8UTT JOINT
There are approximately 50 distinct welding

processes. They are subdivided into seven groups. The arc
welding group of processes is the most popular, with nine
distinct arc welding processes and numerous variations. In
all of the arc welding processes, the heart of the arc weld-
ing system is the power source. This piece of equipment
provides the electrical power to sustain the arc so that it
can be used for making welds.There are many types, sizes,
(8) CORNER JOINT
and variations. Some generate electricity from rotating en-
ergy sources (electric motors or engines) and are called
welding generators or engine drives. Others take the
power available from the lines and change it to power suit-
able for arc welding. These are known as transformers,
rectifiers, or inverter welding machines. Both alternat-
ing and direct current can be used for some of the arc weld-
ing processes. The welding procedure and process will
determine the type of power source required .:
The most important part of the welding system is
the welder or welding operator, the human element. The
difference between welders and welding operators is a
difference in the manipulative skills involved.The welder
must have skill and ability to manipulate equipment to
produce welds. The welding operator may monitor or op-
erate an automatic welding machine. Robot welders may
be supervised by human welders.
Another way of dividing 01' categorizing welding
processes relates to whether filler metal is or is not used.
If filler metal is not used, it is caned an autogenous weld.
Filler metal is the meta! or alloy to be added in. making
a welded, brazed, or soldered joint. It becomes the weld
(E) EDaE JOIN'!'
fillet or weld metal in a groove weld. In some welding
processes, the filler metal Is carried across the arc and de-
FIGURE2-1 Five basic weld JOInts. Courtesy of Welding posited in the weld. In others, it is not carried across the
Inspection Technology, American Welding Society. arc but is melted by the heat of the arc and added to the
molten puddle. If the weld metal passes through the arc,
it is provided by an electrode. If it is melted by the heat
Welding is often done on structures in the position of the arc and added to the pool.It is called a welding rod.
in Which they are found. In view of this, techniques have Welding electrodes and welding rods have special com-
, been. developed to allow welding ill any posttton. Certain position requiring detailed specifications to describe
welding processes have 'all-position" capabillries, while them completely, Selection of filler metals Important; is
others may be used in only one or two positions, There normally their properti s should match tile propertl 8 of
are four basic welding position . Flgur 2- 2 shows the the metal being w ld d.Tbl metal, call d jhe base
groove weld in the four posltions: metal, is defined as the metal Of alloy that is welded,
brazed, soldered, or cut. This is "the preferred term, In
• Flat-tpe welding positio41'used to weld fromthe some counmes the word oase material,grjip1Y}'ntJil1,etal ,
upper side of the joint; the weld axis is approxi- is used; for some processes 'the word ,$ub..rrrati! ts"used.
mately horlzcntal.This is sometimes called doum» The base metal often dictat s the welding process that
hand. can be u ed.
• Horizontal-position. of welding in which the To des rib the ma.~illg of a weldcon pletely, it j~'
weld axis is approxtmately horizontal but the deft- n cessary to specify the weldtn pro ess and the tn Jhod
nltton varies for groove and flllets. of appl}'1Qg theprocess'.lt ts also necess IT: to de$G1tib~'th~
• •. '! ) ~_ '.. _. ," __ 1.. .',' __
WELD AXIS
/' HORIZONTAL
WELD AXIS ./
PLATES
HORIZONTAL
VERTICAL
(A) FLAT WEl.DING TEST POSITION-1G (8) HORIZONTAL WELDING TEST POSITION-2G
WELD AXIS
VERTICAL I
I,
WELD AXIS
HORIZONTAL
PLATES
PLATES HORIZONTAL
VERTICAL
FIGURE2-2 Welding positions for

groove welds: plate. Courtesy of
(e) VI!RnCAL WEI,.DING TEST POSITION-3G (D) OVERHEAD WEL.DING TEST POSITION-4G Welding Inspection Technology,
American Welding Society.
welding procedure, which is the detailed method and prac- process as a grouping of basic operational elements used
tices involved in th production of a weldment.The indus- in welding, joining, thermal cutting, or thermal spraying.
try term of this document is the welding procedure The AWS master chart of welding and joining and allied
specification (WPS).The WPSincludes materials, joint de- processes is shown in Figure 2-3. All processes are
sign details, amperage, current, travel speed, and method of broadly classed as welding and joining processes. JOining
welding to d s ribe how a particular weld or weldment is includes any process used for connecting materials. This
made.It is becoming more and more important to describe includes mechanical fastening and adhesive bonding, as
and document the entire welding procedure completely. well as welding and joining. Two processes are specifi-
To ensur th4l.t the welds conform to demanding cally designated as joining processes: brazing and solder-
speclflcartons, specialized inspection techniques are ing. AWS has grouped processes together according to
used, These include destructive and nondestructive test- the mode of energy transfer as a primary consideration.
Ing methods, Nondestructive testing includes visual in- Capillary action distinguishes the joining processes from
specnon, magnetic particle inspection, radiographic welding processes. The distinguishing feature of the
inspection, liquid penetrant inspection, and ultra ontc inwelding process is the mode of energy transfer.
specttcn. Welding quality control is required by most The AWS formulated process definitions from the
cod and is a ne 'cssary requir ment for most manufac- op rational in read of the m tallurgical point of vi w.
tur d produces, Thus the definitions pros cribe the significant elements
. More terms and definitions will be presented in of operation instead of the signifl ant metallurgical
later chapters. J~jS important at the beginning to at least characteristics:
.brl 'fly de1la these terms 0 that you will better under-
Welding is a jOining process that produces coales-
st'i\pd their. meanings,
cence of materials try heuting them to the welding
temperature with or without tl1(t application Of
.2~·~.:WELIJING PROCESSES. p1'eSSt./:,.-eor by the applicti._ti01'l of pressure alone
and with or without the use a/flller metal.
,AND GROUPING Th society dellberat
,
Iy omltt d the designation of
pr. S$Ur, or nonpressur« sine the factor of pr ssure i
an 1 merit of operation of th applt ahle w ldtng
proc; sa.
ARC WELDING (AW)
arc stud welding SW
atomic hydrogenwelding AHW
bare metal arc welding BMAW RESISTANCE WELDING (RW)
carbon arc welding CAW flash welding FW
gas carbon arc welding CAW-G pressure-controlledresistancewelding RW·PC
shielded carbon arc welding CAW·S projection welding PW
twin carbon arc welding CAW·T reSistanceseam welding RSEW
electrogas welding EGW high-frequencyseam welding RSEW-HF
flux cored arc welding FCAW induction seam welding RSEW-I
gas-shieldedflux cored arc welding FCAW-G mash seam welding RSEW-MS
self-shielded flux cored arc welding FCAW-S resistance spot welding RSW
gas metal arc welding GMAW upset welding UW
pulsed gas metal arc welding GMAW·P high.frequency UW·HF
short circuit gas metal arc welding GMAW-S induction UW·I
gas tungsten arc welding GTAW
pulsed gas tungsten arc welding GTAW·P
magneticallyImpelled arc welding MIAW
plasma arc welding PAW
shielded metal arc welding SMAW
submerged arc welding SAW
series submerged arc welding SAW·S
SO&.IO STATEWELDING (SSW)
C08xtrusionwelding CEW
cold welding CW
SOLDERING (8) diffusion welding OFW
dip soldering OS hot isostatic pressure welding HIPW
furnace soldering FS explosionwelding EXW
induction soldering IS forge welding FOW
Infrared soldering lAS WELDING friction welding FRW
Iron SOldering INS direct drive friction welding FAW-OO
AND friction stir welding FSW
resistance soldering RS
torch soldering TS , JOINING inertia friction welding FRW·I
ultrasonic soldering USS hoI pressure welding HPW
PROCESSES roll welding ROW
pressure gas soldering WS
ultrasonic welding USW
QUEUE&. GAG WILDINg (gOO

air acetylene welding MW
oxyacetylenewelding OAW
oxyhydrogenwelding OHW
pressure gas welding PGW
OTHER WELD'NG AND JOINING
adh,sive bonding AS
braze welding BW
arc braze welding ASW
BRAZING (I) carbon arc braze welding CAElW
el~ron beam bfll%8welding EBBW
block brazing BB 8!(othermlcbraze welding EXBW
diffusion brazing DFB flow brazing FLB
dip brazing DB flow welding Fl.OW
exothermic brazing EXB laser beam braze welding LBBW
furnace brazing FB electron beam welding EBW
l!'lductlonbrazing IB high vacuum EeW-HV
Infrared brazing lAB medium vacuum EeW·MV
resistance brazing AS nonvacuum EBW·NW
torch brazing
twtn caibon .ro brazing
TB
TCAB electroslag welding esw
consumable guide electroslagwelding ESW·CG
Induction walding IW
laser belun welding LBW
percu8S.iqnwelding PEW '
thermite welding TW
, FIGURE2-3 AWS master chart of welding and joining processes. Courtesy ofWeldil'lg lnspectlon Technology,Amerioan
Welding Society.
The designation fusion welding is not recognized oalescence is defined a the growing together or
as a grouping slnce fusion 1s involved with many of the growth Into one body of the materials'being welded, and
processes. Other terms or fdctorS-s\1ch as the type of is applicable to' aU.types of w.elding. Tlle ~lnteruationaJ
cu,rrent used in arc orreststanee welding processes, the Standard JS ' 4063 to; analphapeticallistlngal'l~ def1nitiQJl~
'la sification of electrodes as consumable or of ~1I1welditig processes.
nonconsumable or continuous or inc1"f!mental, or the
m thad of application- re not shown In process group-
ings.Th s and other it ms characterize the methods by
Which the processes are pet'~r.rn d.
without the application of pressure and with or without These processes are all different and use different forms
filler metal. Arc welding is common and consists of at of energy for making welds.
least nine basic processes, some with several variations.
There are two basic types of welding arcs. One uses a Brazing Brazing (B) is a group of joining processes that
consumable electrode that is melted in the arc, and the produces coalescence of materials by heating them to the
molten metal is carried across the arc gap.The other uses brazing temperature in the presence of filler metal having
a nonconsumable electrode that does not melt in the a liquidus above 450°C (840°F) and below the solidus of
arc, and filler metal is added separately to the welding the base metal.The filler metal is distributed between the
pool.These processes are described in detail in Chapters closely fitted faying surfaces of the joint by capillary action.
5 and 6. A braze is a special form of weld in that the base metal is
theoretically not melted. There are several variations
Oxyfuel Gas Welding Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) is a within the brazing group.The source of heat differs among
group of welding processes that produces coalescence of the processes. Braze welding relates to welding processes
workpieces by heating them with an oxyfuel gas flame. using brass or bronze filler metal, where the filler metal is
The processes are used with or without the application of not distributed by capillary action.
pressure and with or without filler metal. There are four
distinct processes within this group and in the case of two Soldering Soldering (S) is a group of joining processes
of them, oxyacetylene welding and oxyhydrogen that produces coalescence of materials by heating them
welding, the classification is based on the fuel gas used. to the soldering temperature and by using a filler metal
The heat of the flame is created by the chemical reaction having a liquidus not exceeding 450°C (840°F) and
or the burning of gases. In the third process, air acetylene below the solidus of the base metals. The filler metal is
welding, air is used instead of oxygen, and in. the fourth distributed between the closely fitted faying surfaces of
category, pressure gas welding, pressure is applied in the joint by capillary action. Different soldering methods
addition to the heat from the burning of the gases. This are identified by the way heat is applied.
welding process normally uses acetylene as the fuel gas.
The oxygen thermal cutting processes have much in
common with the welding processes.
2-3 METHODS OF
Resistance Welding Resistance welding (RW) is a APPLYING WELDING
group of welding processes that produces coalescence of
the faying surfaces with the heat obtained from There is more than one method of applying welding and
resistance of th workpieces to the flow of the welding some require manipulative skills. The title used for the in-
current in a cit uit of which the workpieces are a part, dividual doing the welding indicates the manipulative
and by the application of pressure. In general, the skill level. involved. By definition, the welder is one who
difference has to do with the design of the weld and the performs manual or semiautomatic welcling, while the
type of machln ne essary to produce the weld. In almost welding operator is one who operates adaptive control,
all cas s, the processes are applied automatically Since automatic, mechanized, or robotic welding equipment.
the welding machines incorporate both electrical control These two definitions do not ir di ate the actual
and mechanical funcnons. level of manipulative skill involved since they ov r sev-
eral methods of making w Ids. This jends to create con-
fusion since a welder trained to do semiautomatt
Other Welding and Joining Processes welding using one process may not b able to do manual
This group of processes includes those which ar not welding with another pro e s.Thls is not so important for
be" t defined under the other groupings. It consists of the th welding operator Sill the difference in skill for
following p,t:oceses:elect1'On beam welding, laser beam mechanized welding and automatic we1ding is not so
weldt11g, . tbermtt« welding, induction welding, great. The six methods of applyirl:g welding are shown in
percussion welding, electrosiag welding, and other rnis- Figure 2-4. Each is d fined as follows:
c llaneous w~ldiog pr ce s s.
• Manual welding (M.4)"-welding with the torch,
,SoUd-State Welding Solid-state welding SSW) is a gun, or electrode hold r held and manipulated 1:>Y
. c.··g;to:up.6tw~ldirtg ~rocessestbatprodtlce coaleseenc hand •
..J,y ttl ,"~tppllcati()n of pressure without melting any of . • Serniautoma,tic welding (SA)-rmum.t[ wIding
the" joint omponem». The oldest 0 all welding with equlpm Jlt rha automa leaUy controls on or
, 1'1.1'0'.'5$ S,!O'l1e weldIng, belongs to this group. Others more of the welding condition, .
,
in .'llJd ~ 'old tlle/aing, diffusion we/(iing, exptoston • Mechm'tized toel(ltnn (ME)-w kUng wltb equip-
welr1inlJ.!rictton weldtng, hot pre sure welding, roll m n that r quit s manual adjustment of the .qwp~
'lfftttl-,1't1i§rtJttrt?iGMlic weldj.tl1l1 ~Hidco )xtruston welding. ment cotltrolS in 1" SP()usc· to vifmal obsorvation of
< • - { ~T '"'. _.-- ~_. - ." _ _ "'
FIGURE2-40 Automatic (AU)
FIGURE 2-4A Robotic (R). Courtesy of AWS Welding

JOurnal.
FIGURE 2-4E Adaptive control (AD)
• Automatic welding (Al:D-welding with equip-

ment that requires only occasional or no observa-
tion of the welding and no manual adjustment of
FIGURE2-48 Manual welding (MA). Courtesy of AWS the equipment controls,
Welding Journal. • Robotic welding (RO)-welding that is performed
and controlled by robotic equipment,
• Adaptive control welding (AD)-welding with a
process control system that determines changes in
welding conditions automatically and direct the
equipment to take the corrective action,
This concept af v:uying degree of control in the
hands of the welder can be better understood when c n-
Sideling the normal activities Involved to make an arc.
weld.Thes are defined and broken down into the f11~
lowit g elements or functions:
1. Starts, maintains,
" ,
and 'controls the arc. ,
2! Feeds .and directs the electrod into ~tlle ttt'C (to ~
control the plncemeJtt of tb Weld,depositatttffiq
~IGURE2-4C Semiautomatic (S'A). Courtesy of AWS the joint)
Welding Journal. control th ' molten metal
th w 1dlng , with the torch, gun, or electrode

l
holder manipllla ed by a mechaaical device.
• . '.' •
aandg d b c e
MA Manual SA Semiautomatic ME Mechanized AU Automatic RO Robotic AD Adaptive Control
Method of (Closed loop) (closed loop) (closed loop) (open loop) (open or closed loop) (closed loop)
Application
0 0 0
Arc Welding
Elements/Function
Starts, maintains, and
~ra f l
Person
~:;:e-
Machine
<!®
Machine Machine
'r >k
Machine
~~
G:®
'r ~~
Machine
~~
<!®
controls the arc

Feeds and directs the Person Machine Machine Machine Machine Machine
electrode into the arc
Manipulates the arc Person Person Machine Machine Machine (robot) Machine
to control the molten with or without with sensor
metal weld pool sensor
Moves the arc along Person Person Machine Machine via Machine (robot) Machine
joint (travel) prearranged with or without with sensor
path sensor
Guides the arc along Person Person Person Machine via Machine (robot) Machine
Joint prearranged with or without with sensor
path sensor
Corrects the arc to Person Person Person Does not Machine (robot) Machine
overcome deviations correct only with sensor with sensor
hence
potential
weld
imperfection
FIGURE2-5 Person-machine relationship to applying and controlling welding.
5. Guides the arc along the joint (to track the weld welding with or without adaptive controls as the highest,
joint) approaching 100%.The method to increase productivity
6. Correct's the arc to overcome changes to compen- and reduce welding costs is to move to the right of the
sate for vanattons in fit up. application systems shown.
All of the arc welding processes can be analyzed
Closed loop means that real-time observations are with respect to the method of application.AWS al 0 uses
made during welding and immediate corrections are these methods of applying for brazing. soldering. and
made to Compensate for deviations. thermal cutting. The method of applying the resistance
. The person ...machine relationship shown in Fig- welding processes, solid-state welding processes, and
ure 2..5 shows that in. manual welding the person has most of the others is dictated by the process and the rna..
onrrol over all of these fun nons. chine. Certain welding pr cesses may be applied only as
In au.tomatic welding the same functions are com- a manual process, while others are applied as semiauto-
pletely.~onttolled by tlle machine. The skill required :is matic, mechanized, or automatic. The method of applica-
greatest when all·fun.ctions ar under the control of the tion is extremely important when writing a procedure or
person and diminishes as th functions ar tak n over by assessing the ec nomic capabtliti of a. proces .
the Ill.a htne .
. Prod\1~tivi~y is· the amount of welding that Call be
perIprnid' bra welder or 'a welding machine. in a day.
.Tbis'Jsaf!ter~e(l: pythe operatorjactQr sometimes j
2·4 ..WELD1NG 'PROCEDURES
'. 'caUedduf.Yo/Cle,Ope~t()r faetor is the nunm t of min-
ute t> r ltour that the at is actually making a. weld. TIle Welding is an. accepted engin erlng technology requiring
. .dlffl l' nt method of a.ppUcation haV1 different operating that the elements Involv d be Iderrtifled in a standardlzed
I'
'fa ·iors. Matl'Q.1welding has the lowest op rating factor, way. This is a omplfsh ed by writing a pro dure, which
'wlth.8 miaQtOtllatiC; welding appr()~imataly doubt' thiS. is simply a "manner of doing" or "the d tailed elements
.. " ~~ . tlfii2i.,;Q\v'eJithlSis bistM~r,wltl1automan or robotic [W!th pres nbed value or range of values] of a process
or method used to produce a specific result."The AWS 3. Size of the electrode or filler wire
definition for a welding procedure specification is a 4. Use and type of weld backing
document providing the required welding variables for a
specific application to assure repeatability by properly The procedure write-up must include each of these
trained welders and welding operators. variables and describe in detail how it is to be done. The
A WPS is used to make a record of all of the ele- second portion of the welding procedure is the joint de-
ments, variables, and factors involved in producing a spe- tail sketch and table or schedule of welding conditions.
cific weld or weldment. Welding procedures should be Tests are performed to determine if the weld made
written whenever it is necessary to: to the WPS meets the standards described by the code or
specification. If these tests meet the minimum require-
• Comply with specifications and codes ments, the document becomes the welding procedure
• Maintain dimensions by controlling distortion qualification record (PQR).This is a record of welding
• Reduce residual or locked-up stresses variables used to produce an acceptable test weldment,
• Minimize detrimental metallurgical changes and the results of tests conducted on the weldrnent to
qualify a welding procedure specification. The writing,
• Consistently build a weldment the same way
testing, and qualifying procedures become quite involved
WPSs must be tested or qualified, and they must be and may be different for different specifications. This is
communicated to those who need to know. This includes covered in detail in Chapter 22.
the designer, the welding inspector, the welding supervi- In certain codes, welding procedures are prequali-
sor, and most important, the welder. fied. By using data provided in the code, individual quali-
Different codes and specifications may have differ- fied procedure specifications are not required for the
ent requirements for a WPS, but in general a welding pro- standard joints on common base materials using specific
cedure consists of three parts, as follows: arc welding processes.
1. A detailed written explanation of how the weld is The factors included in a procedure should be con-
to be made sidered in approaching any new welding job. Using
knowledge and experience, establish the optimum fac-
2. A drawing or sketch showing the weld joint design
tors or variables in order to make the best and most eco-
and the conditions for making each pass or bead
nomical weld 011 the material to be welded and in the
3. A record of the test results of the resulting weld position that must be welded.
The variables involved in most specifications are Welding procedures take on added Significance
Considered to be essential variables. In some codes the based on the quality requirements. When exact repm·
term nonessential uariabies may also be used. Essential dncibility and perfect quality are required, the procedures
variables are those factors that must be recorded; if they become much more technical with added requirements,
are changed in any way, the procedure must be retested particularly in testing. Tests will become more complex to
and requalified. Nonessential variables are usually of less determine that the weld joint has the necessary properties
importance and may be changed within prescribed lim- to withstand the service for which til weld is designed.
its, and the procedure n ed not be requalified. Procedures are written to produce the highest-
Essential variables usually include the following: quality weld required (0:1.' the service involved, but at the
least possible cost and to provide weld consistency Itmay
1. Welding process and its variation be nee ssary to try different processes, different joint de-
2. Method of applying the process tails, and so on, to arrive at the Iowest-cost weld that.will
3. Base metal type.specificartcn, or composition satisfy the service requirements of the w ldment,
4. Base m tal geometry; normally thickness Th contents of a welding proc dure are brought
5. Base metal preheat or posth at out at this arly stage to help the reader realize the Irn-
penance of defining the factors involved illmakin,g a sue-
6. Welding posttion
cessful weld.
'7~ Filler metal and other materials consumed In mak-
ing the weld
8. Weld joint design
9. Elec~ri al Or Qverational,parameters involved 2-5 WELDINGpHYSIGS
10; Wi 'Iding technique
AND CHEMISTRY ".
Sam speciftcations also include other varlabl , usually
Wi ldtng follows all th physicallawsafnMtlfe.A sood un-
the following:
derstanding of physiC, and h<U'nistry will h Jp you better
1. Tntvel speed understand how welds ate made. PllysiC, deals 'With en-
2. 'Ira ~l proST ssion uphill or downhill) ergy and motion and is sllbdlvided iOto S\l~l slJbjec~, lts
.
" ,
.... ~-
mechanics, sound, light, friction, magnetism, electricity, and des, higher than the normal hearing range of people.The
heat.This section briefly describes some of these subjects. upper range for adults is normally from 15 to 17 kilohertz
The science of mechanics involves physical laws that (kHz). Children have the ability to hear higher frequencies;
relate to forces, motion, and direction. The term force is dogs and some other animals can hear frequencies even
defined as a push 01' pull; speciftcally, a force is a tendency higher. The musical scale ranges from below 20 Hz to over
to produce a change in motion of the body upon which it 4,000 Hz, with middle Cat 261 Hz.The speed of travel of
acts. It is not necessary that the body be in motion; it is only sound is the slowest through gases, which is approxi-
necessary that there is a tendency to produce change.The mately 200 meters per second em/sec). It travels faster
first law of motion states that a body will remain at rest or through liquids, ranging from approximately 1,000 rn/sec
in uniform motion if no force acts upon it. One of the to almost 2,000 m/sec, and has the highest speed through
forces that we live with daily is the pull. of gravity; which solids, ranging from 1,000 to over 4,000 m/sec in non-
acts on all objects on the earth's surface. Another law metals and as high as 10,000 m/sec through metals. The
states that for every action there is an equal and opposite rate is different for different metals. It is also different
action; that is, forces act in pairs.An opposite action force through liquids at different temperatures, traveling faster at
cannot exist before the action force takes place. If you lower temperatures.The pulsing rates used in welding and
push against the wall, the wall pushes back an equal or op- the frequency used in ultrasonic testing are in these
posite force equal to your push; otherwise the wall would ranges.
move.All forces and all opposite forces or reaction forces TI1e electromagnetic frequency spectrum is much
have both direction and magnitude, which is the amount larger and includes radio broadcasting frequencies up
of force involved. It is possible to graphically represent dif- through the infrared frequencies, visible light, x-rays, and
ferent forces and magnitudes and direction by means of gamma rays. Electromagnetic frequencies travel approxi-
vector diagrams. Vectors indicate the direction, and the mately 186,000 miles per second in air or vacuum, but
length of the vector indicates the magnitude.A thorough change to a slower speed when going through liquids or
knowledge of this science is necessary to design welded transparent solids. The high-frequency current used for
structures. It is the basis for establishing the sizes of mem- arc starting in gas tungsten arc welding is in the range of
ber and the size of welds to join members together. 2 megahertz. The frequency of alternating line current is
The science of sound is important to welding. 60 Hz in North America and 50 Hz in many other parts of
Sound is transmitted through most materials-metals, the world. It is important to keep these numbers in per-
gases, and liquids-but it will not pass through a vacuum. spective since they vary over such a wide range.A study
Sound is an alternating type of energy based on vibra- of Figure 2-6 will give you a better idea of the frequen-
tions, which are regions of compaction and rariflcation.A cies involved in different aspects of welding and weld
compression wave and rariflcation wave are alternating testing.
pressures or vibrations that allow your eardrums to hear. The science of light also involves welding. The laser
The hearing of most people is sensitive between 20 and beam welding process uses light energy at hlgh concen-
20,000 vibrations per second. Sound has pitch, loudness, trations to create heat sufflcient to cause melting, which
and quality. Pitch ls defined as frequency; the higher the can be used. for welding or cutting. Light is a by-product
frequency, the higher the pitch. Loudness is subjective of the arc welding processes. Light is given off by the arc
and is r lated to intensity, which is the basis of the energy and by heated electrodes and base metals. Light is a phe-
in sound. Quality is the function of waveform based on nomenon that has never been completely explained to
he frequency and phas of combining vtbratlons.The use the satisfaction of sctentists. Propaganon of light is ex-
, f soulld'in 'W ldm,g 1s in the higher-than-audible sound vi- plained by alternating vibrations or the wave theory, while
brations, above the normal h aring range for people. Ul- the energy transfer of light is explain d by he particle the-
tras nlc vibrarl ns ar used to mak welds and they are ory. It is suffici nt for us to know that light is transmitted
also us d to, detect voids tnmetats.. through vacuums and. gases, but not through all types of
The ft'quen,cy spectrum shown in Figure 2-6 is of materials. Light is of tntere t to the weld r from the point
Int fest wh nstu lylng welding. his flgur shows th of view of pr tecung the body from the effe t$ of the light
·sp ctrum from the lowest fre quency and the long at rays.In rh electromagn tic sp ctrum, l,igbt ranges from
way 1.ngth to the hlghe t fJ', quency with the shortest the lower frequ nctes of infrared through visible light up
wavel ttgth ..and over both the S OtC andelectromag- through h ultravtol t.Th spe d of light IS independent c'
~c spectrum. Soolchequendes are at the low end and; of tbe light source, its intensity, or color; Ligl1rtraustnits
:~Qvlhga relatively low, travelspeed, must travel through energy; and the higher the frequency; tbe greater the en-
, SQro type of nl,ecHa. Electromagneti taatariOl travels at rgy; howeVi' t,Jight radiates eql.laUy in aU dlrection~ and·
·rhesp d of light ~nq. will travel through a va uum, and its s rength c1ilninishes by th . square of th distapc ,
jt ,ISox>t"maij.r itl th ~higher- requ ncr range. Wi kUng also involves tb s len e of friction. Here
:' . oruc ,l"'Jdiat1on 1ndude . tn audio £reqll noles, wear inter sted in dyh~unic frictioh; bett r known as
· wtnd:J.wei1Q~m~:Uy.ll~llllanll the ultrlll O'n! tang freqllCll-
. r -..,:_ ~:r- -~ . ~ ,..
,ttding Irt~tion.This is ,tb~e fOl;c between two ·movirtg
f' I"
WAVELENGTH FREQUENCY WAVELENGTH FREQUENCY
10'4
la-Ii m 10-14 m
1 MILE (10mm) (10 FERMI)
INFRA· 1022 Hz
REO 10'3 COSMIC
'00 kH, } (lR)
ULTRA 10-4 m 1 ANGSTROM = 10-13 m
SONIC (0.1 mm) (100 FERMI)
- 102 Hz
10 kHz 10'2 '
10-3 m 10 AU = 10-12
m
(1 mm = 0.040 in.) (1000 FERMI)
SONIC l00G 10~ Hz
(AUDIO) 1000 Hz GAMMA
(1 kHz) 10-2 m 10-11 m
(1 em = 0.4 in.)
RADAR lOG 10'9 Hz
0.1 m 10-10 m
(10 ern= 4 in.) X-RAY (1 ANGSTROM)
1G 10'8 Hz
10 Hz
10-11m
{ 'METER (10AU)
TV 100 MHz 1011 Hz

1 CYCLE/SECOND
(1 Hz) 10-8 m
10m (100 AU)
ULTRA- 10'8 Hz
0.1 Hz 10MHz
SHORT { VIOLET
10-' m
WAVE 100m
(0.1 pm)
0.01 Hz AM { 1 MHz 10'6 Hz

BROADCAST (1000 kHz) 10-8 m
1 KILOMETER V'S'BLE {
(1000 m) LIGHT (1 pm)
0.001 Hz
-
METERS
LONG
WAVELENGTH
HERTZ
LOW
FREQUENCY
METERS
SHORT
WAVELENGTH
HERTZ
HIGH
FREQUENCY
METERS
VERY SHORT
WAVELENGTH
HERTZ
-'
SUPERHIGH
FREQUENCY
FIGURE2-6 Frequency spectrum for sonic and electromagnetic radiation.
bOdies; if sufficient force is available, heat will be gener- Chemistry deals with the makeup of all matter. We
ated.This is the basis for the friction welding process. are most interested in metals in connection with welding.
The magnetic theory and its relationship to current By definition, matter is anything that occupies space and
flow are explained in the section on welding electricity. has mass or weight. Also by definition, elements are those
One aspect of magnetic fields can be detrimental.welders particular kinds of matter that cannot be decomposed or
Call it arc blow, which is the deflection of an electric arc broken down into simpler substances by ordinary mans.
from its normal path due to magnetic forces. The leads Pure metals and pure gases are examples of elements. om-
from the welding machine to the electrode, and from the pounds Ormixtures can be broken down into the!ro.rigi-
work back, carry a heavy current and create a magnetic nal elements.The elements are composed of atoms that are
field.The welding current flowing through the el ctrode identical with each other atom of the same element but arc
, and the base metal providing it_is ferromagnetic, which different from atoms of other elements.Theniclecule is the
also create magnetic flelds.The intensity of the magnetic smallest particle of the substance that has all the proper-
field is directly proportional to the square of the current ties of that substance.It is a combination of two or mot
flowing, The dlstribution of a magn ticfleld in a weldtng atoms of the same element or of diflerent elements.
Circuit can become quite complex, particularly for Many lements have similar ,prop lti '8;for example,
nonuniform joint detatle and also when fixtures are em- some arc inert gases, others arc noble metals, an.dothers are .
plOyed. If the distribution of the magnetic field close: to active gases.This allows the elements-to be elas._~ed and
the arc is not uniform, it may caus the arc to deflect or put into group 'offamllies.This classiflcatiotl iscall d'the
attract towar l the stronger portion, depending on polar- pertodtc table, which is sh wn jnall c.11emistrYtextl ooks,
ity.Arc blow 'an create difficulties that affect weld qual- To better understand m tal W .must .firstcon Ider -.
I
ity. On advantag of alternating urrent 1, that the ar the atom and its structure. S '.iel:1tistsbelle e thatea 'h
blow is mlnlmlz d since the magnetic field is changing at atom is composed of a small compact nucleus surr tlnd' d
line freqtlency and does .notbutld up to as great a force, by empty spac in wb,ich one Qr 1ll,qr' el cii' !lS rc;.vol·.. ,.
< '; -- • •• • _." ' ~-'_"_
,
\
about the nucleus. It is believed that the nucleus of an pound. Gases also occur as elements, compounds, or mix-
atom is the densest form of matter known. It is made of or tures.Air is a mixture of approximately 78% nitrogen and
contains two main types of particles, protons and neu- 21% oxygen, with small amounts of other elements. Car-
trons. These particles differ from each other in their bon dioxide is a compound, always in the ratio of one
charge, but they have about the same weight.The positive atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen. Argon is an el-
particle of matter is called a proton.All atoms have at least ement and, more important, an inert gas that will not
one proton in their nuclei. The number of protons in the combine chemically with any other element.
nucleus is equal to the number of electrons outside the nu- Several other chemical definitions relate to weld-
cleus. Each proton has a charge of plus one; the charge on ing. One is known as burning or oxidation. This takes
the nucleus is positive since it contains positively charged place when any substance combines with oxygen, usu-
protons and no electrons.The neutron in the nucleus is a ally at high temperatures.An example of this is the com-
particle of matter with a relative weight of 1 but no elec- bining of acetylene with oxygen. This produces carbon
trical charge. The third item is the electron, which is very dioxide plus water plus a large amount of heat. We use
light in comparison with the nucleus. Each electron has a the heat produced by the burning of acetylene in the
charge of negative 1. Electrons of an atom are located in flame of the oxyacetylene torch to make welds. In all ox-
shells around the nucleus. These shells are more properly idation reactions, heat is given off. Oxidation can occur
called energy levels because electrons in different shells slowly, as in the case of rusting. If iron is exposed to oxy-
have different amounts of energy. Electrons revolve gen at high temperature, rapid oxidation or burning will
around the nucleus in these shells in varying distances occur with the liberation of more heat. Rapid oxidation
from the nucleus. Electrons are relatively far from the nu- or burning does not occur until the kinclling temperature
cleus so that most of the atom consists of empty space .The of the material is reached. In the case of a liquid this term
difference between atoms of different elements is the reis called the flash point. Oxidation is important in weld-
sult of differences in the number of protons and neutrons ing operations since oxygen of the air is usually present
in the nucleus and the difference in the number and as well as heat.
arrangement of the electrons surrounding the nucleus. Another chemical definition is reduction, which is
Electrons in the outer shells have more energy than those tbe process by which oxygen is taken from another mate-
in the inner shells.An electron can change from one shell rial.The substance used to take the oxygen from the mate-
or energy level to another: If it absorbs energy, it moves to rial is called a reducing agent. A reducing agent is anything
an outer shell or to a higher energy level; jf it gives off en- that adds electrons to another material. Hydrogen is one of
el'gy,it drops to a shell closer to the nucleus. Energy emit- the most active reducing agents; however, in the case of the
ted when an electron drops from a higher to a lower iron and oxygen reaction mentioned, the iron is the reduc-
energy level is in the form of electromagnetic radiation, ing agent.Whenever there is an oxidation reaction, there is
light, r x-rays. The study of the makeup of atoms is ex- also a reduction reaction. A common term in oxyacetylene
tremely technical and beyond the scope of this book. How- welding is reducing atmosphere or oxidizing atmos-
ever, thts brief explanation will help you b tter understand phere.The flame can be adjusted to provide sufflci nt oxy-
the mak up of metals. gen for complete combustion or an excess of acetylene
Matter can exist in four states: solids, liquids, gases, and insuffici nt oxygen, r sulting in incomplete combus-
and plasmas. Supplying energy in the form of heat brings tion. Acetylene is high in hydrogen and. carbon. TIle oxi-
about changes from one state to another.water in the solid dizlng flame would contribute excess oxygen; the
state is tc . By adding hat, th ice changes to water, which reducing flame would contribute hydrogen and carbon.
is itsliq\lid state, and by addillg additional heat, it will be Th last two definition are ornmon in chemistry
converted toits gas 01.1S state. Removing heat energy can but less ommon in welding.The words acidic and basic
do the r v rse.Th nth ga (steam) turnsto u uid water) refer to acid or base substances.A in asure of ba tctty or
and hen to soJ,id (i e). Most. substan ces can be changed acidity is by means. of the pH cale. A pH of 7 is ccnsid- "
from one l'nystcal state to another in the sam manner. ered the neutral point. Pure water has a pH of 7 sine it
Th . temperatur of the e changes indicates th physical has the same number of hydrogen ions (H+) as hydrox-
stat me lemt;ntwHl be in at normal room temperatures. id Ion (OB - ; Acids or a 'idi ubstances have an. ex-
. Each Q th 1 m nt n th periodic t( ble h~IS its cess of hydrogen ions and hav a pH value of less than 7.
own .•ram ~and symbol. Most of these elements will com.- Bases or basic substance hav an xcess of hydroxide
"bine'cl1.etnicaUyto form c "mpounds. The law of definite ions and have a pH value of mOT than 7. The terms ate
.a mposiUon. States that a: chemical compi und always used in connecnon.wlrh nonmetalltc slags used in weld-
(,~Ol1taiMtl~c Snnl l m. rns with the sam t<:lti of atoms "jng and als used in ste hnaklng, TIlese slags at r lated
of ~ch. This js tlot true for mixt\ reS. Most conl,Pl 1: ial to th coatings of I ctfodes andhav' acidlc or basic
" t J tat aifi miXtur's ot U ys in tbard ey ar predomi- bara'terlstlcs wh n h 'Ht 1 to $t· 1·01 lting temp ta·
rmntty th' 1 nl nt of the ptltC J.ntal pi s additions of t1.tt'es. ~ertain types f electrod s ,tre ailed basi typ
. J~tl~QJ;. clem~lts ~ut not; h "m 'ully on: bined as a com· becaus·"" theit Noatings prOd'll"CC basicstag$, which tact
'- .•;."~: "C~ _... r -~
with impurities in the weld metal. Basic-flux coatings are from the molten weld metal. The cellulosic electrodes
the low-hydrogen, sodium-, or potassium-containing are sometimes called the acidic type since an excess
types that produce basic slags; the basic slags remove ap- amount of hydrogen is present in the arc atmosphere
preciable amounts of undesirable phosphorus and sulfur and in the slag.
QUESTIONS
2-1. What is a weld? 2-12. Name the various methods of applying an arc weld.
2-2. What are the five basic joints? 2-13. Why is a written welding procedure required?
2-3. What is the most popular weld type? 2·14. What method of application requires the highest
2-4. There are approximately how many welding level of manipulative skill?
processes? 2-15. What method of application requires the least ma-
2-5. How many arc welding processes are there? nipulative skill?
2-6. How many welding positions are there? 2-16. What is the polarity of the elect.rode for reverse po-
2-7. larity welding?
Define the word coalescence. How does it apply to
welding? 2-17. Where does the deposited metal come from in a non-
2-8. consumable electrode welding arc?
What is the difference between GTAWand GMAW?
2-9. 2·18. Name the various branches of physics that relate to
Can all the arc welding processes be used in all posi-
welding.
tions?
2-10. 2·19. Are pure metals and pure gases elements or com-
Explain the difference between the welder and the
pounds?
welding operator.
2-11. 2-20. What is the difference between a. reducing atmos-
Name the activities performed when making a man-
phere and an ordinary atmosphere?
ual arc weld.
OUTLINE ,
question that was settled in 1917 during World War 1.Dur-
3..1 'The Work of the Welder
ing this time welding was just becoming popular. In the
,~...2 .• railroad shops welding was used by blacksmiths, sheet
metal workers, boilermakers, and others. Each craft union
claimed jurisdiction over welders, which led to a nation-
wide strike. During the war, the V .S.government was run-
ning the railroads, and the strike caused a national
emergency.1b settle tills issue, the V.S. secretary of Labor
ruled that welding was a tool of all trades, and no one
trade had jurisdiction over weldmg.i" This principle still
3..1 THE WORK OF THE WELDER applies. Welding is not an apprenticed trade, but it is in-
Everything we use in our daily lives is made possible in cluded in apprenticeship programs of many trade unions.
some form or another by welding.All goods and services Often the welder must be a member of a labor organiza- .
use some form of energy, and all energy we use in our rion of the craft for which welding is associated. The ap-
daily Ilves depends on welding. Welders work every- prenticeship program an take several years. Sometimes
where, from the small r pair shop down the street to the when welders are urgently needed, apprenticeship re-
larg st factories.They help build space vehicles, buildings, quirements are canceled and the new w Idee can be-
oil drtlllng rigs, automobiles, and millions of other prod- come a journeyman quickly,
ucts. In construction welders are virtually r building the Welding is demanding. Sometimes welders must
'World, tending subways, building bridges, and helping work in unusual and awkward positions. Tbey may weld
to improv the environment by building pollution control overhead, inside structures, or just about anywhere. They
d. vi es.Tbe use of welding is practically unlimited. There weld on. a variety of materials. Welding is a desirable ca-
is no Ja k f vart ty Inthe type of work that is done. re r since welders receive bigh pay. Pay is Similar to that
Welding is chall nging and interesting. '111e a .tual of oilier skilled occupations and is sometimes based on
..progress flnQ cornpl etion of a weld happens before the . the qualific tion of tl e welder. Qualifi cation tests may be
weld ('S eye . provt ling a sense of ac omphshmeat. It is t quired and are of diffet n 1 ¥ Is of difficulty, Passing
'a<itingwork. v ry weld on a nu '1 at power r actor must the more difficult t st allows welders to work on higher-
. 'b perf ,Welding is done under all kinds a conditi ms, paying jobs.The hour of work are the same as for others
both.in.tIoors and outdoors; in the 'onstru tion rrad s that in the, arne factory or on th sam project,
. Q..tl me~lJl•w . orking tn all kinds of weather, at .elevated Welde1's are employed in industries that produce
helgbts,ore en below.the sUffa '. of.thes a. In the con- everythJng from pacemakers to shIps/These we1cler.using
str1.i~(lQ.iij:dustty welding is considered a tool ofth trade. fndusrri s were described in Chapter 1. A. welder'S job
. Pel'S nne] who w Id may be ailed boil r wo.rkers, varies trem ndously in .differ n industrl and compa-
plilnlb t ,plpefil.t . rS,.iron work rB, )1' sheet metal w rk, ni s andln difll t' nt ge grapblcal r cations. In mantlfac-
ers, J\V n thO\tg!l t11 majodcy of th I.r tim. i sp ilt weld- turlng th scop of w ld ng is broad, but th work may be;;
..Jng. 'rl.li~ wasn' alway· ttl" cas ; it be aJtle a .lcgal repetitive unless tt l1apPeJ1.s to b .maintenanee and repair
~:; '-~ -,.~:"'---;; ;-- -~,::- ">," . ,
welding. In some production shops, the welder may make There are some disagreeable parts to the welders'
the same type of weld on the same part day after day or job. In some cases they must wear special clothing to pro-
they may be like the welders in construction as shown in tect them from the arc light and sparks. Usually they must
Figure 3-1 where each job is totally different. An under- wear a helmet to shield arc rays, which isolates them from
water repair of a construction job is shown in Figure 3-2. their coworkers for a period of time. They are exposed to
the heat generated by the arc, and they may be exposed
to fumes generated in the arc. In spite of this, it is satisfy-
ing to see the completed weld, the results of their skilled
FIGURE3-1 Shielded metal arc welding out of
craftsmanship.
position. Courtesy of Welding Inspection Technology,
The government has provided occupational titles
American Welding Society.
and job descriptions for many different jobs in the
Dictionary! of Occupational Titles (DOn, which in-
cludes many jobs related to welders, cutters, and related
occupations. This is being replaced by the Standard Oc-
cupational Classification (SOC) system, which will pro-
vide an improved method to allow government agencies
to gather and classify employees for statistical purposes.
However, this two-volume handbook is not yet available,
Job descriptions are written for many occupa-
tions. An analysis of welders has been made to deter-
mine the work performed and the worker traits,
including the following:
Work performed
1. Worker functions
2. Work fields
a. Methods
h. Machines, tools, and work aides
3. Materials, products, subject matter, and service
Worker traits
FIGURE3-2 Welding on highly repetitive parts,
1. 'Iraining time
a. General education development
h. Spe ial vocational programs
2. Aptitude
3.: ~ rnperament
4. Interest
.s.Physical demands
6. Working environmental conditions
These are being llpd~lte~ and Include sudi items flS com-
puter intelligence and commumcation skills.
The: traming time foJ;1'general educanon de'Velop'
rnent for weld.ing ranged from a mtnlmumof ope day to
a maximum of four yea.rs,Al,tltl.lde for welders indicated
that spatla! aptitud .form perf, tion.flngerd xterity,atld
manual dextetity ar-c th most stgnificant 1br welders. Re·
gardtng temperament, welders have lndi at d a prefer ..
ence fOf activitieS denUng with things anq obj'cts • ~o:t·and
acnvtnes that are carried on nf\.d l~t1ated to process, ma.~
chine and t chntqu ,
. The physi a1 d mands on w lders. are' str ngrh,
ltmhing, balan. ing, tooplng, kn ling. crouchtng m;
crawllng..» a hitg, handling, fing dng or,f~ Jiilg; talk-
ing, hearitl'g, and ,e;eing*1L .ShOW'll
..,_ -
ill. Bmur 3-3 ...
-. --
~·i,t'lg ,
FIGURE3-5 Overhead welding of pipe with SMAW.
FIGURE3-3 Welding on nuclear piping.
FrGURE3-6 Oxy fuel welding.
struction jobs. It shows that welders are exposed to cer-

tain hazards that are similar to those of other metal-
w rktng occupations in industry or construction.
FIGURE 3..-4 Underweter welding. Courtesy of AWS igures 3...4 and 3-5 offer two exampl s of work envl-
WfJlainqJ()Urnaf. ronments where welding takes place.
, Persons interested in be~aming welders should lake
lit tn:voh~ed in all welding, ~md is important to weld rs the trade aptitude test program called the General Apti~
b 'catist'Qf the tl:, edto cnttnuallywarch.cbserve, and tude 11st Ba.tt ries, 'rne, e are available at state emp.loy.
s '~the weld flS it 18betUg made. D ".ptb perc eptton is es- rnent services in zooperatlon with the Department of
p tally i.D?,portant.,Tl e working envtronm ntal condi- Labor, S ores for spatial aptitude) form perc pnon, finger
,t10l'1S, oS}}",", tbatw ttl. r work indoors primartly on d xterUy, and manual lextel'ity should be well above the
:ticlory'jobs, aug ,both indoors, and.o ndOOf,fol' on- roinilU1.lm, although a StrO.tlg c;leslre to become it wel~er
may overrule all aptitude tests. The welder, the flame cut- base provides the foundation for Table 3-1, which shows
ter, and the welding operator represent the largest num- the numbers of welders and cutters employed in 2002 and
ber of jobs in the welding field; other jobs include welder then projects through 2012,and Table 3-2,which does the
fitter, specialized welder, precision welder, and robot same for welding machine setters, operators, and tenders.
welder. Welders supervise arc welding robots since they Note the differences in the two classifications.
are the people best qualified to program weld robots.
Welding is a worthwhile and rewarding occupation that
can be used as a stepping-stone for many related careers.
More data concerning the job of the welder is available 3-3 WHERE WELDERS WORK
from the American Welding Society and from the Depart-
ment of Labor. The breakdown of numbers of welders in various indus-
tries, as shown in Tables 3-1 and 3- 2, is common to most
industrialized countries; the ratios may change but the
production requirements are similar. Developing coun-
3-2 THE JOB OUTLOOK tries, which also employ welders, are establishing weld-
ing jobs in different industries that vary as a country
FOR WELDERS develops and manufactures more advanced products.
For
o man y years the U.S. Department of Labor's Many welders work in industries not listed. They
CCUpational Outlook Handbook has been a recognized work in ranching and farming, helping to build and main-
source of career information. It is revised periodically and tain equipment; in uie fruit and sugarcane industry; and
pr0:vtdes information on production occupations. It is in the printing and publishing industry. In fact, they work
~vailable in your local library. The section entitled in any industry that uses metal equipment that-is likely to
Welders, Cutters, and Welding Machine Setters, Opera- break down and need repairing. Many welders work
tors, and Tenders" describes the nature of the work, work- alone. They have their own rigs or own their own com-
ing conditions, employment, training, other qualifications panies, and they work in all fields. This makes it an even
and advancement, job outlook, earnings, and related oc- more interesting occupation.
cUpations. This information is also available in the gov- Welders work in different industries and locations
ernment's Monthly Labor Review, which includes in every state in the nation. Data coUected by the Bureau
projeCtions of employment for the next ten years. Recent of the Census shows the geographical location of welders
iSsues forecast good employment opportunities for and flame cutters. The largest number of welders is em-
'Welders through the year 2006 in spite of the fact that ployed in the Great Lakes area: Pennsylvania ranks. third
mUch welding done in manufacturing is increasingly be- with 6,7% of the welders, Ohio is fourth with 6.3%,Michi-
ing automated. Employment for welders and cutters is ex- gan is fifth with 5.9%,IlUnoisis sixth with 5.5%, New'rork
pected to increase slowly while that of welding machine is eighth. with 3:7%, Indiana is ninth with 3.5%, and Wis-
operators should remain unchanged through 2006. Even consin is tenth with 3.0%. Despite this regional concen-
~hough production should increase, the number of weld- tration, Texas ranks first with 9%1 and Californtaranks
lng maChine operators is expected to remain level be- second with 7.5% of the total. These rankings change
ca use of greater use of robots and other automated from year to year, depending on the health of a specific
welding machines. Manual welders, especially those with industry and the business climate in each state,
a wide variety of skills, wUl increasingly be needed for so- The standard metropolitan statistic area ranking is as
phisticated fabrication tasks and repair work that do not follows: Detroit, 1; Los Angdes/San Diego, Z; Chicago, 3;
lend themselves to automation. Many job openings for Houston, 4; Philadelphia, 5; Dallas/Port Worth, 6~ Pitts--
we,l<l 1'5 will result from the need to replace experienced, burgh, 7; St.Louis, 8; New York City, 9; and New Or! ans,10.
+ retiring Workers. The aging of the nation's infrastructure,
whi h requires. more products needing repair or replace-
tne~ti will also provide employment opportunities.
m ld rs and cutters held about 367,000 jobs in 3-4 TRAINING PROGR-AMS
1998, a number that is exp cted to grow by 8.3% to a to-
tal of 398,000 in 200S.Welding rna trine setters, operators,
AND SCHOOLS
~d ~endets held about ,109,000 jobs in 1998, a number Welder training with empha&is qn the mal;tjpula;tjve' kiUs·
hat 18 expected to grow .5.4% toa total ofl15,000 in 2008. is provided by a wide variety .of sch001s.Welding is 'taught
. In Chapter 1,"The Welding Industry" describes those . in high schools, vocational achccls, technlca! sc;,b.ooIs,CQ1·
~(h'l tries that u e welding to manufacture th ir products. leges and universities, appr ntrce training schools, com-
, lere, Figur s 1..11 and 1-12 provide a datab se of tnf r- pany schools, and ) rmed fot es schools.
:atton sho~g theindustries and the amount of weld rs Most of these
. schools provide trainiJ1g programs· .
, ach _lassltlcation;Jt is. updated periodically. TIliS aata- based on
.
a specific ..welding ,l'>tocess.!Th
depth
.s,,,,,
of the· .
TABLE 3-1 NUMBERS
OFWELDERS
ANDCUTIERSEMPLOYED

2002 Employment Employment 2002-2012
Percent Percent
Total employment, all workers 390,524 100.00 456,731 100.00 66,206 17.0
manufacturi ng 42,624 10.91 54,459 11.92 11,835 27.8
Employment services 14,934 3.82 26,209 5.74 11,274 75.5
Commercial and industrial machinery
and equipment 17,830 4.57 22,068 4.83 4,238 23.8
manufacturing 13,741 3.52 17,560 3.84 3,819 27.8
manufacturing 16,542 4.24 20,267 4.44 3,724 22.5
Motor vehicle parts manufacturing 16,747 4.29 19,282 4.22 2,535 15.1
Agriculture, construction, and mining
machinery manufacturing 19,847 5.08 22,376 4.90 2,529 12.7
and commercial refrigeration 10,197 2.61 12,629 2.77 2,432 23.8
Building equipment contractors 7,272 1.86 9,108 1.99 1,836 25.2
Foundation, structure, and building
exterior contractors 8,379 2.15 10,006 2.19 1,627 19.4
Ship and boat building 8,379 2.15 10,006 2.19 1,627 19.4
screw, nut, and bolt manufacturing 11,831 3.03 13,266 2.90 1,436 12.1
Metal and mineral (except petroleum)
merchant wholesalers 9,939 2.54 11,320 2.48 1,382 13.9
Mach·inery, equipment, and supplies
Miscellaneous durable goods
and kitchen cabinet manufacturing 3,165 . 0.81 3,909 0.86 744 23.5
Cement and concrete product
manufacturing 2,724 0.70 3,458 0.76 734 26.9
Other specialty trade contractors 3,559 0.91 4,260 0.93 701 19.7
Metalworking machinery manufacturing 2,497 0.64 3,149 0.69 652 26.1
Self-employed workers, primary jab 17,376 4.45 18,000 3.94 624 3.6
Total self-empl'oyed and unpaid family
workers, primary job 17,376 4.45 18,000 3.94 624 3.6
mach ineryrnan ufacturi ng 4,344 1.11 4,915 1.08 571 13.2
Forging ~nd stamping 2,214 0.57 2,767 0.61 553 25.0
Other fa~rlcated metal product
manufacturi ng 9,878 2.53 10,423 2.28' 545 5.5
Utility system construction 4,393 1.12 4,935 1.08 542 12.4
Automotive repair: and maintenance 1,831 OA7 2,367 0.52 536 29.3
Office furniture (Including fixtures)
jnanutacturtng 3,734 0.96 4,209 0.92 475 12.7
Foundrjes. 2,274 0.58 2,731 0.60 458 20.1
Mott;'}rvehfcleand mot!;)rvehicle parts
and suppHes merenant wholesaler 1,918 0.49 2,362 0,52 443 23.1
L1,IInbef and other censtruction
. materials merchant wholesalers 1,355 0.35 1,783
Other mlscella.neous manufacturlng 3,976 1.02 4,398
Motor vehiclemarrufacturing 7,249 1.86 7,625
. N(.mr6$lfj!e:rttialbuilding CJlnstruction ·6,101 1.56 6,456
TABLE 3-2 NUMBERS
OFWELDINGMACHINESETIERS;OPERATORS,
ANDTENDERS
EMPLOYED

2002 Employment Employment 2002-20'12
Percent Percent
Total employment, all workers 61,185 100.00 61,715 100.00 529 0.9
Motor vehicle parts manufacturing 9,977 16.31 10,339 16.75 362 3.6
manufacturing 4,984 8.15 5,732 9.29 747 15.0
Agric~lture, construction, and mining
machinery manufacturing 3,668 5.99 . 3,721 6.03 54 1.5
manufacturi ng 2,748 4.49 3,160 5.12 412 15.0
Ventilation, heating air-conditioning
and ' , 283 11.4
commerCial refrigeration 2,475 4.05 2,758 4.47
manUfacturing 2,347 3.84 2,588 4.19 241 10.3
BOiler, tank, and shipping container
manufacturing 2,433 3.98 2,178 3.53 -255 -10.5
Self-employed workers, primary job 2,763 4.52 2,122 3.44 -641 -23.2
workers, primary job 2,763 4.52 2,122 3.44 -641 -23.2
manufacturing 2,102 3.44 1,996 3.23 -106 -5.0
Screw, nut, and bolt manufacturing 1,513 2.47 1,552 2.51 38 2.5
Office furniture (including fixtures)
manufacturing 1,440 2.35 1,461 2.37 21 1.5
Spring and wire product
manufacturi ng 1,703 2.78 1,358 2.20 -345 -20.3
Ship and boat building 1,301 2.13 1,312 2.13 11 0.9
Semiconductor and other electronic
component manufacturing 1,277 2.09 1,051 1.70 -226 -17.7
Household appliance manufacturing 1,115 1.82 965 1.56 -150 -13.4
Navigational. measuring,
~Iectromedical, and control
Instruments 1,139 1.86 955 1.55 -184 -16,1
manufacturi ng 827 1.35 939 1.52 112 !3.5
CommerCial and service Industry
machinery manufacturing 909 1.49 925 l.50 17 1.8
Other miscellaneous manufacturing 902 1.47 898 1.46 -4 ~0.4
j
and kitchen cabinet 710 1.16 789 ·1.28 79 11.2
E:Jectricalequipment manufacturing 761 1.24 183 1.27 22 ·2.9
Self-.ernPloyed worke-rs,secondary job 717 1.17 693 1.12 . -24 -3.4
Workers, secondary job 717 1.17 693 1.12 -24 ~3.4
Employment services 420 .: 0.69 663 1.07 243 57.9
Industrial machinery manufacturing 647 1.06 589 0.95 -.58 -9.0
Aerospace product and parts ~
manUfacturing . 745 1.22 $65 ,0:91 ....
HH "":>24.~
f.!ardware manufacturing 504 0.82 513 ·O.8~ 9 ·1}
Steel product manufacturing from
Purchased steel . 482 0.79 438 0.71 -44 -9.1
program and the skills taught depend on the length of process, the understanding of the plasma torch and
time provided. In general, these programs are as follows: its adjustment, the selection of the electrode and
• Arc welding (shielded metal arc welding, SMAW), shielding gases, and the technique involved in all
popularly called stick welding, involves up to 250 positions, welding, and cutting of all metals.
hours. This course should cover shielded metal arc A mastery of and experience with anyone process
welding in all positions, including pipe. It should would reduce the time required for learning the next
teach the welding of thin and medium thickness welding process.
steels using single and multiple pass procedures. It In general,SMAW and gas welding programs are be-
should provide training for a wide variety of elec- ing reduced or eliminated as these processes become less
trode types and should provide training using dif- popular. GMAW,GTAW,and plasma cutting are becoming
ferent equipment. Related topics include welding much more popular, with training programs available in
safety, welding power sources, welding electrode most areas.
selection and identification, weld testing, and in- Many advanced programs are provided for welding
spection. The successful student should be able to structural shapes and pipe welding, both with uphill
pass qualification tests necessary for structural and travel and downhill travel. Other programs are available
most steel welding jobs. for GTAWon particular metals and alloys such as titanium
• Gas welding (OAW), which covers oxyacetylene or other difficult-to-weld metals. Upon successful com-
welding, brazing, and flame cutting, can require up pletion of these programs, students should have the nec-
to 125 hours.This course would include the assem- essary skill and ability to be employable for welding these
bly of gas welding equipment, proper lighting and materials. With enough experience, students can pass rig-
adjustment of torches, and welding of thin and orous qualification tests required for welding under cer-
medium thickness materials in all positions. It tain codes and specifications.
should include brazing and flame cutting of steel, Qualification tests are required before a welder is
both manually and with a machine. Related subjects employed for welding many types of products. No matter
include welding safety, the properties of gases, the what type of welding training program is provided, it
combustion of fuel gases with oxygen, the selection should be presented in the following four steps:
of tips for different applications, the adjustment of
1. A lecture and discussion prior to each new phase of
the oxygen and fuel gas, and the selection of filler
instruction. This provides background information
metals and fluxes.
that lasts from fifteen to thirty minutes and should
• Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), popularly
include a question-and-answer period.
called TIG, should require up to 60 hours. It should
2. An explanation and demonstration of a new train-
include welding; welding safety; assembly of equip-
ing phase. It may be repeated until all questions
ment, including the torch and adjustment; arc start-
about the technique have been answered.
ing and technique; and welding nonferrous metals,
particularly aluminum and stainless steel, in all po- 3. Supervised individual practice after the discussion
sitions. R lated information should include equip- and demonstration. The train e goes to an Individ-
ment maintenance, the selection and its ual booth and practices the technique.
adjustment, the selection of shielding gas, and the 4. Periodic practical tests. The student is given a prac-
selection of filler m tals for different base metals. tical test and must make the proscribed welds.Weld
• Ga,f«$htelded metal arc welding GMAW), popu- tests are useful since they help students overcome
lady atled .MIGor wire welding, requtres up to 50 the fear of qualification tests that are required many
, hours. Flux-cor d arc w -lding (FCAW) is very sim- times throughout a weld r's career.
ilar and should be included. This should include
the as embly and adjustment of the equipment, in- Welders: National Skill Standards
Cl'uding the power source, the wir feeder, and th The AWS,in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Ed~
.. gun and cable ass mbly, It s1;1uld also Includ th ucation, bas developed a National Skill Standards for the
variations of solid wire and flu or d electrode training and qualincanon of w Idees. This program will
w,u:e and shi.elding gasr qulrem nts. Related top- produce employable graduates wh pos ess ~ certain
~cs indudetb:e p:rulciples of constant voltag level ofcompetency as welders.TheAWS makes available
·pow_ ,r,$uppllcsano wire feeders and.the selection curriculum gutdehnes and examination qllestions rc be
of iller tn.tals and shi ldiog gas for different base us d and will recognlz thos institutions that adopt this
metals, program. Schools E celling through National. Skill Stan..
-J?lasmaarc welatng PAW) or plasma cutting t • dards Education (SENSE) provides for thr e classes of
qllit s a ttainil1g program of 2 clas hours. 1'h\ w lders: (1) entry-level weld r (L vel J), (2) advanced
. sb;"~l(l· '1nc11:14 .tb explUMtionof th . plasma .weld r (Leve!lI)Jand (3) xpert w tqer (Level UI),
The AWS provides guides that outline training pro- • Qualifications:
grams for the three levels of welders. It also publishes • Workmanship samples: SMAW, GMAW, FCAW,
specifications for qualifications and certification for each and GTAW
level of welder. The specifications at each level require
• Performance qualification: SMAW in 6G (multi-
passing performance of practical knowledge tests and ple, inclined) position
worker qualification standards.
The written examination includes safety, welding, Expert Welders (Level nn An individual employed in
and cutting terms, theory fundamentals, non-destructive . this position is considered to possess a prerequisite
~esting (NDT) inspection and testing, knowledge of draw- amount of knowledge, attitude, skill, and habits required
111gs,welding and inspection symbols, codes, standards, to perform tasks autonomously, including the selection
welding procedures, and other topics. The performance and use of appropriate techniques and equipment, and to
tests are designed to show competency in practical skills. apply theoretical knowledge and motor skills with mini-
A candidate must read prints, make layouts, perform ther- mum supervision.
~al cutting, fitup, assemble, and weld according to weld- • Base metals: Same as entry level plus familiariza-
~g symbols, using specific welding procedures, and then tion training in copper, nickel, magnesium, and/or
InSpect the work.
titanium alloys.
Schools may make application to the AWS to be-
• Thickness and type: Unlimited thickness range of
c~me a SENSEparticipating organization. SENSE schools
pipe or tubing for SMAW,GMAW,FCAW,and GTAW
will receive all necessary examination materials and a li-
brary of all referenced standards and will become anAWS • Positions: All positions using SMAW, GMAW,
educational ins itution member. FCAW,and GTAW
• Qualifications:
~ntty-Level Welders (Level I) An individual employed
• Workmanship samples: GMAW-P, FCAW, and
111this POSition is considered to possess a prerequisite
GTAW in 6G (multiple, inclined) position
amount of knowledge, attitude, skill, and habits required to
~erform routine, predictable, receptive, and procedural- • Performance qualification: SMAW in 6GR (re-
ized tasks involving motor skills and limited theoretical stricted, multiple, lnclined) position.
knOWledge while working under close supervision. For advanced and expert welders, performance
Welding and cutting processes: SMAW, GMAW, qualification tests performed within the context of the
FCAW; and GTAW,plus OFC,PAC, and CAC-A(for all levels). AWS certified welder program may substitute for per-
• Base metals: carbon steel, stainless steel, and formance tests described in the respective guides. For
aluminum. level III expert welders, certification as an AWS certi-
fied welding inspector may substitute for some of the
• Thickness, and type; 3/8-inch plate for SMAW,
requirements.
GMAW,and FCAW,and llmited positions (depending
Upon successful completion of the written examl-
on base m tal) for GTAW.
nations and performance tests, the candidate's name will
• Positions: All positions using SMAW, MAW,and be listed in the national registry for the entry level, ad-
PCAW, and limited positions (depending on base
vanced, or expert welder as appli~able.TheAWS also pro-
metal) for GTAW.
vides document B5.13, the specification for the
• Qualifications: qualification of SENSEtraintng facUities.
• Workmanship samples: GMAW,FCAW,and GTAW
• Performance qualifications: SMAW in 2G (hori-
zontal) and 36 (vertical) position
, ~'Vanced Welders (Level U) An individual employed
3..5 QUALIFYING AND
In this position is considered co possess a prerequisite CERTIFYING' WELDING
amOunt of knowledge, attirude, skill, and habits required
to p rform procedurallzed tasks under general supervi-
PERSONNEL
Sion, and complex: tasks involving the use of theoretical The American Welding Society is continuing it program
knOWledge and motor skills under close supervision. to increase the professionalism of welders, welc;liog, iQ.. '
, , specters, and other weldih~telated' perSQM-e1.This isac.. '
• Base metals; Same as for entry level. compllshed by providing teclIDkaUyt- ~c1.u:it
• Tbickness and type: 3/8-inc11 plat -Schedule S() spe tflcatlons for til differentq_ualific'lUOJ1Sand facillties
pipe for SMAW,GMAW, and PCAW,and 11-18 gauge and verifying that p 1;$0.0.0 1 have t\leknowle.dge and .:
sh et and tubing for TAW. perlen e requir d. Two committe's, th q\\alU'1catlon .
• PoslJ;ions: All positions using SMAW, GMA,w, committe and the certjflc~t:floh comratttee, .separately .
FCA~and TAW: but collectively ac o1l1pUh tbis.QusslQn~ .'\
\
The qualification committee writes qualification spector (SCWI), the certified welding inspector (CWI),
standards that specify the attributes of personnel fulfill- and the certified associate welding inspector (CAWI). It is
ing specific jobs. This includes describing the duties, re- being replaced by document B5.1, which is essentially the
sponsibilities, knowledge, education, and so forth, of the same. A new document,B5.2,"Specifications for the Train-
job or position. These become consensus standards for ing and Qualification of Welding Inspector Specialists and
the particular job or facility, which are then approved by Welding Inspector ASSistants," provides for the training
the technical activities committee for technical accuracy. and qualification of welding inspector specialists and as-
Because the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) sistants.The difference is that the welding inspector spe-
approved the method by which the AWS approves its cialists and welding inspector assistants are certified by
technical standards, they then become American National their employer and not by the American. Welding SOCiety.
Standards. These are reviewed and revised every five A person desiring to be certified must make appli-
years. These standards provide guidelines for certification cation to theAWS and provide a record of experience and
and educational programs and can be used by third-party training.The American Welding Society requires an eye ex-
organizations to qualify personnel. Certification is the amination and an intensive test related to a particular
documentation of the satisfaction of specific qualification welding code or specification, with a hands-on examina-
requirements. This gives employers or organizations such tion that requires the use of inspection instruments. The
as the AWS the opportunity to certify personnel. applicant is required to inspect weld replicas and re-
Since welding, as a skill and technology, is widely spond to specific questions. Upon approval of the appli-
employed throughout the world, common standards will cation and successful completion of the tests, the person
allow welding professionals to have the same experience, is certified as a CWI or as a CAWI, depending on test
knowledge, and capabilities. Standards are available or are scores.TheAWS maintains a roster of applicants who have
being prepared for the following welding personnel and passed the test.
welding facilities: welding inspectors, welding inspector Many states qualify inspectors for pressure vessel
specialists, welding educators, welding supervisors, weld- and pressure piping work.This is done by the State Indus-
ing engineers, welders and welding operators, welding fa- trial Commission in conjunction with the National Board
cilities, welding fabricators, and SENSE training facilities. of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors and casualty in-
The certification committee administers an inde- surance companies. The national board provides training
pendent certification program, which acts as a third party and testing to determine that inspectors have the neces-
with respect to the qualification standards.This group ad- sary knowledge and ability.There are government inspec-
ministers competency tests in the field. It has specific, tors for the u.s. Department of Defense; various cities have
strict rules for certification and provides examinations inspectors for structural welding. Most state departments
based on batteries of test questions. The committee veri- of transportation have welding inspectors,lt is impossible
fles that the topics overed in the tests relate to actual job to include all the different typ s of inspectors and the tests
requirements. Examinations are offered at various loca- and qualifications that are required. Contact the organiza-
tlons, and test results are evaluated. Certification will tion of interest to determine their requirements.
demonstrate and verify that the individual. has the capa-
bilities appropriate to the subject. The certification com-
mittee maintains necessary records and Issues certificates Welding Engineer
under established rules. Welding engineers may receive a degree from a numb r
The following s ctlon lists many of the different of colleges and universities in the United States, Europe,
weldhlg personnel with an outline of the status of the and Japan. Welding engineering degree programs can be
specttlcations and th requirements of each. If you have accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering
qu snons cone erning certification or how to be om andTecbnology(ABE1) of New York City.The welding en-
.ceruned.cenract theAWS headquart rs in Mtamr.Plortda gineering bac alaureate degree program at Ohio Sta~e
(5 Appendix .A.-2). University is theonly ABET-accredited welding engineer-
ing program in the country Wi Iding 'oglo er assoetate
. degree programs arc also a redited, Master's and doc.
Widing Inspector torare degt es in welding engineering and In engineering
This was- me firs
AWS program for qualft'ying and cCl'tify- disciplines closely assoclat d with welding in the metal.
ingpet o~neJJtt'lpl'O~iSm re than twenty years old lurglca! •. me. hanlcal, or structural engineering 'depart-
and. has, been eXt('ep1 ly~Slice ssM. It is a rcep e.el world- rnents are also available at severaluniverslues.
, -Wltt t and 1;b¢:AWShasgivett ertiticaUoJl tests in many Stat' regtsrranon of welding engineers is destr-
, CO\lntrie~n well as in, many J() attons In th nit d sra es. ahl . If ~he weldmg ngin r i,l!! tnvolved With public
1'11 'ortgtmtldoctfmen 1, "tan,dard for til QU. Uti ~a- works, registration as aprofessl 'nal nginec.t lOdcr
~611and CrtlflcilI:,tol1.otWeldlng In5p ctors;' bas,stood the ta.te law isneccssaty. The ~'tatc of Ohlo offers weldh g
t ~st Q;t tin,)e,ltPtQYide~ fOt rh senior (;ct;tift d welding in- eug:if\~el'ing profeSSional registration and wHl ooper·
j";. ".'_ -"~. ,,-,., .~. -; : '".' ~
ate with other states to provide welding engineering achieve practical results. The welding technician must
registration. know, understand, and be able to operate processes, pro-
The AWS provides a document, B5.16, "Specifica- cedures, and equipment of the welding industry and-must
tions for the Qualification of Welding Engineers." It re- verify the existence of a predetermined quality level.
quires personnel to have a specific combination of Upon graduation, the employment opportunities for
education and experience to be eligible to take the four- welding technicians are almost unlimited.
part examination. Individuals passing an international or
European welding engineer exam, and with one year of
experience, are eligible to take the welding engineering Welding Supervisor
examination. Continued education is required to maintain Welding supervisors coordinate and supervise the activ-
qualification. Qualification to this standard does not imply ity of welders. The supervisor must have welding experi-
the status of a state-registered professional engineer (PE). ence but need not be the most skilled welder. The
However, a state-registered professional welding engineer supervisor must have knowledge of the welding
is qualified in accordance with this specification. processes being used and must have a background of
technical information about welding.The supervisor must
also have training and experience in supervision and man-
Welding Educator agement. AWS provides document B5.9, "Specifications
AWS provides document B5.5 entitled, "Specifications for the Qualifications of Welding Supervisors." AWS will
for the Qualification of Welding Educators." There are also provide a welding certification program for welding
three levels: senior welding educator (SWE), welding ed- supervisors.
Ucator (WE), and associate welding educator (AWE).AlI
welding educators must demonstrate competence of
welding skills of the different arc welding and cutting Robotic Arc Welding Support Personnel
processes. They must be able to explain welding codes, Due to the rapid increase in the use of arc welding ro-
drawings, and specification.s and to explain welding base bots, there is a need for personnel knowledgeable in both
metals and materials. They must evaluate instructional arc welding and robotic technology. The AWS has re-
plans and welding students. They must be capable of vi- sponded by establishing a "Specification for the Qualifi-
Sually inspecting welds and preparing reports. The level cation of Robotic Arc Welding Personnel," AWS
of welding educator depends on the level of education D16.4:2000, and the "Standard for AWS Certification of
and experience.All welding educators must successfully Robotic Arc Welding Support Personnel" (CRAWSP),AWS
pass both a closed book examination and the CWI prac- QC 19:2000. The society will certify personnel, but the
tical examination to demonstrate knowledge and skills. employer is responsible for establishing capabilities, pro-
You may qualify as a certified welding educator if you viding training, establishing ability to perform duties In-
are a qualified welding inspector, if you have specific volved, and other required qualifications. An eye
teaching responsibilities, and if you hold a welder'S cer- examination, a written examination, and a. performance
tltlcate. Certification requirements are covered by docu- examination are all required,
ment QCS, "Standard for AWS Certification of Welding There are two IevelsofAWS certiflcatlon: LeveJA is ti-
Educators." tled "Certified Roboti.c Arc Welding Operator,' and Level B
is titled "Certified Robotic Arc Welding 'Iechmclan/Inspec-
tor:' Contact theAWS for more details (seeAppendixA-2).
Welding Technician
. Welding technicians, most of whom are highly skilled
Welders, have received specialized training by taking Welders
.nurses to supplement their knowledge of welding. The AWS has several programs for qualifying and certUYtng
training, ~vailahle through special courses at local schools Welders, including QC7. "Specifications for A,WS Certified
and C911eg S, technical society programs, correspondence Welders," and several supplements. This is a nanonal pro-
~Ol.lrses, and ompany- iponsored seminars, covers ub- gram in which welders Can take pros rtbed t sts ar qual-
Jets associated with, welding. Many technicians are grad- ifi d weld. r test facilities. Upon succes ful completion of
l.lat s of associate d gree programs from technical schools the tests, they Will be placed Oil theAWS natio(ial registry
Q1' junior colleges. An .assoctate.degree .15 obtained with of welders. This makes possible the trans!ero! welder
two years of post ..high school study. On th job they per- qualitlca:tions from employer to .ernploye·r .around the:
fOrm semiprofession.al ngmeering functions, normally ountry without retesting.' .
ith sl~pervision by an engineer. The engln ering t h- Wi lder qualiffcation is an extremely ornplex itua-
t)Ologist must mast r the language of engineering and spe- non, Mot cornplete Informatjon cone; rnlng t:.b . r qUjte~
l.1.liZcd ubje t: matter. TIl t chnician must be abl to ments fo.t' the qunljfication and . e.rtitkatiOl1 of w lders
apply theory and use capabilities of skilledcraftsmen to based onspedfic cod s is overed ill Chagt.er 22,~~'·<~ ;
. . - . ffi -.- "'_
QUESTIONS
3-1. Where are plants doing welding generaUy located? 3-11. Who normaUy programs arc welding robots?
3-2. What products do welders help make? 3-12. What type of school must one attend to learn to weld?
3-3. What tests can be taken to determine if a person 3-13. What are the four steps of a welding training program?
should become a welder? 3-14. What specifications involve welder qualifications?
3-4. Name some of the future jobs open to welders who 3-15. What does a welding inspector do?
take extra training. 3-16. Do welding sales representatives need to know how
3-5. Where do welders learn to do construction welding? to weld?
3-6. In construction, what job titles maya welder have? 3·17. What is a CWl?
3-7. How does welder's pay compare with others? 3-18. What is a CAWl?What is the difference between a
3-8. What are the physical demands on a welder? CWI and a CAWI?
3-9. Is seeing important for a welder? 3-19. What is a CWE?How do you become a CWE?
3-10. Are manipulator skills important for a welder? 3·20. How can you advance to higher-paying welding-
related jobs?
REFERENCE
1. Statistical Policy Division, Office of Management and
Budget, "Standard Industrial Classification Manual," U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
OUTLINE
must be warned against these hazards where applicable by
4"'1 Personnel Protection and Safety Rules
the use of adequate precautionary labeling. The precau-
4-2 Electrical Shock Hazard . tionary label for welding processes and equipment is
4- 3 Arc Radtarion Hazard shown in Figure 4-2. Other hazards apply to all metalwork-
4-4 Air Contamination Hazard ing occupations.Accidents may result from falling, from be-
4-5 Fire and ~plosiQn Hazard ing hit by moving objects, from working around moving
machinery, and from exposure to hot metal. Normal pre-
4-6 Compressed Gases Hazard
cautions are required with regard to these hazards as well.
4-7 Weld Cleaning and Other Hazards The hazards that relate to welding are:
4-8 Safety for Specific Welding Processes and
Occupations . • Electrical shock
• Arc radiation
• Air contamination
• Fire and explosion
4..1 PERSONNEL PROTECTION • Compressed gases
AND SAFETY RULES • Welding cleaning
qr
YO safety and health is extremely important. All work- • Other hazards related to specific processes or
ers engaged in production and construction are continu- occu patrons
ally exPosed to potential hazards.A number of safety and
Welders work under a variety of conditions: out-
health problems are associated with welding. When cor-
doors, indoors in open areas, in confined .spaces, high
rect precautionary measures are followed, welding is a
above the ground, and under water. Tbey use a large num-
safe occupation. Health officials state that welding, as an
ber of welding and cutting processes. Mos~ ar exposed to
~CCupatlon, is 110 mor hazardous 01" injurious to health
fumes, gases, radiation, and heat. Welders are exposed to a~.
than other metalworking occupations. Figure 4-1 shows
'WeIdel'dressed for work.
. number offactors simultaneously Th use of specific
welding processes or' welding on particular m· tats pre.
Governm nts have become Increa tngly active con- sents potential health risk .Addltional informatton is ava.tJ-
rntng the san ty and health of work rs and have nacted
able i11 the American Wi Idtng Society p\lblication "Ef~ ts
laws prescribing safety regulations and the publication of of Welding on I,.ealth," published fl'Ot'rl1979 to 1 f)a7~(3)
'af1 ty Warnings to ensure workers' safety. In: the United • e-. "
~tes, tllepl'Ovisions of the Occupational Safety and Health

~Ct (OSHA (1) are ih_ law. OSHA makes many national con- Welding'Workpla~e Safety
, t\StlS Standards nforceable, The most important is the
An, rj an National Standard ANSI Z 9,1 "Safety in Welcling
arut CUtt41g,,,(2)which state that w ldin and cutting oper-
(lOons pos potentia! hazards from fumes, gas $, electric .
SilQCk
.
j heat tadlatioo,and somenmes notse.All personnel .
. .
placed on the welders. This limit is known as a threshold
limit value. Protective clothing should be worn to help
insulate the welder from excessive heat. Consultation
with safety experts and just plain common sense are re-
quired in these situations.
Protective Clothing
Welders should wear work or shop clothes without open-
ings or gaps to prevent the arc rays from contacting the
skin. If the arc rays contact the skin for a period of time,
painful "sunburns" or"arc burns "will result. People working
close to arc welding should also wear protective clothing.
For lighr-duty welding, normally 200 A or lower, the
level of protection can be reduced. Figure 4-1 shows a
welder dressed for work. Woolen clothing is much more
satisfactory than cotton since it will not disintegrate from
arc radiation or catch fire as quickly. Cloth gloves can be
used for light-duty work. For heavy-duty work, more thor-
ough protective clothing is required. Figure 4-1 shows a
welder wearing a pair of welding leathers and gauntlet
gloves, which protect against sparks and molten metal.
When welding in the vertical and overhead position, this
type of clothing is required. In all cases a headcap should
be used. Flame-retardant clothing should be worn. Cloth-
ing should always be kept dry, and this applies to gloves as
weU. High-top shoes with safety toes are recommended.
Leather clothes should be of the chrome-tanned type.
Leather gloves should not be used to pick up hot items,
FIGURE4-1 Welder dressed for work. Courtesy of which would cause the leather to become stiff and crack.
Welding Inspection Technology, American Welding Society. Protective clothing must be kept in good repair. Hard hats
should be checked occasionally. Gloves should be clean
Welders and other employees have an obligation to and not oily. Welding helmets should be checked for
learn and use safe practices and to obey safety rules and cracks, and filter glasses should be replaced if damaged.
regulations. They are expected to work in a safe man nero Signs should be posted in the welding department I
They are r sponsibl ~ for the safe use of equipment and pointing out precautions that must be taken by employ-
materials. It is the r ponstbillry of supervisors to enforce ees and visitors in the welding shop. These signs should
safety rules and regulations, be in agreement with ANSI Standard "Specifications for
.Good housekeeping practices should always be em- Accident Prevention 8ig11S.,,(4) The welding department
played In the welding shop. Adequate safety devices should should also post signs warning people with pacemakers
b provid d, such as proper fire extinguishers, lifesaving not to enter or to take special precautions.
and support equipment, and flrsr-aid kits. In addition, per-
80M I must be trained to use this qulpment properly. Safety Rules
Onlyappr ved equipment should be used, and it must be The followmg sets of 20 rules, "Safety Precautions for Arc
prop~rlyin ralled'and malntatned U1good working order. Welding" and "Safety Precautions for Oxyacetylene Weld-
ing and Cutting," should be posted in the welding shop.
Heat Exposure
Safety Precautions for Arc Welding
Weldr are somenm , r qutredto w Id on.or taside.pre-
11~('d:w idPl 11 ',Thepr heat temperaturesrequtred f r 1. Mak nre that your all welding equlpment is In-
weldin8 $pepial' :rn~Jterials can be' quit high,and the stalled properly and grounded and is in good work·
weIdet- 'tn~u;fbe prot ,ted from irno conta t with COrn1t)B
~ .ing condition. '
bot l't'l:etaJ,WQrke:r~ shoulc;lbe supplied with sufflc! ent 2. Always wear protective clothing suitable for the
" iol all' to avo14 breathing
'cessivly bot air. 81'ectal pre- weldrng to b done.
cal.l(i,oris n l\st he tal m alldsp 'cial pence lures must be 3. Always wear proper eye prot non when weJqlng,
'1l;c:lQJltfd prattto the w 10 r from, th ~ heat Even with cutting, or grlndmg. Do not rook at the ar Without
" Ptot.,~V({ loUting,p 'rfiliSsi e ~pOStn:e Unut$ maybe proper eye protection,
',,-~,-,t'j)"~:1 -,\ .~._:,"_ '~>.:<" ,'_
'! ':z\ ,', _ -' >;" _, .. j • -
WARNING: PROTECf yourself and others. Read and understand this label.
FUMES AND GASES can be dangerous to your health.

ARC RAYS can injure eyes and burn skin.
ELECfRIC SHOCK can KILL.
• Before use. read and understand the manufacturer's instructions. Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs), and
your employer's safety practices.
• Keep your head out of the fumes.
• Use enough ventilation. exhaust at the arc. or both. to keep fumes and gases from your breathing zone and the
general area.
• Wear correct eye. ear, and body protection.
• Do not touch live electrical parts.
• See American National Standard Z49.I, Safety in Welding and Cutting. published by the American Welding
Society, 550 N.W. Lejeune Rd., P.O. BOX 351040. Miami. Florida 33135; OSHA Safety and Health Standards.
29 CFR 1910. available from U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington. DC 20402.
DO NOT REMOVE THIS LABEL
FIGURE4-2 Warning label for arc processes and equipment. Courtesy of Welding Inspection Technology, American
Welding Society.
4. Avoid breathing the air in the fume plume directly 17. Shield others from the light rays produced by your
above the arc. welding arc.
5. Keep your work area clean and free of hazards. 18. Do not weld near degreasing operations.
Make sure that no flammable, volatile, or explosive 19. When working above ground, make sure that the
materials are in or near the work area. scaffold, ladder, or work surface is solid.
6. Handle all compressed gas cylinders with extreme 20. When welding in high places, use a safety belt or
care. Keep caps on when not in use. lifeline.
7. Make sure that compressed gas cylinders are se-
cured to the wall or to other structural supports. Safety Precautions for Oxyacetylene Welding
8. When compressed gas cylinders are empty, close and Cutting
the valve and mark the cylinder "empty."
1. Make sure that all gas apparatus shows UL or FM ap-
9. Do not weld in 3. confined space without special proval, is installed properly; and is in good working
precautions. condition. Make sure that all conn ctions are tight be-
10. Do not weld on containers that have held com- fore lighting the torch. Do not use a flame to inspect
bustibles without taking special precautions. for tight joints. Use soap solution to detect leaks.
11. Do not weld on sealed containers or compare- 2. Always wear protective clothing suitable for weld-
men s without providing vents and taking special ing 01' flame cutting.
precautions. 3. Keep work area clean-and free of hazardous marerl-
12. Use mechanlcal exhaust at th point of welding also When flame cutting, sparks can travel 30 to 40
when welding lead, Cadmium, chromium, man- feet (10 to 15 meters). Do not allow flame 'cut
ganese, brass, bronze, zinc, or galvanized' steel, and sparks to hit hoses, regulators, or cylinders ..
when welding in a confined space. 4 .. Handl all compr issed gas cylinders with extreme
13. When it is necessary to weld in a damp or wet area, car. Ke p cylinder caps on when hot in use.
wear rubber boots and stand on a. dry insulated 5. Make sure that all compress d gas cylinders are se-
platform. .
cured to the wall. or to other structural suppt?rts ..
14. Do notuse cables with ftayed, cracked, or bare KeepacetyleneCYlind~rs In tlie vettJcalpo$itio1\, >~ "
Spots inthe insulation. 6. Store .compressed gas cylinders in a. safe place wttll
'15. When the electrode 11 Mer is not in use, hang it on good ventilation. Acetylene cylinders and' oxygen
the brackets provided, N ver let it touch a corn- cylinders hould be kept apart.
pressed gas ylinder, 7. W1;1encompressed 8M, cylinders otfuelgas CrUll-
16. Dl pose of cJ ctrode stubs in proper contatners, del'S at mpty,closeth 'wtlve a~.ldtTiftrk tll . t.1'Utl- .
stubs On the floor ~.re.a safety hazard. . der 'empty.fl· ,'. . < ,. •
8. Use oxygen and acetylene or other fuel gases with dure recommended for the torch in use, If the oxy-
the appropriate torches and only for the purpose gen valve is closed first, the yellow, sooty acetylene
intended. flame enlarges appreciably and could burn the
9. Avoid breathing the air in the fume plume directly welder.The carbon soot will deposit in the area. If
above the flame. the acetylene valve is closed first, there will be a
loud "bang," which may distract nearby welders. In
10. Never use acetylene at a pressure in excess of 15 psi
either case the other valve should be closed
(103.4 kPa). Higher pressure can cause an explosion.
quickly.
11. Never use oil, grease, or any material on any appa-
16. Use mechanical exhaust when welding or cutting
ratus or threaded fittings in the oxyacetylene or
lead, cadmium, chromium, manganese, brass,
oxyfuel system. Oil and grease in contact with oxy-
bronze, zinc, or galvanized steel.
gen may cause spontaneous combustion.
17. If you must weld or flame cut with combustible 01'
12. Do not weld or flame cut in a confined space with-
volatile materials present, take extra precautions,
out taking special precautions.
complete a hot work permit, and provide for a
13. When assembling apparatus, crack the gas cylinder lookout.
valve before attaching regulators (cracking in-
18. Do not weld or flame cut on containers that have
volves opening the valve on a cylinder slightly, then
held combustibles without taking special precau-
closing). This blows out any accumulated foreign
tions.
material. Make sure that all threaded fittings are
clean and tight. 19. Do not weld or flame cut into a sealed container or
compartment without providing vents and taking
14. Always use this correct sequence and technique for
special precautions.
lighting a torch:
20. Do not weld or cut in a confined space without tak-
a. Open acetylene cylinder valve.
ing special precautions.
h. Open acetylene torch valve 1/4 turn.
c. Screw in acetylene regulator adjusting valve The "Safety in Welding and Cutting" standard also provides
handle to working pressure. a warning label for oxyfuel gas processes (Figure 4-3).
If the hazards mentioned in this chapter are han-
d. Turn off acetylene torch valve (you will have
dled properly, the welder is as safe as any other indus-
purged the acetylene line).
trial worker. There must be continual vigilance over
e. Slowly open oxygen cylinder valve all the way.
safety conditions and safety hazards. Safety meetings
f. Open oxygen torch valve 1/4 turn. should be held regularly.The safety rules should be reis-
g. . Screw in oxygen regulator screw to working sued annually, and they must be completely understood
pressure. and enforced.
h. Turn off oxygen torch valve (you will have
purged the oxygen line).
I. Open acetylene torch valve 1/4 turn and light Material Safety Data Sheets
with ltghter (use friction-type lighter or special Under the OSHA Hazard Communication Standard,
provided lighting device only). 29 Cl,'R 1910,1200, employers are responsible for em-
j. Open oxygen tor h valve 1/4 turn .. ployee hazardous material training in the workplace.
k, Adjust to neutral flame. OSHA requires that employers must have a comprehen-
IS. Always use this correct sequence and te hnique of slve hazard communication program to inform employ-
shutting off a torch. ees about hazardous substances used in th workplace.
The employer must maintain continuou tramlng can- .
a. Glos~acetylene torch valve first, then close oxy-
cerning such materials and safety in general. Provisions
gen toed valve, to safeguard employees are in lud d in Material Safety
b. Clo$. ·cyllnder val'ves-th acetylen valve first, Data Sheets as prescribed by 'the Hazard Cornmunica-
th n til oxygen valve .. tton Standard of the U.S. Department of Labor.(5) Infor-
mation must b provided for all substances taken into
the workplace, except foodS, drugs, cosmetics, Of to-
bacco products II ed tor personal zonsumptton,' More
than 600 substanc s are covered. The use of thes data
sh ts in all ms nuracrurtng workplac s ha b en man-
dated smc 1985. ,inp! ye s must be taught how to
rea . and -illt rpret iofm'mation on label and mat rial
dn:tash eta.
WARNING: PROfECf yourself and others. Read and understand this label.
FUMES AND GASES can be dangerous to your health. . ,

HEAT RAYS (INFRARED RADIATION from flame or hot metal) can Injure eyes.
• Before use, read and understand the manufacturer's instructions, Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs), and
your employer's safety practices.
• Keep your head out of the fumes.
• Use enough ventilation, exhaust at the flame. or both, to keep fumes and gases from your breathing zone and the
general area.
• Wear correct eye, ear, and body protection. , ,
Q.1'. ty • W. ldt nd Cutting published by the American Weldmg
• 9B·I, S3 S"e1 Q40
See. American National StanRddardp'lAO In Mfa~?g
· Fforida 33135; OSHA Safety and Health Standards.
Society, S50 N.W. LeJeune "" ox ,. . 20402
29 CFR 1910. available from the U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington, DC '
DO NOf REMOVE THIS LABEL.
FIGURE4-3 Warning label for oxyfuel gas processes. Courtesy of Welding Inspection Technology, American Welding
SOCiety.
Each data sheet for welding products includes in-

formation about every hazardous component comprising 4..2· ELECTRICAL SHOCK
1% or more of the contents, and for every potential car- HAZARD
Cinogen (cancer inciting or producing) comprising 0.1 %
Or more. The components are included in the listing by The shock hazard is associated with all electrical equip-
the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hy- ment. This includes extension lights, electric hand tools,
gienists, With threshold limit values.P'Threshold limit val- and all types of electrically powered machinery. Ordinary
Ues are being reduced when some Material Safety Data household voltage (11; V) is higher than the output volt-
Sheets are revised. age of a conventional arc welding machine.
Use only welding machines that meet recognized
Material Safety Data Sheets should be obtained from
SUppliers of every product used in the welding shop.This national standards. Most industrial welding machines
includes welding electrodes, coated stick, cored wire, meet the National Electrical Manufacturers Association
SOlid wire, tung ten, and carbon nonconsumable elec- (NEMA) standards for electric welding appararus.f? This
trOdes, Data sheets are needed for base metals, steel, stain- is mentioned inthe manufacturer's literature and is shown
less steel, aluminum, nickel, alloys, titanium, copper, and on the nameplate of the welding machine. In Canada ap-
so fOrth. All of the gases used in the shop, either for proval by the Canadian Standards Association i~ requj~ed
shielding or for fuel gas, are also included, along with all for certain types of welding machines, and this require-
types of fluxes (e.g., brazing fluxes, submerged arc ment is also Jndicated on the nameplare.P' In certain parts
fluxes), metal powders for cutting, and items for cleaning of the United States, and for certain applications, Under-
and lubricating. Th se saf ty data sheets should be kept writers' Laboratories approval is required for transformer-
type welding power sources. (9) The NEMA specification
on flle in the personnel or welding department. The train-
irtg program regarding 'Material Safety Data Sheet must provides classes of welding machines, duty cycle require-
cover not only welders, but other working in the weldments and no-load voltage maximum requirements.
i,og area, including service personnel, maintenance per- The new International Standard IE . 974-1, lAte
Sonnel, and others whoregularly vistt the welding shop. Welding Bquipment, Part 1 :Wekling Power Sources,"OO-) is
finding more and more acceptance ill many industrial
A typical Material Sflt1 ty Data Sheet for a flux-
or'd at welding electrode i sh wn by Pigur s 4-4 countries. This specification provides classes of welding
and 4-5. Parti ular points of Int rest are highlighted to machines, duty cycle requirements, no-load voltage max-
provid more data for intelligent interpretation of this imum requirements, and m~y other details related, t~
. information. The' OSHA Hazard Cemmunlcattons Stan- construction. OSHA has.addinonal requiremeutsto rm-
<1atdincludes AppetldixA, which requires employers to prove the safety of weldinsin3~~nes. On~ l'~q'l~e.meot ..
report any adverse health ffecrs for which there i& sci. specifies Stlla1lerventUating holes ~othat.the Wi Id~rcaq,~ .
cnUfi evidence. Appendix B provid s guidance in rec- not come-in contact Witll higb. voltag msl~e the, case.
ognizing hazard.' The Jiazarlious om.1,nullication sMA changed the as, of the. welding machine so That
PrOBratn and Wel.tJing Sd ty Tra,in~llg Programs must be "tools" are requir dta open the ase wher ,.high oltatte
ngotng. ' is expo ed. .
"'50S NO FCAW
REVISED:
HS
MATEIUALSAFETY DATA'HEET
Hazards in t~~ Fo, U.S. "'"n.'.clu,'" weldinG Conlumlbl •• Inel ReI.. 1d Prod"CIS
flller metal or "'"Y be ul.d 10 comply .nlh OSHA" NIII,d CommunicIUon Sllndllll, 29 CFR 19'0. '200.
flU)( itse".
"-~ Sllnalrd mull be conluilld lot lpeco'ic leQulremen,s.
SECTION' - IDENTIFICATION
MlnUI~lSuPPIiI' Name: COMPANY ABC Telephone No: 1·825-601)O()OO
Adel,... : MA~TReeT, US A £mllo"ncy NO: l.a25·6QO.OOOO

ChemiC~,
Abstracts ~Nam. FCA~l Cln,Uocation, AWS AS.20
Service No,
(safety P'Od~: MILO STeEL ~COREO .. RC WELDING (FCAW)
...~.~
information,
immediately ...... .., Sf.CTlON 2 - HAZARDOUSMATERIALS)
available by
telephone to Thll _lion c_ ~ om which Ihlt ptoCIucl i. mlnull.'u,cd l"a lum•• and on •• P'ocl.... d du,'no .... ldltlO .. I,"
nonn.I UM 01 Ihi d 0,. s.ellon a.
physiCians and IkI~h:'~:I~-:~rdouI MII."III"lhould be inle'prelld II I Illm lIOul'ld Ina ,,"I'nld In OSHA HNard COmmuni...
paramedics),
" ....
_ta_u .. Lim" maim'!
'ftGrHW", '1..CAI..bI. OattAl'iL
IRON
7.38,.·5 . ~ NOlll_"ed
I CL' IFum.)
10,20STlL"
PEL • MMiNi;'~:~~~1' 134113 .. '·'
1308-48-4 6 10
permlsslbl. SILICON ~
7.~~~ NOllllng ;:}'nCl
I02.~,::~"
-
exposure limit, "LUORSPA" 77111-7 2.5("
m./m3, 'CL - Ceilino Limit
~
"STilL - 8110<1 T.""
Elposur. LI"'lt
.feTION a - 'HVllCAUCHIMICALCHllfilACTf.R STle'

NOI Appllclbla
~
Amerlcln_
SECTION! - "!l1! !!:!e O'IlIIION HUAfilO DATA
Conference
Governmental
Of . Non ".""mallll: Wllefln, arc .na ••,,"" can III "It.
combul1lbl", See Z.'.1 "".,."eld In S.ction 1.
'!!a!IS!N I - 'UI!ACTIVI!! DATA
~:r"":~!
Industrlll
Hyal.nlsts TLV H... raoul OI'OlllPOlilllo" PrOd.CII
W.ldlI'lGlumn ."d_II .. ~~.nnot be cll"'II'Clllmpl~. Til. ~mllOalllo" anll Qu.nllly olllO'h a .. d.Ptna.nl "lIOn 1"'8 ",.,.1 be-
(mll/m').
'""-!!'~~~~
tlme·w.l.hted III fullltl Ina 0.... 10 WIIlell wo,..,.
.~.~.IIU"". Inti .ltollOdl. Uled. 01".' cOndltlona .. "Iell 1110 Inlt•• nca '". ClillYllIOalUon
1111, I» "POlld
,n" Quantity
ItlCIUI!';cOllino' Oft '". m'!ll MillO WlI",O (11ICh .. "I,", c1111ng,
Clll'IanllllI:,. lilt ,,""'", 01 ...... ,.,. ,nd IlIIlIOlu",. "I .IIt lfO,k .,. •• lh. quality Ina amounl 01 •• "IIII"Oft, tile POllllolI 4111111
av.rap. Ill.,.. ".. ..it" "lIllcllO '". fum. plume, a, .... 11•• !No pI."Me 01Cel1lllm'"IM' In 111111111'010"'" (allell al Mlorl.,.'ed
1!yCl1OG_ VI.,.,.. 110'" cllanlng .nll OIO.... lng "1!'t1ll"1.
'I'
Wlttn '111_I'""lOde I. ClO~a"m.d. tn.IUII'I' .nO 0" dtoOll'I!O.ltlOII pracluct. g.n".lld ... dlll'''''II. p_nt .tIeIl".", I",",
Ih.lnOrld, •• tsIlJled Itl Sn'kIn::t. OeC:OII'POll1lon!>racIuGII normal op ... llon Inc:luCII'"0" O"O'"IIII\Q 1"",,1111 ""lltllllatllln.
Hal.ra, createdl "It

"'KIIOII. ". QIIldtllOll 01 till ma'.neit .how. in "Clioll 2, !!Iv. ,I!oaa t_
IInClfmCKMI. II.M'.'".,the .I,mente .tIeI or 0111
Iht ..... "'."1 •• a ~oallno. IIG., •• nOIad abqvt.
.... 10 lie ", ... IiOlled ." ~lrtu.lI, alway. p.... n' •• cO"'P'" ,",Iii .. _lid
not .'l1l4I'111. (C".tacIt1'lUlIOll 01Arc welding Fuma: A"'.'ICIn W.ldong 8001''rl. TIII.I,m,nt' 0( OlIlditUlled ~IOW corra.potICI
by the weldin. W .hl ACGIH oattoDfllt locat.d In fI'U' "" .. hold Llmll '4111' lor CI\Imlo" Sub'tane .. _nd ""!'tiel! Ag•• la'" lhe ~
• rc or torch. IfWf"",,,,.nl,. _.
-.til. I.h. IUIIII-..Id Inclullr. _pt .. osldl. 01 11011,"".8......, till_, '","Ium _meglllllut!\,
"luOtlll'~lIallO 1M' P'''''II
L CAIN ..
~ ...... l!I!l!l!II_'1
""1 ...1 0111" "l. MII'H T\II
,.,•
IliON OXIDI ~a
Typlc.l tum, •. '" I"" ...ANOI.NIII 7QHo11.5 &(:L' et,.'rum.,
101•• "',0,)
,......
1
"L'CON OXIDI!
TITANIUM0)(101 ,,.113..
113'... ,,,·•
liI,20STlL"
"'AOI'~~~~~:IDI
'CL - o.lIIno Utftl! "STilt
2.5::. "
- .hort Telm Elposu .. limit
2.5::.f1
........
fiGURE 4-4 Page 1 of Material Safety Data Sheet for flux· cored electrode,
The new regulations also cover the location and in- should use low-voltage control switches so that high volt-
Rulatioll of the welding mac1:tine terminals. Th se are to age is not brought into the hand of the welder, In fully
be located 01' inS1.l1a.tedso~hat the terminal are pro- automatic equipmen.t higher voltages are permitted but
teCted.Tbis t.'lkesseveraJ fOl'ms. In some cases the termi ... are ina.cces ible to the operator during nOrmal operation.
nalsare recessed on tbe front of the power source. In
other cases they ~.l'e.. cess d but also 'overed by a. pro·
te. i n plate. For semiautomatic tnachi.n.es t11 power ca- Installation of Welding Machines
bl' is lr setted jntb front .f tb welding .rna-chin as All elcctri arc welding machines mWlt binstaUed in ac·
",.'\VeIlas th worJ!'.lea.d.ln thlJS :waythetertninals are prO" cordance with dle National Lectt'icru. Code®(i;o and aJ.I <
. leet a:{t;Qm'~ any type of accident .. 't'l1ese different 1Q a1 cod· s. In. ~1.11atiolljnstfll. tions are included in the
~'f;Nng m orB for terP,l1nalprotection are showll in manufactuter's maf:)ual. that a. mpan1es the welding
Plgl.JfC 4';0, machine. TIle mfluu{tl also giV'e~th irz of the power ca-
ttJy .irtSul~1ted.typ~ welding hIders . trode bl. that should b used to c nne 't the machines to th
'ho\lId (j. us .d for sb~'Jded .metal ar 'w laing. emiauto· mai.t1,Un.·. Motor genct'Mor wIding machihe feature
rnatl~· :,¥ld1n.i {{!Jus for. ntilluous ~wil' p oce~s's ompletesepar'4tfon ofth prim.a.ry power and thew"'l&-
Eli•• " of O.... xpoaure
Ellclric are wilding may ."ate on. or mort of the lollowlno h•• llh haurdl:
FUMES AND GASES e.n be o&nO.,oua 10 your h.. lth.
SHORT. TERM (ACUTE)OVEREXPOSUREto wtldino fum.1 may ,•• ult In dllcomfort luch •• dluln .... nauI". 01 d,.,.,.I. 0'
lrruaHon of nG.... throat or ey•••
I
LONG.TERM(CHRONIC)OVEREXPOSUREmay lead to IIO.rollo (I,on dlpoafllin lunOI) and II bell....o by IOm.I .... UgI'ortI
to .ffoel pulmonary funellona.
ARC RAVS Cln Injur. ey,. anc burn skin.
Beware!-'-i~~EC!T~A~IC~S~H~0:C;K;c.;n~k:III:· __ "~~7Em_._,o-.-nc-v-.-nO~F~lro-I~A~ld~PI~~~.~dU~'.~I-------------------------
means it may
(car~noge~C. Ev.. no, ff.. h bu,ns dev.lop Ifter elCPOIU'" conoult • p.y.lelln.
__ ~~~"~~~I~m~~~I~ClI;'~;'~E~m~~~~~I~~~t~OI~d~te~C~M~~~u~"~r~~~o~m~m~~~d~~~b~Y~~~.~.~m~.~.~.~n~R~~C~~~~~~~
__ ~~~~~
produce
cancer.) arc n In 011
Th." p,Odu." do not coniain InO,.dl.nll Ihll .,. CI.II~ II .ltei"ooenIC per 2QCFII 1810.1200·Hu.rd Communlo.tlon SIend.nI.
nOTION 7 - PRECAUTIONS FOR SAFE HANDLING ANp U,IJAP,I.IOA,LI! CONTROL MfA'UR"
And .nd uno.'.tlnO Ih. mlnullctu",', inllluoliona and the "IIClullon.ry lab,1 on lht product. " .. Am.,ican N.Uo".1 St....
o,rd Z.9.1. Softly 'n W.ldlno and Culling publl.h.o by lh. Am.,I •• n W.ldlng ~I.IY. R O. BOI3,1(W0. MI.ml. FL 331~ and OSHA
Publication (29CFRliIO). U.S.Govarnm.nl Pflnllng Offlc.. W.. hlnOlon, o.c.20402. I'or mo,. d.tlll on m.ny of III. following:)
:.-flllll~E~1
Ii. 10 • • •• nouOh •• nll1.tlon, local • .n.ult allh. arc. or bOlh. 10 ke.o Ih. fum.a ana g.... b.low TLV.. In Ihe worfl ....
n. Ind Ih. g.nar" ..... Tftln Ih. w.lder 10 ~.. " hi. h"d out 01 Ih. fum ...
~U" NIOSH.pprov~ or tqul •• I.nl lum. ,.. ,,11110'0' ai' a.ppll.1I "'Olrltor wh." w.!dlng In oonlln-
Wear helmet, ' ••• utt 0' •• nlililion 00.. nol k•• p •• POI.'. b.low fl.V.
filter lens.
•n
. •• r htlmel 0' ut. Ilot Ihl.ld wllh lilt., 1."1. A•• rUil of Ihumb beoln with Shad. Num~' 1•• MI." Ii
I ., .ndlOr dark., Ih.do numb.,. PIOYlCl.P,olecllVt .clHnund fI.. h Googln.lf n.c.... ry, to ahl.ICIDin''''
nI,a..,
Protect from IVI! LOTHI G W•• , h.nd:h .. d•• nd body prol'OllOll which h.lp 10,,'.Vlnt Injury flQmradlallon. '''like, a/IrI ,ltelrlo.'
I .• . . a minimum Ihlt Incluo .... ,'derl Ol"".~ anc! • protectl .. fao. Ihl-.ld. 1"0 may InClude 11m "lQlaolo,.,
radiation. .pton,. h..... houlo", orollOllon ... well '" dirk ,.btl.nllll clolhino. T'lln Ih. w.ldtt not 10 touCh lI.e ""trloll p.n, and 10
sparks. electric Inlul&l, hlmllilfrom WOlk .na ground.
. shock, hot
PROCEOURI FOA CLEANUP OF SPILLS OA LEAKS: Nol Ippllclbll
metal. sharp
WASTE IUNQunol"O.nvlronment. Dllcanl.ny orod.Of. ,.,IClu" 011,,0.. 111. oO.lIln"
edges, pinch MI comOlf.nca wit. f,d",I. Itala .nd local MOul.lio,..,
pOints, falls. ""01." b.!OWtn, PElftLV. UI.IM.",I.I hygl.ne monllollno to ....... ~.t yc!u,
Icraal'"p<~IU"" whloh He .. d PElftLV. ""... ys UII 'XhlulI.,nliiatlon. R.f" to , •• following IOIJ!!:"
.__ l.~~~~~~~~~~~to~~~.c~t~u,::.t~.:.n~d~l~o~ra~fll~O~lq~U~'I~IfI~~~':'~P':"~O~O~I";iO;n:";o';~;"n~9~c:u~:':"I~ra;.: ••:~;'ft~.;"O;~;:;'.t

, 0' Implied wI"antY .. 10 thll Iftlo,mlnon.
Protect your$elf ~
The
manufacturer
disclaims any
re'ponslbrflty.
..,..01.
FIGURE4-5 Page 2 of Material Safety Data Sheet for flux-cored electrode.
ing circuit since the generator is mechanically connected It is extremely important wben se eral welding ma-
to the le tric moto!. However, the met~l frames and chines nre workIng on the same weldnlent .tbat tbe
~ses of motor generators must be grounded to earth pbases of a three:-pbasepQwel' line be accurately ideJJti~
Stnce the high voltage from the main lines does come into fled. TllJSWtll ensute tbat the machlnes will be 'on die
the case. In transformer, l'cctifter, and iilVertcr machines, same phas and tnpbase with one another. It i.8 easy to
th p.fimary and Secon llifY transformer wi.ndings are check t] is 'by conne ting the work leads toget:h :rand
] 'CtricaUy isolated from each otb 'r by insulation.111is Ifl.- measuring the voltage between.. the eJectl'odeholders of
S\llatj n may become defc tive in time if proper m.ajnte- the different tl1ac.:hines,This voltage shollld bepraciicaUy'
natlce pr.a;cties are nQtobserved. The metal frame and zero. lfit 1s lioubletbe Ilormplc>pen·cic.otlitvoltage; it
Cases of tnmsformers, re riflers,' and inverter machines meAns that ithcrthe prbntu'y orsecondal'y;;connectlons
t1'ttiSt be grounded to eal'th. TIle work terminal of the are t'e'v:~tsed.J.fthevolmge is a,pproxima.te1yone ahd one,
Welding machin' should not be grmulded to earth. Di ". h.uf times the normal open .. ircl.Jit volt'-1.ge,it 1l1eanS that
Onn t sw1.tchcs should be employ d With all powe.i t11 mRcilin s at (11m' ted t cUffcrent pha . s of the
1jOlltce so that they can b disconnected from the main thr ·phase power lill ', ..ort' 'tionsmtlst be .madeb fore
n s Or mnintenancc. weJdii1g begins,
When large weldments, such as ships, buildings, or
structural parts, are involved, it is normal to have the work
terminal of many welding machines connected to them. It
is extremely important that the machines be connected to
the proper phase and have the same polarity. This can be
checked by measuring the voltage between the electrode
holders of the different machines previously mentioned.
The situation can also occur with respect to direct-current
power sources when they are connected to a common
weldment. If one machine is connected for straight polarity
and one for reverse polarity, the voltage between the elec-
trode holders will be double the normal open-circuit volt-
age. Precautions should be taken to see that all machines
are of the same polarity when connected to a common
weldment. Simultaneous welding with AC and DC welding
machines must not be permitted on the same weldment.
The welding electrode holders must be connected
to machines with flexible cables designed for welding ap-
plication.There must be no splices in the electrode cable
within 10ft. (3 m) of the electrode holder. Splices, if used
in work or electrode leads, must be insulated.
Finally, it is important to locate welding machines
where they have adequate ventilation, and ventilating
(a) ports must be located where they cannot be obstructed.
FIGURE4-6A Terminal protection open.
Use of Welding Machines
Electrode leads and work leads should not be coiled
around the welding machines, nor should they ever be
coiled around the welder. Electrode holders should not
be hung where they can accidentally come in contact
with the other stde of the circuit. Electrodes should be re-
moved from holders whenever they are not in use. It is ab-
solutely essential that power cables or primary power
coming to a welding machine not be intermixed or come
in contact in any way with the welding cables.The weld-
ing machine must be kept dry, and If it should become
w t, it should be dried properly by competent electrical
maintenance personnel. In addition, the work area must
be kept dry.Welders should never work in water or damp
areas since this reduces the resistance to the welder and
increases potential electrical hazard.
Welders should not make r pairs on welding ma-
chines or associated equipment. Welders should be in-
structed not to use tools to open cas s of welding
machines. They should be instructed not perform
maintenance on electrode holders, welding ables, weld-
ing guns, wire feeders, and so on. Inst ad, they should be
advised to notify their supervisors of rnatntenanc prob-
lems or potential hazards so that qualified maintenance
personnel can make needed repairs. .
Maintenance of Welding Machines

Welding machtn '8 and auxiliary qulpment must be In-
spected peri di ally and I1j lntain d by competent elec-
tricians. During maintenan e the ~quipment must' be.
disconnected from power lines so that there is no possi-
bility of anyone coming in contact with the high input
voltage. Maintenance records should be kept on welding
power supplies to comply with OSHA regulations. Super-
visors and maintenance personnel should make routine
inspections of welding cables and electrode holders,
guns, and work clamps. Welders should report defective
eqUipment or problems to their supervisors. Electrode
holders with worn or missing insulators, and worn and
frayed cables, should be repaired or replaced. Wire feed-
ing semiautomatic equipment and specialty equipment,
deSigned for gas tungsten arc welding, normally use
power contractors. This means that the electrode wire or
FIGURE4-7 Styles of welding helmets.
torch is electrically "cold" except while welding.The trig-
ger on the welding gun, foot switch, or programmer
closes the contractors that energize the welding circuit.
Arc voltage is normally nonhazardous. should be in good repair; openings or cracks can allow
arc light to get through and create discomfort.The curved
front welding helmets are preferred over straight front
because they reduce the amount of welding fumes that
4..3 ARC RADIATION HAZARD come to the welder's breathing zone. Figure 4-7 shows
The electric arc is a powerful source of light: visible, ul- welding helmets. Fiberglass is recommended for its light
traViolet, and infrared. It is necessary that welders and weight, but the newer nylon helmets are lighter. Welding
Others close to the welding arc wear Suitable protection helmets can be attached to safety hard hats for industrial
from the arc radiation. The brightness and exact spec- and construction work. Welding helmets have lens hold-
trum of a welding arc depend on the welding process, ers for inserting the cover glass and filter glass or plate.
the metals in the arc, the arc atmosphere, the length of The standard-size filter plate is 2 x 4 1/4 in. (50 x 108
the arc, and the welding current. The higher the current mm). In some helmets, the lens holders will open or flip
and arc Voltage, the more intense the light from the arc. upward. Helmets that accommodate larger-size filter
Uke all radiation, arc light radiation decreases with the lenses are also available. The larger filter glasses are 4 1/2
square of the distance. Those processes that produce x 5 1/4m.(1l5 x 133 mm) and are more expensive.The
Stnoke surrounding the arc have a less bright arc because filter glasses or plates come in various optical densities to
~he smoke acts as a filter.The spectrum. of the welding arc filter out a portion of the arc rays,
JS Similar to that of the sun. Exposure of the skin and eyes The shade of the filter glass used is based on the
to the arc is the same as exposure to the sun. If the welding current, Figure -8 show the proper· filter
Welder is using a rhoriated tungsten electrode for the gas shades. A cover plate should b placed on 'the outside of
tungsten arc welding process, radiation is minute. the filter glass to protect it from. weld splatter. Plastic or
Heat is radiated from the arc in the form of infrared glass plates are used. Some welders also use, magnifier
radiation.The infrared radiation is harmless, provided that lenses b hind the filter plate to provide clearer vtsion.The
proper eye protection and clothing at worn. To mini- filter gla s must be tempered so that it will not break if hit
l1lize light radiatton, screens should be placed around the by flying objects. Filter glasses must be marked. showing
~elding area so that people working nearby are shielded the manufacturer; the shade number, and the letter H, in-
rom tl e arc. Welders hould attempt to screen nearby dicating that it has been treat d for impact resistance,
people ftom their arc. Screens and surroundlngareas, es· Several new types .Qf filter lenses for welding·hel-
~eciaUy welding booths, should be painted-withflat fin- . mets have been introduced recently. o.llet;ype of filter
tsh paims that absorb ultraviolet radiation without glass uses a thill layer of 1j nud Crystals sandwtched b .
treating high contrast between the blight and dark areas. tween two pieces of clear glass. The liqutd crystals em-
he flat paint flnish should have a low refl ctivity tq ul- ploy d have special. propet'tie~, so thar'when an electrical
traviol t radiation. Light pastel colors of a zinc oxide or a signal is placed aero S them tl1eY change tneir ability to
titaniU.t'll dioxide paint arc recommended. Black paint or . transmit Ugh't,WHen electriddly dlanged,the liquii::l crys· ..
glQssy fjnlsh paint sheuld not be used. tats produc ..it screen with the same apPto:xilllat~ denSity
. as the weldtng filter glas$,A photosensOl" olr'the·helmet is
triggered by tbe lisht from th at' .Within. a hundredth of
Y . Prote ·tion a second,. thi sIgnal is tranSmitt d hro\lgh'me l1qui4
Wii 1'1 1'8 mUSt wear protectiv welding h Imets with sp • cryst~s, whi ~h change the: gensi.ty of tIle illt¢r: gIass.'All~
~J .. filter plate or _filter glass. s. The welding he,lOlets other type.Qf filter_ becomes daJ:ker~W'henexposeQ·tothe '
• ., . - ,- • ~ - '>; ". ~
HIGH PERFORMANCE®
M.I.G. T.I.G. on ARC/AIR Plasma

Coated on
on light all alloys M.A.G. G' Arc
Electrodes heavy ouglng Welding
alloys & metals
metals
4,5
6
1
8 8
9
8 9
10
.9 10
11
11 9
10
bright light of the arc. These filters are becoming more
popular because they eliminate the need for opening and
closing or repositioning the welding helmet. These new-
style filter lenses have not yet been included in the safety
standards; however, testing is under way. In addition to
helmets using automatic darkening welding lenses, some
helmets have mechanical motion of the filter glass. The
glass flips up and down outside the helmet and in other
cases works within the helmet. The idea is to improve the
cOmfort of the welder and still provide the necessary eye
protection. They are considerably more expensive than
the standard helmet.
Safety glasses should be worn underneath the weld-
ing helmet.These are required since the helmet is usually
lifted when slag is chipped or welds are ground. Tinted
Safety glasses with side shields are recommended. People
Working around welders should also wear tinted safety
glasses with side shields. Safety glasses should meet all the
requirements of the eye and face protection standard.'!"
Contact Lenses FIGURE 4-9 Welding station using transparent

The wearing of contact lenses by welders is the subject welding curtains. Courtesy of Welding Inspection
of erroneous and recurring rumors. Various authorities, Technology, American Welding Society.
including the National Society to Prevent Blindness and
the Contact Lens Association of Ophthalmologists, state receives an arc flash may not be aware of it at the time.
r that the normal eye protection required by OSHA for The first indication of an arc burn may occur 6 to 12
welding, brazing, and soldering is the same with or with- hours later. Temporary relief can be obtained by using
~. ~,out COntacts. The American Optometric Association eye drops and eyewashes. If the painful sensation lasts be-
aqopted a policy statement that contact lenses may be yond one day, a doctor should be consulted for treatment.
w6fn in hazardous environments with appropriate nor-
nlaI s fety eye wear. Contact lenses themselves do not
prOvid~eye protection ill the industrial sense. As a gen- Transparent Welding Curtains
eral rule, if an employee habitually wears contact lenses, Transparent welding curtains made of polyvinyl chloride
the Welder should be allowed to wear them in addition to plastic film are sometimes used for screening welding op-
normal safety equipment. erations (Figure 4-9).The material Is about 0.012111. thi k
According to these authorities, the heat from the (0.3 mm), relatively tough, and available in large sheets. It
welding arc or flash Is not intense enough to affect the comes in blue, green, gray, and yellow. Tests performed by
dUrable plastic from which contact lenses are made. the National Institute of Occupational Safety' and
Welders or anyone who may be xposed to a welding Health(3) concluded that these curtains provide prot c-
flash or MC Should weal' appropriate safety goggles over non in the ultraviolet range, The gl'ay color provides the.
~heir contact lenses. Eye experts unanimously agree it is most protection, with yellow providing the least. These
Ullp<)ssible for an electrt arc to weld c ntact lenses to curtains meet SHA requirements. TIle age of curtains
,theye, The Amert an Optometric Association s~ys that may have an effect. The material is flame resistant. In no
repOrts of this hazard are based 011rumor and have been case can this curtain material be substituted fot·ffit r glass
thoroughly discredited. Both OSHA and the U.S. Food in helmets. It is intend d to prote t nearby workers from
and DnlgAdrniflist1"iltioll .oncur that the reports of this arc flash ~~U1dimprove communication with weld 1'5. This
type of accld 11t nrc false and ther .is 110 su h dang 1', appllcati n is an improvement over opaque curtains or
On occasion, welders and others-have their eye ex- shields. These curtainsare also available as .strlps .for ac ..
rOSCd to the arc for a: hort peri"od,Tl'l!s will result in Wb~t ce sibi1ity and-can be placed OllrollefS',
8
t t kt'l~wnas arc burn, tl1'Cjlash, or wotdi'ngftash and ts
eChnlCHUY alled pl:JOtokeratitis. It is very similar to a
Stlnburn of the eye. For aPl't'oXitnately 2 , hours, the Other Factors
Welder WiLlhave the painful s nsati n of sand in the Welding operations Isolated froru me tal- .
shoul 1 'b
Y S, The iondlnon is normally of temporary duration de greasing or solvent-cl aning op l'atiol'lS,· th, lnic61·
~ltldsh'" Id not 13:$,t
. ,
vll more th;m il8hours. The welder who degt'easillg t4nks may use trichloloett1xlen(} or
~< _', • -;:' ~
chlorinated hydrocarbons, which will decompose to
phosgene gas when exposed to arc (ultraviolet) radiation.
Particulate Matter
Phosgene can build up to harmful concentrations. Fortu- Particulate matter is extremely small solids suspended in
nately, the odor of phosgene gas is quickly recognized (it the air. Smoke is an example of particulate matter. Partie-
smells like new-mown hay), and if it is detected, the area ulate matter includes common house dust, powders,
should be evacuated and ventilated. Degreasing opera- pollen, smog, fly ash, and grinding dust.These range is size
tions should be at least 200 ft. away from welding opera- from less than 0.1 micron (mm) to more than 100 rom.
tions. If this is not possible, adequate ventilation is The smaller-diameter particulates can only be seen with
required. Care should be taken when welding parts that a microscope, while the larger ones can be seen with the
have been cleaned with these solvents. The surface must human eye. In welding the type of particulate matter re-
be thoroughly dry before welding. lates to the welding process, the type of electrode or filler
Warning signs should be posted in welding depart- metal, the welding current employed, and the welding lo-
ments advising visitors not to look at the arc, since arc cation, atmospheric conditions, wind, and so on. It also
flash will injure eyes. depends on the composition of the base metal being
welded and on any coating on the base metal near the
arc. All welding smoke is not the same, and the concen-
tration can vary over a wide range.
4-4 AIR CONTAMINATION Many investigations and tests have been made to de-
termine the composition of fumes generated. This is pre-
HAZARD sented in theAWS publication "The Welding Environment"
Arc welding and flame cutting produce air contamina- mentioned prevtously'"? and was based on using differ-
tion. This is identified as smoke rising above the welding ent welding and allied processes. Many data are presented ,
or flame-cutting operation. The smoke or plume appears in the document "Fumes and Gases in the Welding Envi-
similar to smoke rising from a wood fire. Normal ventila- ronment.P" Research to determine fumes generated by
tion practice reduces the hazards of smoke from either arc welding is given in the document "Characterization of
welding or an open fire. The welding fumes contain two Arc Welding Fumes.',(l6)In general, welding with mild steel
types of air contamination: particulate matter and gases. electrodes on clean steel produces fumes containing a
The welding industry sponsored research to investi- high proportion of iron oxide and small. amounts of cal-
gate the welding atmosphere and to recommend precau- cium oxide, titanium oxide, and amorphous silica. The
tions to avoid potential hazards.This includes a series of fumes produced when welding with low-hydrogen-type
reports entitled "Effects ofWelcHng on Health;' mentioned electrodes contain the same oxides and fluorides, When
previously, (3) starting in 1979. The American Welding Soci- welding with stainless steel electrodes, the iron Oxide is
ety's study entitled "The Welding Bnvironmenr'S''" and lower but there are now oxides of chromium and nickel
s vera! foreign studies indicate that there is no significant as well. as fluorides. Electrode manufacturers supply Ma-
health difference between welders and non-welders terial Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) in each container of filler
when the welding process is carried out with adequate metals, which show the composition of the coating 011
venulation. electrodes, fluxes, or flux cores. Data sheets may also in-
A warning label introduced in 1967 statesr'Cautton: clude the composition of particulate matter produced as
Welding tTh1-Y produce fumes and gases hazardous to these electrodes are consumed in the arc. Due to the high
health. Avo,..ld breathing thes fumes and ga es. Use ade- temperature of the arc, the composition of the particulate
quate ventilation. See.American National Standard Z49.1 matter is differel1t from that of the coating,
'Safety in Welding and Cutttng' published by theAmertcan The flux-cored arc welding. process seems to pro-
WI ding Society:'This label has been revised to be more duce the most particulate matter, or smoke. However,
t!Q,40111pa sing and is hown in Figure 4-.,.2.A stmllar warn- compared to the amount of weld metal deposited, the par~
~inglabelfol' oxyfuelgas processes is shown inFlgure 4- 3. uculate matter of SMAWand F AW. is similar. The gas
1~h.epurpose of these labels ts to remind weld 1'8 and metal arc welding proces produces less particulate mat-
ornpar tes emlloying weld rs of th po ntial hazard.so ter, and the submerg d arc process produc s a very small
. tha,t ad q lac, step at' taken to protect personn J from am unt of particulate matter, as do th gas tungsten and
c')n~ .ntr:ations that might ,be harmful.Thepotentlal harm plasma arc we14ing pro ess s. Recent .research on the
.,,:(fom tQmes ana g~\$esdepeud 011! . MAWpulsed-spray transfer. Qlode of op~ratioll indicates
that careful control of the metal ttan fer may reduce the
. ->.,'
• cthe ~h¢mica.l compo 'ition ofthe particulate matter fume emlsston.Thls is based on using' a power source that
•. 111e CO,tlcCtlttatio.n at the weld '1"S br athing zone doe no 0 eth at the III tal droplets and redtlCes vapor-
Tll l~ugtl f time. of exposure to th se fcunes and ization during transfer. TIlts mode reduce' the fum pro-
du din tlle ar and h lp In et lower ,tllJssion s andards.
The base material is another source of particulate must be provided. A serious problem can be encountered
matter. When melted by an arc, the base metal may volatilize when old steel work is flame cut or welded. Often, older
and produce airborne contaminants. Chromium and nickel structural steel may be covered with many coats of Iead-
Compounds are found in the fume when stainless steels are bearing paint. The heat of the arc or flame will cause the
arc welded. The American Welding Society has developed a coating to volatilize and produce smoke containing lead.
standardized method for measuring and determining the New pipe is often coated with a protective material. This
Particulate matter produced by different welding must be removed from the arc area. In any case, adequate
processes. This method is outlined by the AWS document ventilation or protection for the welder must be employed.
"Method for Sampling Airborne Particulates Generated by
Welding and Allied Processes.v!" By using this technique,
measurements can be made to determine contamination.
Gases
Certain metals should not be welded without the Gases are produced or may be involved in many of the weld-
Use of mechanical exhaust systems because the vapor- ing processes in oxygen flame cutting and allied processes.
ized metals are potentially hazardous.The metals that cre- Gases are produced as products of combustion with the
ate hazardous airborne contaminations are beryllium, fuel gas. Gas is produced when steel is melted in the arc. Gas
brass, bronze, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, lead, is produced by some of the constituents of the coating on
manganese, nickel, vanadium, and zinc. Arc welding the shielded metal arc welding electrode or the material
shoUld not be done on any of these metals unless me- contained in the core of a flux-cored electrode wire. These
chanical ventilation is employed or unless the welder is coating and contained materials are designed as a part of
protected in some manner. the consumable filler metal to produce gases to help shield
Certain of the metals mentioned previously may be the arc area from the atmosphere. Packages of filler metals
Used as a coating on steel. The common steel coatings are carry a warning label, which is the same as Figure 4-2.
cadmium, zinc, and lead as well as chromium, nickel, and Fluxes used for gas welding and brazing, and for sub-
copper. Mechanical ventilation must be employed when merged arc welding and electroslag welding, will also pro-
welding on these coating materials. In addition, some braz- duce gases when they are heated. Brazing and gas welding
ing filler metals may contain cadmium, and protection fluxes sometimes contain fluoride, and heating or melting
should be provided. See the warning label in Figure 4-10. produces small amounts of fluorine in the atmosphere.
Airborne contaminants are produced when welding Packages containing these types of fluxes are labeled as
or flame cutting on coated materials. Base metal coated shown in Figure 4-11.These products produce potentially
With any of the metals listed previously must be treated harmful gases, and adequate ventilation should be em-
With caution, and mechanical ventilation must be pro- ployed. Carbon dioxide is the most common gas pro-
Vided.Other coatings, such as paint, varnish, plastic, and oil, duced by the disintegration of electrode coatings or
an also generate contamination. The coatings must be re- materials in flux-cored electrode wires. The CO2 i used to
mOved from the welding area or mechanical ventilation help protect the arc area from the atmosphere.There is a
FIGURE 4-10 Warning label for brazing material containing cadmium. Courtesy of Welding Inspection Technology,
Am~rican Welding Society.
DANGER: CONTAINS CADMIUM. Protect yourself and others. Read and understand this label.
FUMES ARE POISONOUS AND CAN KILL.
.>
• Before use, read. understand and follow the manufacturer's instructions, Material Safety Data Sheets
(MSOSs), .and your employer's safety practices.
• 00 not breathe fumes. Even brief exposure to high concentrations should be avoided.
• Use only enough ventilation. exhaust at the work. or both, to keep fumes from your breathing zone and the
general area. If this cannot be done. use air supplied respirators.
• Keep children away when using,
• See American NatioMl Standard 2:49. I. Sajezy in Welding and CUIt/llg, publilihed by the Ameri<:an Welding
Society. S.sO N. W. ~Jeutle Rd.~ P.O.llo)( 351040. Miami, FlQrida 33135; OSHA Safety and Reahh Stllndards.
19 CFR 1910, available from U.S. Govern1l1entPrinting Office, Washington. DC 204()2, .
If chest pain. shortness of breath, cough. or fever develop after use, obtain medical help .immedialely.
DO NOT RHMOV THIS LAPEL.
\
WARNING: CONTAINS FLUORIDES. Protect yourself and others. Read and understand this label.
FUMES AND GASES CAN BE DANGEROUS TO YOUR HEALTH. BURNS EYES AND SKIN ON CON-
TACT. CAN BE FATAL IF SWALLOWED.
• Before use, read, understand and follow the manufacturer's instructions, Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs),
and your employer's safety practices.
• Keep your head out of the fume.
• Use enough ventilation, exhaust at the work, or both, to keep fumes and gases from your breathing zone and the
general area.
• Avoid contact of flux with eyes and skin.
• Do not take internally.
• Keep out of reach of children.
• See American National Standard Z49.1, Safety in Weldillg and Cutting, published by the American Welding
Society, 550 N.W. Lejeune Rd., P.O. Box 351040, Miami, Florida 33135; OSHA Safety and Health Standards,
29 CFR 1910, available from U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402.
First Aid: If contact in eyes, flush immediately with clean water for at least 15 minutes. If swallowed, induce vomiting.
Never give anything by mouth to an unconscious person. Call a physician.
DO NOT REMOVE THIS LABEL
FIGURE 4-11 Warning label for fluxes that contain fluorides. Courtesy of Welding Inspection Technology, American
Welding Society.
possibility of carbon monoxide gas being produced in the have poor ventilation. Entry into these areas requires a per-
arc. Carbon monoxide, however, readily recombines with mit called a "Confined Spaces Entry Permit." Enclosed ar-
available oxygen in the heated atmosphere to produce eas, which also include tunnels, pose problems not only for
CO2 gas. Carbon monoxide is rarely found beyond a short welders but for anyone working inside them.The potential
distance away from the arc. hazards include deficiency of oxygen, too much oxygen,
Ultraviolet rays from the arc, particularly the high- poisonous gases, flammable or explosive gases, and accu-
intensity gas tungsten arc, react with the oxygen in the mulation of dense smoke or particulate matter. Welding,
atmosphere to produce ozone, Ozone is an active form of flame cutting, or allied processes sl ould never be started
oxygen which has a sweet smell. It is sometimes evident without taking special precautions, Welding or cutting ap-
after a lightning strike or In the generating room of a pow- paratus should never be taken into the enclosed area.
rhouse. It i relattvely unstable and quickly recombines Everyone knows the risk of remaining in a closed
to oxygen. Exposure to ozone win cause a burning sen, garage with an automobile engin running. This can also
sation In the throat, coughing or chest pains, or wheezing be a potential problem with an engine-driven welding
in the chest during breathing. Ventilation should be used machln .The exhaust gas given off by the engine should
so that ozone concentration will be below the threshold always be channeled to the outside. In enclosed areas,
1{mitvalues. even large rooms, an engine-drtv n welding machine, if
The gas-sht elded welding proces es employ various not exhausted to the outside, can produce a buildup of
gas s to shield or protect th arc ar a from the atmo- carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide gas hazardous for
sph reo In rt gases ~re used for gas tung ten arc welding people working within the room.
and. for plasma arc w Idlng, but active gases OJ' mixtures The same problem can. occur when preheating
of-active and inert gases are u ed for gas met J arc and weldrnenrs using the combustion of fuel gases, coal or
fll:ric~cor"'dar ..welding . Adequate vennlanor is required charcoal for heat. The burning of thes fuels will produce
to r mov these gases from th weld 1"S breathing zone, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, which must he ex-
ha rsted to the outside. Workers in n enclosed area can
b seriously harmed.
Confined or Enclosed Areas A lookout, or watcher 01' attendant, must be as-
AJl welding, flame C\ltting, aad associated operations car- signed to watch, Ute welders and otncr workers condnu-
,rteet out.inconfined or r stricted paces must be ade- allyand to have occastonal voice contactwitb those in
quat Iy v 'otllat· 1to prevent the accumulan n of toxic the en losed ar a. 011 Iookour hould be assigned to a
m. t 'ria~sl ()mbll~tibl) gas ~S,orbxrgen deficJ .ncy. team of weld 1'8 working In a sp ifi nelos 'd area. In
A:nen.d scd < r a or 'ollfined spa e is Ilrclatlvely hazard us cases. BieHn S With harn s s should b em·
slti.nlJor l' '$ttict d SP;lC slit as a t~l.nl, vaq r sur ~V ssel, ployed. Li/! line Sh01.lld be attached so that workers an
·~,b611erjc()ml}art<ment,
~ ~,. . ,
.....
small fOOl"_-. 01'any cnc10sur that may
.
be rem,ovedthrough lUanh le~ Witll ease.
Prior to entering enclosed areas, special precautions centrations of airborne contaminants are below rhe al-
should be taken to determine the atmosphere within the lowable levels specified by OStIA or the American Con-
enclosed area. Explosive concentrations of gases some- ference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH).
times build up in an enclosed area. Ibis can occur if an Adequate ventilation depends on the following:
acetylene torch is left inside a compartment, if products of
1. Volume and configuration of space where welding
decomposition are enclosed, or if a fuel gas leak occurs in
occurs
the compartment. The atmosphere within the enclosed
area must be tested prior to entering the area. Portable ex- 2. Number and type of operations generating contam-
plosimeters are available for sampling the atmosphere to inants
determine if any explosive mixture is present. 3. Allowable levels of specific toxic or flammable con-
Another problem relating to confined or enclosed ar- taminants being generated
eas involves oxygen-enriched atmospheres. Such atmo- 4. Natural airflow and general atmospheric conditions
spheres can result from the oxy flame cutting torch being where work is being done
left in the compartment and a leak of the oxygen line. Nor- 5. Location of welders and other persons' breathing
mally, the atmosphere contains approximately 21% oxy- zones in relation to the contamination, COntami-
gen. If the oxygen were to increase by 5% or more, the nants, or sources
enriched atmosphere would support rapid combustion or
even an explosive mixture. Striking an arc or lighting a Adequate ventilation for welding can be obtained in
flame could be extremely hazardous. Clothes, oily cloth, three different ways:
and other combustible items would burn rapidly and cre- 1. Natural ventilation
ate a hazardous condition. Oxygen from a compressed gas
2. General mechanical ventilation
cYlinder should never be used to help ventilate an enclosed
compartment. It should never be used in place of com-
3. Local exhaust ventilation
pressed air. Portable instruments indicating oxygen con- Natural ventilation occurs when the welding is
centration are available and should be used to sample the done out of doors. Natural ventilation occurs indoors if
atmosphere before entering an enclosed compartment. the welding shop is sufficiently large, with a space of
Oxygen deficiency can be another hazard for work- 10,000 ft.3 (284m3) per welder; if there is a ceiling height
ers in an enclosed area.When using the gas-shielded metal of more than 16 ft. (501) and the welding space does not
arc process, the two most popular shielding gases are both contain partitions, balconies, or other structural barriers
heavier than air. Both argon and carbon dioxide weigh ap- that obstruct ventilati.on; and finally, if the welding is
~roXimately 1 1/2 times the weight of air and will displace not done in a confined area. Natural ventilation must be
It. The used shielding gas will in time displace the air so supplemented when welding 011 hazardous materials.
that the atmosphere at the welder's breathing zone will General mechanical ventilation using roor ex-
b come rich in the shielding gas atmosphere and low in haust fans, wall exhaust fans, or similar large-area air
oxygen. If the oxygen content in the breathing zone is re- movers must be used if the space per welder is less rhan
~uced by 5% or more, the worker could be at risk of phys- 10,000 ft. 3 (284 m3),or if the ceiling height is less than 16
tcal harm. The atmosphere in an enclosed area must be ft. (5 m) 01' the shop includes partitions, balconies, or
monitored with a portable oxygen indicator. other structural barriers that obstruct cross ventilation.
Mechanical ventilation must be used for ventilating General mechanical ventilation is recommended to-main-
nclos d areas. Both air exhaust systems and fresh-air sup- tain a low level of airborne contaminants and to prevent
ply systems should be employed. When welding. cutting, the accumulation of explosive gas mixtures, General me-
Or allied processes are ised in any area that cannot be ad- chanical v ntilation is used for individual welding booths.
equately mechanically ventilated, postti e-pressure, self- If general. mechanical ventilation i. not suffi ient to main-
contained breatlung apparatus or air-line respirators must tain the general background level of alrborne-contaml-
b e used,
nants blow th· ll.iruts re ommended, ·loca! exhaust
If you have questions concerning monitoring at- ventilation or local for ed ventilation is required.'.
mospheres or monitoring instruments, or special breath- There are basically two types of local haust
i.n,gapparatus, c ntact your company's safety department ventilation systems; a low-velum ) lngh- "locJty fum
Or YOurlocal fire department or state industrial commis- exhaust system and ahigh-volume, Iow-velqctty fume ex·
sion representative, haust system.T.hey both usea fiX"ed0f-tUOva.blesuctioll .
pickup device to capture ccntamtnanrs to keep the level,
Ventilation of pollutants below th . legal req lit merits. 111 high-.
olume, low-v 10 iry yst m moves rnu h rnoreatrarrd
A.d qUate ventilation luust be provJd d fol' all welding, \, es a relatively low vacuum, Qf 10 to 15' n, fI~O.flus sy .
t' tUng, bra,zJng, and f lated operati ns.Adequate 'ventila~ tem extracts fum s from neat th at' t .'up to );'ft. Ir 1ll
1<)1,1 mans· suffi ient ventilation so· that hazardous con- .the arc.Tbe tllllOtlllt fair to-oe.Uloved is rela.ted to the'" ..
- ~~
shop. It is important to keep the low volume-high veloc-
ity and high volume-low velocity central collection sys-
tems separated. They are designed for different air volume,
velocity, and pressure ratings.The collection system can be
a central shop-wide system using 6- to 8-in.-diameter ducts
and a single high-volume fan.A central system can be ex-
tended up to 1,000 ft. and can accommodate up to 25
welding stations.The other type of collection system uses
individual collectors for each station. These can be self-
contained portable or wall or ceiling units mounted with
built-in filters.These units can be noisy.
In all cases the fumes collected must be filtered to
remove the particulate matter. Filters, which are de-
signed for individual systems or central systems, will not
separate gaseous matter. There are three types of filters:
(1) fabric collectors, known as barrier filters; (2) electronic
air cleaners or electrostatic precipitators; and (3) cartridge
collectors. Particulate collection depends on the filter ef-
ficiency ratio and the Source capture efficiency, which
must be studied and selected with care.
Compact gas measuring and warning instruments
are sometimes needed.These are used to warn people of
the presence of hazardous gases in dangerous concentra-
tions. Many of these instruments provide visual and audi-
FIGURE4-12 Local exhaust ventilation using movable ble alarms. Instruments are available for measuring CO,
hood. Courtesy of Welding Inspection Technology, American H2S, and oxygen, and other potentially hazardous gases.
Welding Society.
Consult with a safety expert regarding the need for such
devices.
Local forced ventilation is a local air-moving system
such as a fan placed so that it moves the air at right angles
to the welder across the welder's face. It should produce
a velocity of approximately 100 ft/mtn (30 m/rntn) and be
maintained for a distance of approxitnately 2 ft. (0.6 m)
directly across the work area.Air vel city i relatively easy
to measure using a velometer or airflow meter; thu .u is
easy to check the efficiency of local forced v ntilation,
For serious vennlation situations, welders should
us faceplat .~ sptrators. There ar different kinds. Some
include flltercarteidges, others use air ftlters or air supply
.filters, and others u, e ext mal air supply.This is a complex
subject.nnd de Isions should only be made by on-site
safety spe tallsts or industrial hygienists, Furthermore,
faceplat respirators hould not leu eel ill special atmo-
sph . res, nor sl uld they b u ed in atmosplu res of Ies
than 19.5% oxygen. Faceplate respirators can b com.
bin d with weld r ' h inlets for practicability. All units
hould be approved by NR SH.
Ther is on foolpr of method to determine If
prop r v ntilarion is being provid d. This is done by 1~
lectlng sampl ~S<ofthe atrnosph re at. the w lder' breath-
ing zone under the helrilet. A sp dnJ pi Imp device
mounted inside the helmet is usually us d.The armos-
ph e samp!.·s are coli ct d by sp ~ ialized Instruments
Ii t .sp cifi pert d.The sampl s are-then <.llemicaUy an.
alyz d in alibra ed Instrum nts tbQt d t "rOll e th value
of all 1 ments.fcund in the weld r' br athing ZOlle,
FIGURE4-13 Loca! exhaust ventilation with and without exhaust.
TheAWS has anew standard F3.2-2000, called "Ven- heat is from the torch flame, the are, or hot metal.The fuel
tiIation Guide for Weld Fume," This is also an American is from the fuel gas employed or from combustibles in the
Natio.nal Standards Institute standard. This guide outlines welding area. The oxygen is present in the air but may be
recommended principles of ventilation systems for facili- enriched by oxygen used with the fuel gas, Many indus-
ties with welding andallied processes. It is intended to trial fires have been call ed by sparks, which are globules
belp select and design proper ventilation systems. The of Oxidized molten metal that can. travel up to 40 ft. 03
prif]:ary objective is to enhance the health and safety of m). Sparks may also fall through cracks, pipe holes.ior
the industrial environment. Another objective is to con- other small openings in floors and partitions and start
s rve energy. It does not provide information on respira- flees in other areas, which may temporarily go unnoticed.
tory protection devices or specific pr cautions for Hot pie es of metal.may come in contact 'With com-
COllfin.edspaces. It does, however, include references to bustible materials and start a fire. Pires and explosions
au t11 major documents involved. It is highly ream- hay also be n cau ed when this heat is transmitt d
mended that thts document he referred to with respect through walls of container to .flammable atmospheres or .
to any welding shop ventilation situation. to combustibl within contatners.Anyehmg that is com-
bustfble or flammable is susceptible to ignition by cut-
ting and welding. WI. Idjllg or uuing on rn tal that is it
conta t with urethan foam it ulatlon is prohibited. All
4..5 FIREAND EXPLOSION· insulating organic foanlS wheth r or not.tndtcated to be
l
HAZARD fire retardant, should be consider(:dco1l1bu~tible and han-

cUed accot'dingly. . . .' .... '. '.',
A Ji\fge number f the fir s it! industrial plants are caused utting and weldjng tlr s can be Pfi vented byell'tn-
by uttlng and welding with portable equiprn nt in areas Inaring ~11combusrfbtesfrorn the welding a:t;ia. Welding
not '1 . 'it) aUy designa ed or approved for su h work. ar ' or 0 fuel gfls flames rar ly- ause £it s When used ill
The thr lements of the fi.. tl'jupgl -fuel, heat. and th workshop d: 1l d '{guedfOf welting and cutting. Fit.
fJ)..l'g a-are Pl' s at in ~Q t w ldmg operation . Th. and etC.plQsfon hnzards "Sn011k1· be CQtlsid 1:. d ft;crm .twP
-t _ ' , J_ '" __,' _, " ~.. : - " ;,._ • _~_""', "t-- .' -. ~ __ .' .~. "
points of view: welding in designated workshop areas
all other acetylene cylinders in the area cool.Attempt to
and welding with portable equipment iq all other areas.
remove the burning cylinder from close proximity to
other acetylene cylinders, from flammable or hazardous
Work Area materials, or from combustible buildings. It is best to al-
A safe workplace must be provided for welding and cutting low the gas to burn rather than to allow acetylene to es-
operations. Floors, walls, ceilings, and work spaces must be cape, mix with air, and possibly explode.
constructed of noncombustible materials. The work area If the fire on a cylinder is a small flame around the
must be kept cl an and free of combustible and flammable hose connection, the valve stem, or the fuse plug, try to put
materials. All fuel gas lines, manifolds, and branches must it out as quickly as possible.A wet glove, wet heavy cloth,
be installed in accordance with specifications and codes. or mud slapped on the flame will frequently extinguish it.
Thoroughly wetting the gloves and clothing will help pro-
tect the person approaching the cylinder. Avoid getting in
Fire and Extinguishers line with the fuse plug, which might melt at any time.
In every situation where welding is done, in the welding
shop and with portable equipment in all other areas, fire
extinguishers should be available.The classic fire triangle Apparatus
is complete in a welding situation; hence the potential is Gas welding and cutting apparatus must show the ap-
great and precautions should be provided. Figure 4-14 proval of an independent testing laboratory. When order-
shows the recommended fire extinguishers for class A, ing gas welding or cutting apparatus, specify that it must
class E, class C, and class D fires. Depending on the work carry the Underwriters' Laboratories CUL) or Factory
area, the appropriate extinguiShers should be available at Mutual Engineering Corporation (FM) seal of approval.
the work site. Gas apparatus must be properly maintained and
repaired by qualified people. All too often apparatus is
Fuel Gases allowed to deteriorate before maintenance is performed.
Pressure gauges, welding regulators, welding torches, and
Many dlfferent fuel gases are used for welding and flame
welding tips should all be carefully inspected periodically
cutting.The tnostf~mi1iar is acetylene, but propane, natu-
and maintained. OU or grease should never be used on
ral gas, met11Ylacetylene-propadiene stabilized, and oth- any gas welding or cutting apparatus.
ers are also used (see Chapter 14 for details).
Only approved gas hoses should be used with oxy-
A etylene is Sometimes produ ed on the premlses fuel gas equipment. Single lines, double vulcanized, or
by an acetylene generator. Portable acetylene generators
double or multiple stranded lines are available.The double
ate sometimes used in the field. An acetylene generator vulcanized or twin hose is l)referred. The size of hose
uses ca.rbide and wat r to produce acetylene, which is should be matched to the connectors, the regulators, and
t11 n piped through the plant to the welding and cutting
tor: hes. In th United States the color green is used for
d epartm nts.A tylene genrators must be properly in- oxygen, red for the acetylene or fuel gas, and black for inert
stalled and tWlintained.They should be operated only by
gas and compressed air.The lnternatfonat tandard calls for
train d all l quallft ed personnel. bserve the standards blue for oxygen and orange for the fuel gas. The connec-
:for SiU1 ty for acetylene 9 aerators issued by Underwrit-
tions on hoses are right-handed for inert ga es and oxygen,
ers' Laboratory (UL297). M .(8) (UL409). (8) arbide
and 1 It-handed for fuel gases.The nuts on fuel gas hoses are
must b stO:Jjd away from the ~tietylene generator and in
identified by a groove machined in the center of th nuts .
. a dry plac not expos d to melsrure or water.
Hos s should be inspected pedodicaUy fO.r burns, worn
Acetylene cylinders,apdothet· fuel gas cylinders places, or leaks at the connections. TIley must b kept in
81ould b . stor din a.sp cifle J well-ven llat d area or out- good repair and should be no long r thann ssary;
,. door. ~way'f!61l1 o;yg n and in th Vertical posiuon.All
·qUo.ders ill. tOfa$ .5110uklhave thett"aps 01 , and both
;,.tIlled an 1 inpty cylmders shotlld bay their valv ss Hot Work Permits
do d, In ( fir' it!.'U\tions ~'ialp~ 'at1tion sh uld b Welding ,p ermits, or as they ar som tim.es alJ d,lJot wor'k
.ak nfQr (l.C tylen cy1inders/19) AU a >tyl(me yHnders
J}ermits. al" ft n r· qUirea..The permit nlll t b lIsed
~. Cftlil)P d witb ai1 ty l'el fevi e f ned with a low-
. wh n w ldlng or flame cuning is done n items that'in-
." llf Itl.ag..PQ1ntmetfl.LJbL~fuSible rotat meltS at.about the
olYi ha-zards. Sp cial pr~cautiol1s,such as makIng outtbe
C; .. t
S·,vrtn 9fwat. r 2·1ZQ;Fort()OflF). If ~e OCcnts btl
we1ding·pemlit, stationIng a fir w{ttCher or lOOKout with
, , . c'()jt~led"1ft1:~' tyl noyltnd-·r>tth n.lS· pItts willm It.The
.proper tire 'ontrol equipment, anGISigning on ~ndQff the
, .• : ~ ~C( l?infl r
;yf' h ttl b' fsntt'd ~'Uldwill. burn With a weWing op ration, ~lre Pfi~scrfbed. Otllcrtyp S 0 opem"
Q rt:n s lb~,Ey~t'nine aU,) 6pl;>from th. atca imm eli.
t ons ~ quit' hot w rk.p tmits.Th. at O\ltlin d in the in"
I't JY.1t iF! d 1ft ;111 to put OUt If\! laIr .TIt:; b", t action is structions stv n by the National Sati tY' ouncil for "Hot
to POUfW '.r. nth·
<
ylmd.
tt }f:e p itcQohnd t keep
~. • Wo:tiI~P mlt.s:'(;!() 'Illetr sampJ p rmjt form is shown in
KNOW YOUR FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
fOAM
CtASS A
FIRES
WooD,PAPER, TRASH YES YES YES YES YES YES
HAVING GLOWING EMBERS
CtASS 8
FIRES
FLAMMABI.E LIQUIDS,
OASOLIN~, Oil, PAINTS,
NO NO NO NO YES YES YES YES YES YES
GREASE, ETC.
CLASS C
fiRES
NO NO NO NO NO YES YES YES YES YES
ELECTRICAl.
SPECIAL EXTINGUISHING AGENTS APPROVED BY RECOGNIZED TES'r'~G LABORATORIES

COMBUSTIBLE METALS
P\.lll PIN· TURN UPSIDE PULL PIN- RUPTURE PULLPtN· PUll PIN-
T\JAN UPSIDE l'VANUPSlpe SOU UE
METHOD OF OPERA liON SOVEEZE tlQWN I'UMPHANOI.E SQUEEZE CARTIIIDGe· SO\JEEl!E
AND BUMP
f)(JWIII DOWN leVER SOUEe1;E LIN Il HANDLE HANOI-I!
HAN!)L!;
RANGE 30'· 40' 30'. 40f 30'· 40' 30'· 40' 30'· 40' 3f• 81 5'·,.2Q' SI. to; Sf. 20'
W IGl1qM WIHGHGAS
CIiECIt AIR CARTRI!)GE PISCtlARoe CA:RTAIPQ~'
.0I$CH4I1G" Ol$(;HARGJ WEIGHSliloll· ··CtU,.eK
PRESSUIlE APO ~Nf) FILL ANNUALLY
MAINTENANCE QAUGE ANNUALLY CONQIT10N Of!
WATlilllF WITH WATER "NNUAI.LY
·lIliCHAlIGE ·lIfCHI\ftGE 1)11" eH MiCA"
MoNTHLY REOl,llR I) ANNUALLY
ANNUALLY ANNUALLY
FIGURE4-14 Fire extinguisher data.

PERMIT NO. INSTRUCTIONS TO OPERATORS
This permit is good only for the location and time shown ..
Return the permit when work is completed.
For electric and acetylene burning and welding with portable
equipment in all locations outside of shop. PRECAUTIONS AGAINST FIRE
1. Permits should be signed by the foreman of the welder or

Date _
cutter and by the safety supervisor or plant superintendent.
Time Started _ 2. Obtain a written permit before using portable cutting or
Finished
welding equipment anywhere in the plant except in
Building
permanent safe·guarded locations.
DePt. _ Floor _ 3. Make sure sprinkler system is in service.
Location on Floor _ 4. Before starting, sweep floor clean, wet down wooden floors,
or cover them with sheet metal or equivalent. In outside
Nature of Job _
work, don't let sparks enter doors or windows.
5. Move combustible material 25 feet away. Cover what can't

Operator _ be moved with asbestos curtain or sheet metal, carefully
and completely.
Clock No. _
6. Obtain standby fire extinguishers and locate at work site.
Instruct helper or fire watcher to extinguish small fires.
All precautions have been taken to al/oid any possible fire 7. After completion, watch scene of work a half hour for
hazard. and permission is given for this work. smoldering fires, and inspect adjoining rooms and floors
above and below.
Signed , _ 8. Don't use the equipment near flemmable liquids, or on
Foreman closed tanks which haye hald flemmable liquids or other
coml)ustibles. Remove inside depOsits before working on
Signed _
ducts.
Safely supervisor or
9. Keep cutting and welding equipment in good condition.
plant superintendent
Carefully follow manufacturer's instructions for its use and
maintenance.
PERMIT NO. 10534
Date _
SldO ------------- Floor_

Nelure 01 Job . ~
OPerator _
. FIGURE4-15 Hot work permit.
even though it may contain onJ,y air. must b given special .

a tendon before w lding.The heat fr rn welding wID raise
th t mperatur . of the enck» ed air or g.asto a posstbl . dan-
g rou ly high pressure ,0 that th ' part or ontainer may ex-
plode.Alway vent confined air b for weldtng or tItting
" on, a bollowarea, Hollowar ,s may .ontain oxyg n-
enrtched air Qrru 1 g~8, Ith r of which is extremely dalF
g fO\.1 when h nted or' expos d to an are r flam. '
J!xplosiotlS and fit s may r esult if w lding or cut-
ting is ton on empty contalne s rha arc not entirely
fr ~ of ombustibl solids, liqutd~,vapors, dust, n 1
gas S. ontatn rs can b mad sfc for w ldlng or cut-
ting b}1funQw:tngp~ s ~~ib d 6te:ps.~ £ to the welding,.
~Spcj "tfs "Rc..commend d SaIe Pl'l ti eesfo the Prepara-
tion for Wi 'lding and utti oJ; f antHul rs nd Piping
'fhat HtlVC H Id H~lZ rdo'lls St1bstan ;$.!lC;!2) NO'comaiJ r
" boulcl b' consin red clean 01', safe-unelt PrDV d So by
tests. Cleaning the container, which is normally made of
metal, is necessary in all cases before welding or cutting.
Cleaning should be done outdoors; if this is impractical,
the inSide work area should be well ventilated so that
flammable vapors will be quickly carried away. Drain all
material from the container and remove sludge, sedi-
ment, and the like. Dispose of residue before starting to
weld or cut. Identify the material that was in the con-
tainer and match the cleaning method to the material it
contained. If the material is water soluble, the container
can be cleaned With water. If the material is not readily
solubl .
I e in water, the container should be cleaned by a
lot chemical solution or by steam. Mix the chemicals for
FIGURE4-16 Safe way to weld on containers that
cleaning in hot water and pour into the container fill the
hold combustibles.
comainer completely with water, introduce live s~eam to
h eat and .
, agItate the solution. If hot water and steam are
lltaail .
v able, the cold water method can be used; how-
eve' .
b r, It IS less effective, and agitation should be handled bustible liquid or gas, then cutting a hole in the pipe af·
y means of compressed air.Another way of cleaning the tel' the fitting has been welded to it. This must be done
COnt· .
ainer 1 to fill the container 25% full with cleaning by experienced people using special equlpment with
solution and clean thoroughly. Following this, introduce proper precautions. Before attempting such work, refer
l=.prCSSUre steam into the tank, allowing it to vent to the American Petroleum Institute (APD publication
tough Openings. Continue to flow steam through the "Welding or Hot Tapping on Equipment Containing
tank {! . .
. or several hours. None of these cleaning methods Flammables.,,(23)
1S perfect ' d .. .
. ,an after cleaning, the tank should be in-
spect d to determine that it is thoroughly clean. If it is
not Com'
• ltlue the cleaning operation.
a d After the container is cleaned, close all openings
4-6 COMPRESSED GASES
Il .. ~er 15 minut s test a sample of the gas inside the HAZARD
t~nt~tner. Use a combustible gas indicator instrument. If
All compressed gas cylinders are potential hazards. The
concentration of flammable vapors in the sample is
major hazard is the possibility of sudden release of the gas
not b ~ow th limit of flammability, repeat the cleaning
by removing or breaking off the valve. Escaping gas that
~eratlon.When i is determined that the gas or air inside
is under high pressure will cause the cylinder to act as a
. e Container is safe, tile container should b so marked,
rocket, smashing into people and property. Escaping fuel
19ned, and dar d. Even after tanks have b en made safe,
gas can also be a fire or explosion hazard. See Chapter 14
~hey should be filled with wat r; as an added precaution
for 11,10reinformation about gas apparatus.
fore ~el(]ing or 'utting, Place the container so that it
can be k pt filled With water to within a [J w inches of the
P~illt wher welding and utnng ar t be done. Make Treatment of Gas Cylinders
:~re t~at tIle,space ab e the-water level is vented so that fuel gases, Qxyg 1l, or shielding· "
Gases used for welding ......
he.ltedalf can es ap (Figure 4-16). gases-ate normally delivered in cylinders manufactured .
As an alternative 0 the water-filling method, fiIl the ani maintained by the ga $UPPU r in accordr nee with the
':'Iltaifl With an inert gas. Flammable ga e and vapors regulations of the U.S. 0 partment of 'lransportanon
11b rendered 110nfJammable and nonexplost if mixed (D01) In Canada the Board ofTrnnsport Ccmmisstoners .
~itha Sufficient am tint of inert gas. Nitrogen Of carbon for-Canada hastbis responsibiJity;Most cotwVIes hayelaws
~Jde is normally U <i.The concentration of flammable and ~gulatioJ).s _ otlcert1inff lllarJ.tUa .t'lll;ng,iltlalrit.autiQ.gl
gases and. apOf roUSt b checked by testing as mentioned and periodictlly inspecting portable cylinders Iutthe,.stor-
pr {ouslY.The:in rt gas Con cmmtion must be maitltain d age and shipment of conlpressed gases.All om pressed gas
Q~lt'i:ng the entir·· W >kUng an f 'uttjng operation. Hot work cylinders mu t be.J gtbly ;!)lArked to identify the gas scoli.
t \\II ldJng pertllits should bUd for aU we ding t' cut- ('.un d hy either the chemical. or the trnq' nan: e of ttl ga,.
ng op ra ion~ Qn contain 1'8 that h Vi h Id ombustibleS. Th re is noio.ternatiolltd unlfQtmcOJo.r~odJ.ng fur id Ali·
tiaatlon pu.rpose~;bowev i\. tnet1>\)~trieS!laves~lda~·
iZed olor m.ar.1dngs~tems. The unif()fm st.allchftdfor
conn tion 'thr "aus··in North An ri • 18 ttl a\cord~n
wltb til Am l'i .n- anadian Stnndatllt'C()n11'te~sed (ms
GyHnderValve uti [and 111.1t CQnne tiQns;' 21~ . :.,' - ~'
In North America the authorities require that a flashbacks. A backfire is an explosion in the torch head,
cylinder be condemned when it leaks or when internal or usually accompanied by a loud popping sound associated
external corrosion, denting, bulging, or evidence of rough with a momentary extinguishment and reignition of the
usage exists to the extent that the cylinder is likely to be flame at the torch tip. It is caused by obstructing the gas
appreciabJy weakened. Always inspect cylinders for sus- flow, which may occur from having the torch positioned
picious areas and report this or any damage done to a too close to the work, by an overheated or damaged tip,
cylinder to your gas supplier.
by loose connections, or by incorrect gas pressure. If it
occurs, the equipment should immediately be shut down
Cylinder Storage Oxygen cylinders should be stored and corrective action taken.
separately from fuel gas cylinders and separate from Aflashback is the burning of the flame in the tip or
combustible materials. Store cylinders in cool, well- torch, or even in the hose, when an explosive mixture is
ventilated areas. The temperature of the cylinder should present. It is usually accompanied by a hissing or squeal-
never be allowed to exceed 130 OF (54 °C). Cylinders ing sound and has the characteristic smoky or sharp-
should be stored vertically and secured to prevent falling. pointed flame. It can be caused by improper pressure,
The valve protection caps must be in place. When damaged or loose tips, damaged seats, kinked hose, and so
cylinders are empty, they should be marked empty and on. Both backfires and flashbacks are dangerous and
the valves must be closed to prohibit contamination from should be avoided by the use of flashback arresters.Torch
entering. When the gas cylinders are in use, a regulator is flashback arresters consist of a check valve. Regulator
attached and the cylinder should be secured by means of flashback arresters include a check valve plus a sintered
hains or clamps. -ylinders for portable apparatus should metal filter that allows the passage of gas but not of the
be s curely mounted in specially designed cylinder flame. Both torch and regulator-mounted flashback ar-
trucks. Cylinders should be handled with respect. They resters should be used, and they should be used on the
should not be dropped or struck. They should never be oxygen line as well as on the fuel gas line. Flashback ar-
used as rollers. Hammers or wrenches should not be used resters are discussed in Section 7-1.
to open cylinder valves that are fitted with hand wheels.
They should never be moved by electromagnetic cranes. Shielding Gases Shielding gases are either inert or
They should never be in an electric circuit so that the active. True inert gases are argon and helium and are
welding urrenr could pass through them.An arc strike stored in high-pressure cylinders. Nitrogen, onsidered
on a cylinder will damage the cylinder, causing possible Inert at low temperatures, is also stored in high-
fra ture and requiring the cylinder to be condemned and pressure cylinders. These cylinders mu t be treated
removed from S rvtce. with the same precautions as those used with oxygen
cylind rs. The active gas normally used for weld
shi Iding i carbon dioxide (C02), It is stored as a liquid
but gasifies upon release. More information is given in
Chapter 14.
Gas Cylinder Adapters Adapters are conne .tors that

convert on typ of valve outlet to an ther to allow
connecttons to b made to devices such a r gulators with
differe.nt connection threads, TIliS is done to allow . a
regulator or oth r ornponent originally de lgned for a
partt ular as to b used with aneth 't gas. Gas fueling
opt ran ns oft n us adapt rs to allow onnections to b
made t£ a manifold that handles a numb t of different
gas .TIl s are for mtxtng ga es Ii r sp cia! appli ations.
When USC{t judiCiously.by weU..trained personnel who
UnderstatId' he potential hazards of bringing incompatibl
gases togeth t~ adapters can serv. a us fill purpo, .
How Vi r, t11 iudl riminate us of adapt rs an lead to
d1"'.l ti on equ 11C"S. A.d~lpters must no b us d to
conn t a lllgh-pres urc S l tal -press 11' Wilt or
cy1ind r, It is wt t r view any adapter rnpl 'Y d, and
'c:ontt l r litui:t them and probtbit the nlalililg of spe fal
~ l~pt r.s W: th )\1t thorol.lgh ittVi~. tigati . n of tb~ir ns and
1 Ot . ntia1haza-rd, .
and in some plants. Other hazards, such as falling from
4-7 WELD CLEANING AND high places, working with heavy objects, and working
OTHER HAZARDS . arOlmd heated metals, are similar to the hazards encoun-
tered by all employees in steel plants, forging shops, struc-
The slag that often covers the deposited weld metal must
tural shops, and so on.Welding electrode stubs, the unused
be removed. Welds are often chipped and ground. Hand
ends gripped in the holder, are usually short and round and
and power tools are employed, and the materials re-
act as a roller when stepped on at the wrong angle. Elec-
moved are propelled through the air to become potential
trode stubs should be placed in containers and not thrown
hazards. Safety glasses with side shields should be worn
or allowed to remain on the floor or working surface.
under the welding helmet.
Radioactive Hot Areas

Welders may be required to work in radioactive "hot" ar-
4-8 SAFETY FOR SPECIFIC
eas.This is due to repair and maintenance operations nec- WELDING PROCESSES
essary in nuclear power plants. In such cases,
extra-special care and precautions must be observed to
AND OCCUPATIONS
det tmine the radiation levels, time of exposure, radiation The previous sections dealt with arc welding and o~lel
protection, and all other factors involved. The exposure gas welding, cutting, and torch brazing.The other :velding
time may be extremely short, and welders may set up au- and allied processes can also be hazardous if safe~ pre-
tomated welding equipment and then leave the hot area cautions are ignored. The potential hazards mentioned
to operate the devices remotely. Only qualified personnel previously apply to most welding and allied processes
With knowledge of working in and around radioactive ar- since electricity, compressed gases, flames, heated metals,
eas should be permitted to make judgments of this type. or fumes are usually involved. Specific process applica-
tions or welding occupations involve other particular
Noise hazards. Each section that relates to a particular process
w; .ld ChiPPing and weld peening produce excessive Includes spe 'ifie safety information. The following is an
not e and should be controlled. Excessive noise can dam-
overview of these safety situations.
age haring and cause other injury. Noise exposure can Welders may be required to work inside heated
cau 'e either temporary or permanent hearing loss.The re- tanks or containers.They should be supplied with cool air,
qUirements of OSHA regulation prescribe allowable noise preferably from a portable air conditioner, while they, .a.re
exPOSure lev Is. Carbon 3.l'C air gouging at high currents inside a heated chamber. To avoid heat stress.th y should
prodUces larg amounts of noise, and plasma arc cutting use a body ooler or body core COOlingsystem.The welder
With high current also creates excessive noise. Ear pro- wears a specially designed vest that helps reduce the body
tection is r. qulred for both. temperature while in the preheated weldment.Thls ve, tis
Nois measur ment instruments are available and made of thin, nontoxic, n nftamrnabl mat rial that con-
hou] I be U~ed to check J10i5e in the work area so that tains pouches. The numerous pouche are d Signed to
pre autiol;lary m asur s can be taken. Normal arc welding hold special potymer gel thermal strips.'Ihis ~a.{e~ is '
operations do n t exceed nolse-le el requirem nts sped- cooled prior to inserttng in the pouches and WlJI provide
t1~ by OSHA. In combman n with other not e-producing th welder IIp to four hours of comfort.The vests. are light:.
indu. trialnlt\chine.ry, noise levels may be excessive. Noise weight, fit comfortably no matter what PQ~ition the
levels can be mea ured and monitor d by means of spe- welder is iii" and can be taken off and put on em,UY;
iallzed in trumenrs. Th AWS"Metho I of Sound L vel nderwater welding is a dang l'O\1S welding 0 .cu-
M. !'COl nt of Malll.l01 At Wi Iding and "utting pati n. nd rwater work of any type i, d}mg f< \1. < tallYj
"Proc s ."(;)5) should be conSUlted., }tis necessary that working depth. "W; lding in th dry,1Iunderwater) is weld-
train d personnel b used to measure noise. You can re~ ing in an • tmosphere llnder pressul' . that j~ ~eater than
(Iuest helpfrol'l1 your otnpany'S safety department, or . sea·level atmosphere pressul'c . .Higher. Qpe.r,-tt~:og pres..
('rOO) ttl ,tate industrial conl1nlssion represemativcs. sures Ct'eate spe iaillazards. TIt h{tzards of utl1lerw:-uer
N'OI I clsarcr du'edfairlyrapidlya th worker moves ·w Iding in the w tt in conta t With th ""water or in'\
fllttb '1' away from tl1 sour' of th nois . Sound atteJ1l1'•. habitat, ar very complex and are m rtti n d o.nly bd £1
l ()n e lllipm nl C. n be inSL'UJ1 :d TO redu e (!}(:cssive noi . her . More omplete fnfot'lUati n ,oQ'crningall usp et,
of underwat r welding i•prO' id d·~.,. ect!Q~ 2.~5, "
Other Hazards. . . . R boticand automlttdwe1¢lJrlgJt~·b~'on~ng t11O);',
pOl;lllar. ROb'ot w ~ding combitj s ttl 'p )t~'qti{\l ~'_zafodsqf
Frtltlng items Create hazll1·da.1 arc! hat should be worn in we1dihg wlth th har.Mds of moving n'ltchiri 'r.n, 1> t.
'(1)11 • 'Uon With w"ldlqg 'hebnets Of) con, tnt tion sites opef'Ute Otlt id tn it' mahtt l'H~e ~1" a·;.Th .Y Jtl'V.ol,C
unanticipated motion, start unexpectedly, and operate at
Electron beam welding is an automated process,
relatively high rates of speed. Robots are normally safe since
but the motion is normally enclosed. In most cases a vac-
operators work outside the operating envelope of the ro-
uum is involved with the welding chamber and normal
bot. However, when programming robots or maintaining
precautions are required. In high-voltage electron beam
equipment, or troubleshooting welding problems, people
systems, x-rays are generated as the electron beam strikes
work in close proximity to the robot's welding torch and
the workpiece. Adequate shielding must be provided to
are thus exposed to potential hazards. More information on protect the operator from x-rays.
robotic arc welding is presented in Section 12-7.
Thermal spraying involves potential hazards in addi-
Automated brazing and soldering involves motion tion to those involved with arc welding and oxyfuel gas
equipment and the associated hazards. However, fluxes welding.These involve the use of powders or wires that are
and filler metals employed may give off noxious fumes
atomized and sprayed on the workpiece. Large amounts of
when heated. Adequate mechanical ventilation should be particulate matter are produced, which can create prob-
provided for all automated brazing and soldering opera- lems.Adclitional information is provided in Section 9-3.
tions to remove toxic gases. In addition, large quantities Laser welding is usually an automated operation.
of liquid-heated flux or filler material metal create haz- Lasers are used not only for welding but also for cutting
ards. Guards on motion devices must be properly de- and surface metal treatment. The equipment must defi-
Signed and always in place.
nitely be installed in accordance with the manufacturer's
Resistance welding operations involve some poten- recommendations. Certain classes of lasers generate radi-
tial hazards.These are largely involved with motion, since ation, which can produce eye damage.This also relates to
it is present with resistance welding equipment. Dual reflected la er light. Safety precautions require the use of
palm buttons are normally used to provide operator special glasses and other protective materials.
safety. Operators should wear face shields, spectacles, or Continued attention to safe practice is required for
goggles to protect the face and eyes from flying sparks all welding, cutting, and allied processes. Common sense
that may be ejected from the weld area. and the adoption of practices recommended in this book
Air arc cutting and gouging and plasma arc cutting will help provide a safe workplace.
at high urrents reate noise of a level that may be harm-
ful. Ear protection should be worn.
QVESTIONS
4-1. Why wear safery glasses? 4-11. Give two reasons for checking an en Iosed area be-
4~~t What is the advantage of a urved-trom helmet? fore welding in it.
4·3. ShOUld oxygen' or fuel gas be turned on first when 4-12. What is the purpose of a hot work permit?
ligbtin~ 41 flame cutting torch? 4-13. What should you do if an acetylene yUnder catches
4--;4. 1$ weldi{Jgmoredangerous or Jess dangerous than on fue?
other metalworking lob!!? 4.14_ Why is maintem nee weldlng more dangerous than
4,.. Why shouldn't a weld r op n up the cas of an arc produ ti n Welding?
welding U1l.chJne? 4--15. How do you make a tank that has held a combu ttble
saf for welding!
4·16. Why she uld on and Sf as b kept away fr In pure
oxygen?
4:~17. Wbat i the purp se cf'warntng labels?
4.18~ Whyshould welders k ep out of t.h_fl plume?
4 19. _What causes roost iires d\:lt1t1g Quit nan 'e otk?
A
4-20. Whnt is dangerous about w ldlng in a wet sftuation?

w Id on a dosed tan or an?
REFERENCES
1. (OCcupational Safety and Health Standards," Code of 13. D. H. Sliney, C. E. Moss, C. G. Miller, and J. B. Stephens,
Federal Regulations Title 29, Labor, Part 1910, Subpart Q, "Transparent Welding Curtains," Welding fournal (May
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.; 1982).
Federal Register, April 1990. 14. "The Welding Environment," American Welding Society,
2. "Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes." Miami, Fla.
ANSI/ASCZ49.1, American Welding Society, Miami, Fla.; 15. "Fumes and Gases in the Welding Environment," Ameri-
and "Code for Safety in Welding and Cutting," CSA Stan- can Welding Society, Miami, Fla.
dard WI17.2, Canadian Standards Association, Rexdale,
16. "Characterization of Arc Welding Fumes," American Weld-
Ontario, Canada.
ing Society, Miami, Fla.
3. "Effects of Welding on Health," Part I, 1979; Part II, 1981;
17. "Method for Sampling Airborne Particulates Generated
Part III, 1983; Part IV; 1985; Part V; 1987; American Welding by Welding and Allied Processes," AWS Fl.I, American
SOCiety,Miami, Fla.
WeldJng SOCiety,Miami, Fla.
4. "Specifications for Accident Prevention Signs," ANSI
18. Standards for Safety: UL297, "Acetylene Generators
Z535,American National Standards Institute, New York.
Portable, Medium Pressure"; UL408, "Standard for Acety-
S. "Inspection Procedures for the Hazard Communication lene Generators Stationary. Medium Pressure; UL409,
Standard," 29 CFR 1910, 1200 2nd revision, U.S. Depart- "Standard for Acetylene Generators Stationary, Low Pres-
ment of Labor, Washington, D.C., May 16,1986. sure"; Underwrirers' Laboratories, Chicago.
6. "Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices 19. "Handling Acetylene Cylinders in Fire Situations," Safety
for 1986-1987,"American Conference of Governmental Bulletin SB-4, Compressed Gas Association, New York.
Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, Ohio.
20. "Hot Work Permits (Flame or Sparks)," Data Sheet 522,
7, "Electric Arc Welding Apparatus," EW.l, ANSI C87. 1, Na- Revision A, National Safety Council. Chicago.
tional Electrica.l Manufacturers Associarion, Washington,
D.C. 21. "Cutting and Welding Practices," No. 51B, National Fire
Protection Association, Boston.
8. "Constnlction and Test of Arc·Welding Equipment, Trans-
22. "Recommended Safe Practices far the Preparation for
former Type." CSA C22.2, No.60, Canadian Standards
Welding and Cutting of Containers and Plptng That Have
ASSOCiation,Rexdale, Ontario, Canada.
Held Hazardous Substances," AWS F4.1, American Weld·
9. ' Safety Standards' forTransformerType Welding Machines," Ing Society, Miami, Fla.
ANSI C33.2, Underwriters' Laboratories, Chicago.
23. "Welding or Hot Tapping on Bqulpm nt, ontainlng
I, "Arc Weldjng Equipment, Part 1: Welding Power Flammables," Petroleum Safety Data Sheet 2201, Ameri-
SOttrces,"IEC 974-1. International Electrotechnlcal Com- can Petroleum Institute, New York,
mjssion; Geneva, SWitzerland.
24. "Compressed Gas Cylinder Valve Outlet and Inl t Con-
11. "National EJectrical Code," No. 70, ANSI Cll-1971, Na- nections," American Standard B57.1 and.Canadian Stan-
tioflal FireProtectianAssocintion. Boston. dard eSA B96.
12.
Pra ttce for Occupational and Educational Eye and 25. "Method of Sound Level Measurement of Manual Arc
Face P.rotection,"ANSl Z87.1, American National Stan- Welding and Cutting Processes," AWS F6.L America.1
d rds Institur , New York.
Welding SOciety, Miami, Fla.
OUTLINE
spread out toward the workpiece. The length of the arc
gap is proportional to the voltage across the arc, if other
conditions remain the same. If the arc length is increased
beyond a certain point, the arc will go out. The arc length
for welding is the dimension equal to the electrode core
wire diameter, up to about four times the electrode core
wire diamerer.A certain current is necessary to sustain an
arc of different lengths. If a higher current is used, a
longer arc can be maintained. The arc column is normally
round in cross section and is made of two concentrl
5..1 THE NONCONSUMABLE zones: an inner core or plasma and an out r flame. Th
plasma. carries most of the urrent and has the highest
WELDING ARC temperature. The outer flame of the arc is much cooler
and tends to keep the plasma in the center. The tempera ..
ture and the diameter of the central plasma depend on
til amount 0 urrent p sslng through the arc, the shield-
F1GURE5-1 Nonconsumable electrode arc.

SMALL LARGE
30 TUNGSTEN TUNGSTEN
ELECTRODE ELECTRODE
WELDING WEl.DING
HELIUM POWER POWER
--- SOURCE SOURCE
LU ~2.mmGAP
(!) 20
s
-J ~~.5
+
0
>
u
a: ARGON
« __ 3·mm GAP ELECTRONS IONS EI.ECTRONS IONS
u 10 ~ H FLOW (+) Fl.OW (-) FLOW (+) FLOW
0
~ ;~ 0.5
-
CUARENTFI.OW 1.-._--.....
+
o 50 100 150
(CONVENTIONAL)
DeEP PENIiTAATION SHALI.OW PENETRATION
DC AMPERES NMIROW Mtil. TED AREA WIOE MELnD AREA
(MAXIMUM HEAT IN BASE METALI (BASE METAl. Cl.EANING)
FIGURE 5-2 Volt amp curve for nonconsumable (.1 DeeN (STRAIGHT (b) DeEP (AEVERS~
POLARITY) POLMlllV)
electrOde arc.
FIGURE 5-3 Arc heat distribution changes with
polarity change.
ing atmosphere, electrode size, and type.The relationship
between current and arc voltage is not a straight line. The
~l1rve of a nonconsumable arc (Figure 5-2) takes a non-
linear form.(2) In general, the arc voltage increases slightly
a the current increases.
The voltage is higher for longer arcs and for arcs in
a helium atmosphere. The conductivity of the arc in-
rases faster than simply proportionally to current.
The arc occurs when electrons are emitted from
the SUrface of the negative pole (cathode) and flow
~cr~.s a region of bot electrically charged plasma to the
1- OSltivepole (anode), where they are absorbed.
n ' Arc heat can best be explain d by considering the
ttlngsten electrode arc in the inert-gas atmosphere
ig~re 5-3 .In Figure 5-3a the tungsten arc is onnected
r <1lt ct-currcnt electrode negative (DCEN). When the
at'r is tarted, th elecrrod becomes hot and' emits. etc .
t' n '1'
, ' he emitted el trons ar attracted to the positive
.~Ql • t-ra~el through th are gap, and raise the temperature
/ :he ShlClding gas atoms by colliding with ell m.Th 01,
~ 1 IlS of eJ ctrons with atoms and molecul , prodi ce
1erll1a{ iOlllzation of s me of the a om. of tho 811i fding
&h The'p? itively charged gaseous atoms ar. attracted to
e .n gatlv electrode.wl cr, their ktnett (mot jon) en-
.tgy .Is co.nverted to heat. n1is heat keeps the tungsten
~ectrOtie hot er ..ilJ8h :for ej' 'tron emission. Emission f .
It trons li'om tb surface of he tung ten athod is
lluo:vn as Ih rmiontcemtsston. Poslt:iY' ions also ross
t1~ ar '. They tta et from the po ttiv J)I , tl WOt'k, to
h I) SaUve pole, th elc: tr d . P siJivc ions are much
nO,;)"i ~r than th~ (21ectron. but heJp cr.u;.r the OU1'1'llt
11 : Of the relatively If1w..voltag weI Lng ::t.: 11 lallA st
):~n
'J
1on
of the urrt\t flo , nppl' Xitna ly 99() , is via
Oh: l1o~ l·~thcr tbal} the fl W 0: p sitive Ions. 'I'll :
'. ~luo~s fc ding fel tt 118 into the 'WeJdln~ druit
TUNGSTEN
ELECTRODE
CATHODE
DROP
/
I I
I /
I ~
I I
{
I
/"
_/
" jJ
I 1
ARC I~"T--\-~"-=.._ TUNGSlCN MELTING
\ I COLUMN '\ 62OO"F (34O(fC)
" ' ......I \
I I
I 1\ \ CENTRALPLASMA
I I J TEMPeRATURE
\ I I,...-:I.--~\---r'- ABOUT 1',OOO'F (8100'CI
\ I \7"'- .......
,', 'ANODE SPOT
BASEMETAL
VOLTS
FIGURE5-5 Arc heat distribution changes with
FIGURE5-4 Arc region versus voltage and heat. polarity change.
through a small hole in a water-cooled copper nozzle. It

is a characteristic of the arc that the more it is cooled, the
hotter it gets; however, it requires a higher voltage. By
flowing additional gas through the small hole, the arc is
further constricted and a high-velocity, high-temperature
gas jet or plasma emerges. This plasma is used fot weld-
ing, cutting, and metal spraying, Its temperature is higher
than that of the unrestricted arc.
The thermal energy generated in the arc is the prod-
uct of we lding current and arc voltage.The heat raises the
temperature of the base metal, causing melting and re-
sulting in a molten pool.The h at of the arc is distributed
through radiation, convection, and conduction to the
base metal.
Penetration of the arc depends on several factors,
including the polarity of the arc and the composition of
the shielding gas. In addition, penetration depends on
the mass of the base metal and its composition. The pre-
heat temperature also affects penetranon. The composi-
tion determines base metal thermal conductivity and
melting temperature. As the welding current inc-reases,
th depth of penetration increases. Thecurrent-carrying
capacity of the eI ctrode d termtnes the heat In the arc
ar a, which d pends on the typ of el ct'f de, pure or al-
loyed, and the tip o~guration. As travel s1' ed in~
crease, the depth.of pen tration decJ;cases.All of these
factors interrelate. ,
The SUCCeSs of the opemtidn .depends on the con-
trot of the molten w rld metal. This d p nds greatly on
th ,W Jd1n:gpo itiOfi. ontr 1depends on th kill of the
welder for manua! appltcatton'and th compl ty of the
con rol . yst m for roach in . w Idl08. 'The gas <i:ompo i~
lion of the area surrotlndltl8 the arc jnf1u¢mc tbe char-
acteristiCS ofdl . arc. FigtUtc5...6 con1pare8 u'ttlng t nate
'in at%'!n and in b Ilnm: Tn. Vi lw.g ()f, a h Utlm~shi.ela d
, r 1 hIgher than t'l.lat of an argon-, hielded arc for th
~ame lengt:il c~nrrtnsthe al}1e iltrem,thts is due to the
DIRECTION OF WELDING
SHIELDING GAS IN
-..
~
..J
-
~
o 20
a
..J
'<
j::
~ FIGURE5-7 Process diagram for GTAW. Courtesy of

0
0..
o Welding Inspection Technology, American Welding Society.
~ 10
cation of pressure. Filler metal mayor may not be used.

ARGON TWs process was developed in the late 19308 as heliarc
orTIG welding, and was used to weld nonferrous metals,
particularly magnesium and aluminum and to join hard-
to-weld metals. TIG stands for tungsten inert gas weld-
o ing, and in Europe it is called WIG welding, using
1/16 1/8 3/16 1/4 3/8 (FRACTION WOlfram, the German word for tungsten.
OF INCH)
ARC LENGTH
FIGURE5-6 Arc voltage Versus arc length: shielding

Principles of Operation
gas. The gas tungsten arc welding process uses the heat of an
arc between a nonconsumable rung ten electrode and the
base metal. The welder's view of the gas tungsten arc is
shown in Figure 5-8. The arc
develops intense heat, ap-
higher iomzarton potential for helium, which is 24.5 v: proximately 1l,000oP (6,lOO°C);whlch melts the surface
The i.onization potential for argon is 15.7 V. The Ioniza- of the base metal to form a molten pool. Filler metal is not
tiQnpotential is th voltage necessary to remove an elec- added when thinner materials, edge joints, and flange
troQ. from a gas atom, making it an ion or charged atom. joints are welded. This is known as autogenous welding.
TIle arcs shown are a 300-A arc (DCEN) In argon For thick r materials an externally fed or coJd ,fijI r rod is
and helium. The helium arc column is Iarg r and has generally used .The flller metalts not transferred across me
deeper penetration.nus is why the arc shielded wtrhhe- arc but melted by it-The arc area is protected from the at-
lium has mor power (heat) and can do more work. The mosphere by th inert shielding gas, which flows from the
heUum.sW ·Ided 3.tC column is larger, produces more nozzle of the ton h. The shielding' gas displaces meai.rt so
P netratlol1, can use a higher travel speed, ~d an weld that the mzygel1 and the nitrogen of the ail' dQ not come
neavier base merals.Thl brief explanation of th nori- In contact with the molten rn tal or the ba,t tungsten elec-
consumable ele trode arc touches on more common trod . As th molt n metal cools, c aJ scene OCClltS and
know} dge. Th tungsten arc has been investigated by the parts ar jotn d. Thet' is little or :00 spatter and little
many scientists, y t marty mysteries r main unanswered, or no smoke. The ~ ~ting weld is stilooth and unifurm
~bi .11indicates why the w . ldlngarc is such. a ompli~ and req~lits nliniJllumftttil'rurig.(,. "
ca~~ industrial tool., . .
5,,2 GAS TUNGSTEN

ARC WELDING
tions depends on the base metal, the welding current, and
the skill of the welder. This process was originally devel-
oped for the hard-to-weld metals. It can be used to weld
more different kinds of metals than any other arc welding
process.
This process can weld extremely thin metals nor-
mally by the automatic method and without the addition
of filler metal.Above 0.125 in. (3.2 mrn), a joint prepara-
tion is usually required; however, this depends on the
base metal type and welding posttion. Also, above this
thickness, multi-pass technique is usuaUy required.
Joint Design
The joint designs used for gas tungsten arc welding are es-
sentially the same as those used for shielded metal arc
and gas welding. Some changes are made, but these are
usually involved with different metals or for welding pipe
in the fixed position. Joint detail variations for different
metals are covered in Chapter 15, and special joints for
pipe welding are covered in Chapter 25.
Welding Circuit and Current

Welding circuit for gas tungsten arc welding is shown in
Figure 5-9. This circuit diagram shows several optional
items. One is the "cold" filler rod, the second is the foot
pedal that can be used to regulate the current while weld-
ing, and the third is cooling water used for the welding
torch, recommended when welding at high current. Con-
stant current (CC) is used, and it may be alternating or di-
FIGUR.E5-8 Welder's view of gas tungsten arc, rect current. Dir ct current can be used with either
polarity, depending on the job requirements.
When superimposed high frequency is used with
AC gas tungsten arc welding, certain precautions are re-
. 41 No fIller rnetat is carried a 'fOSS th arc, so there L quired. 'Ih se are necessary since welding power
UttJe or no spatter. sources quipped with high-frequency spark gap oscula-
,. kl;n:gCtlll 1 e performed-in all p stnons.
W'; tors inherently radiate power at frequen ie s that may in-
6~The e is no 6iag prod .ed that might be trapp d in terfere with radio communications and tel vision
~cwt~· . transmission. In vi w of thts, their operarlon in the
nlted States I subject to control by the Federal Com-
munication Commission (FC ). Most ountrt s ha e stm-
ilar regulations.
FIGURE s...S Welding circuit for GTAW.

Welding machines containing high-frequency stabi- ing gas to the arc area. Plastic insulating material surrounds
lizers or separate high-frequency stabilizers must be in- the metal parts to provide electrical insulation and for the
stalled with special attention to provide earth grounding safety of the welder. Tough heat-resistant plastic materials
and special shielding. Manufacturers provide special in- must be used. At least three different plastic materials are
stallation instructions that limit high-frequency radiation. in use. Some types have better high-frequency insulating
These instructions require that all metal conductors in values and others are less likely to chip.The outside surface
the area of the machine must be earth grounded. If these of the plastic handles and other parts should be comfort-
instmctions are followed, the user can post a certificate able and provide textured surfaces for ease of handling.
stating that the high-frequency stabilizer may reasonably There are no national standards for torches; however, there
be expected to meet FCC regulations. is agreement among manufacturers to provide collets with
specific inside diameters to accommodate the standard
sizes of tungsten electrodes.
Equipment Required The electrical conductor and the hoses that provide
The main component of the GTAWsystem is the welding shielding gas and water must be securely attached to the
Power source.The constant-current (CC) power source is metal head of the torch. Electrical conductors are usually
Used for gas tungsten arc welding. Conventional welding silver brazed and the hoses are attached with small
machines used for shielded metal arc welding can be em- clamps. In the case of water-cooled torches, the electrical
Ployed for GTAW. Conventional AC welding machines conductors are usually inside the hose carrying the cool-
must be derated 25% due to rectification in the arc when ing water to and from the torch. This allows the use of
welding aluminum. It is recommended that machines de- more flexible cable with smaller conductors and lighter
Signed for GTAW be used since they include special fea- weight. The manual torch shown in cross-sectional view
tures such as high-frequency stabilization and gas and in Figure 5-10 has a plastic back cap surrounding the
Water valves. Some include remote control and program- tungsten electrode. Back caps come in different lengths.
mers.A typical GTAW welding machine operates with a This type of torch allows the use of longer tungsten elec-
range of 3 to 200 A or 5 to 300 A, with a range of 10 to 35 trodes and provides gas tightness and electrical insula-
V at a 60% duty cycle. The newer inverter type of power tion. Torches without the back cap must be loaded from
sources offer additional features, such as complex pro- the front and use shorter lengths of tungsten electrode.
grammers, pulsing, and variable polarity This is covered The head angle can be varied 011 some types of man-
mor completely in Chapter 10. ual torches.This angle is measured by the anglebetween
The torches used for gas tungsten arc welding are the centerline. of the handle and the centerline of the
designed and used only for GTAW.There are four basic tungsten electrode from the arcing end.The head angle Is
type: (1) torches for automatic welding, (2) torches for a matter of welder preference. Some torches have a flex-
manual welding, (3) air-cool d torches for low r current, ible neck that allows the torch to be adjusted to different
and (4) water-cooled torches for high-current welding.
The cables attached to gas tungsten ar welding torches
C nneet to the power sourc to provide th power, FIGURE 5-10 Gas tungsten arc welding torch.
&hiel.ding gas, and watercooling when used. The cables
ar 12H or 45 ft. long and may be of one- or three-piec
onStnlCtion. They normally contain a cable block
adapter to attach to the power sour e.The internal design
and onstru tlon of automatic and manual tor h , are
·jnlilar. The main diff renee is addition of a handle for
Ql nual torches. Automatic torches, sometimes called ~
strai
, glJt·line or penci; torches. usually Includ a rack.
khey are mounted in a bracketthat tnclud s an adju~ting
nob an<:tpinion that engages the rack for adjtlstmellt.
. 'Differen.t torch sjze~ allow the weIder to select the
8,12 to rnat .h t11 job. All torche .wh ther air- or water.
tunooled, are f rugg . d con trucuon. des ion

l4'
d to hold the
w gst n ,leetr de fltmJy.TbJs is ne essary to transmit th
tl)cIding =
u rent to th . el CtfOC. le
~l .t 1'1
to tmn. nut heat from
) Q .•. C l'o';!c to tll torch f.o,r cOolt11g.The Jll tal torch PN.ts
1 'lIld 1}(i hatd alloys of coppet or bOO;sst, con,duct both
tt ~ tl,'l<;:k and heat. It is in:lport~~ntto (0 'at th Ie trod:>
~'CU 1 '
cl . ntt:e yin th ~;ntttr( f fhctor.ch. PortS SlltfOundlng the
, tr ..d ar de.~\gned to provide aun.ifo1'fIlflow. of sbi~ld.
positions with respect to the handle.A rigid neck torch is spools. AWS specifications cover filler metals for most
more durable, however.
weldable metals, For more information, see the chapter
Torches are generally rated according to their cur- for the metal to be welded.
rent carrying capacity using direct current with the elec- The electrode material for GTAW is tungsten or
trode negative (DCEN) at normally 100% duty cycle based tungsten alloys, since tungsten has the highest melting
on. a. 10-minute period. When used on DCEP they must be point of any metal, at 6,170°F (3,410°C). Eight classes of
derated and can be slightly uprated when USingAC cur- tungsten electrodes have been standardized by AWS in
rent. Air-cooled torches are designed for light-duty weld. their specification for tungsten and tungsten alloy elec-
ing and are rated up to 200 A.Torches designed for heavy- trodes. These electrodes are listed in Figure 5-11, which
duty, high-current welding are water-cooled and are rated shows the AWS classification, the approximate composi-
up to 600 A. Water-cooled torches are more complex in tion, and the color code for the tip end.Tungsten elec-
construction, due to smaIl internal water-cooling passages. trodes are available as either clean finish or ground finish.
The various types and sizes of torches use a variety Clean finish has been chemically cleaned after drawing
of nozzles, or cup sizes, depending on the size of the arc or swedging. Ground finish means that the electrode has
being used. The lnslde diameter of a nozzle is given in been centerless ground to a uniform size and has a bright
inches or by numbers that represent sixteenths of an polished surface.The ground finish provides an extremely
inch. The nozzle inside diameter should be at least three smooth and perfectly round electrode that is better able
times the electrode diameter. Different lengths are also to conduct heat to the collet of the torch. Tungsten elec-
available. Normally, nozzles are made of alumina or a ce- trodes are available with diameters ranging from 0.20 in.
ramic material that will withstand high temperatures and (0.5 mm) to 1/4 in. (6.4 mm).They are available in lengths
impact. However, metal nozzles are available as well as of 3 in. (75 mrn) to 24 in. (610 mm).
nozzles of fused quartz, a glassUke material that provides The AWS classification system uses the letter E at
b tter VisibUity.Special nozzles are available that provide the beginning, which stands for electrode.The letter W in-
trailing gas shieldlng' when welding easily oxidized met- dicates that the electrode is primarily tungsten (wol-
als. Devices known as gas lenses are available for provid- fram). The letter P indicates that the electrode is
ing ltlminar flow of the shielding gas. These fit the inside essentially pure tungsten. Ce,La, Th, and Zr indicate that
diameter of the nozzle. Some torches may include valves the electrode is alloyed with oxides of cerium, Ian-
or Controlling Shielding gas flow. Torches can be thanum, thorium, or zirconium, respectively.The number
equipp ,d with witches to start or stop a program or at the end of some classifications indicates a different
with small rheo tats to control the w lding current. Spare composition level within a specific group.The letter G in-
parts, for n pairs, ar available from most manufacturers. dicates that the electrode is a general classification and
On otherspecral typ of GTAW torch or gun, the maynot p cify alloying elern nts,
'rIG 8{ or gun, is designed more like a pistol. It is used for The AWS electrode classifications are shown in
pot welding thin sheets when the arc is accessible to Figure 5-11.The EWP class is pure tungsten.They are the
one sIde only.TItis proces is covered more completely in least expensive and should be used for general-purpose
hape r ...(). work on different metals. Th E WCe·2 eontains cerium
oxide, referred to as ceria. Ceria tncreas s the ease of
Mat rials U d
" .
starting, improves arc stability; and r duces the rate of
bum-off (ero ion).
FIGURE 5-11 AWS classes of tungsten electrodes.

The classification EWLa-l contains approximately If the current is too low, or the tungsten electrode
1% lanthanum oxide, referred to as Ianthana. The advan- is too large in diameter, the arc will wander erratically
tages and operating characteristics are very similar to over the end of the electrode. Grinding the electrode to a
those of the EWCe-2 electrode.The classifications EWTh- point will reduce this problem. It will also help to direct
1 and EWTh-2 contain approximately 1% or 2% thorium the arc. Choose the size of electrode that will be working
oXide, referred to as thoria. Thoria is a low-level radioac- as close to its maximum current-carrying capacity as pos-
tive material. These electrodes are designed for DC appli- sible. The electrode should remain shiny after use and
cations. They provide for easier arc starting, provide a should never be allowed to touch the molten metal. If this
more stable arc, and can be operated at slightly higher happens, it will become contaminated and must be repre-
temperatures. The 2% has better starting and is more sta- pared. The electrode should show a balled end, and the
ble, and has higher current-carrying capacity, Precautions balled end should not exceed 1 1/2 times the diameter of
should be exercised concerning electrode grinding dust the electrode (Figure 5-12).
When sharpening the electrode. The new classifications The angle of pointing the electrode should be re-
EWLa-l.5 and EWLa-2 were created as replacements for lated to the welding current and the thickness of the
the radioactive compositions. metal being welded. It usually ranges from 30° to 120°;
The classification EWZr-l contains approximately 60° is the most common angle.
1% zirconium oxide, referred to as zirconia. The addition The shielding gas used for gas tungsten arc weld-
of zirconium makes the tungsten alloy better able to emit ing must be a.n inert gas. Only argon and helium are used
~lectrons, provides for increased current-carrying capac- since the other inert gases are much too expensive. Gas
1ty, and gives a more stable arc with better arc starting. It selection is based 011 the metal to be welded. It Is neces-
also provides longer electrode life. sary to consult the procedure schedule. These tables
The classification EWG provides for a tungsten elec- show the gas recommended and the gas flow rate. More
trOde containing a specified addition of an unspecified information concerning shielding gas is given in Chapter
rare earth Oxide or combination. The addition must be 14.Argon is more commonly used. It is readily available
speCified by the electrode manufacturer. and is heavier than helium and Slightly heavier than air,
The collet must be the proper size for the elec- which provides for a more efficient arc shielding at lower
trode, and the entire assembly must be tight so that the flow rates.Argon is better for arc starting and operates at
heat of the arc is transmitted to the torch body and car- a lower arc voltage. Helium is much Iighter than argon 01'
r' d
.ie .away.The electrode extension from the collet should air and tends to float away from the weld zone, and
be kept to a minimum. higher flow rates are required. Helium provides a higher
TIle collet should be kept clean, as should the nozzle, voltage and more heat in the arc. It is also possibl to
so as not to r suit in poor gas' flow.The electrode size must weld at a higher speed with helium than with argon, In
b related to the type of current, typ of work, and the some cases helium and argon are mixed for the optimum
~Ot1nt of current that will beu ed.The amount of weld- shielding gas for a particular metal or weld schedule,
109 current required is found in the welding procedure
.chcd\lles for welding a particular metal.The data provided
in these tables constitute the starting polnr.for example, if Deposition Rates
a welding current of :tOO A is required and alternating cur- The gas tungst n arc is used as a source of heat to melt
~Ilt is used, it would indicate th~ta 3/52-1n. (2.4·mm) pure base metal and flll r metal to provide a. rnanag abl weld
t\tngSten or a lIS-in.· C3.:z..mm pure tungsten electrode POQl. It is similar to oxyacetylene and carbon flrcwelding,
~OUld be used, or if an alloyed electrode w re to be 'Used, The gas tungsten arc welding proc ss-ls not a high-
1 /Hi·in. (l.6.mm) or th 3/52.in. 2.4-mm) electrode produ non at high-deposition-rate welding pc
<:ould.be \1S d.If the procedure chedule calls for DC elec-
~d ngatiVi 0 CEN) or D 1 ctrode po ittve (D .EP),
l if~ l' nt ~e~trQde sizes would be ne declo Welder prefer-
FIGURE $-12'
wllce ~d ~eriencc enter lnto the Size selection. If the
oe1der IS using pure tungsten elec trode and it tends to. be-
rn overh at d o~ appears to have a wet surface, the cur-
f>nt .
t IS to high for 1:1, size of the -I trode. When the
llTlgst 'nhas this w t surfa appearanc ,it be am ~smore
NOTE C~£AN CONDITION OF'
~~~eptib1 t pIcking IIp C ntamination frol71 the; ba. e EL.ECTRODES PRQTECTED
. t:U' A targ r de<;tro tesj~ of the satn typ sbomd be IY ~MleL.D'HG GAS..
r-' t d ot' an. aJlo"fTed-wpe electrode of the sam size
"Q\Jld t • ,
"'. .)e l1sed.T mu 11current or an el' trade t 0 small
I'll~l ..IlUfl. . C s I ~ tUl1gsten rQsi.on.l\lngst n particles
. y b Tome (!iepOSited ill the weld m~tar. .'
Quality of Welds usually wide and flat. There is too much penetration and
The quality of gas tungsten arc welds ranks higher than spatter may occur. When the torch is too far from the
the quality of any of the arc welding processes. This high work, a long arc occurs, the efficiency of the gas shield-
level of quality is obtained when all necessary precau- ing is reduced, and poor weld appearance will result, es-
pecially in welding aluminum.
tions are taken. Since much of the work done by the gas
tungsten arc welding process is on nonferrous metals, it
is absolutely essential that cleanliness be considered Weld Metal Porosity
every step of the way.
The work area should be extremely clean.The work Porosity is usually caused by oily, wet, dirty base metal, in-
tables and fixtures must be clean. The gloves used by sufficient inert gas coverage, or dirt and heavy oxide coat-
welders should be clean. Filler metal should be clean, the ing on the filler rod. In groove welds there should be
gas must be welding grade, and the apparatus must be in backing or purging gas and cleaning of the underside of
excellent condition. If these conditions are followed and the groove adjacent to the weld. In the case of aluminum,
if the welder has sufficient. skill, high-quality welds will a stainless steel wtre brush or chemical cleaning should be
r esult. used. Inefficient gas shielding can be caused by side drafts
of air, which disturb the shielding gas envelope. It may also
Heat input and welder technique has much to do
be caused by leaks in the gas system or impute shielding
with weld quality. Figure 5-13 shows these factors when
welding on aluminum. When the heat input is too low, gas. Equipment should be checked frequently to make s~e
that the gas system is tight. It is also important that no mOIS-
which can occur from too low welding current or too fast
ture from cooling water gets inside the gas supply hose.
welding speed, the high small bead is evident and pene-
Sooty welds, particularly on aluminum, can result
tration is minor. When the welding current is too low, the
from a problem in the shielding gas supply. There can be
bead is too high, there is poor penetration, and the possi-
a leak in the hose connection, poor-quality shielding gas,
bility of overlapptng at the edges increases. When the
an oversized gas nozzle, insufficient gas flow, or anything
welding speed is too fast, the bead is too small and the
else that contributes to poor shielding of the arc area,
penetration is minimaI.When the heat Input is too great,
such as the nozzle being held too far from the work.
which can oc rur from too high a welding current or too
Poor penetration is primarily a heat input problem
low a weldi.ng speed, the bead becomes extremely large,
and is related to travel speed and welding current to the
base metal thickness and conductivity and joint type. Too
much amperage will make the bead too flat and rough
FIQURE 5-13 Quality factors for GTAWof aluminum. and may cause cracking. Insufflcienr amperage will pro-
TOO MUCH PILING duce an uneven high crown bead. If the speed is too fast,
UP OF WE\.O MeTAl. the bead will have a high crown, be rough,and have in-
OVERLAPPING 8EAI). sufficient penetration.The welding speed may need to be
POOR PENETRATION
varied or changed, particularly on small weldments
COL!) AT eDGES where heat buildup occurs. When the b. se metal is old,
a lower speed is requited; as the workpiece absorbs heat
and rises in temperature, the sp d should be increased.
A ommon quality problem is tungsten inclusions
. w\pe, FLAT SEAl) in the weld deposit, which can be detected by radiogra-
phy. This is sometimes zalled tungsten ;~pttttng and is,
bas d 011 using too much current for the size or type of
BeAD VERY IARlGUI.AR,
(lARKj PQOR PEN!;TRATIc)N the tungsten. el ctrode.The tungst 11 tyP may have to be
hang d or a larger tungsten Je trode employ: d.
Another serious problem is an ullstabl. are Wohi h is
I
normAlly a r sultof'a contaminated orQ1:rtyclectrod .The

el cteod wUI become oXidized if the inert gas is 110~can.
tJntlally surrounding it while it is bot.TItis is th 1,\ ~on fOl'
post-flow .onrrojs on mo t gas mngsr n arc We,ICtlllgrna-
cbines.Th gas flow should 'ontil1l1 aft r the welding is
stopp 'd to keep the tungsten surround d by IUrI: gas
while it "is~tU1at ~fl ef~v11td temperat1.lrti.An til *rvrolr
- tern canbe that the 11ltlgsten el "ctrotle protrudes too far
beyond tn iH.1 '0 th gas nozzle. Not' ally It should not
p trude mol' thfll1 1/16H1.(1.Q mm).~. tflow should be
,adjitst~d tbr a longer periocLof tim if ttl . tung ten b·
comes dirty. The other problem with tungsten electrodes include clamping, fixturing, heat sinks, heat buildup,
is the contamination that occurs if the electrode is al- backing, purging gas, and high frequency for arc starting.
lowed to touch the molten metal. This will immediately The factors that are of interest in a weld are penetra-
cause the electrode and the arc to become unstable.Weld- tion in the base metal, bead Width, and weld reinforcement
ing should be stopped and the electrode redressed. or height. It is assumed that weld surface appearance is ac-
Filler metal with an excessive oxide coating can also ceptable and weld metal deposit is of the required quality;
create dirty welds. Moisture will collect in this heavy oxide These factors are all influenced by heat input. However, it is
coating. The filler rod should be cleaned with sandpaper. important to consider the conductivity of the metal and the
Welding on dirty, oil-impregnated material or at- heat-sink effect of any fixturing that might be employed.
tempting to repair cracks in machinery parts requires the A major reason for developing pulsed weldingwas
removal of defective material, thorough cleaning, and pre- to provide deep penetration from the high current, while
heating to help eliminate any absorbed oil, grease, and reducing the total heat input to avoid too much molten
mOisture. weld metal. Programming is also useful, particularly on
Water leaks in the torch can usually be detected by small welds, where heat buildup occurs.
the Coloring of the weld surface. Condensation can occur
on the inside of gas hoses, and water vapor in the arc will
cause the tungsten to become contaminated. Safety Considerations
In summary, good-quality welds require that all con- The safety factors are similar to those involved with the
ditions be correct, that materials used be of the correct other arc welding processes. TIle gas tungsten arc seems
speCification and cleanliness, that the apparatus be in brighter at the same current than the arc of shielded metal
good working order, and that the proper welding tech- arc welding. This is because the smoke is not present. TIle
nique be employed. . brightness of the arc tends to cause air to break down arid
form ozone. Adequate ventilation should be provided. The
bright arc rays cause fumes from hydrochlorinated cleaning
Weld Schedules materials or degreaslng agents to break down and form
Por gas tungsten arc welding it is important to use weld- phosgene gas. Cleaning operations using these materials
ing currents based on the type of metal and the weld joint should be shielded from the arc rays of the gas tungsten arc.
detail. Welding schedule tables are provided in the chap- TIle final hazard is the possibility of displacing the
ter for the metal being welded. Once the welding current air when welding in enclosed areas such as tanks. Venti-
I. vel is determined, the type of welding current to be lation and other precautions for welding in enclosed ar-
Used and the type of tungsten electrode recommended, it eas should be followed.
is th n possible to establish tungsten electrode size.
The welding procedure tables also provide weld
travel speed, which must be used in determlnlng he.at in-
Limitations of the Process
Ptlt. Under mechanized conditions, the weld speeds can TIle major limitation of gas tungsten arc welding is its low
nOrmally be increased over manual application. The feed productivity. The power sourc and the torch are more
~te for ftller rod is not given since this is a matter of tech- expensive.The justification for this .Is the ability of tlle
niq\le for manual welding. process to weld so many metals in thicknesses and posi-
t . ,'nle weld schedules are related to the weld pool tions not P isstble by shielded metal arc welding.
.hat must be carried by the welder. This relates ro weld.
Ulg POSition, type of metal, weld joint d tail, and so on.
M.Oll expert need welders can carry larger molten pools
Variations of the Process
and trH~keW Ids at 3. higher spe d. TIle more popular vanattons are:
• Pulsed- urrent GTAW .
Welding Variables • Manual programmed af4-W ..
• 'HQt~Wire GTAW (autOJjlatfc)
~ tung~tel1 are welding ulvolve. a number of variables .
.h vanabl has a spe ifie effe t on the w Jel, and Vtlri~
a?l esthat. ffect th welt! arc int rrelat d ... he preset cted
a.tUiabtesinclude tungsten. type, tung ten slz .,nozzle size.
~nd gas 'typc:rhese are p. rr of a weldi,ng procedure, th
Pti1llar-yVilrmblcs ru: :WelclingctlO'ent. arc voJta~e,tmvel
~het1, pul ing when lsed;nnd upslop an:q.downslope,
ttl I en .1.1~ d, for programm d welding. The ~ondA.ryvad.
tt111('$., ~n.JUde tod f. 'd speed, torch angles, and p()ssibJy
, .gsten angles. Otherf~ctors th~t affectthc etd <:.l\.lality •
3. Oscillation travel and dwell control ther.This increased welding speed since a smaller mass of '
4. Travel speed control molten metal was produced. Pulsing also improved the
5. Better consistent quality weld quality. Pulsing is used with tube heads.
The programming of weld current is often used in
The pUlsed-current mode provides a system in
automatic welding and can be used for manual applica-
which the welding current continuously changes be-
tion. Programmers are used to make the welding current
tween two levels as shown in Pigure 5-14. During the pe-
rise or fall at specific rates to specific values. A finger
riods of high-pulsed current, heating and fusion take
switch mounted on the torch will start the preselected
place; during the low-pulse current periods, coaling and
program. The torch switch can be used to stop the pro-
solidification take place. It is as if the foot rheostat were
gram or make it repeat. This is known as manual pro-
mov d up and down to increase and decrease the weld-
grammed GTAWand is popular for welding tubing and
ing current on a regular basis. Newer GTAW power
root pass welding of pipe.
sources automatically switch to high current, then to low
The hot-wire TIG welding variation uses electrical
current, and will hold each value for a specific time. The
power on the flller metaJ.The filler rod that is fed into the
pulsed gas tungsten arc can make a weld seam of over-
weld puddle is "electrically" hot. The electrical hot wire
lapping arc spot welds. Each arc spot type weld is pro-
carries a low-voltage current that preheats the filler rod.
duced during the high-current pulse time. The current
It enters the weld pool at an elevated temperature and
then decreases to the "low pulse current" or background
melts quicker, thus increasing the deposition rate. One of
current, which allows the weld to partially cool and so-
the major applications for the hot-wire GTAWvariation is
lidify while maintaining a low-current consistent arc.The
for weld surfacing. It is used in automatic welding since
torch is then moved to the next point along the weld
the hot wire must always be in contact with the molten
joint and held motionless during the next high-current pool to conduct the preheating current (Figure 5-15).
pulse.
Four factors must be controlled to weld with
pulsed-current: higb-pulse current or pulse current, low- Dabber Welding
pulse current or background current, higb-pulse time, The Dabber welding variation was developed for the pre-
and /owpulse time.
cise placement of weld metal on thin edges. It is used for
Distortion and warpage are reduced with pulsed- rebuilding knife-edge seals for jet engines. This variation
urrent GTA welding on. thinner material, due to the uses a coordinated motion. of the cold filler wire end and
lower heat Input, Misalignment of joints and the welding the welding torch, which varies. the arc length. TIlls mo-
of light to heavy sections are made easier with pulsed- tion duplicates the motions of a manual welder but is per-
current welding. Pulsedrcurrent welding can be don formed automatically. TIle cold filler wire is fed
manually Q1' automatically with or without filler wire. ontinuously; howev r, it is fed into, and removed from.
.?ulsing of TAW has certain advantages. As auto- the arc by adabbing or osctllaung motion. At the same,
ttc
ma. PUIiinggained" poptdal'ity, it was used for specific tim .the arc is lengthened and Shortened together with
.hsrd-to-w ld joints, such as thi k to thin variable root fa e the feeding of the cold wir .The dabbing stroke length is
and diff~l'ent .Q,1ctals,Low,;ft'equency pulsing increased sufficient to pull the end of the heated filler wire from
th p 'l1errailondllC to the higher peak current and which a droplet has just been detached.At the sam time,
'e til ~d o ~ due til width of the molten weld pool. the torch move toward the work and the ate Is short-
'1~lJ8tng,a lljgh frequ<;ncy,ln, the Rlldibl range, greatly in-
:~t'(!asetlpenetratiQnduto the high urrent pulse, and
th Width (If the molten weld metal wasdeer ased fur- FIGURE 5...15 Hot wire technique being used in GTAW.
ened. This simulates the two-handed action of a human The repair and maintenance industry is a major
welder. It was accomplished by moving the wire guide in user. GTAW is used for repairing tools and dies, for re-
and out and the torch up and down. The wire approaches pairing aluminum and magnesium parts, and for repairing
at a shallow angle. This coordinated motion variation can highly critlcal items.
also be used with pulsed current. It is used to weld many
special alloys, such as titanium, high-nickel alloys, and tool
steels. In addition to being used for rebuilding jet engine
seals, it can be used to provide buildup on jet engine
5-3 PLASMA ARC WELDING
blades, saw blades, valve seats, milling cutters, drill bits, Plasma arc welding (pAW) is an arc welding process that
mower blades, and other devices. uses a constricted arc between a nonconsumable elec-
trode and the weld pool (transferred arc) or between the
Increased Penetration CTAW electrode and the constricting nozzle (nontransferred arc).
Shielding is obtained from the ionized gas issuing from the
Researchers at the Paton Welding Institute in Kiev,
torch, which may be supplemented by an auxiliary source
Ukraine, discovered that flux painted on the surface of
of shielding gas. The process is used without the applica-
austenitic stainless steel greatly increased the penetrating
tion of pressure. Filler metals mayor may not be used. The
capability of gas tungsten arc welds. The mechanism for
transferred plasma arc process is shown in Figure 5-:16.
increasing the penetration of the process has not been
Plasma arc welding was invented by Robert Gage of
Completely explained; however, it seems to be related to
Buffalo, New York, in 1957 (US Patent 2,806,124). The
arc constriction. The arc constriction due to the flux in-
plasma arc is also used for metal cutting and for metal
creases the current density at the arc root and thus in-
spraying.As a cutting process, it is popular for nonferrous
~reases the arc force, which produces the substantial
metals and competes with oxyfuel gas cutting of heavy-
tncrease of penetration of the weld.The use of this surface-
plate steel. For metal spraying, it is used both with wires
applied flux increases the penetration depth by at least
and powders.
two times the depth produced with conventional gas
tlUlgsten arc welding. Use of this flux reduces the need for
edge preparation and increases productivity due to the re- Principles of Operation
~t:ction in the number of weld passes required to make a The plasma arc welding process (Figure 5-17) is COJU-
10111t. TIle need to provide groove preparation is not re- pared to the GTAWprocess because of the many Similar-
qUired on thin materials. In some cases, the square groove ities. If an electric arc between a. tungsten electrode and
!oint, When welding from both sides, eliminates groove the work is constricted or reduced in cross-s ctional area,
JOint preparations requiting several passes. Th flux is a its temp rature increases since it carries the same
mixture of inorganic powders suspended in a volatile liq- amount of current. This constricted arc is called a
~id media such as acetone. Immediately prior to the weld- plasma, whi 11is the fourth state of matten(5) There are
lng,.a O,005-inch-tl1icklayer of the mixture is applied to the two modes of operation, the nontransferred arc and the
top suda e of the base metal, where th weld is to be
ma<1 -The flux is not Int nded to provide shielding. Sound
'" '1<18result, which pass radiographic inspecrion.The flux
docs not Significantly alter the chemical composition of FIGURE 5-16 Transferred plasma arc process. Courtesy
the w ld metal. The ultimate strength and ductility of the of Welding Inspection Technology, American Welding
W'eldsexceed the minimum specified for the base metal. Society.
Industrial Us and Typical Applications

'l'h aitcraft industry is one of the principal users of gas
t\u)gsten ~u: welding. pace vehicles are fabrlcar d by gas
tnngstenarc Welding.'nus includes the shells; structures,
~ari?tlS tank$ required. and the thousands' of Ii t of tub-
ng tn'V'olv, d in ro 'k t engines, ,
, Sm~t.ll-dialUter thin-wall tubing is weld d by this
p~o es :"l\lb ·s are ats welded to tube she ts for h at
, atlg IS With gr grammed GTAw' Aneth r inlpol'tant,
~. ,is. P.Hlkj1l8 t'Oot~PflSS :welds in pfph)s-large'll11d small
l~am t~r tOl~the. process and power tndustr ~ wher
Ril Nality wel hng is r quit d. Vtrntally v ry industry
~, 'lAW fur welding thin 111ate.rials especially nQnt1r-
j
~ubs m 1I:Us. ~. ' '. '
Gas Tungaten Arc Welding Plasma Arc Welding
FIGURE5-17 Plasma arc compared to GTAW process.

Courtesy of Welding Inspection Technology, American
Welding Society.
FIGURE5-19 High temperature stiff plasma arc.

Welding Society.
extremely high temperature heat source to form a molten

weld pool in the same manner as the gas tungsten arc.The
Tranllt$m~cj Nontranlllerred higher-temperature plasma causes this to happen faster.
Wh nth plasma is used in this way, it is known as the melt-
FIGURE 5-1 a Transferred versus nontransferred
in mode of operation. A high-temperatur , high-velocity
plasma arc welding. Courtesy of Welding Inspection
plasma jet provides an Incr ased beat transfer rate over gas
Technology, American Welding Society.
tungsten arc welding at the same current. This results in
faster welding speeds and deeper weld penetration.
The other method of welding with plasma is known
as keyhole welding. In this method the plasma jet pene-
trates through the workpi c and form a bole known as
a keyhole. 'urface t nsion forces the molten base metal to
flow around tile keyhole to form the weld. The keyhol .
method can be used only for joInts where th plasm can .
pa S through the joint. It is used for bas rn tats 1/16 in.
1.6,rom to 3/4 in. (19 mm) in 'ttlicJm ssand is aJti cted
by-the ba emetal omposttion andthe welding gas 8.Th
keyhoI )1:1 tl,lod proVides>for [t'ln~enetratiot1 single.pass
wIding; whi h may be ap,p.Hed eitlletrntUlUa.lJy Of auto-
matically l:naU position . Keyhol .w lds have b en mad
in nlUmin tnt 1/2 in. 1 mm thick.
plasma jet create a higher heat content. In addition, the thickness, 0.005 in. (0.13 rnm) to 0.020 in. (0.5 mm), the
stiff columnar plasma does not flare like the gas tungsten edge flange joint should be used. TIle flanges are melted
arc. These factors provide the following advantages: to provide filler metal for making the weld,
When using the melt-in mode for thick materials,
1. The torch-to-work distance is less critical than for
the same general joint detail as used for shielded metal
gas tungsten arc due to the columnar form of the
arc or gas tungsten arc can be employed. It can be used
plasma.This is important for manual operation.
for fillets, flange welds, all types of groove welds, and so
2. High temperature and high heat concentration of the on. It can also be used for lap joints using arc spot welds
plasma allow for the keyhole effect, which provides and arc seam welds,
complete-penetration, single-pass welding of many
jOints.The heat-affected zone is smaller and the shape
of the weld is more desirable.The weld tends to have
parallel sides, which reduces angular distortion. The welding circuit for plasma arc welding is more com-
3. The higher heat concentration and the plasma jet plex than for gas tungsten arc welding because an extra
allow for higher travel speeds. The plasma arc is component is required: the control circuit necessary for
thu more stable and is not as easily deflected to the starting and stopping the plasma arc. The same power
Closest point of base metal. Greater variation in joint source is normally used.There are two gas systems, one to
alignment is possible. The plasma weld has deeper supply the plasma gas and the second for the shielding
penetration and produces a narrower weld. Faster gas. The welding circuit for plasma arc welding is shown
travel speeds result in higher production rates. in Figure 5-20.
Direct-current, constant-current (CC) power is
The plasma arc welding process is used for manu- used.Alternating current is used for a few applications.
facturing tubing, making small welds on instruments and
components made of thin metal, making root-pass welds
?n pipe, and making butt joints of thin-wall tubing. It also
Equipment Required
IS Used to do work Similar to that done by electron beam Power Source A CC drooping characteristic power
welding in the op n, with much lower equipment cost. source supplying DC welding current is recommended;
Plasma ar welding is n rmally applied as a manual however, anAC/DC power source can be used.The power
Irocess, but it is al 0, used in automatic and mechanized source should lave an open-circuit voltage of 80 V and
?~plications. The plasma arc welding process is able to should hav a duty zycle of 60%.lt should have a contac-
Jo~npractically all of the commercially available metals. It tor and provisions for remote control current adjustment,
"WtL!' .
join all the metal that the gas tungsten arc welding For welding very thin metals, It should have a: minimum
proc '5 will weld. amperage of 1A. A ma imum of 500 A is adequate for
c R,egardirlg the range of thickness" eld d by plasma, most plasma welding application .
bonsider the keyhole mode of operation, which an only The welding torch for plasma arc welding is similar
11'Used where the plasma jet can penetrate the joint, In in appearanc to a gas tungsten at'
torch, but it is more
;, IS mode the, process can. be used for welding material complex. Plasma torch s ar water cooled, even for the
fOm 1/16 in. (1:6 mm) through 31 in. (19 n1l11), Thick- lowest-current range torch. This is because the arc is con-'
~e s ra.nge vary With different metals.The melt-in mode rained Inside a chamber in. th torch where it generates
~: d to we~d material as thin as 0.002 in. ,0.05 nun) up heat. If waterflow is interrupted bli fly, the heada $embly
, ugh 118 m, (3;2mm). Using multr-pass-techniques, it may melt. A cross sectronor a plasma .arc torch bead is
~aQweld IIp to an unlimit d thickness. Note that flller rod shown in Figqrc 5- ...1. bUring- th nontransferred period
ts II d fi· r making welds in. thicker material. the ar will be , truck betwe n the orlflce and the tungsten
Joint Design . . F1GURE5";'20Welding·clrcuit f9t plasma-arc walding.

Jo_int dC'<'J'nn'18 Ila.SC\.J on uI'C thicknesses of the metal. to b
. .0 0""
At..-· • :
._ , " ' • _, I: • t ~'- .< < ' :>-
Welded and by th mode oJ operation., For the keyhOle

mot! ,the join t d sign is l' strict I to fujI pen-'frat] n.'01
PI" f, -...:.d jo' . d . .
L"" H'lt' C6ign Is til squar grOo " With n lnjnl-
~l1tn 1'()Q£ openjng. J1 I'1'QO ~l';\SS work, ou bcrlvy~wal1 .
i;~
/ th lJ-gJ' GV'· de~ign is us d. :h rootef, SbO~lldbe
r~{S 2llltn) to ~UO~,fOl'fullleeYllOle penetration.
0..020 ~r the nell-tn OJ·thad for wIling thf~1.gauge,
".r. tn. 0, S m.m to (). 'J 00 in. 2.; mm metals, eh·
»"IUilfi tt
. <::of ove wcltt sbould b US "d. 'Per weJcUng f.oil .
Back more commonly used because it is heavier and provides
Cap
better shielding at lower flow rates.
For flat and vertical welding, a shielding gas flow of
15 to 30 ft3!hr (7 to 14 liters/min) is sufficient. Overhead
posltion welding requires a higher flow rate. Argon is usu-
ally used for the plasma gas at a flow rate of 1 ft3!hr (0.5
liters/min) up to 5 ft3!hr (2.4 liters/min) for welding, de-
pending on torch size and the application. Active gases are
Shielding Gas tnle!
Tungsten Electrode
not recommended for the plasma gas.
Outer Shlekl Cup (Ceramic)
Orifice Sody (Copper)

Quality, Deposition Rates, and Variables
The quality of the plasma arc welds is extremely high.The
skill of the welder is a major factor with respect to weld
FIGURE 5-21 Cross section of a plasma arc torch head. quality. A welder will find the plasma arc welding process
easier to use than the gas tungsten are, which helps en-
Welding Society.
sure weld quality.
Deposition rates for plasma arc welding are higher
electrode. Manual plasma arc torches are made in various than for gas tungsten arc welding.
sizea starung With 100 A up through 300 A. Automatic The variables for plasma arc are similar to the other
torcl es for rna hine operation of the same basic ratings are arc welding processes, with two exceptions: the plasma
availabl .Cable assemblies come with the torches. gas flow and the orifice diameter in the nozzle.The major
The torch uses the 2% thoriated tungsten electrode. variables exert considerable control in the process. The
Sine the tungsten electrode is located inside the torch, it minor variables are generally fixed at optimum condi-
is almost impossible to contaminate it with base metal. tions for the given application.All variables should appear
1ungst n electrodes ar specified by the AWS. in the welding procedure.Variahles such as the angle of
A control ircutt is required. TIle plasma torch con- the tungsten electrode, the setback of the electrode, and
n cts to the ontrol console or to the power source. The the electrode type are considered fixed for the applica-
C ntrol onsote includes a power source for the pilot are, tion. The stand-off or torch-to-work distance is less senst-
a tim r for tran ferrtng from th pUOt arc to transferred arc, tive with plasma, but the torch angle when welding parts
.11<1. water and gas valves and separate ftow meter for the of unequal thicknesses is mor important than with gas
pla m. gas and the shielding gas. ually,the consol is con- tung, ten arc.
n ted to tJ1 power sourc and may op rate the contac-
tor,Th _ontrol console will· als contain a high-frequency Tips for Using ..the Process
rC·&tIDting unit,tO(l h protecdoncircutt.and an ammeter.
Thhigh frequency is used to lnltiat th pilot arc. Th mo t important tip is to properly maintain the weld-
bv 'lrp~ t cH a Vi""$ include water and plasma gas pres- ing torch. Th tungsten el crrode mu t b pr cisely cen-
sq. e S\Vjtch s, 'Wllt(il int~lock With the ontacecr.A wire tered and located with respect to the orifice in the
.Ii .d l' may be tis d formeehanlzed r automarl w leUng nozzle. TIle pilot arc urr nt must b kept low, just high
~n4tnustbtl},. con ta(lt $peed .type.Th wire· eed r must enough to maintain iii stable pilot ar .Wh n welding ex-
titl¥~t($pe d df lstm.entcoveringtherangeft'oOllOin.(254 tremely thin materials in the foil range, the pilot arc inay
.. tl1tn I mlnnt'to 125 in.(3.1Sm per minute feed sp ed. be iu that i.~n c ssary .
When fill r metal is us el, it is added in tIle Sam
mann r as gas tllOgst n at welding. How Cf;',With th
·orch· O-W rk distance a little great f, there j mor ir -
dom for adding filler metal. 4uipment rou. l b Qroperly
adjusted so tl at the shielding ga$ and plasma gas are in .
the ri@l t proportions, Pr per. gases must also be us d.·
Plasma gas flow also bas an..lmportant e t.t. he at1~ty
on, ider.-tions for phl. rna arc w Id ng are th same. s for
, as tungs n. ar welding .
.Limitations of th
the tungsten and the alignment of the orifice must be
maintained within close limits. The current level of the
torch cannot be exceeded without damaging the tip.The
water-cooling passages in the torch are small, and water
filters and deionized water are recommended. The con-
trol console adds another piece of equipment, which
makes the system more expensive.

The variations of plasma arc welding are essentially the
same as for GTAW:
• Pulsed-current PAW
• Manually programmed PAW
• Hot-wire PAW
• Micro plasma low-current precision PAW FIGURE 5-22 Variable polarity weld being made..
• Variable-polarity plasma arc (VPPA)
• Plasma transferred arc
provides maximum heat in the base metal. This wave-
The welding current may be pulsed to gain the form is coupled to the plasma torch so that a keyhole
same advantages as pulsing provides for GTAW A high
could be carried from the start to the finish of the weld.
current pulse is used for maximum penetration, and the
Figure 5-22 shows the variable-polarity weld being
low current allows for solidification. This gives a more made on the external fuel tank. The VPPA system is now
easily controlled pool for difficult work.The same control used to make all joints in the external fuel tank for the
systems used for GTAW can be used for PAW
U.S. Space Shuttle program.
Programmed welding is used for plasma arc weld-
ing. A programmable power source is used and offers ad-
Vanta.ges for different types of work. The complexity of Plasma Transferred Arc
the program depends on the needs of the specific appli- The plasma. transferred arc (PTA) process variation is of-
cation. In addition to programming the welding current, ten referred to as a thermal spray process.The equipment
it is sometimes necessary to program the plasma gas is similar to that used for plasma thermal spray; however,
flow. This is important when dosing a keyhole, which is fusion occurs between tbe deposit and the base metal. In
required when making a root pass for pipe welding. the PTA variation, shown in Figltrc5-23; the deposited
iller metal is fed into the plasma arc weld pool in the metal is applied to greater thicknesses than that qf a ther-
ante manuer as for GTAw'Thehot-wire procedur can be mal spray coating.There is no slag to be removi d, and the
used.It is used for roU welding pipe and for surfacing. complete d posit Is smooth and uniform. The deposit is,
Micro plasma welding using 1 to lOA of current is more localized, 100% dense, and metallurgically welded
used for prectslon welding of extremely thin material us- to the workpiec . Dlhrtton l vels .caa becontrolled to
ing 'preCision motion devices and a eurare ftsturtng. give' consistently low values' with slngle,pass deposits.·
These a\.ltomatic applications are Widely tIS d In the atr- The filler metal is usuallytn tbe for~ of powdeib" ause
craft, jet engine, and pr cision in trument industry. the alloys t1slJallyinvolved, which produce high-hardness
n of the latest variation is variable-polarity deposits, cann t be drawn into wir .A omm n appllca-
pI srna arc welding, known a VPPA, Thj variation was tion.J th abra i n t slstanc ov rlayto w • rparts. ver-
d ' veloped by the aerospace industry for welding thicker lays can be Feat d in the .exact Shape and thick.t1e s
~ ctions of alloy alumInun1, $~eciflcally for tbe external required, from as thin as 0.050 in..(1.25 nun) to ~sth:!<*
Iel tank of the space shuttle. Research indicated that the as :311010.(.75 m:tn) in a sihgl¢ pass. nus suriace'tnust
. :tQ1'tertime p riod of poslijv polarity would 'provide b ground for ~ precrs fit. -~
adequate cleaning and allow more negative polarity for
tnaklng the w Id. It wns found tha 2 to 5 ttlillisec nds
(tnl ec) of po itjv 1? larity shOltld b 1;IS d with 15 to 20
tt h 'of tlegative polarity. With a special power sourcc1
: ldHs ~ctually tWo power sources oMectect togetilet'
f Melee ront switch, th n.' gativeand positive half-
te. an h be var cd With re. peet to urr nt and
tllU " Tqis waveform pr-OV1cles-s\Ifficlent cleaning, yet '
AUXILIARY
MAIN DC POWER
DC POWER SOURCE +
SOURCE HIGH
FREQUENCY
+ POWDER
+ SUSPENDED
IN CARRIER GAS
PLASMA
FLAME
FIGURE5-23 Plasma
NOZZLE ARC
transferred arc system.
or may not be used.rhe arbon arc weldIng process is the steel. In this case the bronze filler rod is added by placing
Oldest of all the arc welding processes and is considered it between the arc and the base metal.
to be the beginning of arc welding. arbon arc welding
is not popular today and is in luded her for historical
purpo .s. Weldable Metals
Mild and low-carbon st els ar most Widely welded with
the carbon arc process, followed by 0PP r.The carb n at"
Principles of Operation has b en used for welding oth r nonferrous metals. Th
greatest use of the carbon at is for brazing and to deposit
wear-reststam surface .The carbon at is used for repairing
iron eatings. The filler metal can be cast iron or bronze.
The base metal thickne s range t nd th joint design used
at simllar to tho c of. hielded metal ar .w ldift
Welding Circuit and Curr nt

The w.elding ctrcuit for carbon ar welding is the same as
for shi 'ld ed meta! arc welding. Tb power sou» e is th
COt1Vi nuonat or co taut curr nr type with dr oping
volt-r tnI chara t rtstl '. A 60% duty 'yete p W r
sou is used, The power sourc bould ha . a oltag
rating of 5 V sl.n e t1:ti, voltage is qutr It!wh w: ~ldillg
·01'1> rWith the carbon arc.
s c. rboh Arc Widing I ctrod Holders

tive, it would erode rapidly and would cause black carbon workpiece.The process is u ed without filler metal, with or
smoke and excess carbon that could be absorbed by the without shielding gas or flux, with or without partial shield-
weld metal. Alternating current is not recommended for .ing from a ceramic ferrule surrounding the stud, and with
single-electrode carbon arc welding.The electrode should the application of pressure after the faying surfaces are suf-
be adjusted often to compensate for the erosion of carbon. ficiently heated. This is a special application process devel-
oped in the mjd-1930s.A stud weld being made is shown in
Carbon Electrode Figure 5-24.There are several variations of the process.
TIlere are two types of electrodes. One is made of pure

graphite and the other of baked carbon. The pure Principles of Operation
graphite electrode does not erode away as quickly as the
It is questionable if· rc stud welding is a true arc welding
carbon electrode. It is more expensive and more fragile.
process. It has a very specialized field of application and is
Electrodes are available in diameters ranging from 5/32
not a metal joining process in the same manner as the
in. (4 mm) through 3/4 in. (19 mm) in diameter, with a
others discussed previously. It welds prepared studs at the
length of either 12 or 17 in. (310 or 460 mm).
end to the base m tal.The process is a combination of arc
welding and forge welding. It is based on two steps. First,
TWinCarbon Arc Welding electrical contact between the end of the stud and base
TWin carbon arc welding (CAW-1) is a variation that pro- metal occurs and an arc is established. The heat of the arc
duces coalescence of metals by heating them with an melts the surface of the end of the stud and the work
electric arc between two carbon ele trodes. No shielding surface. As soon as the entire cross section of the stud and
is used. Pressure and filler metals mayor may not be used. an area of equal size on the base metal are melted, the
The twin carbon arc can also be used for brazing. stud is forced against the base metal. The molten end of
TIle electrode holder is used for twin electrodes. It the stud joins with th molten pool on the work surface,
comes in only one size but will accommodate several and as the metal olidifies the weld is produced. Partial
izes of electrodes. It is not insulated. The twin carbon shielding is normally accomplished by means of a ceramic
electrode holder is designed so that one electrode is ferrule that surrounds the arc area and by fluxing ingredt-
movable and Can be touched against the other to initiate ent sometim s placed 011 the arcing end of the stud.
the arc. The carbon electrodes are held in the holder by .
means of setscrews and are adjusted so that they pro-
trude equally from the clamping jaws. When the two car- FIGURE5-24 Stud welding gun. Courtesy of Welding
bon el ctrodes are brought together, the arc is struck and Inspection Technology, American Welding $oc;ety,
establi hed berw en them. The angle of the electrodes
prOVides an are that forms ill front of the apex angle and
fans out as a soft source of concentrated heat or arc
flanlC. It is softer than that of th single carbon arc. The
t O1p ratur of this arc flame Is between 8,0 0 and
9,009F (4, 26 and }98~OC). This will ensure all even
burning of the carbon electrod s sine the po ttive elec-
t1"O(1~USintegtates at the higher rate,
. Th,e arc gap or spacitlg between the two electrodes
i adjustflbl uring welding and must be ad] isted mor
or less continuously to pr id the fan- 'hap d arc. It can
b us d a a heat sour e t b nd r orrn m tal.Th twin
arbon Iectrod method i used by the hobbyist and for
:n ainteaaJ;1ce work. in the small shop, and 'f1 the farm. It
~s 'Used W1thtlle lo\v.duty eyClc,. stngl ..pha ,limited •
.nptlt AC transformer wIding machln s, It can be used
(11 flny Ni Uiot}{met n :my material' wh re 1 heat ]s reo
~uirc I" It is r Jativ 1 slow nd l' this reason do . n t
:1 C to much us as an jndustrlal Wi ldin pr, 'CS.,
5·5 S UDW lDING

(a) (b) (e)
FIGURE5-26 Variety of studs available for stud welding.

(d) (e) (I)
Courtesy of Welding Inspection Technology. American
Welding Society.
FIGURE5-25 The making of a stud weld. Courtesy of
Welding Inspection Technology, American Welding Society. The minimum recommended plate thickn ss to
permit efficient welding without burn-through or exces-
sive distortton is expressed as a general rule. The general
The making of an arc stud weld is shown in Fig-
rule states that the minimum thickness of the plate or
ure 5-25. The stud gun (step1\. and B) holds the stud in Call..
base metal is 20% of the stud base diameter. To develop
tact With the workpi ce until the welder depresses the gun
full strength of the stud, the plate thickness should not be
trigger switch.This causes welding current to flow from the
less than 33% of the stud ba e diameter.
pow r source through the stud (which acts as an electrode)
to the work surface.The welding current fl rw actuates a so-
l notd Within the stud BUn,which draws the stud away from Joint Design
the work surface (steps C and D) and establishes the ar .The Stud welding is a special application process. The joint
at time luration is controlled bY'1tim r in th control unit. would be considered a T. The weld would be a square
.\t the appropriate ume the welding curr nt is shut off, the groove with a small reinforcing fillet all around.A variety
gun solenot 1 releases its pull 011 th stud. and the spring- of studs is shown in Figure 5-26.
load 'd a tion plunges .the stud into the molten pool of the
workpIece ••step E). The.molren .metal lidifjes and pro-
duces th 'w fa, plus a , mall reinfQfi ing flU t.Aft r s lidifi-
Equipment Required
atlon t11: surl is r t eased. frqm tll stud and t1 eramlc Pigur 5...27 shows the welding pow r urce, th . stud
,:feJtuleJs bra en off)rev~lgt:he weld step F}. gun, and special control unit.
lrect urrent is pre err d for arc stud wIding, nd
the stud gun (el rrode) is c nnected to the negative ter-
mlnal (DC .N) Of straight p la1ity.
Tb workpl e i attached to he positive pol .A!
i. 11 ~ comme ded for, tud ar . W Idblg,' nd Don-
srant urrent oln g is 'U 'abl but not re ..mme,nded.
11 P()U or ~'()U1'cefor arc uul w: '}cUng i$ normally a
D CQl1j;t~\t1t curren welding m .. bine. TI,e iz f).€ th
FIGURE5-27 Stud welding power source and gun,

Courtesy of Welding Inspection Technology. American
Welding SocIety.
welding machine is based on the size of the stud to be • Reduces oxidation of the molten metal during
welded.Welding machines can be paralleled to provide suf- welding by restricting contact with the atmosphere
ficient current. Stud welding has a short arc period, rarely • Confines the molten metal
lasting over 1 second. Overcapacity currents are drawn
• Partially shields the arc from the welder
from the machine for a short period.The welding machine
must have sufficient overload capacity. The stud welding The inner surface shape of the ferrule is the san1e
gun is designed only for stud welding.The gun resembles shape as the stud being used, usually cylindrical. It has a
a pistol With a trigger switch for starting the weld cycle. serrated shape at the base to form vents for escaping
The gun contains the solenoid lifting mechanism as well as shielding gas. Internally it is shaped to help mold the
the spring for plunging the stud into the molten weld pool. molten metal around the base of the stud to form a small
The welding current must flow through the gun. The gun fillet. Specially designed ferrules may be obtained for spe-
mu t also contain adjustments to e tablish the arc length cific applications. The ferrule is broken off the weld at
and to provide for accurate plunge dimensions. The gun is the completion of the weld and discarded. It can be used
~quipped with a standoff device, to hold it in proper rela- onlyonce.
ti?nship to the work. In addition, the gun allows the use of The weld quality of properly made stud welds is ex-
different types of collets or chucks for each size and type cellent and usually exceeds the strength of the stud. Prop-
of stUd.TIle stand-off device or arc shield holder must be erly made welds depend on the weld schedule, the size of
ad' the power source, the gun chuck and hold down, the use
JlIstable to accommodate different types of chucks.
The weld timer controller establishes the arc time of correct size of cables, and a good work connection. Me-
required for proper arcing. The control unit contains a chanical tests may be made by shearing the stud from the
Contactor capable of breaking the welding current at the work or by pulling it from the work. The AWS Structural
end of the arcing period. It is calibrated in electrical cv- Code and Navy welding code specifies how these tests
e]. J
es, 1/60 of a second for 60-Hz power. The control units are to be made.(6)
are Contained within the cabinet of the power source.
H~wever, weld timer controllers may be separate, Control
Ullits for stud welding are designed specifically for stud
~elding gun and power sources. Stud guns of one mall-
~
acturer hould not be us d with control timers or studs .
h another manufacturer. The control cable is between

t e tud gun and the timer only,
Materials Used
<..'trodeand filler m tals an combined in the stud. Studs
rna mad in many size and shapes. Normally. studs are
t d ~f low arbon steel. Stud types can be thr aded fas-
. ners,LOternaUy threaded fasteners, flat fasteners with rec-
~an~lar cr 58 sections, 1 ead r pins, e e bolts, slotted pins,
Y •and '0 on. tnd are als mad of dl1i rent metals.The
~'I g~n man~facturer and stud .rn.amlfacturers offer cata-
Wi WIth engtn tingdata pertamtng to the exact design
<it tb ' stl,lds they manufa tur .Studs up to 1 in. 25 mm ill
:tmetcr an b eld t,Th round tud is the most com-
01 n, quar and tangular shap d studs arc available.
'<l Mot, tmls in lud ~a method () fluxing. Itt acts a .
~ e 14izeran<lilfC tabiUzer, he mosce mmon method
1 t(:) U e a Bolid flux in ert in the ar jog end. of the &tud.A
r 10M: portion 0 th tud L m It -d off quring th arcing

rio LSD tb t the fulisb d 11 gth i 1 s than the ol'lgitla)
) t18th of l11. \Td.' he amount of bUrl ff nt terial d •
1 I. lis on ~h dhmetet 0 the rod an 1 1 tb· pplt ation.
A Cntmi Jt1ti"t"t m.st b~ \t. d or tI h rod. T!lls is
a~m tim~~caU d a'n (lite s~(eI4tThis f1 1'tW· t plt'l ~cdOYt:r·
u: tua nIh. k! in p 'itlon' by a hold r or grip on tlie
9 :n ~, m fcrru' p dormlnil folloW:in~1\ In tion ';
.. CnA~ ntrnt s the ll~at f ~h " .in th w narea

Every time a new job is started or a new setup is
made, th welding procedure should be verified. This is
done by bending a stud with hammer blows to see that
the weld procedure produces a quality Weld.
Safety Considerations
The ceramic ferrule, or arc shield, shields the arc from the A 8 c D
welder and eliminates the need for the normal welding STUD WITH CURRENT FLOWS ARCING COMPLETED
hod. The welder should wear safety glasses or flash gog- WELDING TIP AND ARC FLASHES WELD
POSITIONED OFF TIP
gles with a tinted shade. For overhead and vertical position ABOVE WORK
welding above the welder's head, protective clothing is re- PLATE
quired. Gloves are recommended for all arc stud welding.

FIGURE 5-28 Sequence for percussive stud welding.
The arc stud process is limited primarily to the mild and
low-alloy steels. High-carbon and high-alloy steels should
not be stud welded unless a heat-treating operation is
performed. Stud welding can be performed on the
austenitic types of stainless steels only. It is used to weld
aluminum with gas shielding.
Variations of the Process STUD PLACED TOOL LIFTS STUD PLUNGED COMPLETED
AGAINST WELD
Th re are three variation of stud welding: STUD DRAW INTO MOLTEN
WORK ARC POOL
1. The capacitor discharge stud welding method
FIGURE 5-29 Sequence for drawn arc capacitor
2. The drawn ar capacitor discharge stud welding discharge stud welding.
m thod
3. Stud friction welding
work to draw an arc. Studs up to 1/4 in. (6. rom) diame-
ter are used.
The arc time varies from 6 to 15 milliseconds, and
then the stud is plunged into the molten pool and the
weld is completed. Flux is not required, but shielding gas
may be u ed for welding such metals as alurninurn.A p -
ctal gun, control, and pow r sour 'C are requir d f r t:hi
variation f tud welding. This method including power
source and associated equipment is similar to that used
for contact capa ttor discharge st id widing.
Industri I Use and ypic 'Applications

FIGURE5-31 Magnetic rotating arc welding.
FIGURE5-30 Stud welding of shear connectors on

bridges.
5 ..6 OTHER NONCONSUMABLE

ARC WELDING PROCESSES FIRST (Set up) SECOND (Arc starts)
Magnetic Rotating Arc Welding

Th magnetic rotating arc process is also called mag-
netically impelled arc butt (MIAB) welding. This
proces was developed in Europe in the mld-1970s and
is now Widely u ed for high-volume-production w Ided
Parts. It is an arc welding process in which an arc is cre-
ated between the butted ends of tubes and propell d THIRD (Arcing) FOURTH (Forging)
round the w ld joint by a magnetl fl 1d, followed by
FIGURE5-32 The sequence of operations for making
an ttp etnng operation .. It combtnes arc welding with
a magnetic rotating arc welding.
ga Shielding and orge welding and is appli d automat-
iCaJ!y. It J us d to weld mild nd low alloy steels and for
w Idingr~latively thin parts that are cylindrical in
hap Or nearly o. If the p rt is not y'Undri al, it must
t le~ t b similar in geomer y and 11a a continuous ad-
j~ nt jOint face. It is also called Magnetarc welding
F g\u' ..31.
h sequence of operation for making a magnet!
rotat~g afC Weldblg is SA.own inPjg'W'~;-:&2, he.parts
a;flrst clamp d in til maclune. They are thenmeved
~ ,ft til 'tlinea.dyu[\til ttl yt 1:1 h.Th.e current for the arc
f In ti ted b a higb~fr qu ncy oi harge nd the arc
tar . lmm (liat 1y the parts are S parar d t tabllsh
th· rc, A magn ti c il sllr,rol.1nd th ass mbly and
als s th ar ti rotatear .un4 theprlph ry of the mat-
it1& parts.. ,
11. ' At til prope time th parts are push ltog th t,
,'1 S ' t, ngui he t11 1'1 ~tnd rnpl te t:h (org wid.,
1" e'lY n'CC, en tune.j' rlog for a n R. ti ity,and tb
FIGURE 5-34 Example of shock absorbers welded by
magnetic rotating arc.
frGURE 5-33 Examples of welded assemblies done by

magnetic rotating arc welding.
Fii!i, p,
S-l. How does fum on uITIabJ' Ill:' allow you to make '·Il. Why ill alternatlng curt at U ed for weldtng alu- _
• weld? minum?
Whtlt is th pularity of maximum heat for tungsten What determines the stz of the tungsten lectrod ?
Arc welding? Wby is stand-off 01 tan e less ritical for PAW than
Wllu' hielUing g R pl'ovides a higbetall voJtage? GTAW?
Wh :t;(,"IO-lflrltYtoV'id..~ r oatbodlc cleanb g of the ,·1 . Explain the dfffe! nee between k yh Ie welding and
w rkpi; :? met -in mod .
- . • 6. Must th plasma. ar ror h' lways b water cool d1
Why?
Whyts .' ban arc Wi ldtug b oniing 1~ itllpor~'aUt.
lndufittiallY? . ,
Tru. l' fal .: Arc stud wIding i'a cnml 1ft tiO~l o
arc • nd orlit welding.
~l"Iain he dlit1 r n e bet "0 at. stud and tne dis-
rod, chr rs ariatio~",
. ''('rue or Fal!e:HlglI it ton st 1 ar good candi4tt
.or nul welding.
REFERENCES
1. C.E.Jackson,"The Science of Arc Welding," WeldingJour- 4. "Recommended Practices for Gas Tungsten Arc Weld-
nat, Research Supplement (April 1960): 1295 and (June ing," C5.5,American Welding Society, Miami, Fla.
1960): 2255. 5. "Recommended Practices for Plasma Arc Welding," AWS
2. J. F. Lancaster, The Physics of Welding,International In- C5.1,American Welding Society, Miami, Fla.
stitute of Welding, Pergamon Press, Elmsford, N.Y., 1984. 6. "Recommended Practices for Stud Welding," AWS C5.4,
3. E. F. Gibbs, "A Fundamental Study of the Tungsten Arc," American Welding Society, Miami, Fla.
Metal Progress (July 1960): 84.
OUTLINE
produces sufficient thermal energy, which is useful for
joining metals by fusion.
The consumable electrode welding arc (Figure 6-1)
is a steady-state condition maintained at the gap between
the tip of the melting electrode and the molten pool of
the workpiece. The electrode is continuously fed into the
arc and is melted by the heat of the arc.The molten metal
of the electrode transfers across the arc gap to the work-
piece, where it is deposited and, upon solidiflcation, be-
comes the d posited weld metal. This is a omplex
leer rode Welding operation that is not completely und rstood.
FIGURE 6-1 The consumable electrode welding arc.
·6..1 THE CONSUMABLE

..WLDINGARC
The arc in consumable electrode welding is a col- flow through the electrode extension or stickout. This
umn of electrically and thermally excited gas atoms and represents a fairly large drop based on the welding cur-
ionized metal vapors from the electrode material known rent, the diameter of the electrode, and the electrode
as plasma. This plasma conducts current ranging from a composition. It is calculated as: electrode resistance drop
few amperes to hundreds of amperes of either alternating E = 12 x R.The welding current is I and the resistance of
current or direct current of either polarity. It has a voltage the electrode wire is R for the length of the extension.
Or potential drop of 10 to 50 V. The plasma operates at a The heating of the electrode extension has a great effect
high temperature, approximately 6,000°C (l0,000°F). on burn-off rates.
The consumable electrode welding arc has a point-to- The relationship between welding current and
plane geometric configuration. Details of the arc region arc voltage is not a straight line.The curve shown in Fig-
are shown in Figure 6- 2. ure 6-3 is nonlinear and in the low-current area has a
In the metallic arc the high-temperature plasma negative slope. The major part of the curve shows that
causes the gas atoms in the arc to break down into posi- the arc voltage does increase with welding current,
tive ions and negative electrons. Electrons (negative) other conditions remaining the same. The welding cur-
move from the cathode (negative) to the anode (posi- rent can be varied over a wide range of values from at
tive). The ions (positive) move from the anode (positive) least 20 A to over 500 A direct current.
to the cathode (negative). In direct-current, reverse- The length of the arc, or the arc gap, affects the arc
~olarity (DCEP) gas metal arc welding, the common weld- voltage.A short arc, which is approximately equal to one
Ing polarity, the electrons move from the workpiece to diameter of the electrode wire, has the lowest voltage.
the electrode, and the positive ions move from the elec- The medium-length arc is in the medium-voltage range.
trode to the workpiece. The electrons carry the largest The long arc is equal to about .five times the diameter of
POrtion of current flow. Conventional current flows from the electrode and has the highest voltage.The long arc be-
the electrode to the workpiece. comes uncontrollable and will not deposit metal. If the
The potential gradient along the axis of the arc is gap becomes too. long, the arc will go out; however,
not Uniform. The three voltage regions, known as the higher currents will sustain a longer arc length. If the gap
anOde drop, the arc column or plasma drop, and the is too short, the arc will short Out. With covered elec-
4thode drop, are shown in Figure 6-2. The anode and trodes a higher current allows a shorter arc.
Cathode drop are extremely short in length but repre- 111e arc atmosphere affects arc voltage. Figure 6...4
ent the largest gradient of the voltage potential. The to- shows the effect of .argon and helium gas on the arc
t,II olrage potential in the ar is the sum of these th.ree length and arc voltage when welding on aluminum. (2)
potentiaJ drop regions/P'Ib h ore tical arc heat energy This relationship would apply to different rn tals.
aVaiJabl is gov rned by the weldlng CUr.1'nt and the This is shown in another way in Figure 6-5, which shows
"?ltag drops of these three regions. In the total arc re- the arc volts and welding current for argon, argon + 5%
gl n there is another potential drop, known as the elec- oxygen, and helium when welding steel. enWith a higher
trode resistance drop. This is the resistance to current arc voltage based on the shieldlng atmosphere, a. hotter
arc will result.This increases the thermal energy in the arc,
which wiU sUgbtly increase the melt-off rate of theelec- .
F1SURE6-2 Arc region of consumable electrode trode.This is a minor actor in determining burn-off rate "
Welding arc.
FIGURE 6-3 Arc voltage versus welding current of the

metal arc in argon.
,......--SI'!IILllING
(:IAII
...."""_-
~--~j..-.-CiO~'t"'CT
$i11'1.0ING
GAl
NOtll.l
l.IOTIlOOe'
C\;IlIIIaNT
1'1'·
'1i11~OINO
OM!
\
'J.I." ..
~C. LEN~TH118~~.(~MM) .._ _....~..-
INVILOP
" IIIIiT4NO.
DROll
. OliOI'
2 4 6 e DCEP
DCEN (REVERSE POLARITY)
(STRAIGHT POLARITY) NORMAL
POWER POWER
SOURCE SOURCE
ARGON----- + - + -
ELECTRON
FLOW
10
t
+
~
IONS
FLOW
o~--r7~r---~~~~r---T-~~~
0.600 + ANODE CATHODE -
1/4 1/2 IN.
ARC LENGTH SHALLOW OEEP
PENETRATION PENETRATION
GAS METAL ARC; GAS SHIELDED
FIGURE6-4 The effect of argon and helium gas on (a)
DCEN OCEP
the arc length and arc voltage. (STRAIGHT
POLARITY)
(REVERSE
POLARITY)
+ ANODE
E6010
POWER POWER
SOURCE SOURCe
+ - + -
+ ANODE
ARGON + 5'110OXYGEN SHALLOW DEEP
fbI COVEREO ELECTRODES
FIGURE 6-e
The polarity and heat relationship for gas
metal arc welding.
a
CU~flENT (AMpERES DCI
FIGUftE 6-$ .: Arc voltage versus welding current in but this is now the base metal, where d ep penetration
-different· gasatrnospheres,
0.6
Z 32
i
.....
a::I
-...
-I
w 0.4
~
«
a: :t 24
.....
"-
u,
a::I
-I
0 0.3 w
~
w
...«
:e a:
16
w z
0 0
0 0.2 j:
a:
tw ~
-I W
w 0 B
0.1
o 200 400 600 600 o 100 200 300 400 700
WELDING CURRENT (AMPERES DC) WELDING CURRENT (AMPERES DC)

(,) (bl
FIGURE6-7A The relationship between melt-off FIGURE6-78 The relationship between melt-off rates and
rates and polarity for submerged arc welding. polarity for gas metal arc welding.
hows a 3/32-in. (3.2-mm) diameter steel electrode wire 18

and approximately 1/4-1n. (6.3-mm) arc length. The
16
higher melting rates occurring when the electrode is
negative (straight polarity) can be up to 50% faster. DC ~ 14
SMALL-DIAMETER I
WIRE
Straight or reverse polarity or AC welding for submerged
arc is conlmon. DCEN with gas metal arc welding is not
~
~ 12
/ 17
/
..... )f/!
'ommon but is used with flux-cored arc welding. w
I- 10 /
«
Alternating-current (Ae) welding is impossible using a 51-
U\lSoidal waveform with GMAW or F AW.
Q:
14.. 8
SMALLEST.)
DIAM£TER~
7 7M~D'UM'
DIAMETE""'-;';
Welders SOOl1 Jearn that wh n using high current,
t.I.
0
.,:.
.." 6
WIRE ./
lT7 WIRE
the electrode is melted off rapidly, and when using low W

~ ,
~ ~
"
4
ellrrent, the el ctrode melts off slowly. This relates to the ~.
the~mal nergy 01' power in the arc and arc area.This ba- 2
sicrebltionsl11PtshowninFigur 6-8,appUes to the entire " .
consu:tnabl eiececde welding process. 00 100 '60 200 2$()
TIle thermal energy produce l in the arc i the pr d-
CURRENT (AMPERES DCI
'U of the welding rurr nt and the ar volt ge, It is amea-
Stlte of wor that can be p erforrn d. The thermal energy FIGURE6-8 Melt-off rate versus welding current
is us d to melt the. base m tal to provide weld penetra- (DeEP).
~on ,and·te J1lc:}.t the Wi lding de trode: in addition, it:
eats ,the atmosphere, the w Jding gun, the gas nozzle,
od tll Contact ttl'.
Th h {It r quired tom It th ·1 ctrode is a physi aJ
r tarlon"hip betw n tbe .current and th we ght of metRl
01. 'It d. This is known a.,rnolf..Off rate or bU1~n--();tf rate,
:w.l1ich is th weight of m tal melted pel"'urtit ot time.The
tlCP()stton :rate is the W igbt' of,m tal4epoSited per unit
f time and tiik "S into (;"onsideration spatt r and sla.g
~OA4 • umb r 0 flido s aij" t the mel.,.off l"ate. Ms.t
Ullpo Ulnt::is the n:teltillpoint oftll,enlaterhd. For exam.
------STEEL·WIRE SIZE
- - - MAGNESIUM·WIRESIZE
0.046
- - - - - - - ALUMINUM·WIRE SIZE
0.046
I
I 1/18
I
/ I
/
Z z
~
~ ,I I
/ ~
:E
!
,/
~ w
<
IX:
/ 0;6 1/18
~
u, IX:
~ I I ~
I /
u,
~ q
...I
W II ~
w
:E
I I I :E
/ / I , 1/18
I /,,~,/ 3/32
I
~
"---
/ /
, /
/
..,.,.- - 3/32
o 200 0400 eoo 800

CURRENT (AMPERES DC)
FIGURE6-9 Melt·off rates for different metals and electrode sizes.
FIGURE 6-10 Current density versus sizes of

electrodes .
...
1'00~~--~---+~~--~--~
I
i~~~-4~~~--~~
i'
8j 40
I 201-.~....,&-,~~~M;
a
II;
o 100
W I.PING CUMH!N'I' AMP A
ELECTRODE EXTENSION (MM) droplets, smaller than the diameter of the electrode, to
1~r---~~ 12.7 __ ~~~ __ ~ 50.S
-, ~ 63.5 droplets much larger in diameter than the electrode. The
mechanism of transferring liquid metal across the arc gap
is controlled by surface tension, the plasma jet, gravity,
and electromagnetic force, which provides the pinch ef-
1200 fect.(7) The combination of these forces acts on the
molten droplet and determines the transfer mode.
Surface tension of a liquid causes the surface of the
~
~ liquid to contract to the smallest possible area. Surface
III
d tension tends to hold the liquid drops on the end of a
w
.... melting electrode without regard to welding position .
<
a::
20 u.. This force works against the transfer of metal across the
u..
arc. It also helps keep molten metal in the weld pooJ
~
..J
w when welding in the overhead or vertical positions .
15 ::IE
The arc contains a plasma jet that flows along the
center of the arc column between the electrode and base
10
metal. Molten metal drops in flight are accelerated to-
ward the workpiece by the plasma jet. Under some con-
6 ditions the plasma jet may interfere with the transfer of
metal across the arc gap.
o Earth's gravity tends to detach the liquid drop when
2 2.5
ELECTRODE eXTENSION fiN.)
the electrode is pointed downward and is a restraining
force when the electrode is pointing upward. Gravity has
FIGURE6-11 The effect of electrode extension and a noticeable effect only at low welding currents. The dif-
welding current on the melt~off rate. ference between the mass of the molten metal droplet
and the mass of the workpiece has a gravitational effect,
which tends to pull the droplet to the larger mass, the
adapters or extended pickup tips are often used.These are workpiece. An at between two electrodes will not de-
electrOde wire guides With insulation so that the current posit metal on either one.
i introduced at th pickup tip but the extension keeps Electromagnetic force reates the pinch effect
the electrode pointed in the prop r direction. Too much force, which helps tran ster metal across the arc.when the
pt hating will reduce the penetration of the arc. Blec- welding curr nt flows through the electrode, a magnetic
,rode CXtension is useful with the flux-cored arc welding field is set up around it, Electromagnetic force act on the
Proc.e s, It preheats the electrode and drives off hydrogen liquid metal drop when it is about to detach from the elec-
that might be pr sent due to moisture of the Ingr dients trod .As the metal melts, th. cross-sectional area of tlu
Or draWing compounds. Spe ial nozzles are quite popular electr de chang s at the molten tip. The el ctromagnetic
for DC lectrode negative straight polarity) elding with force acts to detach a molten drop at the tip ofthe.elec- ,
self-shielding flux-cored electrode wires. trode.When the molten dr p is larger in diameter than the
bl' In.consumabJ lectrode at welding pro esses, a sea- electrode, the magn ti fi r tends to deta h the drop .
.~ ~ ts:r qutred for succ ssfru operation. A stable sus- \Vhen there tsa constriction, or necking-down, whicheo
t'un d metalli arc is obtained only when th melting rate curs when the molten drop is. about to detach, the mag-
?f thclectrod is qual to the feed rate of tlu lectrod netic force acts away from tb point of onstri tion in
tOto the arc. This appUes whether e ding is done mtlU'ually, both QU' ctions. Th df p, which has $tart d to sepatat ,
S With Coat d elc , d's, r m chanically with tb other will be given a pu~h, wht 1) illcrens ~stll J1\te t!)f sepnra·
on Umabl lcotrode arc welding processes.The ' ffect of ti n. Tb!s 1 known ilS the ptncb force (;figUre 6..12 .. '
filer variables, such a~ etc trade aug! n-avel 51' cd,and
I Pinch force 1.$ pt.oportionru to the' sqUare of,'tbcur:tent, . '"
Worlt POSition, are dis tlSS d later in the ch-apter. Figure6-l3 is a series f high peed movi¢ pll tograplls
6~2 METAL TRANSFER .and parts

*
f t;l w kU:n.g arc. Part a shows the start of the ~oil*
strlction, pan (b hows lroplet }l.lSt aft ,1" s 'paratioll,
) .Uld. (d) show th cit P in, fl. fUgbt.,.1' ~
ACROSS THE ARC' th lrC gap:rbrate of chao f . eldJng ute' n can t ~...
ulat.e the tr.en tia ofth pineb eff"ct. Tltis is (\ t rnl.it!#
by slope ofoutpui n~ nt 0' tliemQ 'hJn"';b\,ltmol tim-"
mat! ~Uy by pulsing th l1rt¢ttt that. COtl rols th' deta'h·
In nt of liqUid drops :ffo111 th ~ n~loHh Itrode. .
ELECTRON
FLOW
ELECTRON
FLOW
Metal transfer can be defined as «free-fligbt transfer
mode, which includes spray and globular transfer, or as a
I
/
ELECTRODE
FEED
contact atmosphere mode, which includes short-circuit
transfer. The most common way to classify metal transfer
is according to size and frequency and characteristics of
the meta] drops being transferred, There are four major
types of metal transfer:
1. Spray transfer
2. Globular transfer
I \
/
I " I II
I 116 \ \ \ ARC I/~
II' III
r
3. Short-circuiting transfer
I : I A I I I COLUMN I' I J rI ARC
/0 4. Pulsed-spray metal transfer
I 'U
IJ r 6: 1/
"
..--__,;.~,...._.---.
If
" ,"/
r-----i!!'"j.J:::z
I I, COLUMN
1/
11-' __ -,
-CATHODE} ~-CATHODE)
These types of metal transfer are well defined.
There is an intermediate form of transfer in the transi-
DeEP DCEP
tion zone between two modes where both types of
FIGURE 6-12 Electromagnetic forces acting on a transfer may occur simultaneously. The stability of the
droplet about to transfer. welding arc and the metallurgical changes in the weld
metal are dependent on the metal transfer mode. Weld-
ing procedures are grouped according to the metal
transfer mode.
Spray Transfer
The transition between the globular mode and the spray
transfer mode occurs in the mid-200·A range on carbon
steel. This is based on the size of the electrode and the
current den ity.This transition range of a mild steel elec-
trode in an atmosphere of 99% argon, 1% oxygen is
shown in FIgure 6-14.
In the range below the transition or full spray mode,
the drops of molten metal are approximately the arne
, lze as the electrode wir . In tbis transition mode, m tal
transfer is not as smooth and there is more spatter. Th
frequency of drop detachment is regular and at a higher
fr quency than g1 bular transfer.(8)
Spray transf r, omettm s alled axial spray; is a
smooth mode of trans er of molt n
metal droplets from
the nd of the el ctrode to the molten weld pool. It was
. :FIGURE,'13 High-speed photographs of metal the original type of metal transfer us d when gas metal
. transfer acrqs$ the. arc. " arc welding was initially de eloped. Spray transfer is
Shown graphtcally in lgnre )~15.
Spray transfer occurs In an inert gas atmosph re,
usu Uy ith H. mlntmum of 80' II argon shieJdu g gas. he
dropl ts 'rossingthe arc are small r in dtamet r ban the
ele 'trod The tip of the te 'tr<>d .is 1 .tnt d.tr 0 curs at
1
a rehttive1y hif,Th current density,auQ there is amtrumum

curl' at lev; 1J1 f ea h electrode size, AS tll urren t rn-
reas s, the drop tze deer as ~ an
t the frequ nc of
drops .In 'rea. es, The drops have an axial flow, which
In 'ans that they ollowih ntcrfln f t1 I ctrod
and ray 1 tirectly t the weld po L " re is no short clr-
uiting in s"ray tnmstl r.TIle e~u ttomagn:ed orees axe
ttl d()ltItn~nt f01' s ue to t'f I'll h Ctltl"ent denslty. The'
pin n e f '~on thtnolt ~ntip f rhe l ctt' d physi un
limJ.ts thsiz, of h. mollen tTl tal dropl t th~u 'all 'orm.
\ Th.erefol'c,9tJ1ysmatldrc>plets tWiONl1e(1) wf ich transfcl'
300 ..-
..- ..- 15
--
--- _'"
o
UJ
!;(2 ..- ..-
..- "-\
,,
g: ~ RATE
~ x
~200 r\ 10 (').
e. Z
rt
a: VOLUME/' t-- TRANSITION CURRENT
'-'
w
UJ
u.. ::2
.::>
CJ)
z ....J
~ o
g: 100 5
>
CJ)
u..
~~!\
0.
o 1/16" D. MILD STEEL o
ARGON + 1% OXYGEN a:
~ DC EP 1/4" ARC c
~
Ir I
o ~--- I o
o 100 200 300 400 . 500 600
DC EP CURENT (AMPERES)
FIGURE 6-14 Transition current related to drop size

and frequency, FIGURE 6-16 Globular transfer mode.
FIGURE 6-17 High-speedphotos of short arc transfer

mode.
spatter increases. Thts is known as rotationalS;J1raji

transfer. The solution to this is to u e a larg r-diamet r
electrode or deere s the urr nt. '
a 1'0 ' the ar a relati ely high frequency, With spray
~~n. fer th d position rate and ffi i ncy is relatt ely
bt~h, h at ts smooth, stab} ,and tiff, and tl w let Globular Transfer
,ad ha a nt e appearancennd a good wash into the .
Stees, .
h' n pray,tmllsf r a large amount of heat Is.mvolved,
: lch Create' a large weld pool wtth g d pen tration
i,h c. n b difficult to ontrol. "hus, normal spray tran "
tis lWlired ro th fiat and ltorizonral posittons and t8110t
liS d t 'Weld thin. materials. A<rCHr:r I1tis in 'ftlsed be.
Y?fU:iaK! lspr4¥ tr'dnsfer range,tl1 liae ofmeta:t dropsbe-
I ~nSto I' tat) P\Pfd1y ab the t xis lltth . 1 cu' d I still of
eaV!ll.g
t.
fron1 th . til)
f
tJ e c1, .l!Qd·. As Clll"fcnt i' In~
. a~ed :ftU'tJ-ler,tl} . dJ~1'11f;terof rota-lion 1.n r~aSe, ~tn4
Arcs in a CO2 atmosphere are longer than those in an
argon atmosphere, resulting in a higher voltage. TIle
cathode jet is involved and the electrode is positive (an-
odej.The cathode [et originates from the workpiece (cath-
ode) and actually supports the molten drop of metal on the
tip of the electrode. TI1e molten globule can grow in size
until its diam ter reaches 1J1 to 3 times the diameter of the w
electrode, du to this repelling force. When the globule ~

o
grows on the tip of the electrode, it takes on unusual >
shapes and moves around on the tip of the electrode. It

epa rates from the electrode and is transferred across the o
arc by electromagnetic and gravity forces. The globule
transfers across the arc in an irregular path. It changes its ir-
regular shape during flight and sometimes has a rotating
monon. The irregular shape, motion, and flight direction
sometimes cause the globule to reconnect with the elec-
trode and touch the work as well. This causes a short cir-
cuit, which momentarily extinguishes the arc. In the
FIGURE 6-18 Short-circuiting transfer mechanism.
globular transfer mode, the drop splashes into the weld
pool and produces much more spatter than spray transfer.
The patter iome from the "Violentmolten pool as well as
sion of the weld pool, which draws the molten metal of
from the metal tran ferring across the arc.Th frequency of
the electrode tip into the molten weld pool. The elec-
globular detachment and flight across the arc is random
trode will then separate from the ~ld pool and reestab-
but of r lativcJy low frequency. It takes place at a relatively
lish an arc (Figure 6-18).
low current density.The result.ing welding deposit is not as
Occasionally when the electrode contacts the weld
smooth as that produced by spray tr'a nsfer. It is used pri-
pool, the electrode will act like a fuse and literally ex-
marily in rh flat and horizontal positions for welding steel.
plode, due to the high current density. The explosion
A. variation of globular transfer is known as the buried arc.
reestablishes the arc. The e conditions continue at a ran-
This is Obtained by increasing welding curr nt and adjust-
dom frequency. These arc outag s occur so rapidly that
ing th weldtng voltage 80 that the tip of the electrode is
they ar not noticed by the human eye.
below th surmc of the molten weld pool. The arc is
The short-circuiting mode of metal transferallows
ithln a cavity g aerated by the force of the arc. It 0 curs
all-position welding and the welding of thin materials. It is
in a a arc atmosph re and provides de p penetration.
obtained with specific welding parameters normally lim-
Spatr risrt."<luced. It is used only in th .flat po loon and is
ited to a maximum of 200A DCEP on a O.035·in.(O.9·mm)
usefulwh .n nutking ar spot w 1d81nheavy ste 'I sections.
steel electrode and CO2 or 75% arg >.n-2S%02 hielding
gas. It uses a onstant-voltag (J V) P w r source with the
Short..Circuiting lransfer corr t impedan e, which provides the proper rate of tn-
crease of current d lri.ng the short circuit to maintain a sta-
ble ax . The short-eire liting mod of metal transf; r will
ometime caui e cold lap defects in the w ld and may cre-
ate undercurtmg if the proper te hnlque is not employed,
Th short- Ircutttng mode is norrnalfy used With ...-rl h
shi kUng atmaspb 'res and is b. i ally used on f rrou
metal .It cann t us don nom rfOUS m tal .
Th re is a small amount Qf spatt r In oive l; how ..
. vet, .the weld pool is relatively small ami easUycon~
trolled. Bas m tal pen(tr.ttiOIl· can be· 'contl: fled by
t chnlql.lc.l1'us. mode of m tal ranster"ita th ability tJ
hri fg gap b -tWe '"n. pi ' parts that are wic.!. r than th •
thi '1m ss 0 th .01 taL
METAL TRANSITION
TRANSFER V CURRENT
Ip
I-tp-I/ ~g /
a. ----- ---- --------- --- --------
UJ
o
o
t-
Z
UJ
cr:
cr:
::::> tc-
o
......
-.
+--
I "
I / ,_ ....\
\ -- t I r-
TIME
Ip - Peak Current (Pulse Amplitude)
tp-Time @ Peak (Pulse Width)
~ Ie - Background Current
FIGURE6-19 Pulsed-spray transfer mode. t, - Time @ Background
FIGURE 6-20 Pulsed arc transfer power source output

waveform.
~bit it from being used for some applications. The transi-
tion current for spray transfer is relatively high, which
cre.'ltes a large molten metal weld pool and deep pene-
tration. Spray transfer could not be used when welding
on thin materials, and the large weld pool could not be
~~~troUed when welding in the vertical or overhead po- 360
lbon.In the late 19605,J. C. Needham of Great Britain de- 8

:tl'Inined that a high short peak or pulse of current would ~ TRANSITION 300
Z SPRAY ZONt .....
t"dnsferone drop of metal a 'fOSS the arc.This was named i z
th PUlsed-spray metal transfer mode. This technique
II:
t e
t 250 !
Z
~rOduces droplets of approxnnar Iy the same or mailer .::
! 0
0
lZ than the electr de diameter. This mod of metal 200 ~
transfl r i hown in Figure 6-19. ~ '85
,,
II)
0 4
w rD··
w
The mechanism of pulsed-spray metal transfer is w ~ 150 .....
bas d on a sp cia1 pulsed waveform of the welding cur-
rent, hown in Pigur 6-20,
U.
1.1.1
II:
i
GLOBULAR
, /
100
1.1.1
II:
i
t TIle CUrrent output j put ed at high speed from a low 2
a high
.IS ,1.._. '
urrent p ak,known as jJeak urrent (7,),whi
,-
h 60
t: lluu'V'cthe transition curt nt, sb.ownby Figur 6..21,Th
lJ11 period for tile leak ' urrent is known as peak time
(fIJ. Som~thn s all "" pul ed undt», The urrent le 1 o 100200 100
AMPERe DC (ELECTRODE POSITIVE)
~h ,r Ill, inlng time is til b~\ckgrOlU: 4 currellt I/J),
, n Wn S low.le1. el urrent. Th backgr u.nd :urrent i'
f
FIGURE 6-21 Transition zone between spray and
\If lctem t m;~ntaln the arc. Tl e pm 1ng wav form globular modes.
3~~tin 1 s ata constt t .1 t nlannet af aft' .quency ~lg of
to about 00 p llsesper sand. TI1 l?uIsed-spray
; Ode ''''Hows the- u .of larg r-dhlmetere]cctr d wi:rc.
~ au(~WSWelding () thJn mat rials in all positi< ns. It an
Used.to w Id tno 't m t Is. It u, esat 1 ast 85% to 90%
~~8rm'ri h shi Idlt1g g. with mixtur' 'of 1 lium, hy-
n
1s~g fl, 0 yg fl, l)t O~, allows the \1 e of froul 5% to
tn ~. Oa tn argon when welding mJld t-iteeJ.It lS ;f\0J11·
tend d Or 11igh-quallty pt,(~ i i n d.ding for s 'miau~ ,
\1 °llat ' nppU ~ltion r 1tle 'h. ni2ati<>n· or when. robotic
~ di g is 'U <.I,
atmospheres and electrodes of various materials and wire feeder work together to provide the proper welding
sizes. The pulsed-spray metal transfer mode gives spray procedure.The power source, and in some cases the wire
transfer chara teristics at a much lower average current. feeder, are controlled by a microprocessor with appro-
This reduces penetration and the size of the molten weld priate software.The peak pulse current, the pulse width,
pool and allows puddle control. and the frequency of pulsing and waveshape of the pulse
'Ii obtain a small controllable weld pool and excel- are coordinated and controlled by a single knob that in-
lent weld appearance required more developmental dicates average current. Software programs provide a
work.The development of the inverter power source con- welding procedure based on specific electrode metal and
trolled by a microprocessor provides a precisely regulated size and shielding gas.These can be dialed in and/or mod-
pulsing system. This research provided a better under- ified as requtred.
standing of the variables involved in pulsed-spray welding There are several concepts of synergic welding
frequencies, pulse shapes, pulse amplitude, and pulse with matched inverter power sources and wire feeders.
width. Pulsed-spray metal transfer is now a practical and In one case, the frequency of pulsing remains the same
increasingly popular method of gas metal arc welding. with a maximum of peak pulse current, and the back-
P ak Current (Jp) Also known aspulse amplttude.This ground current varies. In the other case, the pulsing fre-
is above the transition current and takes the arc into the quency varies but the background current remains the
spray transfer mode. It controls the metal droplet size and same.The wire feeder must be coordinated with the out-
provides shorter arc lengths with higher peak currents. If put of the power source. Some power sources have a sub-
the arc is too long, droplets become too large and may program that provides the pulsed waveform for each
cause droplets to be ejected in front of the weld pool or pulse. This waveform can be changed for different appli-
continuou spraying of fine spatter in all directions. If the cations based on the filler metal type, size, and shielding
arc length is too short, it takes more than one pulse to trans. gas atmosphere. The advantage of this type of system is to
fer the droplets, causing a more globular type of transfer. provide a controllable weld pool with a simple-to-control
power source and wire feeder. More information on
Peak Time (tp) Also known as pulse toidtb, This con- pulsed-spray welding is given in Chapter 10.
trols the m til droplet size and high peak current with In the original pulsed-spray system, the frequency
short peak tim s and in reases penetration. If the tim pe- of peak current pulses was at utility line frequency or
riod i too long, droplet size becomes too large or more double the utility line frequency, normally at 50 or 60
than one drop will transfer p r pulse. This may also cause pulses per second, or 100 or 120 pulses per second. The
droplets to b ej t d in front of the weld pool. pulse current duration was fixed and related to the line
frequency. 111e background current had to be balanced
with th peak current and the electrode feed speed in Of-
der to obtain good arc stability, which in turn provided
the proper welding power and proper bead shape. The
rna hines that pulsed at line or double line frequency
never becam popular.
Metal Transfer: Other Proc sses

Metal tran fer for flux-cored arc welding is diff tent
when th ~ ore is filled with mtnerals for atmosphere con"
tro! and for fluxing than when m tal and £ rrou atloys
- ar ~ d.,be sheath rout t m tal part of the el tr de
card es the wIding urrent.ArCing occurs at th metallic
sheath. which startsmelung.Thecoe materi 1melts from
th he.1: generated by the arc. The e~e trodt; e1d; nslon
po!t~on is pt heat rd,which cans s smoother metal tran ~
ft. Flu also tran ers acres tIt at and someum 5
I
b.tid,g s the gap.Th type of tntnsf{~rd s not r "lat to the

weldtng p oc dure wht h Is larg ly ba ed on 1- trode
I
dl. rn t r, urrent, and oltage,

l'be m tal ransf r . to s th r rc 'Wtth sl.lbmerg d _
~r _w Joing i5 hldcJen ro~ tL\ httrrmn eye. It h soe n
-J.u,n 'd1how ver,and Jj slmUnrto the t os fln gas metal
arc W' Jdlng. '1'11 m ·tal tral1sfi r moo (iSs impo
tatc" for subm Ii d. rc weldlnB;,
The metal transfer across the arc with covered elec-
trodes is somewhat different since several other factors
are involved. With a larger-diameter electrode, the arc does
not constantly cover the entire cross-section or end of the
Core wire. The slag formed from the melting of the elec-
trode coating covers a portion of the tip of the core wire.
This slag and the atmosphere created by the burning of
the coating affects the metal transfer. The drop size can be
rather large up to the diameter of the core wire, or small,
much smaller than the core wire diameter. With heavy-
Coated lime base (EXX15) electrodes, the metal transfer
has fairly large, coarse drops with short circuits. With the
low hydrogen iron powder type (EXX18) and the cellu-
lOse CEXXIO and 11) electrodes, relatively large drop
~sfer occurs.With rutile-type (EXX12) electrodes, rela-
tlvely fine drop transfer occurs. The droplets are covered
With flux during the flight across the arc.
MOTION
The Weld Pool

The weld pool Is the localized volume of molten metal in
a Weld prior to its solidification as weld metal and is
hown in Figure 6-22.This shows the depth of penetra-
tion D, the width W, and the length L. It is also called the
Weld Puddle and is present when using a consumable
FIGURE6-22 Weld pool for consumable electrode.
electrOde arc welding process. It is similar but not exactly
the same when using shielded metal, gas metal, or flux-
ored arc welding. Welders learning manual or semiauto-
matic arc welding must first learn how to control the H (joules per linear measurement per minute =
PUcldle or molten weld metal. In machine or automated E (volts) x /(amperes) X 60
w Idlng, Control circuit sensors and motion systems are
deSigned to control the molt n weld metal.All of the vari- s (speed in the line r measure per minute)
ables required to develop a welding procedure, including
the mOde of metal transfer, must be specified with ac-
ceptable values to produce a controllable weld pool. The
weld pool Is compllcated, and many aspects must be con-
sidered fr m different points of view.
Controlling the weld pool It rgely Involv s the
P~~er source and wire feeder adjustments and arc rna-
11tJ.)Uiation, particularty in vertical position or overhead
POSition welding. If the weld pool is too large, gntVity will
Cau t1 molter met; 1to run out and damage th weld.
If th W Id P 01 Is too d cp. it will caus burn-through on
tlllon r mat nals. However, if the weld p )01 is not large
n. ugh, a. weld may not b made. For thin materials
Weld d at htghspe d. the volume of t11 lten metal ts
smau, aJ:u:l it WiD b;eeze aim' st tmrnedtat Iy and produce
a 11igl\~q\:laUty weld.Th p W l' sOUJ'c dynamic respons
, , 'VilJ als affect weld pool stability,
'111 fa t that th w. Jd pool is onstantly m vlug is
L n her co.mpli • tit:l~. otlCJition.The heat input trom arc
UII ~rgytllust b~ ~att1ough tc:> ttl It the bas Jn~tel=tl
ndr tli arc. Th1 del ends on, the total energy m th .
w Id, whi h an b '11 easured.The mo t c mmoo'w:ty is
:0 nl lUat tn ' n r.gy per unit . llgth Oi) apr minute
)~L ' Th " follow,J:ng ~ rnllllais used: ,.' '
or higher-alloy steels. Another factor relates to the alloy-
ELECTRODE COVERING---......
ing in the weld pool, especially if the analysis of the weld-
ing rod is different from the base metal. These factors and
their relationship to the weld pool wi1Jbe covered more
SHIELDING ATMOSPHERE\
thoroughly later in the book.
The welder can use the molten weld pool as an in- WELD POOL
dicator for proper adjustment of variables and arc ma-

nipulation, In automatic welding, sensors can be used to WELD PENETRATION
view the molten weld pool to control the variables dur- METAL DEPTH
ing welding. TIle depth and width of the molten pool are
extremely important for a high-quality weld.
The molten weld pool also indicates the possibility -- DIRECTION OF WELDING ---
of specific defects. Ever-increasing speed requirements FIGURE 6-23 Shielded metal arc welding process
to make the welds more quickly can reveal the tendency diagram. Courtesy of Welding Inspection Technology,
for undercutting and humping. Humping consists of a American Welding Society.
regular series f swellings in the weld bead. These po-
tential defects occur at speeds around or exceeding 50
SMAW is also known as stick electrode welding and
in./min. In undercutting, the width of the groove gouged
as manual metal arc welding. Figure 6-23 shows this
out by the arc depends on the arc energy, particularly
popular process.
the arc voltage. Undercutting occurs when the weld
metal solidifies too rapidly before the groove is com-
pletely filled. Solidification starts at the edge of the Principles of Operation
molten metal before It has spread out to the edges of the The shielded metal arc welding process, shown in
groove.This is based on speed and influenced by the flu- Figure 6-23, consists of an arc between a covered elec-
idity of the molt n metal and the wettabillty of the trode and the base metal. The arc is initiated by touch-
molten steel, WettabiUty depends on the relationship of ing the electrode momentarily to the workpiece. The
the surface tension forces involved. The surface tension heat of the arc melts the surface of the base metal to
of the metal oxides are appreciably lower than the sur- form a molten pool. The metal melted from the elec-
face tension of the pure metal. Humping occurs at the trode is transferred across the arc into the molten pool.
high· r speeds and is related to the angle of the electrode When it solidifies it becomes the deposited weld metal.
and the amount of oxygen avatlabt either through The molten pool, ometime called th weld puddle,
sht Jding gas or o. ttng on the base metal. More infor- must I e properly controlled for successful application
mation '0.11 erning the e p tennal defe t i found in of the SMAW process. The size of th weld pool and the
R fetence(f!:»). depth of penetration determine the mas of molten
metal und 1- the onrrol of the welder. If the current is
too high, th • d pth of penetration wUI be ex essive and
6.. SHIELDED METAL the volume of molten weld metal will become uncon-
trollable. A higher peed of trav 1redu s the size of the
ARC·WELDING molten w Id p ol.Wben welds are n t mad in the flat
POSition, the molten metal may run-out of the pool and
reate problems. Adjusting t11 welding variables and
manipulating til arc allow the w ld r to control the
mol en rn _tal po 1 prop rly, Th w Id m tal d p sit is
o red by a slag rom til 1 ctrode ov rtng.The ar
in. the Immediate arc rrea is envelo ed by aa.atmo-
s:ph re of protective gas produced by the di intcgr'J.tion
. f th el ctrod oaring, M st of tb Iectrod e is
tro 1)sf..fret! a ros .th arc; howev t, small parncl s s-
ap from th • w 1<1 ar a as sp: tt r.'
Adv nt g sand MaJor·Us S

T~b sh1elct d metal ate wcldttlgprm;;e s t, em of ill .
most 1;')op lIar tl C W J Jnf; pm • ·S, (t h.: n axiJl\um
n JbU.i 1 d • n w ld many m t~S in: all pOSition fronl
. ,ncar 1l1ij:)jn111t1ltQ rnk.1tfmum tnicknt:sS,Th'JuVi stmt,mt for
I - • .
eqUipment is relatively small. It is used in manufacturing
Base Metal Thickness Range
and in field work for construction and maintenance.
The range of thickness of base metal normally welded is
shown in Figure 6-25. The minimum thickness that can
Welding Position Capabilities be welded is largely dependent on the skill of the welder.
Steel of 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) can be welded by a skilled
This process has all-position capabilities (Figure 6-24).
welder. Steel up to 1/4 in. (6.4 rnm) can be welded with-
Welding in the horizontal, vertical, and overhead posi-
out a groove if sufficient root opening is provided.
tions depends on the type and size of the electrode, the
Thicker material requires joint preparation and multiple
welding current, and the skill of the welder.
passes. The largest fillet weld that can normally be made
in one pass in the horizontal position is 5/16 in. (8 mm).
Weldable Metals In the vertical position larger fillets can be made; how-
ever, quality deteriorates if fillets are made over 3/8 in.
This process can be used to weld steels and some of the
(10 mm) in a single pass. Maximum thickness is practi-
nOnferrous metals. Its major use is 'for joining steels, in-
cally unlimited but requires a multiple-pass technique.
ClUdinglow-carbon or mild steels, low-alloy steels, high-
Strength steels, quenched and tempered steels, high-alloy
Steels, stainless steels, and corrosion-resistant steels, and Joint Design
for welding cast iron and malleable irons. It is used for When welding materials thicker than 1/8 in. (3.2 rum),
welding nickel and nickel alloys and to a lesser degree for space must be made available to deposit the weld metal.
Welding copper and some copper alloys. It can be, but Various weld groove designs are used but the fillet is the
ntrely is, used for welding aluminum. It is not used for most common weld made. Complete information on joint
Welding magnesium, the precious metals, or the refrac- design is given in Chapter 19.
tory metals. Figure 1-3 in Chapter 1 shows the weldable
base metals. Shielded metal arc welding is also used for
SUrfacing. Welding Circuit
Figure 6-26 shows the ctrcutt diagram for shieldedmetal
arc welding. It shows the welding cables used to conduct
Method of Application the welding current from the power source to th.e arc.
The normal method of applying SMAW is the manual The electrode lead forms one side of th clrcutt and the
o.tA) m.ethod. This is the most common method and rep- work lead is the other side of the clrcuit. TIley are at-
resents 99% of all use of the process. Semlautomatic (SA) tached to the termtnals of the welding machine. Welding
and lllechanized (ME) methods are not used. The auto- can be accomplished with either alternating-current (AC)
:atk (AU) method, called gravity welding, is used but or direct-current electrode negative (DCEN), straight po-
as limited applications and is no longer popular. larity, or electrode positive (DCEP)reverse polattty,
Equipment Required
FlGURE 6-24 Shielded metal arc welding position
capabilities diagram.
A r
Single pass no prep.

inch .005 .015 .062 .125
mm .13 .4 1.6 3.2

3/16
4.8
1/4
6.4
3/8
10
1/2
12.7
3/4
19
1
25
2
51
4
102
8
203
Single pass prep.
Multi pass
FIGURE6-25 Base metal Fillets-single pass

thickness range for SMAW.
fiGURE 6-26 Shielded metal arc welding process

circuit diagram. Courtesy of Welding Inspection
Technology, American Welding Society.
FIGURE6-27 Shielded metal arc welding electrode
holders. Courtesy of AWS Welding Journal.
effie work is based on the electrode u blllty an 1the com"

.posluon and 1'1' perties of the deposited weld met 1. To
properly sele t a electrod ,it' necess ary to understand
the function. of th coating, the basts of specifymg, the us-
•bllit;y factors, and the deposited weld metal prop rues.
ommodate Th oartng n the Iectrod Pfi iV des:
1! Gas from th decompostnor, of certain ilgredients

of the oatingtoshl Id tIle ,fe. :rom theatmQsphere .
2. 0 oxldiz rs for scav ngJns and ,Ptltifytng tl· de-
posited weld met.al
•• S1a arm rsto prote ~t th dep sit d w ld metal
with stag ft m a m sph rJ 0 !datton
4. !ortizlng elements fo make rn - at ,.more stable and
toop. tate With alt fWdU:ng 'urrnt
S. All ying elements t . ")roy,d spe jal haea t ris res
.to t1 4epo . t 'd Wi ld m tal
,6. IJ!On~oWdertoitnproveprodllCtiviJy' fthe-ele u:ode '
Before the late 1920s, bare or lightly coated elec-
Mild Stael and Electrode (Note:
trodes were used. They were more difficult to use and did Suffix DeSignators Are Normally
not produce high-quality weld metal, so they are no Example E 60 1 1 Not Used On Mild Steel Electrodes)
longer used. Min. Tensile Positional Electrode Suffix Designator
(In KSI) Usability Covering "TYpe Supplemental
Welding electrodes have been divided into cate-
60 XX XX1X XX10 -A1
gories based on composition. More information about
Flat XXX1 -B1
electrodes-manufacturing, storage, and so on-is given
Vertfcal
in Chapter 13. 70 XX
Overhead XXX2 -B2
The American Welding Society has established a sys- Horizontal
XXX3 -B2L
tem for identifying and specifying the different types of 80 XX
XXX4 ·B3
electrodes(l1,12) (Figure 6-28). The mild steel and low-
alloy steel-covered electrodes are prefixed by the letter E, XX2X XXX5 ·B4L
foUOwed by a four- or five-digit number. The prefix E 90 XX Horizontal-FlUet

Flat XXX6
llleans electrode.
XXX7
The first two (or three) digits indicate the tensile 100 XX -C3
Strength in thousand pounds per square inch (ksl) of the XXX8
-01
depOSited weld metal. The third (or fourth) digit indi- XX4X
XXX9
110 XX Flat ·02 .
Cates three things: the position in which the electrodes
Overhead XX20
are Usable, the type of covering, and the welding current HoriZontal
-G
tyPe. TIle third digit indicates positional usability with 120 XX Vertical-Down XX24
M
No.l-lueanillg all positions, flat, horizontal, vertical, and XX27
OVerhead_and No. 2-meanillg horizontal fillet and flat.
XX28
There is no No.3 positional usability. The No.4 means all
X 8
POsitions and vertical down. The fourth (or fl. h) digit is
an indication of the electrode covering type.This also re- Example E 80 1 a C2 LOw-Alloy Steel and Electrode
lates to the type of welding current that can be em- FIGURE 6-28 Shielded metal arc welding electrode
Ployed.The exact meaning of each code number is given system.
in table 6-1. Note that when the fourth (or fifth) cUgitis
zeto, the type of coating and the current to use is deter-
1ll1ned by the third digit. For example, E601 0 indicates
ceUulos sodium coating and operates on DC electrode The base metal must be identified so that its me-
POsitive, while E6020 indicates a high iron oxide coating chanlcal properttes and composmon are known. If the
that operat S onAC and D ,while an E7018 has an iron base metal is mild st el, select any E60XX ele trode be-
POWder low hydrogen coating and operates on DC elec- cause its deposited metal will overmatch mechanical
trOd Positive or on AC, To identify electrodes, each is properties.
type marked or print d With the identifying number The following will help in sele, ttng the proper
hown by Figure 6-29. . electrodes:
Th fifth (or sixth digit, which follows a dash, is
knOWn as a suffix de lgnat r supplemental number. It is
usually a letter followed by a number, This designates th
Cl\ewical ompositi.on of the undiluted weld metal
pr duced. by the el ctrode.Jt is used for lo -alloy steel
elect 0 s. Th meaning of exact suffix designator sup- •
. piemcntal numb 1'5 i giv: n in Figur 16w1.
o Anoth r,or optional, upplemental d signation may
be etnployed for low.hydl'o.sen Iectrcdes.Thls is shown
by th . letter H, follow d by a numb t; usually 4, 8, or 16.
~t itldica.tes tb average value ofH2• not to d: 100 •
:g,.; n S Qf dC_POSied III ta1.111 numb r is th 11foUow d by
the letter R, whl.ch in,dlc. tes that th Je trod rn ts th
~ ttircments f th absot'b d. m.oistUl' test for all low-
h.Ydrogen cl 'ctrode: . .'
•
Tbe me 'htmlcltl prop rti's ofthedeposil~d weld
o III tal mU5t equal or Jt \d those ofth ~baS :rnetal.\~ 1d
~l t I 1llUSt • Iso h~tV1 appfO~tla.t Iy tJ~e rune composi~
Ion and;)'l ySical p:OO,p-erti s. .'
TABLE 6-1 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING ELECTRODE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM FOR MILD AND Low ALLOY STEEL ELECTRODES
First Two or Three Digits tndicates Tensile Strength and Other Mechanical Properties
Minimum Tensile Strength Minimum Yield Strength
AWS
Classificationa Minimum
ksi MPa ksi MPa Elongation (%)
E60XX
17
E70XX 70 450 57 390 22,25
E80XX 80 550 67 460 16,19,24
E90XX 90 620 77 530 14,17,24
EIOOXX 100 690 87 600 13, 16, 20
EIIOXX 110 760 97 670 15, 20
E120XX 120 830 107 740 14, 18
8110XX and 120XX refer to the low-hydrogen type of coating only.
Third (or) fourth Digit, Indicates the Walding Position Usability

.': '.
Classification Flat (F) Horizontal (H) Vertical (V) Overhead (OH)

EXXIX Yes Yes Yes Yes
EXX2X Yes Fillet No No
EXX4X Yes Yes Down Yes
EJectrode Covering Type and Current Used
Weldlng- Approximate
Type of Covering Position Arc Type Iron Powder (%)
DCEP Celtulose-sodiurn All Digging 0-10
AC and DeEP Cellulose-potassium All Digging 0
AC and DCEN Ruti le~sodium All Medium 0~10
AC and DC Rutile-potassium All Light 0-10
AC and DC Iron oxide rutile-potassium All Medium 0-10
AC and DC High iron oxide F, Hf Medium 0
ACand DC High iron oxide F, H Hi speed 0-10
:.,_"
AC .artd DC Jronoxl,de-iron powder F, Hf Medium 50
AC and DC·, . Riitile-Iron powder All Light 25-40
.DECP Low hydrogen~sodium All Medium 0,
AC and Deep Low hydrogen-potassium All Medium 0
ACand'PCEP L.ow hydrogan.potassium-iron powder All Medium 25-40
'OCEP tew hydrogen-iron powder All Medium 10-:-25
Ac arid,DC RutiliHron powder F, Hf Light ., 50
'Ab andOC Iren oxitle·jrol1,powder "Po Hf Medium 50
AC' and DeEP 40W hydrogen-potassium·jron powder F, Hf Medium 5Q
All Medium· 25-40
FIGURE 6-29 Shielded metal
arc welding electrode system.
TABLE 6-2 SHIELDEDMETAL ARC WELDING ELECTRODEAS WELDEDMECHANICALPROPERTIES
Minimum Minimum
Tensile Yield Strength
Strength at 0.2% Offset
AWS Radiographic Minimum v-Notcn
Classification ksi MPa ksi MPa Elongation (%) Standard AWS Grade Im1iactll (ftlb)
E6010 62 430 50 340 22 2 20 at -20C!F

E6011 62 430 50 340 22 2 20 at -20C!F
E6012 67 460 55 380 17 Not required Not required
E6013 67 460 55 380 17 2 Not required
E6020 62 430 50 340 20 1 Not required
E6022 67 460 Not required Not required Not required Not required
E6027 62 430 50 340 20 2 20 at -20C!F
E7014 72 500 60 420 17 2 Not required
E7015 72 500 60 420 22 1 20 at -20°F
E7016 72 500 60 420 22 1 20 at -20°F
0018 72 500 60 420 22 1 20 at -20°F
E7024 72 500 60 420 22 2 Not required
E7027 72 500 60 420 22 2 20 at -20 F Q
0028 72 500 60 420 22 2 20 at -20°F

E7048 72 500 60 420 22 1 20 at -20<lF
a20 ft-lb at -20°F == 27 joules at -29°e and 20 ft-lb at OaF := 27 joules at -18°e.
• E)016 replaced th E6015 and is used for ACas

, weUasD .
• E6018 is a low-hydrogen electrode that has largely re-
pIa ed both the E6015 and E6016 electrode. It has
. increased 1 oducttvity due to the addttton of iron
powd r. It h., xcell nt impact properties and is
used to weld nl~t1lylow-alloyand hard-to-weld steels,
• E602 is similar to the E6012 but has hjgher pro-
. ductivity due to the addition ofirou' Oxide: It is r. "
strict d to theft t or horizontal fill t position.
• E6028 is similar to th E 0 IS but with a much
bigh~' depositi n rate due to an in 'f as d amount
of Iron powd 1..It is used In the flat posidon and for
..Q.otiZQO:tal fillet.
, 111e ~tbtidged spe"ifi attot15 fat' arbon t 1·
;0. I. arc wefdmg 1 trod s at sh WIl In 'fable ..,2,
..t.
. nl$' {)tovtles th A~ S ¢lassUi ~don, th radiogtllphiC stan-
<Jettd,tll ..mechrurl alpropcrtr; ,and alsotbe mittimUmV~
These describe the analysis of the deposit weld metal and
help make the selection of the electrode to match the
Deposition Rates
compo ition of low-alloy base metal. These suffixes are The melting rate of the electrode is related to the weld-
explained in Figure 16-1, which includes much data for ing current. A portion of the arc energy is used to melt
welding the alloy steels. the surface of the base metal and a portion to melt the
electrode. The electrode coating also affects deposition
Welding Position Electrodes are designed to be used rates. The iron oxide types and iron powder types have
in specific positions.The third (or fourth) digit of the elec- higher deposition rates.
trode classification indicates the welding position that The melting rate to current is a fairly direct rela-
can be used. Match the electrode to the welding position tionship (Figure 6-31). With higher current, the current
to be encountered. density in the electrode increases and this increases the
melting rate, which increases the deposition rate. Elec-
Welding Current Some electrodes are designed to op-
trode size is determined by the job, the welding position,
erate best with direct current (DC), and others operate
the joint detail, and the skill of the welder.
best with alternating current CAe). Some will operate on
either. The last two digits together indicate welding cur-
rent usability. Select the electrode to match the type of
Quality of Welds
power source to be used.
The quality of the weld depends on the design of the
Joint Design and Fitup Welding electrodes are de- joint, the electrode, the technique, and the skill of the
signed with a digging, medium, or soft arc for deep, welder. If joint details are varied greatly from established
medium, or light penetration. The last two digits of the design details, lower quality can result. The fitup of joints
elasslftcation taken together also indicate this factor. must match the design. Some electrodes deposit higher-
Deep penetrating electrodes with a digging arc should quality weld metal than others, based on their specifi-
be "used when edg s are not beveled or fitup is tight; cations. See Figure 6-32 for weld appearance and
light penetrating ele trodes with a soft arc are required variables,
when welding on thin material or when root openings
are too Wide.
Weld Schedules
S rvtce Conditions or Specifications or weld- Weld chedules are tables of operating parameters that
ment subject to sev .I'C service conditi ns, such as low will provide hlgh-quality welds under normal conditions.
temp ratur ,high temperatur .or shock loading, select Strict welding schedules are not as important for manual
th ~ 1 ctrode em t match s base metal composition, due- shielded metal arc welding as for sernlautomatlc and auto-
tiU.ty, and impa 't reslstan prop rues.The 1 w-hydrogen matic welding for several reasons. First, in manual welding
types should be used, the welder controls welding conditions more by the ma-
nipulation of the arc than in any of the other arc welding
pr cesses.The welder directly control .the arc oltage and
travel speed and indirectly the welding Current. Second, in
shi ld d m tal ar welding, meter r ading are rarely used
for the duplication of jobs. R commended welding condl-
ncns for the different types Of e1 trodes.ate.deemed suf- .
fi tent for most operations crable 6 ..3). H wever, when
more complete Informati n is n ded, e the data, pro-
vided in Figure 6-33. Th se tings gf' en in rhes tables ar
not necessarily the only welding s ttings that can be us d
under every condition. For hi.gh~production walk. th cur-
r nr ettin~ ould be inCJ;eas d COfll;h;1ernbly over those.
shown. S 1 h factors as w ·ld appeatan e. welder skill, "nd
quality I. vel wiU allow variations from th, ~dngs.As the
r quil' menu ef a n W -I pH non be om' b ,t rk;nowl'l:.
th stings can b adjUsted to obt~tfn optimum w 'ldms
ondti n .Trialsat r quired pd n"Oh establisbm llt of
afi.tf1l pto<:edur' for sp ci.t1c ap,nli aijons.<
Th::s tabi ~ at' ba d n wet410g low arbon tnild .
st· Is und r n .rmn) anditions. nt! ;flhowth soggc.led
I trode t:yp s (.or tHili t· nt weI ,type" til cl eU'Qd.
type andjOUlts: ro~y 1 us d. They at< 'mad in a. canst •
Fillet Welds Groove Welds
Inside or Outside Square Vee (Open Aoot)
~ ~ U c::Jc:::J esc: rVl
1
Material
Thickness - Very
Thin
F·2
Thin
F·2
Medium Thick
F·'
Very
Thin
F·2
Thin
F·3
Medium
F·3
Thick
F·3
Medium
F·4
Thick
F·4
FLAT F·' F·4 F·4
~OCJ
lA HORIZ
FILLET
cb F·2 F·J F·l
F·1
F·4 - - - - - -
2
HORIZ D F·2 F·3
F·3
F·4
F·3
F·4
F·2 F·2 or
F·3
F·3 and
F·4
F·3
F·4
F·4 F·4
0 ~
fIDtDrtn
3 VERT F·2 or F·3 and F·3 and
F·2 F·3 F·4 F·4 F·2 F·4 F·4
UP F·3 F·4 F·4
3AVERT
DOWN [IDaJ ~
F·2 F·3 - - F·2 F'20r
F·3
F·3 F·3 F·3 F -3
4 OVER·
HEAD c:7c:lU F·2 F·3 F'3
F·4
F·3
F·4
F·2 F·2 or
F·3
F·3 and F·3 and
FA F·4
F,4 F·4
5 Pipe FIXED
DOWNHILL - - - - F·2 F·2 F·3 F·3 F·3 F,3
5A PIPE FIXED
UPHILl - - - - F·3 F·3
F·3 and F·3 and
F·4 F·4
FA F·4
Material Thickness: Very thin = .OOS" to .063" (,125-1.6 mml.

Thin" tr "_1" 11.6-6.3 mm). Medium"!"
1 ... 4
-~"
4
(6.3-19 mml.
Thickness = i"-up! 19 mm-up)
FIGURE6-30 Usability rating for shielded metal arc welding.
,11 position. These must be selected so that the weld r has

10 !- -5
the molten weld pool under complete control at all
9
~ 8~
"02'~ - 4 ~
times. If tIl poolbecomes too large.It becomes unman-
ageable and molten metal may run out of the pool, par-
i5
' £7024
Jr-
~ ticularly in out-of-positlon welding.
,
6i- - 3
I
;:)
i:,
s
sec io ,OC'-£"018 ~ 2
4(
cr:
8
Th welder should maintain the ready frying and
crackling sound that comes with.correct procedures.Th
E6011 ", "
3 - ..J
shape of the molten 'pool and the movement of the metal
2
e6012
e6013 - "
~
at the rear Of the pool serve as a guid 'in hecking weld
1- quality. TIle ripple produced on the bead should b unl-
I t ,I i I
0 60 100 160 200 250 300 350 400 460 form) and th b ad. should b sm oth witb no overlap or
AMPEcRES
under ut. The following $ yen fa-ctors are ssential' 'for
maintaining hightqualjty weld~g:' ;
FtGlnt£ 6-31 Deposition rates for shielqedmetal arc
''NQlming electrodes.' . ". It i impo,t'taIlt t
. ach job.
t tu mann t, r ba ed on th tyt e f w Id and the posl-
Ion Q,( welding. and are mad . by a weld r of normal sktll,
Pro . S5
A B c D E F G
I
_The Effect of Welding Amperage, Arc Length, and Travel Speed; (A) Proper
Amperage, Arc Length, and Travel Speed; (8) Amperage Too Low; (e) Amperage Too High; (D) Arc
L.ength Too Short; (E) Arc Lenth Too Long; (F) Travel Speed Too Low; (G) Travel Spe d Too Fast
FIGURE 6-32 Welding practices relating to poor arc control and technique.
the plates and is perpendicular to the line of the

weld. When undercut occurs in the vertical mem-
b r, lower the angle and direct the arc toward the
vertical member.
7. Correct manipulation pattern. Different manip-
ulation patterns are used for differen typ s of elec-
trodes, different weld designs, and different welding
p sittons. Knowledge of the different pattern is
) arned in a good welding training program.
Breaking the Arc

TABLE 6-3 RECOMMENDED
WELDING
PARAMETERS
FORSHIELDED
METALARCWELDING
ELECTRODES
Size Direct Current . Atternating Current
Type of Electrode mm in. A V A V
E-6010 F-3 2.38 :& x 14 40-80 24-26

All positions 3.18 -Ii x 14 70-130 24-26
Deep penetration 3.97 i2 x 14 110-165 21-23
DCEP 4.76 fa x 14 140-225 20-26
5.56 -Ii x 18 160-300 20-32
6.35 t x 18 200-400 24-34
2.38 1:1 x 14 50-70 21-26 50-70 25-29
E-6011 F-3
3.18 -Ii x 14 75-130 20-30 75-130 25-28
All Positions
3.97 ~ x 14 120-160 16-26 120-160 24-29
Deep penetration
4.76 i\ x 14 150-190 20-28 120-160 24-33
AC DCEP
5.56 -b x 18 180-250 22-28 180-250 25-35
6.35 t x 18 200-300 22-28 200-300 30-40
E-6012 F-2 2.38 -12 x 14 50-90 16-26 80-120 17-23
All positions 3.18 i x 14 76-135 16-22 80-120 17-23
Medium penetration 3.97 :f2X 14 120-205 16-24 120-190 17-25
AC or DCEN 4.76 fa x 14 140-255 17-26 240-240 17-28
5.56 i2 x 18 220-335 . 12-28 210-330 18-28
6.35 tx 18 200-400 16-25 220-350 18-28
E-6013 F-2 2.38 :& x 14 50-100 21-24 50-80 20-27
All positions 3.18 i x 14 80-140 18-20 80-120 22-24
Light Penetration 3.97 :f2 x 14 120-190 20-25 120-170 22-26
AC or DC 4.76 fa x 14 160-220 25-28 190-220 20-22
5.56 n x 18 240-270 25-29 200-240 20-22
6.35 t x 18 270-350 18-21 270-350 20-22
7.94 ;\ x 18 320-420 23-26 320-420 24-30
E-6020 F-1 2.38 i x 14 120-145 20-22 120-145 20-22
Flat and HF positions 3.18 ~x 14 150-175 24-26 150-175 24-26
Medium penetration 3.97 f6 x 18 210-240 23-27 210-240 23-27
High deposit rate 4.76 nx 18 240-275 24-28 240-275 24-28
AC or DC 5.56 :l-x 18 290-320 29-30 290~320 29-30
E-7010 Same as E-6010 above
E·7014 F·2 2.38 ~x 14 70-90 20.,,24
All positions 3.18 ix 14 120-250 14-17
light penetration 3.97 t& x 14 140-250 17-19
AC:or DC 4.76 f« x 18 180-280 20-24
5.56 ~x 18 250-375 28-35
6.35 1><.18 300-420 26-31
7.94 .1\ x 18 375-500 28 ...33
1::-7016 F-4 2.38 12 x 14 70-100 .17-21
All Positions 3.18 ix 14 80-130 17-22
Medium cenetratlon 3.97 ~x 14 1~0-170 18-19
AC or DCEP 4.76 ~x 14 170-25D 17-22 .
5.56 &x 18 250-325 18-24
6.35 tx 18 $00"'-350 21-25
7.94 fir x 18 235-375 22-26
E~7018 F~4
All PClsitiolls
2.38
3,18
*x 14
1 x14
80-110
90-150
20-22
20-21
M dium penetration 3.97 Ax 14 110-'230 2QJ,22
At or DC P . 4.76 ,\>< 14 150-300 . 20-22
5.56 nx 18 250-350 ·20-24·
6.35 txl8 800-400 . 20-24
1.94 1\ x18 325-$'75 ·2~ ...25
TABLE 6-3 RECOMMENDEDWELDING PARAMETERSFORSHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING ELECTRODES,(CONTINUED)
Size Direct Current Alternating Current

Type of Electrode mrn in. A V A V
E-7024 F-1 2.38 f2 x 12 100-140 27-32 100-140 27-32
Flat and HF positions 3.18 i x 14 130-180 27-30 130-180 27-30
Light penetration 3.97 12 x 14 180-240 30-33 180-240 30-33
High deposition rate 4.76 ~ x 14 200-280 22-28 200-280 22-28
AC or DC 5.56 ~ x 18 250-375 29-32 250-375 29-32
6.35 t x 18 300-420 28-34 300-420 28-34
7.94 1\ x 18 425-500 29-35 425-500 29-35
E-7028 F-l 2.38 i x 14
Flat and HF positions 3.18 A x 14
Medium penetration 3.97 'J\ x 14 240-300 31-33 260-320 30-33
High deposition rate 4.76 3~ x 18 300-400 36-40 320-400 30-35
AC or DCEP 5.56 ~ x 18 350-450 37-41 370-470 31-37
7.94 ~ x 18 450-550 38-42 400-500 32-38
£-8018 Same as E-7018 above
Note: Voltage is based on a normal arc length measured at the arc.
FIGURE 6-33A Welding procedure schedule.
WEI.OING POSITION
.,,I. I.I:T HORIZONTAl. VERTICAl. UP OVERHEAr)

SIZE I'I..AT1f 2F 4lF
3F (UI
1/2
MATJ;AIAI. WELOING
THICKN" UN.• POSITION
1111 A'L.POS1TIONS
WELDING POSITION
MATERIAL
THICKNE VERTICAL UP VERTICAL DOWN OVERHEAD
FLAT HORIZONTAL
(INCH) 3G (U) 3G (D) 4G
lG 2G
3/8
2 3
~ ~ ~
SEAL ~ ~ +
@ F@ fliil
00 l'I
, II
2 3 ..!.
1/2
~
" _.
-+- ~6\
5/8
00 _....
~ Ffa .,f- ~
~[jJt 8
WELDING SUGGESTED ELECTRODE DIAMETER FOR

POSITION ELECTRODE TYPE MATERIAL THICKNESS (IN,)
3/8 1/2 5/8
lG E6010 3116 3116 3/16
2G £6010 3/16 3116 3/16
E7018 5132 5/32 5/32
3G (U) E6010 5/32 5132 5/32
30 (0). 4G E7018 5/32 GI32 5/32
MATERIAL,~ __ -=--=- ..,....._-===,.,.W_E_L_OI_NG_Pr-0-:SI"",TI:-::,ON::::-S~~==:-:--,.....--==..,."...----1

THICKNES FLAT HORiZONTAL VERTICAL UP VERTICAL,
(INCH) lG 2G DOWN 3G (V AND 0)
I"
2"
AND
OVER
WELDING SUGGESTED E\..EClROP" DIAMneR FOA

POSITION ELECTROQE TYPE MATI;AIAl THICKN. S5 (IN,)
1 ~
tCl \n01S 1/4 1/4
2G EJOlll S/;l2 tir32
30 lUI £601Q 3116 ~116
3£;1(0). 4G e10111 6132 6/32
FIGURE6-338 Welding procedure schedule.
l~.hYdro$ n l~c;trOde should not exceed 214rimes the w"lding p-r cesses and equipment OIl every container of
01' wire diameter. For oth r el ·ctr d typ s,thl can be fiU r metal. '
doubled .' '
Limitations of th
.onsd rations 1.
(a) (b)
230A 160A 95 A Fast Medium Slow
fiGURE 6-34 Welding variable travel speed current using E7024 covered electrode: (a) constant travel speed,
changing current: (b) all beads l06A, changing travel speed.
FIGURE 6-35 ANSI Z49.1 warning label,
WARNlNO: PRat'SCT you~lf and others, Read and und rsumd this label.
FUM .15AND <lASS can be dangerou to your health.

ARC RAYS C 1\ in'ure eyes nod burn kin.
CTRI SA K can KIl.L, .
• Befi, \f~ •. 'f~dand Utld$l'StMd che manufatuw·slnstruc«iQlls. M terMI Safely Data Sheets (MSOS5), I\.od
YOllr,e",pl*'>yer'stafctypt'll¢tiee . .
• .Ktep your he d ~Ul ()f the fllme .
• l,f eenou$h verllil,tloll, edt.ulit tit the ate, r both, to keep rum • lind g ses rr: m your breathing z no nd the-
tcntlrnl,aft ..
electrode stub, and place a new electrode in the holder. throughout its entire length. The spring-loaded feeder has
This Occurs many times during the workday and is con- the advantage of being usable in less accessible spaces.
trolled by the size and length of the electrode. This pro- The power source 1'01" gravity welding is a conven-
hibits the welder from attaining an operator factor or tional constant-current welding machine. Gravity weld-
duty cycle much greater than 25%. ing can attain a 90% duty cycle and currents of up to 400
Another limitation is the filler metal utilization.The A can be used. The conventional 60% duty cycle welding
electrode stub loss and the coating loss allows for a total power source must be derated to allow for the 90% duty
utilization of covered electrode of approximately 65%. cycle. Both At; and DC power sources are used.
Heavy-coated welding electrodes are used for grav-
ity welding. The E6027 and E7024 types are most often
Variations of the Process used; however, the E7028 type can also be used.The most
There are four variations of the shielded metal arc weld- common size electrodes used are the 7/32-in. (5.6-mm)
ing process: and the 1/4-m. (6.4-mm) diameters. The most commonly
used length is 28 in. (800 mm); however, other lengths
• Gravity welding can be used. The size and length of fillet welds produced
• Firecracker welding by these electrodes can vary with the gravity feeders
• Mas ive electrode welding based 011 changing the angle of the inclined track. It is
• Arc spot welding possible to obtain welds from 20 to 40 in. (500 to '1,000
mm) long with the 28-io. electrode, depending on the ad-
Gravity Welding Gravity-feed welding, which uses justment of the feeder. Horizontal fillet welds with a leg
heavy-coated electrodes, was first described in 1938 by length of 7/32 in. (5.6 rom) to 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) can be ob-
I\..K.Madsen of Denmark. (13) Gravity welding is considered tained. The properties of the weld metal deposited when
an. automatic method of applying the shielded metal arc using the gravity feed system are the same as when elec-
~elding process. It employs a low-cost mechanism that in- trodes are used manually,
ClUdesan electrode holder attached to a bracket that slides There are two variations of the tripodgravity feeder.
dOwn an inclined bar arranged along the line of the weld. One is preset and allows no adjustment of the incline of the
l1eavy-coated ele trodes are maintained in contact with track, whereas the other type allows the tripod legs to be
the workpl ce by the weight of the electrode holder adjust d.The preset feeder Win produce welds in. lengths
braCket and the electrod . Once the proce is started, it that vary from approximately 27 to 31 in .(675 to 775 rom)
COl1tinu s autornati ally until the electrode is consum d. long, u ing the 28·in. 800-mm) electrode. With two differ-
'When the electrode bas burned to a short stub, the bra. ket ent siz s of electrodes available! two differ ent sizes of fillet
anti electrode bolder ar autornati ally ki ked up to break welds can be obtained.The electrode type and size and the
the arc. welding current will determine the specifi w ld fill t size
This welding method re erved onsiderable public- and weld length. Two different levels of current are used.
Ity in the early 19608, baed on work done in Japanese The higher current will produce the larger B11etsize,
shiPyafClq. Credit should be giVi n to the Japanese ship. The econd variation of the tripod gravity feeder
bUilders f r p rfecting and using the gravity welding ys- provides for leg-length adjusrments. This provides a eli!-
t m On a larg scale. ferent angl of th .inclined track.Withthis type of feeder, .
Th gravity w Iding system. pro ides welding a variety of fillet sizes 1\11 be PI' du d with the same
. O~l'l mles ov r manual w 1diog. in the p rater can electrode size operatingat the sam weldtng ut'rent.J'he
~lse number of rne g1"'avityB del'S stmultan ously, 'Ibis fillet weld .~ize is determined by the electrode, diam tei
Incr as th P"'o~tu t1 ity, r duces welder t~ltigue, l't1ini· and by th w 1 1·1 ngths tting \lSe 1.'1'l1eweld length may
~iz s oprat r training, and I m id s subst ntial savings l'y d p ndiJ)g on. angi adjustm nfs, whi '11ar e. taQ~
HI welding labor cost. Initially, elcctrod 'S f standard Ush db tw ·en the axiS of the w Id~til cent~rUne f the
I. n6'th181n.(S50mm)w j'eu.ed;howe er,the,Jap l1ese Ie' rod '\and them lin d track oith gravity ji' d1',1'11 '
PrOduced tra~long electrods to tnak t11.c proe s aCtunlnulge of w~ld sizes obtai~labl.e.wUI depend~m the' .
QlOt pro Ilt'ti ,11, mo t COLTunoolengtl'-lis now 28itf. si)ecilic fee ler bebigused. .
(800 mm).Thk reduc tbe stub od lo.s ratio; " The sprtng·lo d d feeder pr-oau, es w·act· 2. to '1.7.
Special 1 tr de f, ed fS at' required, 11 rare in. (600 to 675 mm tong 11sing I 8·11). 80O,mrnlollg,
tw( typ.s f ~ d ·rs. n is tIl ~rjpo<.lor gm. tty.fe del', 1 trod ".A.n .rmaJ &ttlb length of2 In.;Q. m:m) ~' u1l$.
Wht 'h bas an lc("rrnd 1 qklcr t11(JQllt d PH • bra k - t or Tb w d Sj~e i est:\ bUshed by t11 '1 tr rte . i}U11't r.'
1 :'Jag to slit.! d 'Wnn. inclitP.lt!stlsed to.produ e Wh n ~lSin.~Hle s!=u:ins-l. .ad 9 ,6 d' ,"S, ~h f js a_~l'nausi~e '.
IlOt lt~l fillet 'Welds.Til s. 'otltf ~ P is a $p\in~·Joaded V1,\thLIQnortl~ Jllletfronltbeb~gjm9.i.ogoftl'lJe~~dt!.1d <;
lOkI r,.us d ('(}1' making f~l·positio graov \welds, as en loi'rh weld.Th t isal"o-a lit}lsr-'i(1p ne\n\tiottft:-Qfl1
'\ It a hOl·jzonta! fill, w Ids.Ttl tripe I type of f· de.I' S " t rt 0 no. Th.is Js Inc.! to th . 'h<H1g In the ~lPjt()~l h nn··
. th ~_n oSt po:pul. sh:' it'pfO' d ~sa m<.lt' . ttn~j:()t'tnwdd ~lc tl1a 0 th.y.t~1g··1.e tn Itltl~<r.tb e:l} ~»1
liIllS
When direct current is used, the electrode is nega- dies, steel castings, or any large component and for the con-
tive (straigfu polarity). When alternating current is used, struction of large fabrications. The electrodes are so large
the chang in beau smoothness and spatter level is less and heavy that they require a manipuJator to hold them
dependent 011 welding direction related to the work lead and feed them into the weld pool. Up to 60 Ib per hour of
conne .tion. weld metal can be deposited with this welding variation.
The economic advantage depends on one welding The electrodes are mainly nickel-chromium-
operator using two or more feeders sirn ultaneously.The la- molybdenum alJoys with hardnesses ranging from Rock-
bor cost is larg Iy involved in using more than one feeder. well CIS to 45, depending on the grade. Extremely high
When using long electrodes in gravity feeders, the weld- tensile strengths are achieved with proper preheat and
ing current is less than normally used fOI'manual welding postheat procedures. A 1,SOO-A DC constant-current
with standard length electrodes. It is necessary to use at power source is necessary to weld with these large elec-
least two gravity f eders to obtain an economic advan- trodes. Conventional power sources can be paralleled to
tag .Addittcnal cost reduction is po sible by using three obtain this welding current. DC electrode positive (re-
or four automatic feeders.The most economical operation verse polarity) is used. This method of welding is an ex-
is to hav a suffictent number of feeders in a small area so cellent choice for large repairs and fabrication.
that the operator can move from one to another and re-
Arc Spot Welding Shielded metal arc welding can be
load the holder and reestablish the arc of one feeder while
used to make arc spot welds. Special spring-loaded feed-
all of the other fe ders are welding. Gravity welding is be-
ers are used with small-diameter electrodes for arc spot
coming less popular due to more widespread use of semi-
welding thin sheet metal. Automotive body repair hops
automatic w lding using flux-cored electrodes.
use this method. Arc spot welding is discussed in Ietail in
Chapter 26.
Industrial Use and Typical Applications

Typical applications of the shielded metal arc welding
process are as varied and ~ idespr ad as arc welding it-
self. Shielded metal arc welding will probably always be
the mainstay for mainrenanc and repair welding; be-
cause welding is required at rem te locations, the jobs are
relativ ly maJl and each and ery one is different.
Shielded metal arc welding will also re main popular in
small production shop where limited capital L available
an 1 where the amount of welding is relatively minor
ompared to other manufacturing operations.
6-4 GAS METAL ARC WELDING

Gas metal (J1" we/(#ng( MAW) is an ar welding process
that uses an arc b tween a 'ootinuQus filler m tal elec-
trode and the w let pool.Th process lsused wtth shield-
ing from ar externally upplied ga and Without he
application of p essur , It was <.1 veloped in the. lat 1
ti rweldlng al mlnum and has b ' me 'ry P pl.llar.
pre SSI also alled meta: inert ga (.MIG) uJoldinf};. j ,
s11rwn h'l ig111:-e.6~!36.Th· ee at many .. riati(tl~d· pend-
ing 1? til typ of shieJding gas, th typ of-metal tnmStl r,
th typ ~of m talwelded.and so on. 1b s b en gi en 111, ly
nnm ~ including MIG wciding, , J. wc1dtt AI fin' wire
I
w 1 n.ng, 'pmy (It' c1dint:, pllls . ~\r . w. Idlng, Up transfer

w lding_shorT> it" nit arc w -1Un ,ill.1Q various ttl de names .
.of per tipn

create a welding problem. Many factors, including elec-
trode size and the mode of metal transfer, relate to the
weld pool size.
An envelope of gas fed through the nozzle provides
hielding of the molten pool, the arc, and the surrounding
area. This shielding gas which may be an inert gas, an ac-
tive gas, or a mixture, surrounds the arc area to protect it
from contamination from the atmosphere. The electrode
is fed into the arc automatically, usually from a coil of
wire. The arc is maintained automatically and travel and
guidance can be handled manually or by machine. The
metal being welded dictates the composition of the elec-
trode and the shielding gas.The shielding gas and the type
and size of the electrode affect the mode of metal trans-
fer.The metal transfer mode is one way of identifying the
variation of the process.
Advantages and Major Uses

The GMAW process has become one of the most popular
arc welding processes. TIle four major variations of the
process are based on the mode of metal transfer.The early
FIGURE 6-36 Gas metal arc welding. Courtesy of AWS development of GMAW was for welding aluminum using
Welding Journal. inert gas for shielding. This used the spray mode of trans-
fer, with argon shielding and a relatively large diameter
SOLID
electrode. This produced a smooth weld bead with a rel-
/ ELECTRODE atively small amount of spatter but used a large, some-
/ WIRE times uncontrollable molten weld pool.
SHIELDING
GAS IN ~CURRENT
CONDUCTOR For welding steels, inert gases were too expensive
and an active gas, O2, was elected. This was based on
DIRECTION
the analysis of ga es produced by eli Integranon of the
OF TRAVEL oating of covered steel electrodes. CO2 welding was
adopted for welding mild st els in the flat position using
relatively large [1/16 in. (1.6 rom)) lectrod wires.The
metal transfer was globular and. the spatter was' greater
than desir d. This dtd not be orne too popular with
WELD welders because of the high heat and high travel speed".
BASE METAL Efforts to r fine this variation led to an all-pesltiorr
METAL
arlariou still using CO2 gas shielcUl1gbut with lower cur-
;
rent and smaller-diameter el ctrodes [0.35 in. (0.9 rom)
FIGURE:S-31 Process diagram for GMAW. and 0.45 in. 1.1 rum)]. This variation proVjdes~l short-
circuiting mod of metal transfer < I d jcall d short-
umabl 1 erred and t11 WOJ'l to b ld d. Th heat ir uiting 01" dlp transf r v ldlng, Impro menr wee
of the r mel. sth surfac of til bas metal and th nd made by u ing sht Idlng gaS mixtures of argon and C 2'
of the el crrode, Them tal melt d of th el ctrode is TW pr vided a smo th,llice· Rpearln"g w ld ~ul'fuc.'. J;h~\t
,l".lns:f~fe,dcross thearc to the molten pool.The molten could pc used to weld thin Illat dali in aUPQsitfons;'flte
\\il.'ld metal, scm ti s calle t1 th' 'wel(JpuadJe, must be 8b rt- il'Cultlfl.g tnQd .of we~ding should p6t be used, pn
pr perly cantrall d to pr id a hig! -qtlaUty weld.1~h St!'\l . turnl appU .ations. ' "
d 11th of p "oet.rn'tioJl is ~ltr II d by m oy fa tors, but . '0.1. sprolY ti'ansfi r mod used ofi~iflnlly:'was 'lm""
'Ih prtmnl'y ot) i tt e ~ kUng 'Ul're11t, I' the d ptb of pro d for weltl ns st Is. ddidg up to 5% 9XY~'nt a,r-
1) nett, ti rii. to() gr 3t." the TC 111bUf'n througb hinner gon produc ,0 • Spr1ly~typ' 111et~Jtran$Jh: tUldpr <tu' d
flll. trial i\nct rd 1. e tb quality Of a weld". w Ids with 3U¢1dt m Iy sro()oth~\lrfage Wt~lLtltttlim]Jlll
'til 'w{,l'tl1()i ('he nl If:·n poolis also Sa, e 1 on n'tll.fJ'Y sPfltf;er.Howvtrtl:tll~weld ilOolMs stilll((ti '.~tf diftlcillt'
:fi 'tors, lmr th . ptJmary one i' th > t ,w J sri I. If tll to C ntl'oltn out- f· hu ..pos ~ Jlwelding, '1"hi&1c(11:0 de-
. trIo1t nIno! is too i,lrg d,afticulal'l 11 n ldlng oth r l pm nt f th. puiS' >(l f t(t mod ~wIll 1l~1> e J,l\.t!ses
tl llft iil th flilt po it.iOfl, tl .emolten meuu will tun Out 1tnd
flo f uJ!rCllt to Pt;9~U' Sl1l:Alt(h"P 11m'; Utl1l; ;:r~n;1:l'L.~~ ~
This variation depends on specially designed power
sources. It provides a controlled weld pool for welding
thin materials in any position. It produces a smooth weld
and minimum spatter and has become very popular.
The major advantages of gas metal arc welding are:
• High operator factor
• High deposition rates FIGURE 6-38 Weld joint design changes for GMAW.
• High use of filler metal
• Elimination of slag and flux removal
• Reduction in smoke and fumes proc ss. These joint details are given in Chapter 19. For
• Lower skill level in a semiautomatic method of ap- maximum economy and efficiency, groove welds hould
plication than that required for manual shielded be modified. The diameter of the electrodes employed by
metal arc welding gas metal arc welding are smaller than those employed for
shielded metal arc welding. Because of this, the groove an-
• Automation possible
gles can be reduced (Figure 6-38). Reducing groove an-
• Versatility, with wide and broad application ability gles will still allow the electrode to be directed to the root
of the weld joint so that complete penetration will occur.
Methods of Application The different variations r quire special attention con-
and Position Capabilities cerning w ld design.The CO2 variation provides extremely
deep penetrating qualities; in designing fillet weld .the size
The most popular method of applying is the semiauto- of the fillet can be reduced at least one size when convert-
matic m thod, where the welder provides manual travel ing from shielded metal arc welding to CO2 welding.
and guidance of a w lding gun. Second is the fully auto- The variation using inert gas on nonferrous metals
matic meth d, where the welding operation is auto- can use the standard joint details recommended for
mated.Tht proce s cannot be applied manually. shielded metal ar welding, except that the groove angle
he gas metal arc welding process is an all-position should be reduced .The joint design used for pipe weld-
pr cess.H w ver, ea h of the variations has its own po- ing with shielded metal arc welding or gas welding are
itlonapabilitf s, d pending on electrod size and metal normally used for ga metal arc welding.
transfer.Th CO2 welding vartanon, employing large elec-
tr d wires.is us d primarily in the flat and honzonral fiJ·
1 t p s tton.The ~pray arc ananon i normally used in the Welding Circuit and Current
flu~and lrorizontat po. ttion. It an b used in the vertical 111c welding circuit employed for gas metal arc welding
~tld OVi rllead position. if smaller lecrrodes are ern- (Figur6-39) 1..1 es a wire fJ eder system that controls the
plpyed.Tb hort-ctrcutdng and pulsed variations can be electrode wit f, ed and welding are, as well as th flow
t sed .in. ~Upositions.
of shieldtng. gas and cooling water. The p< wet supply is.
normally theconstant ..v lrage ( 'v) type.A gun or torch
V\letdabf. Metals and Thickness Range is used for dlr - ting the Iectrode and shielding gas to
til ar area. A travel system r qulr d for m chanical
welding.
The ga m tal arc wIding pro 'ess uses dir t Cllr~
rer t. Alternating urr nt has not been succc sfully \), d.
it ct curt' 'nt is normally used with t11 el tro posi-
t D.Pr v'r e polarity . Dil'c 't~ urrent 1 trode
u gati eD, "Nstnlight polarity) an be;:t1 dwith spe~-
'af missi'· 'Oat a 'tectrnde wires whlch provjd' f()!
j
better I Ct ron 'missions. 0 ...N is i,IT It used bccatl1 .-

th tnls i e·cout d 1.etrod s;tr' nor pOpUL1.f.
r
Tn. 'ho'rtillg ar' v;:trt timl b cam' p dar wh n
til • ,V sys 111 .of welding J) )W "f WU,' intf{)du'ct:111' ,
sys-eetn ~cd{rcdth 'omple 'ty - : ell i1', 11cd ' III .,01
ircuits fInd liminnt. (1el ctrOd bl1faba k orlkcomact
C>
Up () stubping to thwork. If illso proid d pos;{Cive fIt' .

startIng.
· h pnIs '(!.ell r· ot v ritttioo· r' 'IU1f s a s1' inl
i? werso~rrc 't]lf.\{. hang .:fr rna l(}~to 111 igher e1.:lt'
self-regulated arc. When using the pulsed-spray mode of
'SI11eldf.ng las
R~ufatot SbJaldlng Gas transfer, a constant-speed wire feeder is normally used.
Elictridi ',' • Supply .
However, for special variations of the pulsed-spray mode,
1 Electrode
controllable wire feeders are matched to specially de-
, feed
unit signed power sources. TIle wire feeder must match the
power source for these applications.
A welding gun, or welding torch, is used to carry the
electrode, the welding current, and the shielding gas to the
arc. For the short-circuiting variation, air-cooled welding
guns are normally used. When larger-diameter electrodes
are used with CO2 shielded gas, air-cooled guns are also
used, since CO2 is a cooling medium for the gun. When in-
ert gas or argon oxygen mixtures are used for spray or
pulsed-spray welding, the gun must be water cooled if
high current is employed. Information about semiauto-
matic guns and automatic torches is given in Section 11-1.
Electrodes and Shielding Gas

Two materials are used for the gas metal arc welding
process: the electrode and the shielding gas.They must be
carefully selected with regard to the base metal to be
welded and the process variation to be employed.The elec-
trode wire is related to the strength requirements of the de-
posited weld metal, as well as to the composition. Th
FIGURE6-39 Circuit diagram for GMAW. Courtesy of following factors govern the selection of the electrode.
Welding Inspection Technology, American Welding Society.
• .Metal to be welded. TIle composition and me-
chanical properties of the base metal are of prtmary
rCnt at ~I programmed frequency. The welding current importance.
Va.riesfr m a low as 20A at a voltage ofl8V to as high
• Tbtcenessand joint design. Thic er sections and
as 750 A at an arc voltage of 50 V. This broad range of cur-
complex joint designs require filler metals that pro-
t nt and voltage encompass s all the variations.
ide high weld metal du tility;
• Surface conduions. The surface of the base metal
equipment Required to b welded, whether it is s aly; ru ty, or such, hHS
1'h equlpm nt requir d for GMAWsyst m 'lgure 6-39 an important ffect OIl th ele trod wire to bused.
COtl Ists of (1) the pow r source, (2) the electrode wire
• Spec{ftcattons 01' service conditions.
Spe fflca-.
feeder and control system, 3) the welding gun and cable tioru may dictate the lectrode to be used. If sp ci-
ass, mbl f r s mrautomatt welding or th w Iding torch fications are not involve 1, nslder the service
or automatic welding, (J the gas and water control sys- requirements that t11 weldment will en ountec ,
tem for the shl Idlng gas and ooling water wh n 1.1 ed,
and (5)' U·'.l¥ 1 mechanism and guidance for au tomati
'W Laing. for
Th pow r SOUI;I e 'an b a r tifl r, an inverter, or,
for field use, a g n rater w ldlng machine. 01' the hort-
, CirCUitInga~ var:iation a. 200~A machitl" i$ normally used.
~Qra w'ilc:Ung ana S;pt1lytransfer HTC·' wJdiflgJ higher
IU1:entpow r soure ,up to 500 A,tlr used.I:'Of pulse 1·
p.t w lding,spc ial pOW"t our • Wi h QmpJexcon-
troIs must be used. '11" • 11 b' rc tifJer or in rt r
ll1a 'hin .1fhevoJt..amper 'hUl1t("1 'risti 'urve of the ma-
chtn i different for theUffrent pt'O 'ss ~lriattiOJ1S.Th
U'lachfnl!: mUst be desigtl{;(l .91' turid t th 11 ssar
kUng f)t'O eduF re 1\1... fU nts.
Nor laU • th 'onstant·sp cd wir d r is used
~ itll' it Qtlstattt· o1tttge. PQwer-, o:urlZ.e slp ~e it provides:'l
speclfic and is given by the AWS"Specification for Low To establish a basis for selection of process varia-
Alloy Steel Filter Metals for Gas Shielded Arc Welding.,,(15) tion, it is necessary to know the capabilities and normal
More information for selecting the proper electrode to applications for each of the process variations. Table 6-6
match a particular base metal is covered in detail in the shows the variations, the type of metal transfer for steel,
chapter on the specific base metal. The size of the elec- the welding position capabilities, and the recommended
trode depends on the welding position and the variation welding shielding gas.
of the process.
The basis for selecting the shielding gas involves
Deposition Rates and Quality of Welds
the electrode, the base metal, the welding position, the
variation of the process.and the desired weld quality. The Each of the variations has a considerable range of depo-
recommended shielding gases for different metals and sition rates based on the weld procedure employed.
process variations are covered in the chapter for the par- Figure 6-41 shows the relationship of deposition rates for
ticular metal being welded. the steady current and different electrode sizes used.This
chart is based on carbon steel base metals and electrodes.
For welding nonferrous metals, deposition rates vary
FIGURE6-40 AWS designations for solid electrode considerably due to the density of the metals.
wire. The deposition rates of gas metal arc welding are
higher for the same welding currents than are obtained
ER 70 S- X with shielded metal arc welding. These higher rates occur
because there is no electrode coating that must be melted.
ELECTRODE
ORROD-------_-JJ The current density on the small-dtameter electrode wires
is much higher than with covered electrodes, which (:00-
MINIMUM TENSILE STRENGTH IN KSI-----...J tributes to the higher deposition rates for the same weld-
S" SOLID
ELECTRODe
WIRE--------_-J ing current. The tip-to-work distance affects deposition
rates, and as the distance is increased, the preheating of
CHEMICAl.COMPOSITIONANDSHIEL.DINQ--------' the electrode wire contributes to higher deposition rates.
TABLE6-4 A SUMMARY OF CARBON STEEL ELECTRODES FOR CARBON STEEL
Werding Conditions Strength Requirements (as Weld~d)
At! Weld Percent Metal

Tensile Yield Elongatlon Impact Test
(min, psi) (min. psi) (min. 2 ln.) CharpyV.
. E70S-2 DeEP CO2 72,000 60,000 22 20 at ~20°F
[70S·3 DCEP CO2 72,000 60,000 22 20 at -20 F
Q
E70S-4 DCEP CO2 72,000 60,000 ~2 Not required

. E70S·5 DeEP CO2 72,OOQ 60,000 22 Not required
[705·6 DeEP CO2 72,000 60,000 22 20 at ....ZO°F
_f!70$~7 DeEP CO2_ 72.000 60,000 22 20 at -20°F
, E70S·~ Not· specified Not specified 72,000 60,000 22 Not required
(;Irgon.C02 or argon·02 mixture,
0.40-0.70
,
0.90-1.40 0.45-0.70
0.66-0.85
O.3M.6.0
'0.80-1,16
o.eo-o.so
TABLE 6-6 VARIATIONS
OFTHEGMAW PROCESS
Short~Circuiting Spray Pul~ed~Sptay .
Metal Transfer Globular
CO2 or CO2 + argon Argon + oxygen and Argon + oxygen and
Shielding gas CO2
(C-25) others others
Low-carbon and Low-carbon and Low-carbon and All steels, aluminium
Metals to be welded
medium-carbon medium-carbon medium-carbon and many alloys
steel, low-alloy steels, low-alloy steels, low-alloy
high-strength steels high-strength high-strength steels
steels, some
stainless steels
10 gauge (0.140 in.): 20 gauge Ho ~ in. with no Thin to unlimited
Metal thickness
up to ~ in. without (0.038 in.), up to preparation; thickness
bevel preparation t in.: economical maximum thickness
in heavier metals practically 'unlimited
for vertical and
overhead welding
Flat and horizontal All positions Flat and horizontal All positions
Welding positions
(also pipe welding) with small electrode
wire all positions
Low-cost gas, high Thin material, will Smooth surface, deep Uses larger electrode
Major advantages
travel speed, deep bridge gaps, penetration, high
penetration, high minimum cleanup travel speed
deposition
limitations Spatter removal Uneconomical in heavy Position, minimum Special power source
sometimes required, th ickness-except thickness
high heat out of position
Appearance of weld Relatively smooth, Smooth surface, Smooth surface, Smooth surface,
some spatter minor spatter minimum spatter minimum spatter
Travel speeds Up to 250 in.zrnin Max. 50 in.lmin Up to 150 in.lmin Up to 200 in.lmin
Diameter! ~, t.r, ~, t
Range of electrode
wire sizes (in.)
Diameter: 0.045, 1«,
f4,1f
Diameter: 0.030,
0.035,0.045 0.045, *, *
Diameter; 0.035,
FIGURE6-41 Deposition rates for steady current with

different electrode sizes.
~O~----------------------~----~
Q:
;t
ex:
!l
Ie ~
~ ",\,.
I I!:
Ii. «
Cl:l
'0 y..
u: u.
:::J
0
<D 2:
II a:
ffi
300 400 500 600

W .I)IN(j CURRENT JAN!PS)
INCOMPLETE FUSION EXCESSIVE INSUFFICIENT
1. Current too high- 1. Root opening too wide 1. Cu rrent too low
Voltage too low 2. Travel speed too slow 2. Tip to work distance too
2. Holding electrode wire too 3. Current too high great
far back from leading 4. Tip to work distance too 3. Travel speed too fast
edge of puddle close 4. Improper welding
3. Too short a pause at edge technique
of bead
MElT-THRU SURFACE POROSITY POOR APPEARANCE

1. Current too high 1. Lack of gas coverage 1. Cu rrent too high
2. Travel speed too slow 2. Joint not clean 2. Faulty joint preparation
3, Root opening too wide 3. Strong ai r dratts 3. Improper welding
4. Root face too srnau 4. Damp gas-contaminated gas technique
WHISKEAS UNEQUAL PENETRATION CONCAVE ROOT

SURFACE
t. Travel speed too fast: 1. Improper work angle
elec;trode too close to 2. Improper welding 1. Voltage too high
leading edge of puddle technique 2. Travel speed too slow
. 2. Current too high 3. Root opening too wide
3. Tip to work distance 00
flGQRE6~2 Factors that put Quality at risk for short-circuiting transfer GMAW.
welling rurrent, and volrag . It enables all-posirton weld-

ing of arbon ij,t els on th metal thi .knesses shown. 10
th 0. t positiot:), lhie variation becorn s less ecoaomical,
or rtf ~aland overhead welding. it is more pc du tive
than ..I ield d rn t. J arc we tdtng, \Vi llmg te hniqu s
must b 'orr t to ohtftin hlgh-qualtt t J Jj1lt5.
Ttl· Wctc.ll1S h 'dul' lh.' glohlllhr transf r ..o;l
w 'hJlflg,ar; . sh wr 'rable(;-R,\\-1'l"Ung 'l1t'f ~nts ar .much
in
bighe + and d position rates :a:nd f-Ouu 'l-lvlf}'lare gr atly in-
Wtl:iccl. It· s nornjaUy'Us d in ur .. flilt and ho(iZontitl p ,i,
lion. Til basi. differcl'c b xw 'en tht: two w 'ldlng
] !t'OC 'dur ~ 51 l. dul '. 1s:tIl po, ilion ~,r>ablHti s. Not .• th"
~:trtre.im!I:y,high,. :ui'ftif!l:s.that aut be u e;l n C«FUOtl-st 'ls.
TABLE6-7 SHORTCIRCUITINGTRANSFERSCHEDULES
1 -.
Arc '.
Electrode Welding Voltage Wire Travel Shieldinij ,
Material rntckness" Diameter (Electrode Feed Speed Gas Plow
Current
in. mm (A DC) Positive) (in.Jmin) (in.lrriln) <tf/hr}
Fraction in. mm
0.030 0.8 25-40 15-17 75-90 10-20 15-20

26 gauge 0.020 0.5
0.6 0.030 0.8 30-50 15-17 85-100 12-20 15-20
24 gauge 0.025
0.030 0.8 40-60 15-17 90-130 18-22 15-20
22 gauge 0.031 0.8
0.035 0.9 55-85 15-17 70-120 35-40 15-20
20 gauge 0.037 0.9
0.035 0.9 70-100 16-19 100-160 35-40 15-20
18 gauge 0.050 1.3
1 .
1.6 0.035 0.9 80-110 17-20 120-180 30-35 20-25
16 In. 0.063
2.0 0.035 0.9 100-130 18-20 160-220 25-30 20-25
i4 in. 0.078
20-25 20-25
1 .
0.125 3.2 0.035 0.9 120-160 19-22 210-290
! In.
3.2 0.045 1.1 180-200 20-24 210-240 27-32 20-25
1 '
~ In. 0.125
140-160 19-22 210-290 14-19 20-25
rs in. 0.187 4.7 0.035 0.9
210-245 18-22 20-25
3
TIl In.
.
0.187 4.7 0.045 1.1 180-205 20-24
1 .
6.4 0.035 0.9 140-160 19-22 240-290 11-15 20-25
4 m, 0.250
1 •
6.4 0.045 1.1 180-225 20-24 210-260 12-18 20-25
4 In. 0.250
Note: Single-pass flat and horizontal fillet positions. Reduce current 10% to 15% for vertical and overhead welding.
aF.orfillet and groove welds. For fillet welds, size equals metal thickness. For square-groove welds, the root opening should equal one-half the
metal thickness.
°Shielding gas is CO2 or mixture of 75% argon + 25% CO2,
Wire feed speed is approximate.
TABLE6-8 GLOBULARTRANSFERCO2 SCHEDULES

Arc
Electrode
Welding Voltage
Material Thickness Diameter (Electrode
Type of Current
Gauge in. mm We Idll in. mm (A DC) Positive)
18 0.050 1.3 Fillet 0.045 1.1 280 26 350 190 20-25

Square groove 0.045 1.1 270 25 340 180 20-25
16 0.063 1.6 Fillet 0.045 1.1 325 26 360 150 30-35
Square groove 0.045 1.1 300 28 350 140 30-35
14 0.078 2.0 Fillet 0.045 1.1 . 325 27 360 130 30-35
Square groove 0.045 1.1 325 29 360 110 30-35
Square groove 0.045 1.1 330 29 350 105 30-35
11
t
0.125 3.2 Fillet 11 1.6 380 28 210 85 30-35

Square groove 0.045 1.1 350 29 380 100 30,...35
f6 in, 0.188 4.8 Fi uet ~ 1.6 425 31 260 75 30,..35
Sq uare groove 11 1.6 425 30 320 75 30-35
1.6 375 31 260 70 . 30-35
Square groove ~
i in, 0.260 6.4 Fillet 10 2.0 500 32 185 40 30~35
Square groove ~ L6 475 32 340 55 30-35
i if'\. 0.375 9.5 i11et .~ 2.4 550 34 200 25 30-30.
Sq uare groove ~ 2.4- 575 34 160 40 30-35
-bin. 0.500 12.7 Fill t ~\ ~.4 626 36 160 2.3 3Q-35
,-A 2A 625 35 200 33 30-36
~.
~ror mild.carbon
Square groove
and 'low-alloy st Ellson sql,l re-groove w~lcJS,b eking is reqllfre~.
For spray transfer, high currents can be employed The pulsed-spray mode has two variations: fixed-
and these data are shown by the welding procedure frequency, pulsed-current welding and variable-
schedules in Table 6-9. This is a highly productive varia- frequency (synergic), pulsed-current welding. Both
tion for welding mild and low-alloy steels. Spray transfer variations use special power sources. Synergic is be-
normally uses larger size electrode wires, which are less corning the more popular. With synergic equipment the
expensive. Welding procedure schedules for nonferrous pulsed variables are programmed in the welding rna-
metals will be found in the chapter for each metal. chine. This provides the ratio of peak to background of
TABLE6-9 SPRAYTRANSFERSCHEDULES
Material Number Electrode Shielding
rht~knessa Welding Arc Voltage Wire Travel
Diameter
'TYpeof of Current (Electrode Feed Speed Gasb Flow
in. mm Weld Passes in. mm (A DC) Positive) (ln.zmln) (in./min) (ft3/hr)
All
*
i
1.6
3.2 Fillet or
square groove
1
1
0.045
~
1
1.1
1.6
250
300
22
24
400
165
35
35
35-40
40-50
f8 4.8 Fillet or 1 ;\ 1.6 350 25 230 32 40-50

square groove
325 24 210
t 6.4 V-groove 2 ~ 1.6 375 25 260 30 40-50
400 26 100
t 6.4 V-groove 2 ~ 2.4 450 29 120 35 40-50
t 6.4 Fillet 1 1
~ 1.6 350 25 230 32 40-50
t 6.4 Fillet 1 ~ 2.4 400 26 100 32 40-50
325 24 210
i 9.5 v-groove 2 ;\ 1.6 375 25 260 24 40-50
400 26 100
t 9.5 V-groove 2 A 2.4 450 29 120 28 40-50
i 9.5 Fillet 2 ;l 1.6 350 25 230 20 40-50
i 9..5 Fillet 1 s\ 2.4 425 27 110 20 40-50
325 24 210
i 12,7 V·groove 3 ;\ 1.6 375 26 260 24 40~50
375 26 250
400 26 100
450 29 120
t' 12.7 V~groove 3 ~ 2.4 425 27 110 30 40-50
t l2,7 lllet 3 1\ 1.6 350 25 230 24 40-50
12.7 Fillet 3 2.4 425 27 105 26 40-50
* ~
24
110
210
325
375 26 260
i 19.1 Double 4 rlJ ~.6 350 25 230 24 40-50
V-gr()ove
400 28 100
. "" 450 120
;
29
4 A 2.4 425 27 110 24 40-50 '.
11 1.6 360 24
Ii 26
,
~,4 4~5
~ .6 350 24
< 2.4 425
.
26
I
the pulse and the time duration of the pulse. The spe- The gun tip-to-work distance known as stickout
cific program relates to the type of metal being welded, must be closely controlled. If the stickout becomes too
the electrode diameter, and the shielding gas composi- long, the electrode will become overheated and will min-
tion. The average current is adjusted by the welder; this, imize penetration. Also, when the gun nozzle is too far
in turn, changes the pulsing frequency or the back- from the are, the shielding gas efficiency is reduced. Nor-
ground current depending on the design of the ma- mal nozzle-to-work distance should be approximately 1
chine. The manufacturer's data must be used for each to 1~ times the inside diameter of the gas nozzle.
Welding situation. Approximate welding procedure Another important factor is the angle the gun noz-
Schedules for synergic pulsed spray welding are shown zle makes with the work. Two angles are involved. One is
in Table 6-10. known as the travel angle, the other is the work angle.
The work angle is normally half the included angle be-
tween the plates forming the joint. When making fillet
Tips for Using the Process welds, the gun should be at a 456 angle but directed
emiautoruaric welding employing short-circuiting slightly toward the horizontal plate by one electrode wire
metal transfer is easy to use. Experienced shielded metal diameter from the bisecting angle.
arc welders or people with no welding experience can The travel angle can be a drag angle or a push an-
learn this process variation in a relatively short time. Pro- gle. The push angle pointing forward is used when pure
duction welding can be learned in a few days, whereas inert gases are employed. The drag angle pointing back-
pipe welding may require 80 to 120 hours of training. (16) ward is used when CO2 is used-with short circuiting or
It is important to use the correct welding technique globular transfer.
When welding semiautomatically. The electrode wire The welding equipment must be in good operat-
should be directed to the leading edge of the pool for oping condition: The drive rolls and contact tip must be
timum results. For out-of-position welding, the pool proper for the electrode size being used. The conduit
should remain smaIl for best control. tube in the gun cable assembly must be kept clean, and
TABLE 6-10 PULSED SPRAY TRANSFER SCHEDULES, VARIABLE FREQUENCY (SYNERGIC POWER SUPPLY)
Electrode PeaK Background . Arc Vpltage

Average
Material Thickness Diameter Current Current (Electrode"
Current
Gauge in, mm in. mm (A) (A) (A) Positive)
22 0.031 0.8 0.035 0.9 50 150 20 16

20 0.037 0.9 0.035 0.9 60 160 20 17
18 0.050 r.s 0.035 0.9 70 180 20 18
16 0.063 1.6' 0,045 1.2 80 200 25 19
14 0.078 2.0 0.045 1.2 90 250 35 21
11 Q.125 3.2 0.045 1.2 120 250 150 22
1\ in. 0.188 4.8 0.045 1.2 150 250 200 . 23
tin. 0.250 6.4 0.052 1.3 120 275 90 24
• in'.
..__ ....
0.375 ·9.5 0,052
.'
1.3. 200 . 350
.
150 . 26 .
Note~For square groove or fillet, use a root opening of one-halt the material thickness. Fillet equal to thicknes$. For mild-carbon and low-alloy' .
steels, shielding gas 95% argon + 5% oxygen. .
0,031 O.S 75 i.soo 30

0.037 0.9 90 2,300 30
0.050 1.3 1 5 2,900 30
0,063 1.6 eo 2,000 20
0,07B . z.o 120 3,000 20
. '0.1~5· . 3.2 200 5,000 15
0.18S 4,8 240 6,000 10
0.200 6,4 215 5,500 9
0.375 9.5 300 '1,500 8
any centering guides, lineup roils, and so on must be prop- It can be overcome by establishing windbreaks or shield-
erly aligned.The nozzle of the gun must be kept clean, and ing the welding area from direct exposure to fans, open
all portions of the gas supply system must be tight and op- doors, or the wind. With a little experience, welders can
erating properly. Finally, the work cable must be tightly use their bodies to shield the arc area from drafts and
connected to the work for trouble-free operation. breezes.
The welding parameters must be set in accordance
with weldlng procedure schedules. The correct gas flow
rates must be employed for optimum results.The welding
Industrial Use and Typical Applications
polarity must be correct. For almost all gas metal arc A typical application is the welding of aluminum bus bars
welding, DC electrode positive is employed. in the electrical industry. The most aggressive user has
been the sheet metal industry. Many submerged arc weld-
ing applications have been changed to GMAW since it is
Safety Considerations better for automatic fixturing and avoids the problem of
Safety factors and potential hazards involved with the abrasive flux in fixtures. Pipe welding also uses the
GMAW process are covered in detail in Chapter 4. In gen- GMAW process. GMAW has many, many applications.
eral, GMAW is a less hazardous process than manual
sht Ided metal arc Welding.
6-5 FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING

Flux-cored arc welding (FCA\V) is an arc welding
One problem has been the inability to reach inaccessible process that uses an arc between a continuous filler
welding areas with the available guns. GMAW guns are not
metal electrode and the weld pool. The process is used
as flexible as the covered electrode used for shielded with shielding gas from a flux contained within the tu-
metal arc welding. However; extensions can be placed on bular electrode with or without additional shielding
welding guns to r ach relatively inaccessible areas. There from an externally supplied gas, and without the appli-
is a problem feeding small-diameter soft electrode wire. cation of pressure. This is a variation of GMAW and is
The solution is rh use of a spool gun shown in Figure ba ed on the configuration of the lectrode.This process
6- 3, Spool guns usually employ constant-sp eel feed mois shown ill Figur 6-44.
tors and carry the I trode supply on the gun. Ele trode
wlre is f,. d only a few inch sand wiU a 'commodate small-
diameter aluminum wire and oth r nonferrous soft-type FIGURE6-44 Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW).
I rod wires. In some cases, the f ed rate can be ad-
just ~c1 at th . gun, • n I the solenoi t valve controlling the
g. 51 flow is In. the gun. ven so, th y are Iighrweight and
easily maneuvered. A spoolgun is the best solution for
fe (:fins thin-dtameter aluminum clectr de wir forany
apt lie. uon.
Anc>thet·problemtawtnd an.ddrafts aft' ctlng the ef-
t 'In~ of'th ' g. . hi'ldJng nv lop around the arc area,
flGUR.E6~3 . One pound spool gun. Courtesy of eSAB

We/it/ng and Cutting Products.
There are two variations of the process. One uses FCAWWITH
SELF-SHI ELDED
externally supplied shielding gas, and the second relies
ELECTRODE
entirely on shielding gas generated from the disintegra-
tion of the flux within the electrode. Of the variation us-
ing externally supplied shielding gas, there are two
distinct types of electrodes. One is the original flux-cored
type electrode, where the materials contained within the FLUX CORED
(a) ELECTRODE
tubular electrode are primarily fluxing agents. Another
type, known as cored wire welding electrodes, contains
alloy elements as well as powdered iron to enhance pro-
ductivity with a minimum amount of fluxing material. CONTACT TIP
Both flux-cored and metal-cored electrode wires require
external gas shielding. This is more logically called cored
wire welding and is almost identical to gas metal arc DIRECTION
welcUng, except for the electrode. In some countries, OF TRAVEL
cored wire welding, either flux-cored or metal-cored, is
Considered a variation of gas metal arc welding.
Principle of Operation
The FCAW process uses the heat of an arc between a (b) SELF-GENERATED
Continuously fed consumable cored electrode and the GAS SHIELDING
Work. The heat of the arc melts the surface of the base
metal and the end of the electrode. The metal melted
off the electrode is transferred across the arc to the
Workpiece where it becomes the deposited weld
metal. Shielding is obtained from the disintegration of
ingredients contained within the flux-cor d electrode
(Figure 6-45a),Add.itional sht Iding is obtained from an
envelope of gas suppli d through a nozzle to the arc FIGURE 6-45 (a) Process diagram for selt-shieloed
area a hown in Figure 6- 5b. Ingredients within the FCAW.(b) Process diagram for gas-shielded FCAW.
electrod produc gas for hi ldtng and also provide Courtesy of Weld ing Inspection Technology, American
d oxidiz rs, ionizers, purifying ag nts, and in some
Welding Society.
case alloying elern nts. 1'11es ingredi nts form a
gla:slik slag, which is lighter in weight than the de- • High deposition rate: high-current density
, ostred wel ,II etal, and floats on the surface of the
• R latively high el tr de m tal use
w ~lda a protectt e ' ver.The electrode is fed int th
• Relatively high travel speeds
arc automatically from a coil. Til arc is maintain d au-
tOtnati ally, and trs v I can b manual or b machtne. • Bcononiical engrneering joint designs
, • asle artati n can b us d outd 01'S
Advantages and Major Uses • Visible arc: asy to use
The l1CAW pro s~ lntr duced .tuearly 1950 is an ut- • Less pr cleaning requlr d than for gas In tal ar
~r()wth Of the lrMt.\.Wpro s•. PCAW has many a.dvan~ welding ,
hlg s ( er til manu 1 'MAW proc 58. It also provides • R edu d dtsrortton 0 er shielde d metal arc welding
, "
tid antage over submerged at ktingand the GMAW

'fhis process is be or:ni.riglncreasingly pOJ'\li~l"It is
P:<l 'e.",. Sim-ply' stat U, th l~CAW Pl'O 'ess pl' vides
widely used on m diuftl thick.i1cSsstee;lfabridtt1tJ;g WOt1<,
'hlgh·q:tl~llity l]d m till t loweL' cst with 1 S$ effuft on
where the fine Wire GMAW'pro,~ss waul" t'lot ~i)Ply~tld
It Is more forgi' ing
th ~ pllrt of the ~ ld r than S?\.1A,\v,
where tlle fitup is Sll b that SUblll fA - d nt' wIding
thall)MAW and is mor fl' tbl and aCln:ptabl than sub:'
wO\,lld b l.1n,'uitabl¢.
.Ill l'g'd loUTwelding. h se (d an ng s· r as fllo'W :
• High·quaJi well metal d posir
.. xceUetrtwc:ld ilUl~a1"atl'~: Smootll, uniform y,rlls Methods, of Application
• i '.-11 l1t 011t( lit of horIZ()riHil fill .~wcld~ and Position Capabilities'
'" W:'kls~ trlCf fst 'Iso 'rawJu thi'kl1 as .mg' 11
,. ~~h OJ.) . rating tl! .t t'~ ~~il
E 7 0 T [1116 in. (1.6 mm) and smaller) are used for all-position
ELECTRODE ___r welding. Electrodes of the EXXT-l group are used with
CO2 shielding gas. Electrodes of the EXXT-IM group are
classified with 75% to 80% argon, balance CO2 shielding
MINIMUM TENSILE 10XKSI -- -1
gas.The argon-Co', mixture will increase the manganese
and silicon content of the weld metal, which will increase
the yield and tensile strength and may affect impact prop-
WELDING POSITION (O·F&H. l·AII) - .....J
erties. These electrodes have a spray transfer with low
spatter loss and produce a flat to slightly convex bead
TUBULAR OR FLUX CORED --1
contour.
EXXT-2 and E:XXT~2M Classifications Electrodes of
SHIELDING MEDIUM AND POWER - -J
these classifications are very similar to EXXT·l and EXXT-
FIGURE6-48 AWS designation for FCAW electrode. 1M with higher manganese and silicon.They are used pri-
marily for single-pass welding in flat and horizontal fillet
position welding. The higher levels of de oxidizers allow
single-pass welding of heavily oxidized or rim steels.They
The flux-cored electrode wires are considered to be
are used with the same external shielding gas as the
low hydrogen since materials used in the core do not con-
EXX1:1 and EXXT-IM classification.These electrodes give
tain hydrogen. However, certain of these materials are hy-
good mechanical properties in single-pass welds. The arc
gros opic and tend to absorb moisture when exposed to
characteristics and deposition rates are similar to the pre-
a high-humidity atmospher . Electrode wires are there-
fore packaged in waterproof containers to prevent mois- vious classification.
ture pickup. It is recommended that the flux-cored EXXT~3 Classification Electrode of this classification
electrode wires be stored in a dry room. Chapter 13 gives are self-shielded using DCEP and have a spray-type trans-
more details, tncludtng the method of manufacturing fer. The electrodes are used for single-pass welds in the
flux- ored electrode wires. flat, horizontal, and vertical (down) position on sheet
m tal. They are not recommended for medium and heavy
Metal Core Electrodes plate welding.The slag system is designed f r high-speed
welding.
EXXi'-4 Classification The e electrodes are s lf-
shretd d and operat on DeEp. They ha e a globular-type
met, 1 transf r, They have high deposition rates and ar
designed for low p netrarion and can be used with poor
fitup and for single- and multiple-pass welding. .
EXXT·5 and EXXT-5M Classifications These lassifi-
cations are designed for use with CO2 hleldlng gas; how-
er,the 1~5M 'la.ssifi arion i destgn d fOI' use with 75%
to 8 % argon, balan CO2 sW ldi.tlg gas.Thes . lectrodes
are used pdmm11y for sillgl. ~and multiple-pass w Idmg in
th fhlt and horizontal fillet position, Elctrodes have
globular transfer and produ ,lIghtl c nvex b ad con-
tour and a thin 51:48 ov ring. The sm 11 r-dlamet r etc •
tr d s can be U' ~(.}in all p stticns; h wev r,welder pp al
f toes ele tt"QO s are. not as good as th 'F.· elas j lcatron.
EXXT~6
TABLE6-11 SUMMARYOF FCAW ELECTRODES
AWS
ClasSification Posltlon Shielding, '
E70T-1 Hand F CO2 DCEP Multi

E70T-1M Hand F 75-80% Ar-C02 DCEP Multi
E7lT-1 H,F,VU,OH CO2 DCEP Multi
E7lT1-1M H, F, VU, OH 75-80% AR-C02 DCEP Multi
E70T-2 Hand F CO2 DCEP Single
E70T-2M Hand F 75-80% Ar-C02 DCEP Single
E71 T-2 H, F, VU, OH CO2 DCEP Single
E7n-2M H, F, VU, OH 75-80% Ar-C02 DCEP Single
E70T-3 Hand F Self DCEP Single
E70T-4 Hand F Self DCEP Multi
E70T-5 Hand F CO2 DCEP Multi
E7OT-5M Hand F 75-80% Ar-C02 DCEP Multi
E71 T-5 H, F, VU, OH CO2 DCEP or DCEN Multi
E71T-5M H, V, VU, OH 75-80% Ar-C02 DCEP or DCEN Multi
E70T-6 Hand F Self DCEP Multi
E70T-7 Hand F Self DCEN Multi
E71 T-7 H, F, VU, OH Self DCEN Multi
E70T-8 Hand F Self DCEN Multi
E71 T-8 H, F, VU, OH Self DCEN Multi
E701-9 Hand F CO2 DCEP Multi
E70T-9M Hand F 75-80% Ar-C02 DCEP Multi
E71T-9 H, F, VU, OH CO2 DCEP Multi
E7LT-9M H, F, VU, OH 75-80% Ar-C02 DCEP Multi
E70T-I0 Hand F Self DCEN Single
E70T-l1 Hand F Self DCEN Multi
E7lT-ll H, F, VD, OH Self DCEN Multi
E7OT-12 Hand F CO2 DCEP Multi
E70T.12M Hand F 75':"80% Ar-C02 DCEP Multi
E711-12 H, F, VU, OH CO2 DCEP Multi
E7lT-12M H, F, VU, OH 75-80% Ar-C02 DCEP Multi
E61T·13 H, F, VD, OH Self DCEN Single
E7lT-13 H, F, VD, OH Self DCEN Single
E7l T·14 H, F, VD, OH Self DCEN Single
EXOT-G Hand F Note Note Multi
EXIT-G H, F, V, OH Note Note Multi
EXOT-GS Hand F Note . Note Single'
EX1T-GS H, F, V,OH Note Note Single
Note: New or proprietary wire, properties as speclfied by the supplier.
~t po: itions. Smaller siz scan be used in 11posltions.

. ese el trodes are .1 ed for Iow-sulfur weld deposits
auct 113. good re istanc to eta king. .
..8 In iftcatioh The. el trod Ii are s ]f-
.llj l(.ling)op NIt in D ~N.and have a sm 11droplet-to-
,pray trt\n~f(;r. '1 maller-dlam tel' ele ~tr des ar.
:Ui~flblefor weldl,t1gin all t)osillons, and the weld metal.
) .& good 1 w·tnpe~ltttce prop ~l·tles.TheY'~ be used ~,
l~• ingl • and multiple-pas,. welds.
~9atldj~9M las Ul uUons 1 _tro 1 sf

'-f..9gr CJpareu' j·Mth_ 1s}Ue14iIlggns,atld those
EXXT-IO Classification These electrodes are self- designed for use with CO2 shielding. Caution should be ex-
shielded, operate on DCEN,and have a small droplet metal ercised to determine if [his will be detrimental to the
transfer.These electrodes are used for single-pass welds at weldrnent. Certain of the deoxidizers included in the elec-
high travel speeds on metal mat rial of any thickness in the trode wire, such as silicon, manganese, and possibly alu-
flat, horizontal, and vertical postrtons, depending on size. minum, will carry across the arc rather than be oxidized in
the arc.These elements may build up in multiple-pass welds
EXXT-ll Classification These electrodes are self-
shielded. operate on DCEN,and have a smooth spray trans- to a level that could be unacceptable. Shielding gas of 98%
argon plus 2% oxygen is also used for some electrodes.
fer. They are general-purpose electrodes for single- and
multiple-pass welding in all positions, depending on size.
They are not generally used on heavier thicknesses. Deposition Rates and Quality of Welds
EXXT-12 and EXXT-12M Classifications These elec- The deposition rates for flux-cored electrodes are shown
trod -s are essentially the same as EXXT-I and EXXT-lM in Figure 6-49.These curves show deposition rates when
electrodes, which have been modified to improve impact welding with mild and low-alloy steels using direct-
toughness and to meet the lower manganese require- current electrode positive (DCEP). Deposition rates of
ments of the ASME A-I analysis group. They have a de- the smaller size flux-cored wires exceed that of the cov-
creased t usile strength and hardness and must be ered electrodes. The metal utilization of the flux-cored
matched to the base material. electrode is higher. Flux-cored electrodes have a much
broader current range than covered electrodes.
EXXT-13 Classfflcation These are self-shielded elec- The quality of the deposited weld metal produced
trodes that operate on DCEN. These electrodes can be by the flux-cored welding process i high.The deposited
used in all positions and for the root pass on circumfer- weld metal win match or exceed the properties shown
ential pipe girth welds. The electrode can be used on all for the electrode used. This assures the proper matching
low-carbon steel pipe and all thicknesses, but are only of base metal, flux-cored electrode type. and sht lding
recommended for the root pass. They generally are not gas. Quality depends on the efficiency of the gas shield-
recommended for multiple-pass welding. ing envelope, on the joint detail, on the cleanliness of th
EXXT~14 lassification These electrodes at' self- joint, and on the skill of the welder.
shl Ided and operat on DCEN. They are d signed for The mechanical prop rties of weld and metal de-
high-speed welds.They are used f r welding sheet metal posited by the self-shielding electrode wires are slightly
and can he us d on all positions, depending on slze.They lower than that produced by electrodes that use external
;11' sp -, liically designed for galvanized, aluminized, and
gas shielding. This is s en by reviewing the properties of
oth r 'oatd ste Is. Th 'y are not recornm od -d for T or the d posited metal of both type of el ctrodes.The r elf-
lap j tnts, hun, dg .or corner joints in h cavier matertal. shielding and the gas-shielded dec rodes both produ e x-
ray quality welds,
morr~G las~jjftcatlon These electrod s are for
ruulttple-pass welding that is not covered by any of the
I reVfOI.1$ lassi.ftcations.¥OlCrequir ments for this lassifj.
atio.t't are l'lot pecUled except for ch mica! r qulr . FIGURE 6-49 Deposition rates for flux-cored
met ts to ass rr a c rbon steel deposit and t enslle electrodes.
rtength.. Consult the suppJl· r for detail .
Ja$Siflc~tion 'he, ,\ el tr d s are for
'singl .puss w 'ldtng and aI' ;not 'a 'r"'d by :my of th
orb 'r ct S:i ali)l. '11 ten~U SIl' 'figt}] is sp H'i <.1;th 3/32"
tll • .r ·qtlircmetit. :If not. 'OilS J1~ wtth the supplier for 2.4 MM
d'tailCd l11J{)rniRti(>1't. 0.048" 1/16" /
1.1 MM 1.6MM /
f I ~
I I
'~.
I I
SOL.ID LIN S ONE .

NO~MALRANql£ FOR
EAt'" SIt! fi:l.ECTROOe
'., 2
Weld Schedules longer tip-to-work or stickout distance is used. Normally,
for the 0.45-in. (l.l-mm) size, the stickout is 1/2 to 5/8 in.
The welding procedure schedules for FCAW are given in For the l/l6-in. (l.6-mm) size, the stickout is increased to
two ways. The first is shown in Table 6-12, which pro- 3/4 in., and for the 5/64-in. (2.0-mm) size and above, the
vides information for using electrode-positive electrodes stickout is increased to 3/4 to 1 in. CO2 shielding gas is
and electrode-negative electrodes. The welding parame- used with the electrode-positive electrode in the range
ters are given for each size of electrode for welding in 35 ft3fhr (16.5 Iiters/minj.Wire feed speed is given, which
different positions. In this or any welding procedure provides a deposition rate.
schedule, the ranges can be expanded. Higher currents The second set of tables for welding procedure
can be used when automatic travel is used. The voltage schedules is shown in Figure 6-50. In tills series, specific
range can also be expanded and will increase when a weld details are shown and weld schedules are given for
TABLE6-12 WELDING PROCEDURESCHEDULEFORFCAW
Welding Data for CO2 Gas-Shielded Electrode with Reverse Polarity (Electrode Positive)
Rate
-
Deposition
Diameter Approx. Wire Feed Speed
Weld Amperage Stickout
in. mm Position DCEP Voltage in.lmin mm/min lb/hr kg/hr :.t.t in.
0.035 0.9 Flat-horiz" 100-250 23-29 245-790 6,223-20,066 3.3-10.2 1.49-4.62
0.035 0.9 vertical" 125-225 23-28 245-640 6.223-16,256 3.3-8.5 1.49-3.85
0.035 0.9 Overhead" 125-225 23-28 245-640 6,223-16,256 3.3-8.5 1.49--3.85
0.045 1.1 Flat-horiz" 100-300 24-33 220-730 5,588-18,542 4.6-15.4 2.08-6.98
0.045 1.1 vertical" 150-220 24-27 220-430 5,588-10,922 4.6-8.4 2.08-3.81
0.045 1.1 Overhead" 150-250 24-29 220-530 5,588-13,462 4.5-10.3 2.04-4.67
0.052 1.3 Flat-horiz" 150-350 23-35 160-585 4,064-14,859 4.2-15,0 1.90-6.80
0.052 1.3 Vertical" 150-250 24--28 160-320 4,064-8,128 4.2-8.4 1.90-3.81
0.052 1.3 Overhead" 150-250 24-28 160-320 4,064-8,128 4.2-8.4 1.90-3.81
TG
'Ii
1.6 Flat-horiz'' 200 25 138 3,505 4,7 2.13 t
1.6 Flat-hertz" 250 26 177 4,495 6.0 2.72 l
~ 1.6 Flat-horiz'' 300 27 230 5,842 8.4 3.81 i
1\ 1.6 Flatb 350 28 280 7,112 10.9 4.94 t
;\ 1.6 Flath 375 29 311 7,899 11,6 5.26 i
Ii- 2.0 Flat-horiz" 250 26 119 3,040 6.6 2.99 1
~
",
2.0 Flat-horlz'' 300 29 145 3,683 8.4 3.81 1
2.0 Flat-horiz" 350 31 181 4,597 10,2 4.63 . 1
2.0 Flatb 400 33 226 5,740 12.1 5.49 1
~ 2.4 Flat-hortz" 350 26 120 3,048
~t
9.2 4.17 1
2.4 Flat-horlz'' 400 29 142 3)606 11.5 5.22 1
tr 2.4 latb 450 32 174 4,419 13.7 6.21 1
~ 2.4 Flatb 500 34 201 5.105 15.2 6,89 1
,
~ 2.4 Flatb 550 36 234 18.1 .
5,943 8.21 1
i4 2.8 Flatb 500 30 125 3,175 13.4 6,08 1.
2.8 F1atb 550 32 145 3,683 15.5 7.03 1
**
f.t
2.8
2.8-
2,8
Flatb
- Flatb
Flat"
600
650
34
36
176
196
·4,470
4,978' .
18.5
20.6
8.39
9,34
1
L
700 36 221 5,613 23.6 ,10,70 1
i 3.2 Flatli 600 32 120 3,048 17,8 8;07 l'
3.2 Flatt!
t,*
650 34 130 3;302 19.7 8.93 1
3.2 FlatP 700 3q . 143 3,632 21:4 '9.70· 1
t 3,2 Flat!} 750 38 155 3)937 22.0,: 9~~7 ':
i 3.2 Flath 800 38 166 4,216 - !24.6- ·lo.as
~O% (gon, 20% CO
2 hlelding gas. (
Us 'C02 Shielding gas at 35 to 40 ft'31hr(la to 19 liters/min). ',.
WG1dmg Cilatafor Self-ShieldIng Ele~trode On Strai~ht Polarity· (Electrode NeaatNe)
TABLE6-12 WELDING PROCEDURE SCHEDULE FOR FCAW (CONTINUED)
Diameter Approx. Wire Feed Speed Deposition Rate

In. mm Weld Position CUrrent Amp Voltage DCEN in.lmin mm/min Ib/hr kg/hr
0.030 0.8 Flat & Horiz 25-200 14-18 55-565 1,397-14,351 .3-5.4 .13-2.45
0.030 0.8 Vert & Ovhd 25-150 14-17 80-300 2,032-7,620 .3-4.1 .13-1.86
0.035 0.9 Flat & Horiz 50-225 13-20 65-465 1,651-11,811 .6-6.3 .27-2.85
0.035 0.9 Vert & Ovhd 75-175 13-19 52-300 1,321-7,620 .6-4.2 .27-1.91
0.045 1.1 Flat & Horiz 75-250 15-19 65-290 1,651-7,366 1.1-6.0 .49-2.72
0.045 1.1 Vert & Ovhd 100-200 16-18 80-190 2,032-4,826 1.5-3.8 .68-1. 72
0.052 l.3 Flat & Horiz 125-300 16-20 60-191 1,524-4,851 1.1-4.2 .49-1.91
0.052 1.3 Vert & Ovhd 125-250 15-18 64-158 1,625-4,013 1.5-4.7 .68-2.13
1
1"6 1.6 Flat & Horiz 150-325 16-20 61-185 1,549-4,699 1.2-7.5 .54-3.40
~ 1.6 Vert & Ovhd 150-250 16-18 61-110 1,549-2,794 1.2-4.8 .54-2,17
0,068 1.7 Flat & Horiz 175-325 15-18 53-133 1,346-3,378 1.5-7.6 .68-3.44
5
il'4 2.0 Flat & Horiz 200-400 16-23 30-104 762-2,642 3.0-7.8 1.36-3.54
~ 2.4 Flat & Horiz 300-450 18-24 70-80 1,778-2,032 6.1-7.2 2.76-3.26
Note: No external shielding gas is used.
Stickout is! in. for 0.30 through 0.45 min dia and ;i in. for 0.52 and larger.
each detail.This is based on generanzed conditions using should be kept uniform. Special guns are available that in-
manual travel on carbon steel and can be altered for spe- corporate electrical stickout, and these increase deposi-
elf situations. These tables are starting points and tion rates. However, penetration is reduced and therefore
should be vertfl d by qualification tests or production the proper current and voltage should be employed to
runs. The weld toss-sectional area for 11CAWcan be re- ensure root penetration.
duced ov r that us d for coated electrodes, and for this
reason joint details shown on th se charts can be modi-
fi. ~dto r duce the includ dangle. Safety Considerations
When using the self-shielding type wires that oper- Safety considerattons for FCAW are til same as th e for
ate with dtr ect urrenr electrode n gative (D N) cur- the other arc welding processes, which wee overed in
rent, 1evels are r duced approximately 20%. Ele rrical Chapter 4. ne factor with PCAW is rh amount of smoke
sti ckout is requtr d tor rno self-shielding 1 ctrodes.The and fumes produced. This process produ es more smoke
amount x rle by 41ectrode type. than MAW with covered electrodes; however, much more
weld metal is bing depo ited per hour with this process.
Welc~ingVariables Prop r .po trlonlng of the welder's head and th use of
zurv d front welding hoods wiIlgreatly reduce the smoke
Th . weldhlg arlabl s nvol .. l with F 'A~r are .s 'nti,1Iy that will reach the br athing zon . or rno ffi tent 01·
tl s~n as tho a soc-iat d with gas rn tal ;''l-r w Iding. lection of sJlloke,exl1.'lust welding gun' ar recommended.
'FCA~dOes have an :xtrc1l1ely Wide rang f welding 'ur-
. r n and voIr, ~ .Thes' at''' quite dlffel'em for the ] '.
tr(;)d~1i that op nlte de ·trod p idv'i' and thos" that imitation of the Pro S5
p 'h t e1 'tfi d n'g tjv . This inform d n i ·umm... .h follow ng 3,1' som of th . limitHtion - to tbJs pro 'ess:
rlzeCltn Tab16", 13, whi h show, th··. p em ng range tor
, b tl~.t;y,t!Ci. • F :w' is used on.l t weld f,"'rrous m tal primarily
I
ste Is.
• TIl PI' . ss not'malIy pr htc s ~{sl. goring th~t .
Olt1st bre-mav d.
• Cc.>f d '1 tro te w'{' Is more p nsi . on H
w'ight bilSis thml Ut solid l' 'tr< d wir ..
lndustriar Us .and Typic JAppric~tions

Mild steel with backup
Flat
..i -t
T T
-T
I
_t_
Weld Size Material Number Electrode Welding Power Travel $peed

(5) Thicknen T of Diameter Volts Amps IMP
in. mm In. mm Passes in. mm EP DC fperpM1)
Material Type Number Aoot Electrode Welding Power 1/8 3.2 1/8 3.2 1 3/32 2.4 24-26 300-350
Travel Speed 44-69
Thickness T of of Opening A Diameter Volts Amps per pass, ipm
in. mm Joint Passes 1/4 6.4 1/4 6.4 1 3/32 2.4 24-26 350-400 22-24
in. mm in. mm EP DC
1/8 3.2 square 1 1/32 O.B 1/4 1/8 3.2 25·27 450-500
3/32 2.4 24·26 325 56 114 6.4 6.4 1 26-30
114 6.4 60' vee 1 0 3/32 41 3/8 9.5 3/8 9.5 1 3/32 2.4 26-30 375-500 13·17
0 2.4 25-27 375
1/2 1.27 60< vee 1 0 0 lIB 3.2 27-30 550 14 3/8 9.5 3/8 9.5 1 1/8 3.2 28-31 500-575 16-20
314 19.0 60· vee 3 0 lIB 3.2 27-30 lB 5/8 15.9 6/8 15.9 3 3/32 2.4 26·31 460-475 12·14
0 550
1 25.4 60' vee 6 0 0 liB 3.2 27-30 550 11 5/B 15.9 5/8 15.9 3 1/8 3.2 27-30 460-500 12·14
fa) fe)
Manual travel-mild steer
Travel speed
Weld IPM T ravel speed
p,,"
Weld IPM
r---"--'3down pass T ravel speed
7.7 up Weld IPM
1 13 down
5 up 2 1.4 UP pass
3 2.3 up 1 11 down
4 1.6 up 2 3 up
5 11 down 3 3.5 up
4 2.1 up
5 2.7 up
6 2 up
7 1.8 up
8 1.4 up
9 1.3 up
Typ, RQOl
,
Material Num~ Electrode
ThlcknmT· of of Opening Oi,metllr VollS Amps
in. mm JOint PaSSll1 in. mm in. mm EP OC
3/8 9,6 60' 3 0 0 .045 1.1 22 II,JP
$il1gl1
"fill
1 2504 50" S 3132 2.4 ,045 1.1 2~ 180
'inqh'
VH
:I ~O.,. 611" g 1/16 1.6 .1)45 1,1 22 lSi>
Ill1gle
vee
FIGURE 6...50 Welding procedure schedule joint
Ibt details.
TABLE6-13 WELDING
CURRENT
RANGE
FORFLUX-CORED
ELECTRODES
Welding Range For E70T-l with CO2 Shielding (DCEP)
Minimum Maximum
Diameter Wire Feed Speed Wire Feed Speed
in. mm Amperes Volts in.lmin mm/min Amperes Volts in.lmin mm/min
0.045 1.2 120 21 168 4,267 300 30 625 15,875
1
1W 1.6 150 24 100 2,540 425 31 400 10,160
i4 2.0 200 26 95 2,413 450 33 270 6,858
~ 2.4 300 26 95 2,413 600 36 255 5,477
8~ 2.8 450 30 llO 2,794 750 38 237 6.019
t 3.2 550 32 98 2,489 850 39 175 4,445
Welding Range For E7l T-l1 Self-Shielding WeEN)
Minimum Maximum
Diameter Wire Feed Speed Wire Feed Speed
in. mm Amperes Volts in/min mrn/min Amperes Volts in./min mm/min

0.045 1.1 95 13 65 1,651 180 18.5 200 5,080
r\ 1.6 100 15 47 1.193 300 22 189 4,800
0.068 1.7 125 17 49 1,245 300 23 184 4,673
A 2.0 150 18 47 1,193 300 22.5 124 3,149
~ 2.4 200 17 40 1,016 350 22 93 2.410
duty :y I ,'111eelectrode wires have a higher rate of uti-

Hz(tion, and rnor e .onornl 'at weld joint d tails can be
mploy d. This r ults in lower '0. t weldment, which is
the goal for weldment ff bricators.
6~6.SUBMERGED ARC WELDING
FIGURES-51 Submerged arc welding (SAW).

.
Contact Tube '"
Methods of Application
.and Position Capabilities
The most popul.ar method of applying is the mechanized
method where the operator monitors the welding opera-
tion. Second in popularity is the automatic method,
where welding is a push-button operation. The process
can be applied semi-automatically; however, this method
Path
of application is not too popular. The process cannot be
--_ Direction of Travel -- ... applied manually because it is impossible for a welder to
FIGURE6-52 Process diagram for submerged arc control an arc that is not visible.
welding (SAW). Courtesy of Welding Inspection Technology, The submerged arc welding process is a limited-
American Welding Society. position welding process. Welding can be done in the flat
position and in the horizontal fillet position with ease.
The welding positions are limited because of the large
as a protective cover. The weld is submerged under this
pool of molten metal which is very fluid.The slag is also
layer of flux and slag-hence the name submerged arc
Welding. fluid and will tend to run out of the joint, Under special
controlled procedures it is possible to weld in the hori-
The flux and slag normally cover the arc so that it is
zontal position, sometimes called 3-0 'clock welding.This
not Visible. The unmelted portion of the flux can be
reused.The electrode is fed into the arc automatically from requires special devices to hold the flux up so that the
molten slag and weld metal cannot run away. The
b coil, The arc is maintained automatically and travel can
process is not used in the vertical or overhead position.
sta manUal or by machine.The arc is initiated by a fuse-type
art or by a reversing feed system. The metal transfer
mode is less important in submerged arc welding. Weldable Metals and Thickness Range
Submerged arc welding is used to weld low- and
Advantages and Major Uses medium-carbon steels, low-alloy high-strength steels,
The SUbnlerged arc welding pro ess is one of the older quenched and tempered steels, and many stainless
auom . steels, Experimentally it has been us d to w ld .ertain
1 atic processes and was originally used to make the
v~ngitudinat seam in large pipe. It was developed to pro- copper alloys, nickel alloys, and ven uranium. SUQ"
Ide high-quality depo Ired weld metal by shielding the merged arc welding is also us d for hard surfacing and
a~and the molten rn tal from the ontaminatingeffects overla operations.
the air.The major advantages of the process are: M tal thlckn ss from 1/16:it1.(L6 rom) to 1/2 io.(13
mmjean be welded wtth'no edge preparation, With ..dge
• High-ql1a.llty weld metal preparation, welds can be made with a sil1gle pass on ma-
• trem Iy high d po ltlon rat and peed terial from II in. (6, mm) through 1 in. (25 nun).Whcl1
.. mooth, Uniform finlslred weld with no spatt t mum-pass te hnlque .is.used, the maximum thtcknessts.
practically unlirnite 1. Horizontal fillet w 1is Colf! broad
• Little r no smoke
up to 3/8 in. (9.5 mmj in a single pass, and in the flat po-
.. No arc flash. thus O1ini.tual need for protective sition fillet welds can he made up to lin. (25 rom); be;·
- clothhlg - .
.. High utilization f el ctrode wit
• ::tSily automr ted for igh 01) rator fa tor
Joint D sign
.. Manlpuhltl e skills not involved
.t 'l11esubmergedav pro ess is-wid Iy u ed ill heavy

st . p14t fabei anon work:J111i iilcltld s th· 'welding of
a~~t t~mt shal e ant'! tl I ng;itlldinal Seam of larger 41"
all cr, pipe, t'I mam.lfactLl~ of machJn compon nts foi'
tl~'YP of heavy inuustry,. n th manl.lfll 'ture ofv s 1$
h~.~nl($ for pre SU!' nnd S orag" l; S . It t wid Iy uS d in
~Il e ipbuUdin. industrY r. pUdngand abo ating sUQ'
u !holJe, and by:many other lntlustries wh re steels ar .
fi~c~ in n . dl 1I'U to 11:. thi ne,'s, It is . Is tl,'d for sur.
g • n<.lbuiluup work, maintenan ~lnd t pah'; j
SOUARE.GROOVE WELDS WELDED FROM ONE SlOE
R MAX.
_[T 5/16
c:=dc)::~ £MAX. • 1
ItT T....---"
REMOVABLE T MIN.
BACKING
R • 1/32 WHEN T • 16 TO 12 GA T • 5/16 MAX,

R.1I16WHENTal0Td 7GA
R' liB WHEN T· 3/16 TO 5/16
SQUARE.GROOVE WELDS WELDED FROM ONE SIDE WITH STeEL BACKING
GtB
MIN,
_.J T I..--MIN,
SOUARE.GROOVE WELDS WELDED FROM BOTH SIDES
J T
L
T
t r T
R" 1132 MAX.

T· 1/8 TO 5/8
N01'E:
TO OBTAIN FUl..L PENETRATION WELD FROM
ONE SIDe USE THE SMALL ROOT FACI:
DIMENSION AND REMOVABLE BACKING.
FIGURE 6-53A Weld [olnt designs for SAW.

----------------------~--------------------------------------------~------------------
welling from one side,backlpg bars are recommended.
Where both sides are ace. ""sihle, the backing weld can b
mad iwhi lwUl fuse Into the original w ld to provid
fun p n tranon. Recomrnended subm .. ged arc joint de-
s~gnsare shown in .Flgttrc 6... 3.
nd Current
SINGLE·GROOVE WELDS WELDED FROM ONE SIDE WITH STEEL BACKING
OVER 3/8 TO 3/4 3/16 30·

OVER 3/4 5/8 15
DOUBLE·VEE·GROOVE WELDS WELDED FROM BOTH SIDES
~045"MIN.
1/16 MAX.
45· MIN.
DOUBLE·BEVEL·GROOVE WELDS WELDED FROM BOTH sloes
45"
SINGLE·U·GROOvE WELDS WELDED FROM ONE OR BOTH sross
FIGURE6-538 Weld joint designs for SAW,
• USE
~ 6-54 Crrcuitdlagram for SAW.
~, th WekHng tor 11for. au omatt W" Ling,or th w Id-'

~n!;\g In and cable !l " embly f l' s miautomatic: w IdjllY)
fl' tIl fitl 110p1' T !tn_d fCJ;db).g me hanism and usuallY:l
. \l r e vet'Y s5'~t rn, nd (5 trll 1 01 chan:i m JOt auto-
ll1ar wcklfng', "
b, Th power sure for suhm rged r W l<tillg must
{'.rated f1lr t 100% d:uty y 1 1 b eatlS" tl esubmet..g d
flux f d depends on the height the gun is held above the absorption (or the minimum temperature in Celsius of an
work.The hopper gun may include a start switch to initiate impact test to provide 27 joules of energy absorption).
the weld, or it may use a "hot" electrode so that when the There are eight classifications for impact strength. The
etc ztrode is touched to the work, feeding will begin auto- classification for the flux is surrunarized in Figure 6-56.
matically. Pressure flux feed systems are also used. The electrode is specified by the letter E followed
For automatic welding, the torch is normally at- by three digits. Note, however, that the letter E can be fol-
tached to the wire feed motor and the flux hopper is at- lowed by the letter C if the electrode is of composite con-
tached to the torch. The flux hopper may have a struction. Omission of a C indicates a solid electrode. The
magnetically operated valve that can be opened or closed next digit is to designate the manganese content. This is
by the control system. followed by a one- or two-digit number used to indicate
The final piece of equipment sometimes used is a nominal carbon content in hundredths of a percent car-
travel carriage, which can be a simple tractor or a com- bon. These digits are sometimes followed by a letter K,
plex moving specialized fixture. A typical travel carriage which indicates that the electrode steel was silicon
is shown in Figure 6-55. A flu.x recovery unit can be pro- killed. If the steel is of another type, a K will not appear.
vided to collect the unused submerged arc flux and re- This is sometimes followed by two digits, which Indicate
turn it to the supply hopper. Submerged arc welding the alloys that are present. Figure 6-57 shows the elec-
systems can become more complex by adding such de- trode classification system for carbon steels.(18)This does
vices as seam follow rs, weavers, or work movers. not, however, cover the alloy steels. For complete infor-
mation on the alloy steels, refer to the AWS specifica-
tion. Cl9)Thecomposition requirements for submerged arc
Electrode and Flux carbon steel electrodes are shown in Table 6-14.
Two mat rials are used in submerged arc welding, the An example of the flux -electrode classification sys-
welding flux and th consumable electrode.TheAmerlcan tem is as follows:
Welding So lety has two specificationsOS.19) that provide
a classification system for both the flux and the electrode. F7A6-EM12K indicates a flux-electrode combination
The flux is specified by the letter Ffollowed by a two- or that will produce weld metal that in the as-welded con-
thr e-dlgtr number chat indicates the minimum ten lie
strength in in rem nts of 10,000 psi.This is followed by a
letter that indi ares the condition of heat treatment for FIGURE 6-56 Classifications for SAW flux.
testing th welds.a stands for=as w Ided;andPstands for
"postweld h at tt·eated."'n1i i, followed by a one- or two- F x x x
T T T
I
digit numb er, whl h indicates 'the minimum temperature
H!;AT
in 'ahrenhcit of irpact t sts to proVide 20 ft-I.bof energy MECHANICAL
PRQPERTIES TA£AT'MENT
MINIMUM
IMPACTS
,laURi,S-55 SAWtravel carriage and head, Courtesy

of !SAS Welding and CUtt/ngProd(,1cts.
fl,UX
I
6 - 60·90.000 tlnll1.
48,000 min vleld
A- .. \Wlded
I 20 ft.lbt 0
P-pottw.ld Z- no twqul,.,~nt
22% tlong. In 2" h.-at tr4lllltd O-O·F- ·ta·c
1- 70~116,000«Intlt,
6Il,OOO mjfl yl.ld ~- -20" • -29·0
2~ tloog. In 2" 4- .-40"1' • -4O"C
t- 80·100.000 t.",lle 6......
-60·". -4f!'C
(111.000 min VI.ld 6- -tiO"F .. -BlOC
20'16 If 011" In 2" 8- -80'F. ~62'C
9- 9!H10,OlXH.mllt 10- -IOO*F .. -7S·C
18,OOOmltl yield
17'" IIlol'IIJ, In 2"
10 .... 1OO·120,QOO tanJlI,
88,0(l0 mln Vi td
HI" .f0ffll, In2'
FIGURE6-57 .Classifications for SAW erectrode.
r C
x
T
MAfljOI\N~
CQNtliNT
xx
CM90N
eQN
T
)(0.01
"IT
x
T
,,- !1M Iftl
iiln mP.)
M..._ljjm!'~!fMI!""'!(,1
I
II- hlllh(U~ M~",.w.)
TABLE 6-14 COMPOSITION REQIJIREMENTS FOR SUBMERGED ARC CARBON STEEL ELECTRODES
Chemical Composition (Wt %)a.b

AWS
Classification C Mn Si S P Cue
low-manganese steel electrodes
UB 0.10 0.25/0.60 0.07 0.035 0.035 0.35
El8K 0.10 0.25/0.60 0.10/0.25 0.035 0.035 0.35
EL12 0.05/0.15 0.25/0.60 0.07 0.035 0.035 0.35
Medium-manganese steel electrodes
EM12 0.06/0115 0.80/1.25 0.035
0.10 0,035 0.35
EM12K 0.05/0.15 0.80/1.25 0,035
0.10/0.35 0.035 0.35
EM13K 0.07/0.19 0.9011.40 0.35/0,75 0.035 0,035 0,35
EM15K 0.10/0.20 0.80/1.25 0.10/0.35 0,035 0.035 0.35
High-manganese steel electrodes
EH14 0.10/0.20 1.70/2.20 0.10 0.035 0.035 0.35
~~-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
bIngle values are maximums. .
~lectrOdes are to be analyzed for those elements for which specific values are shown. Elements other than those shown, which are intentionally
a ded (except iron), are also to be reported. The total of these latter elements and all other elements that are not intentionally added must not
eXceed 0.50%.
erhe copper limit includes any copper coating that may be applied to the electrode.
d' ,
ltlOn will have a tensile strength of 20 ft-lb at 110tless silicon used to reduce porosity and weld cracking.They
~han 70.000 psi and a Charpy V-notch impact strength of are normally used for single-pass applications. TIle (1)
at least 20 ft-Ibs at -60°F when deposited with an EM12K neutral, (2) active, (3) alloy is alloy fluxes, which when
electl:ode inder standard conditions called for in theAWS used with plain carbon steel Iectrodes produce alloy
P cification,
weld deposlrs.Thls is done to match particular base met-
The flux hields the arc and molten weld m tal from als or, with additional alloys) is used for hardfacing ap-
atrno 'ph eric Oxygen and nitrogen. The flux contains de- plication '.
~Xidi7_,ers and s avengers, which help remove Impurttl s Variations in arc voltage change fluxconsumptlon .
.rOln he weld m tal. Flux: also pr vides a means for in- Higher arc voltage (long arc length) tncrea es the amount
tnd '
m Uig alloys into th weld metal.Alloys and deoxidiz- of flux melted or consumed.Thls can au e mote alloy to
ers lU;ty also b introduc d fr m the welding Iectrode. b d posited; hence it is important to follow the manu-
As the molten flux cools, it forms a gla' s slagcov- facturer's recommended oltages when using apartlcu-
~i . •
ng, wht 11prot cts the surfac of ttl wet l.TIl non- Jar fh. x,
m it'd portion of th flux do s not change its form; its .In g n ,rai, the flux is selected bas d on the me-
llropertt S llre not aft1 ted, so this unmelted flux can be chard al properti s required of th w Id .depo it: Th '
t~ OV"r d and r used.The flu that melts and forms the le rrode would be sek cted in onjunctton with the flux .
~g ~o .
U' rtng 1l1ust b > remo d from the w, td.Tllisis as- to deli '1' thes 111 Chall.l: al properties. Manl.,lfa 11l1'ers
fb dOne after tli weld cools and, in many cas $, will peel Qsuail'y listflt.lX'S With $ vCr'tiJ combiu<ltions6f eJ; C-
o~r, m al Without spe 'hll ifot,t. Ttl a groove w Jd th trades tor w~l(Ungdifferent steels, Thetnanufactu,' ris
1 i"df1'j d slag may ha to b ~ r m cd by a hipping re 'otnm ndatlons should b fbUo ., J wIth r '.1' 't to
;iltuQ1 t: TI fUR 'd flux t.b~lt L remov d must dis- sing1 • or m.ultipl 'Opt type of ap{U' tiot] r. Ilted to.th
il.td (! Sin tl alloying 1 menu; and d oxidizers (r base 1'lletal prop l'ti. "If welct requtt 1'0 nts ~lr critiCal.
haustect dUring til melting pha e. , tests shol.lld b made to ,'qualify the pro ed'uf tll1lt' . m +
pro h.JC the weld: pf'Qpe:rtie (Ie -ir. d, - ..

S1 etion of F1ux Wir Combih tion
Tl1 \;lb" '
. 'le'. m 1'g I Rr w 1Hng it.1 1:). "C sary to' 1 ct n
ftocl • Qd, (1]1.1 o. 1bin:ttion to mat 'h the ba . 111 tal
nn.d pro ert! ,Flu s t'>t dlffernt tutln'U.
f~~)~lJ)()sttil.,ln
'l\J;&l.U'tsar QOt nterchans 'llbl wlthoLlt lnaldiilg t~ests.
I)SU1l:!Y betpu:tral
r. ('j e.Neutnd flu ~sv i11 not
jStO~~r: . :tny slgnJf'nnt 'hunw's in wel~ n tal II m~
.ti :~,:h ,:U'" nOJ'mall 'used fbr rl1ulti·pas, 'lding.A.
YXee) '.oil ailU'itn.1J1 amount 0' .ma11ganes 1\:110/'01:'
50 50
3-1/4"
20 STICKOUT
(2.4)
a: 3/32 20
a: ::l
::l 0
0 15 J:
J: a:
40
a: 30 w
w ~
e, V)
V)
0
s a:
- 10 <I: 15
z 20 a::
,_, ::>
::> a: 0
;l:
0 ::::> 30
~ ...J 0 a:
~ J: 1.1.1
e,
10 5 a::
w I/l
e,
, I/l
10
~
a:
0
0 Z <.:I
0 '" STICKOUT
1400
::::>
9
2 3/32
~
AMPERES (2.4)
FIGURE6-58 Deposition rates for SAW.

5
10
200 400
AMPERES
FIGURE6-59 SMAW versus ASAW deposition rates.
semiautomatic welding is the problem of completely fill-

ing the weld groove or maintaining exa r siz .since the
weld is hidden and cannot be ob er d while it is being
made. This requires making an extra pass, or in some
cases too much weld is deposited. Variations in root
op nlng affect the travel speed, and if travel speed is uni-
form, the weld may be under- or overfilled in differ nt
at" as. High perator skill and experience will overcome
this probl m,
An ther quality problem i.. as 0 iated with ex-
trernely large.single-pass weld deposus.when th s large
wlds oUdify,the impurities in the melted bas metal and
in the weld m tal all collect J t th last point t freeze,
which is the enterlin of the w Id, If there is sufficient
restraint and enough impurities are collected t thi.
point. centerlln racking may 0 cur. This an happen
wh 11 making hlrg singl -pass flat Ollet welds If the bas'
Ole aI plat . ae 5° it rn: fl~t. impt solution is to
a otd pla tng tb parts at a ru a.1lgle.It should be
I)
vart d appro.ximately 104;>1'0 that the root f t11 jOint 1~

not in Hnwith th enterdneofth 1illetweld. :t1Qthe.
SoltlUOn is to make mulnp! passe < roth r 111110~ttte:rrlpt:-.
Jug tc> mak' a larg weld in, single pi. ..
SSiVi ly hard w ~Id I p. sit. oS)trlbut" to
Tacldng of th w Id dnrJng fabri.Catlon r during cr-
vic ·.A rnax4numJlw'dnes8 J ~velof 22S Btin Ills' opa'
melld-d. 'rb rea. n for til ,,' l'nird w {d hi {'..arbon aud
low.lloy st c.ls is t Q 1'a i.d ooling, inlld q lntc po~t,
w. 1d tv< atm nt, or "sstv I lIoy t> 'Imp h the w Id
. ·m,etttl.,~ i. ru1a 1/icktlp.ili d1Je to 5 leonng AA e14
trade that has too much alloy, a flux that introduces too Travel speed has an influence on both bead width
much alloy into the weld, or the use of excessively high and on penetration. Faster travel speeds produce nar-
welding voltages. rower beads that have less penetration. This can be an ad-
In automatic and mechanized welding, defects may vantage for sheet metal welding, where small beads and
OCCurat the start or at the end of the weld. The best so- minimum penetration are required. If speeds are too fast,
lution is to use runout tabs so that starts and stops will be however, there is a tendency for undercut and porosity,
On the tabs rather than on the product. since the weld freezes quicker. If the travel speed is too
slow, the electrode stays in the weld pool too long, which
will create poor bead shape and may cause excessive
Weld Schedules spatter and flash through the layer of flux.
llle Submerged arc welding process applied fully auto- The secondary variables include the angle of the
matically should be done in accordance with welding electrode to the work, the angle of the work itself, the
prOcedUre schedules. Table 6-15 shows some suggested thickness of the flux layer, and, most important, the dis-
WIding schedules using a single electrode on mild and tance between the current pickup tip and the arc, also
10~-allOy teels, These tables can be used for welding caned electrode stickout.
or ler ferrous materials, but were developed for mild The depth of the flux layer must be controlled. If
'te I
e.' AU of the welds made by this procedure should pass it is too thin, there will be too much arcing through the
qualification tests. If the schedules are varied more than flux or arc flash. This also may cause porosity. If the flux
I~%, qualification tests should be performed to deter- depth is too heavy, the weld may be narrow and
mme the weld quality, humped. On the subject of flux, too many fines (small
particles of flux) in the flux can cause surface pitting
since the gases generated in the weld may not escape.
Welding Variables These are sometimes called pock mares on the bead
The welding variables for submerged arc welding are surface.
Similar to the other arc welding processes, with several
, xceptions. The' Iectrode size is related to the weld
JOlint size and the current r commended for the partie- Tips for Using the Process
II ar : . .
JOInt.This must also be considered in determining One of the major applications for submerged arc welding
I
t1e numb er orf pass s or beads for a particular joint.
\Xli is on circular welds where the parts are rotated under a
etd' for the same joint dimension can be made with fixed head.These w Ids can be made on the inside or out-
many or f w passes; this d pends on the weld metal side dtamet r. Submerged ar welding produ .es a large
: taUurg d ired. Multiple passes are m re exp nsive molt n w ld pool and molten slag which tends to run,
1u~ U ually deposit hlgher-quality weld metal. The po- This di rates that on outside diameters ttl electrode
arlt~ is established Initially and is based on whether should be positioned ahead of the extreme top, or 12-
JnaXtnlum penetration or maximum depositlon rate is o'clo k po Won, so that the weld metal will b_'gin t so-
l' qUit' d. '
lidify before it starts the downside slop . This be omes
h . 111 .major variable that affect the weld lnvolv more of a probl m as the diameter of the part being
an~t inpllt and include the weldlng current, arc voltag , welded i smaller. Improper electrode position will in-
1 ,~.ra et sp ed, Welding urrent is th mosr important. rease the possibtllty of slag entrapm ,nt or a poor w ld
ttl SHlgl -pa elas, th current h uld b· ufficient for surfac ,The angle of the e1 'trode hould also b ch~.g d
llf d,e ired l)cnetmtion without hu rn·thro ugh. The and pointed In t11. direction of travel of the rotating 'part. '
pa~ t t} ,ClU't'em, th d per the penett ( tion. In n ulti- WIlen the wIding Is don on tll in, id circl'u;nf<t..J.·ctlc,
~i' Warl. the urr nt h01.11d b ,uitabl to produce th the cl t1' Ie should b angled so .that it i aJ1 '(1<1 of bot-
'1; )f th elcl exp t d ,in each pass, t m e nt 1'; r the '10 k P sitlon. 'lg'tll" )~60 lU1.1S·
rln i TIl arc olrag is varie~ within narrow 1i~lit . It has trates the . two ol1(Utlons.
flResof{t~e1)e on the bead wtdthand shap$!. HIgher volt~ So\netim1 ·8t11. work being welded i~ s10ped down·~
t:e· . ~ tIl atlse tbe belld. to· b wjder l1d flatter. Ex- hin or uphlftlo prOVide tUffu1'errt t pe$6f weld b ad con-
1 c:e1y . hig.h a1' 01 tag a·til c. us fa king. TIlls is tours. 1n i~lr< 6·..6l if t11 WOJ;k is 81.P d d' Wllhill, the
de ~s~ alHlbl Orl11ai'ln unt offltlX j mIte I and A'I,l!r""'~c! b ad wm have 1" s pen u111ionand wJ11 b wi,d r.lf th
() t lIz orB tlJa b lr'.l11S ,'r d 1.0 tl" w ld d 1 OSi! low- wckll$ slop ~d \lplli1l1 he b I1d will ha le'p r'p t1 .trn~
('rln i ' . .. ~ I . .
n ~. S ell! tllt't:y. Iflgh r m'c vol .\g J 0 increases the lion. no .illhe .l1arrowet'.Th . e ~11'~bas (l on ~UOtll t fa '.
• ~~~l . of fh.u XmSlln1 d. 'Fllc low arc voltage pi' )duce tors r lll~tt!J the $am ~. . ,. .. .'~
h«tf 1 r ~r til t impmvs p n tral'.ion. particularl in the 'I1:j.t:w l(1wHlh ,lIffer n :lepeitdiJlgciil,th ifnSI~
tl l' 'n)f ~p gro s. l, Ih 01 • ge Is too 1 W, a ry of tne cle 'fl'Qde with re p' .t th W! de.' 'hei' rJl
sl~; ~~'lI'a<.1 . .iH r: \llt ,It wiU ha . ~\high cro n,. 11 I th 01'1\ is ,Ie ,t, l. if; is ttl ttn el d gl', wh ,It can l)(Ul
. W\ I, .diffl,cUl! to r ft'lO. " dt:ag O;f'pthlih.alll,;l l~inlltas' ~Id finit·ft"~on
, . ~ - .~,
t11:p~ad
.~,
TABLE 6-15 WELDINGPROCEDURESCHEDULESFORSAW
Arc
Material Thickness Welding Voltage Wire Travel
Electrode Current (Electrode Feed Speed
Gauge in. mm Type of Weld Dia. (in.) (A DC) Positive) (in.!min) (in.zmln)
18 and thinner Square groove ~ 200 20 to 22 85 100-140

16 0.063 1.6 a Square groove f2 300 22 68 100-140
b Square groove i 425 26 53 95-120
14 0.078 2 a Square groove n
3
375 23 85 100-140
b Square groove e
1
500 27 65 75-85
12 0.109 2.8 a Square groove B
1
400 23 51 70-90
b Square groove B
1
550 27 65 50-60
d Fillet B
1
400 25 51 40-60
10 0.140 3.5 a Square groove 8
1
425 26 53 50-80
b Square groove f2 650 27 55 40-45
,\ in. 0.188 4.8 a Square groove f2 600 26 50 40-75
b Square groove fa 875 31 55 35-40
d Fillet 8
1
525 26 67 35-40
tin. 0.250 6.3 a Square groove ;\ 800 28 50 30-35
b Square groove ;\ 875 31 56 22-25
d Fillet ~ 650 28 56 30-35
e V-groove fk 750 30 47 25-40
i in. 0.375 9.5 b Square groove 1\ 950 32 61 20-25
f Square groove 1\ First pass 500 32 27 30
Second pass 750 33 47 30
e V-groove f« 900 33 57 23-25
d Fillet fk 950 31 61 30-35
tin, 0.500 12.6 c V-grcove f4 975 33 63 12-17
f Square groove ,\ First pass 650 34 40 25
Second pass 850 35 54 23-27
e V-groove ;\ 950 35 61 18-20
d Fillet 1\ 950 33 61 14-17
i in. 0.75 19 c V-grocve j, 1,000 35 49 68
f Square groove ~ First pass 925 37 59 12
Second pass 1.000 40 65 11
36 46 10-12
e V-groove
d Fillet
g v-groovs
*n
n
950
1,000
First pass
35
34
49
46
• 6-8
15
Second pass 750 34 25 22
h bouble V~groove fe first pass 700 35 42 20-22
Second pass 1.000 36 65 14-16
1 in. 1.000 25.4 g v-groove n First pass 1,150 36 58 11
Second pass 8S0 36 40 20
Ii Double V-groove ~ First pass 900 36 42 13-15
Second pass~ 075 36 52, 12-14
-32, hOoubie V..groove ,.~ Flrst pass llQOO as ' 50 13
- ,
Second pass 1.125 37 56 S
,1.50 38 h Dubie Y~groov~ i Irst pass 1,050 36 -.51 9
, '
Second pass 1,125 37 56 7

TABLE6-15 (CONTINUED) ELECTRODE TRAVEL
a
AO = 0 for T up to 1/8" CROSS SECTIONS
AO = 0 to 1/16 for T 1/8 to 1/4 .DOWNHILL
Square
grOOve AO = 0 to 3/32 for T 1/4 to 5/16
groove
. B, ~-
ELECTRODE TRAVEL
AO RO = 1/32 for T up to 3/32"
b RO = 1116
---l h- AO = 3/32
for
for
T
T
3/32 to 3/16"
3/16 to 1/4"
Square AO = 5/32 for T 1/4 to 1/2
LEVEL
grOO1/e
~
B-1
ELECTRODE n __ ....
c TRAVEL U
Vee
C\
grOOVe
UPHILL e-c
d
Fillet FIGURE6-61 Angle of slope of work versus weld.
ELECTROOE TRAVEL
e
Vee
grOOVe
PUSHING
CROSS SECTION
~...-----.
A·A
ELECTRooe TRAVEL
B~ .. ~-
~'.j
e....J
ELECTRooe TRAVEL
~ ..•._!~~~ING
(b) ~1
c~ ~.
----~~----------~----------------------
~IGURE6-60 SAW on'circular parts.
FIGURE6...62 . Angle ofelectrodeversus weld,
~F":
ceNTeA . . WELDING
i;l..ECTflOOG
W1H..OING EI..I3CTRO.OE Or:F CENTER
...........:__
ROTATION
INSIOIi OIAMeT~'R "
molten weld metal. The molten flux is fluid and will run • Iron powder additions to the flux
through narrow openings. If this happens, the weld metal
• Long stickout welding (mentioned previously)
will follow and the weld will burn through the joint. Back-
• Electrically "cold" filler wire
ing bars are needed whenever there is a root opening and
a minimum r ot face. The multiwire systems offer advantages since dep-
Copper backing bars are useful when welding thin osition rates and travel speeds can be improved by using
steel. Without backing bars, the weld would tend to melt more electrodes. When a single-power source is used,
through and the weld metal would fall away from the the same drive rolls are used for feeding both electrodes
joint.The backing bar holds the weld metal in place until in the weld. When two power sources are used, individ-
it solidifies. The copper backing bars may be water ual wire feeders must be used to provide electrical in-
cooled to avoid the possibility of melting and copper sulation between the two electrodes. With two
pickup in the weld metal. For thicker materials, the back- electrodes and separate power, it is possible to use dif-
ing may be submerged arc flux or other specialized type ferent polarities on the two electrodes or to use alter-
flux. More details of one-side welding are given in nating current on one and direct current on the other.
Chapter 26. The electrodes can be placed side by side, in what is
called transverse electrode position, or they can be
Safety Considerations placed one in front of the other in the tandem electrode
position.
Safety precautions for submerged arc welding are some-
The two-wire tandem electrode position with indi-
what fewer and less exacting than for other arc welding
vidual power sources is used where extreme penetration
process s because of the nature of the submerged arc
is required. The leading electr de is positive, with the
process and because most submerged arc welding is ap-
trailing electrode negative. The first electrode creates a
plied automatically. See Chapter 4 for details.
digging action and the second electrode will fill the weld
The welding arc is normally not visible in the sub-
[otnt. When two DC arcs are in close proximity, there is a
merged arc welding process. Only small amounts of
tendency for arc interference between them. In some
sparks or flash are produced; therefore, it is not necessary
cases, the econd electrode is connected to alternating
to wear a welding fac helmet. It is necessary to wear
current to avoid the interaction of the arc.The three-wire
tinted safety glasses.
tandem system normally usesAC power on all three ete ..
trodes connected to three-phase power systems. The
Limitations of the Process three-wire systems are used for making high- p ed longl-
limited udinal seams for large-diarn t r pipe and for fabricat d .
beams. Extremely high currents can b u ed, with Off-
spondingly high travel sp ds nd d p sition rates.
The trip welding system L us d to overlay mild and
\
f
alley steels, usually with stainless steel.A wide bead is pro-
duced that has a uniform and minimum p n tratton.It i
i u d r overlaying the tnstd of vessels to provide the cot-
rosion r slstanc of stainless steel hile using t1 stre ngth
and nomy feb I w-alloy st Is fi r 11 wall thi kne ..
A strip lectr de fe der j required and $P cial flux is nor-
mflUy used. When the widt.h of th strip j over 2 in. (50
mm a magnetl ar oscillating device is employ
I a
to pro-
t 1 fo V 1.1burn- ff ..th s rip and unifi rm p 11 trauoo.
An th r wa f in reasing th . d pos iti m rat
submerged at w ldtng is toadd iron bas ing:v dtents to
the joi'tn nod r tbe flux.l:hls is sometimes call (lbul13
uutl4lng.The iron in thit; m~teii.l will m It in to' heat of
th at' and wID b . om' part of tbe dep Sit w Id m tal,
'Ph gr ,tty in I' .s ·5 d pos tion rat S Withou
tng w lel m .~I. 1'f perti s. M tal tlddi'tiv s·an. Iso ~')c
\,IS .0 .or p cia} sllrfu. log 1l.( plic~ Uons.1'hJ ri: Hon 'Mt
bu. cd with sinSI wit or muJtiwi:v" instalhttion'S. .
. ::Motb .r V'.If!" tjon ;s .11 :U~. [a.n "JectdcaUy .01 J
fUI r . i .fed jn~ ) ttl ar :11' n. h c fa rul "t r()d 'it1) P
,oUd t fItl 01' d to do sp tnl lIo S 0 tl
t. Id
.~In tal. 81' t' &11 ~tinB th ~:addW,ou of th . prop;'1' .mat ·fl.II
Control Panel
the properties of the deposit*I

wetemera. canbe inv Power Source
proved. It is possible to use at «=necial al-

one of the multiple electrodes to
loys into the weld metal deposit.
Each of these vara
lions requires special engineering
to
° .-
P sj,
to provide the desire
Electrode
proper material is added wire Feed Drive
properties.
Industrial Use and Typical Applications Electrode

wideh
The submerged arc welding process
is v. oscillation
Lead Workpieco
manufacture most heavy steel products.

Fhese
.
rcactt •
ÿinclude
.
pressure vessels, boilers, tanks, nuclear
cal vessels, and so on. Another use is in
the t.
welding Ha.nges
- Consumable
Guide Molten Slag Bath
of trusses and beams. It is used for
the web. The heavy equipment industry-is
a J
Lead
_ Molten Weld Pool
Solidltied Weld Melal
of submerged arc welding. Shipbuilding iÿanother Workplace
Retaining Shoe
major user of submerged arc welding,

using
Water In
ÿ
Fully au o
anized and automatic methods.
toget c
merged arc machines splice plates
wclding te
stlffeners to plates. Much of the machine
Workplace
snv Water Out

done using welding heads mounted on
a guide system.
The overlay of surfaces for corrosion rt sis
wear resistance is also a major use tor
submerged arc FIGURE 6-63 The ESW consumable
Technology, American
Courtesy of Welding Inspection
welding. Welding Society.
6-7 ELECTROSLAG WELDING Electrode

Noncon9umable
electrode guide tube
- Base metal
Electroslag welding (ESW) is a welding

process tl j
slag hat melts
duces coalescence of metals with molten
the filler metal and the surfaces of the
workp c
moves aU>ng
Molten slag — ÿBBPPÿÿL — coppercooled
Water
shoes
|
weld pool is shielded by the slag, which Molten weld —
the full cross section of the joint as welding
prog _ „ metal
t
Ihe process is initiated by an arc that beats te Solidified - Water out
wold metal
,v
arc is then extinguished by the conductive s ag
kept molten by its resistance to electric curren I
ÿ
Water in
o
between the electrode and the workplaces.w e •'
mo te n
molding shoes are used to confine the
and slag; pressure is not used.This process
was; i
>n the early 1930s in the United States, but bccai 1
ulur when equipment was designed lor its use in
ÿ Comploled Weld
v'iet Union in the late 1940s. „,-t,t« m
"
to ma x
ÿ
Electroslag welding is normally usct guide system.

in the vertical position and on steels. It is app
4
FIGURE 6 -64 The ESW nonconsumable
Technology, American
Courtesy of Welding Inspection
mechanized welding method. Ihere are two s w
hons: the consumable guide system, which is Welding Society.
ig
Figure 6-63,and the nonconsumahle guide system
research in the field
6-64),an upward-moving system.The upward-moving ÿ properties During the mid-1970s,
ient has not been used appreciably in the liniui
welding
-
xt,u turned up problems of
electroslag welded bridge beams.
Federal Highway Administration
In the mid-1970s, electroslag In view of this, the
Well established fabricating process tor joining on the use of electroslag welding
placed a moratorium
c°mponents for bridges, buildings, ÿ1 sii>>, pessui
ÿ
on primary structural
split ng (February 1977) tor weldments led to research at the
ÿ
l-s. and more. Electroslag welding was used lor tension members on
bridges This
Technology to
I'anges, plates of heavy sue of Science and
beams,and cover Oregon Graduate Institute
fatigue characteristics of
toughness and
n»lled beams. However, certain problems itgan improve fracture
faee in terms of weld imperfections and msufiicie
let trode 147
Art Welding with a Consumable
I
the ESW(20) This research led to modified procedures for
consumable guide elecrroslag welding. An electroslag
welding process using the upward-moving head version The electroslag welding process is a productive welding
has been widely used in Europe but not in the United process. Some of its advantages are:
States.
• Extremely high metal deposition rates. Elec-
troslag has a deposition rate of 35 to 45 lb/hr per
Principles of Operation electrode.
Electroslag welding is not an arc welding process. It is in- • Ability to weld thick materials in one pass. There
cluded here because it uses the same basic equipment as is only one setup and no interpass cleaning since
the other consumable electrode welding processes de- there is only one pass.
scribed in this chapter. • High-quality weld deposit.Weld metal stays molten
Electroslag welding is done in the vertical position longer, allowing gases to escape.
using molding shoes, usually water cooled, in contact • Minimized joint preparation and fitup require-
with the joint to contain the molten flux and weld metal. ments. Mill edges and square flame-cut edge are
The electrode is fed through a guide tube to the bottom normally employed.
of the joint. TIle guide tube carries the welding current • Mechanized process. Once started, the process con-
and transmits it to the electrode. The guide tube is nor- tinues to completion.There is little operator fatigue
mally a heavy wall tube. At the start of the weld, granu- since manipulative skill is not involved.
lated flux is placed in the bottom of the cavity. The • Minimized materials handling. The equipment
electrode is fed to the bottom of the joint and for a brief may be moved to the work rather than the work
period will create an. arc. In a short time the granulated moved to the equipment.
flux will melt from the heat of the arc and produce a pool • High filler metal utilization. All the welding elec-
of molten flux.The flux is electrically conductive and the trode is melted into the joint. In addition, the
welding current will pass from the electrode through the amount of flux consumed is small.
molten flux to the base metal. The passage of current
through th conductive flux causes it to become hot, and • Minimum distortton. There is no angular distortion
in the horizontal plane. There is minimum distor-
it reaches a temperature in excess of the melting temper-
tion (shrinkage) in the vertical plane.
atur of th base metal.The hjgh-tempe~ture flux.causes
melting of the edges of the joint as weU as melting of the • Minimal time. It is the fastest welding process for
electrode and t.l e end of the guide tube. The melt d base large, thick material.
m tal, I ctrod )and gu! 1 tube at heavier than the flux • No weld spatter and minimal metal finishing of
and ccllec at the bottom 'f the cavity to form the molten the weld.
VI ttl metal. As the molten weld met.al slowly solidifies • No arc flash. A welding helmet is not required.
" &OmtJ:iebottom, it j01n$ the parts to be welded. Shielding Tinted saiety glasses are requited. .
. 'of the molten In tal from <l.t:mospherlc contamination is
pt ytded by tIl poo] of rnoltenflux. Sur.fitceontour of
rhe",eJd is dete~lUled by tJi . contour of the backing
Methods of Application
s.hQ's.Th' 'n. Jmabl g\ljd variation of Iectr slag and Position C pabiliti 5
, wr.:,ldi:ijg tl,ormaUy uscaBxed backing shoes, The welding Th consumable ,guide version oretectrc lag welding is
··'l1ead dQ~:S'riot nt~'\TC1~ allY'Md IS .normally mounted appli d as a machine operation. Once the process is
on th work at I'll top 0 th W tel 1 Jnt.M'ultipJ elec- started.It hould be continued until th weld joim i com-
,.t~ de s and guide. m y be . mpl yed II r welds of larger pleted.Th welding perator hould monitor the appara-
. 88. tton, It is also po sible to oscfllilt tb. electrode tn t although little is done in iding or dir tillg .it. ltD'
I· c .and gUide tuBe a r- 5S th· wldtb of th Joint. JJj peri /;liCaUy {ldded manually, and th¢Vielding operator
.. . ,1hesUtJ)ce'oi tb:e snUditie\t We) I metal i cover. d must monitor the 'deprbof tbe molten flux pool.
.~th an '~~i1y~dVedj)htn rayt o.f slai 11lc!iltng loss
rut) t b ,..ornp<U;lsat. d for J.;iy auditlS fi~ (luring th weld-
tns QV r::i. lon.A starting tab js ne. " ry to buildJP th W Idable M tals nd Thi knes Rang
pv p t' d 'pth be th flq;;; so that the m It n· p, 01 1s
fo,t:ro ( ttl 'bottorn(i)ffh 'jolt t.n.ut'lofftabs r t qUj d
; til ':~iYpof tll ~Jott:J.:t'$<ith~t Lm lttlf)~ wUl tie
~\"f"~e ,tll::mP; o;f'fh 'Joirit~"BothslitUng and mrwff tabs
j " are fm \Ie" ·IXom th··'ends of the Joint ~fter·d 'Wi ~ld1
l'flpl."' ed,
Under normal conditions the minimum-thickness
metal welded with the consumable guide method is 3/4
Joint Design
in. (20 mm). Maximum thickness that has been success- In electroslag welding, there is just one basic weld, the
fully welded with electroslag is 36 in. (950 mm).To weld . square-groove weld (Figure 6-65). The square-groove
this thickness, six individual guide rubes and electrodes weld can be used to produce butt joints, T-joints, corner
were used. joints, and even lap and edge joints. The square-groove
A Single electrode is used on materials ranging butt configuration is used for the transition joint, where
from 1 to 3 in. (25 to 75 mm) thick. From 2 to 5 in. (50 two thicknesses of plate are joined with a smooth con-
t~ 125 mm) thick, the electrode and guide tube are os- tour from one thickness to the other. The transition can
Cil!atedin the joint. From 5 to 12 in. (125 to 320 mm) be in the weld metal. Bead or overlay welds can also be
thick, two electrodes and guide tubes are used and are made with electroslag. Examples of different weld joints
o~~il1ated in the joint. If oscillation is not employed, ad- made with the process are shown in Figure 6-66.
ditlOnal guide tubes and electrodes are required.This ne- In a square-groove weld, there are only two dimen-
ce . sions: the thickness of the parts being joined, T, and the
SSltates additional power sources and wire feed
systems; therefore, oscillation is preferred where it can
be Used.
The height of the joint has a definire relationship FIGURE 6-65 Basic joint used in ESW.
~d must be considered. The process can be used for
JOU1tsas short as 4 in. (100 mm) and as long or high as 20
r
ft (6.5 m), It is difficult to oscillate extremely long guide
tubes since they become heated and flexible. When two
guid~ tubes are used and properly secured together, it is
possIble for oscillation; however, as the number of tubes
T) f1""""__-----l.t ~
mcreases, the height of the joint must be decreased. The ~
:el~ltionship of Joint thickness and joint length or height
1S shOWn in Table 6-16.
1 I
-lABLE 6-16 BASE METAL THICKNESS AND HEIGHT THAT CAN BE WELDE.D USING ESW
__ Plate Thickness
Root Joint Welding
Opening Height Voltage
--
in.
f
1
19.0
25,4
in
1
1
25.4
25.4
ft
20
20
6
6
rn
1
1
No
No
(Electrode
f?o$rljve)
35
38
500
600
36.0
30.0
2 50.8 .1 25.4 20 6 1 No 39 700 25,0
3 76.2 1 25.4 20 6 1 No 52 700 20.3
2 t
50.8 H 31.8 5 1.5 1 Yes 39 700 19.~
3
4.
76.2 It 31.8 5 1.5 1 Yes 40 750 16.3.
101.6 H- 31,B 5 1.5 1 Yes 41 750 13,2
s 127.0 H 5. 1.5 Yes
3 31.8 1 46 750 ·10.2
76.2 1 25.4 20 6 .2 No 40 850 12,1
4
101.6 1 25.4 20 6 .2 No 41 850 .11.2
5
127.0 1 25.4 20 6 2 No 46 850 ...~ 9.7
5
6
127.0 H 31.8 10 . 3 2 Yes 41 i.soe ,".'20,S
127.0 H- 31.8 10 3 .2 Yes 42 1,500 l$,f'
8
203.2 It 31.8 10 3 2 Yes 45 1,500 13.7
10 254.0 Ii 31.8 10 3 .2 Yes 48 1,500 11.9
~2 304.8
12...18 304,8";'457.2 1 31.e lO 3 .2 Yes 5l 1,5,00 9.1
18-24 45l~2-609.6
1; 38.1 6 1.8. $ Yes,· 55
2~SO 60916-762.0 11 38.1 5 1.5 4 Yes ,55
H SS 1 4 1.2 5 Yes 55
..__.__
3D-a ... . 762.0 914.4
Ii 38,1 3 1 6 Yes $5
WIRE
SUPPLY
CONTROL
SYSTEM
WIRE FEED
DRIVE MOTOR
POWER SOURCE
r?"\I, • 0
\\:;:9. 0
FIGURE 6-67 The welding circuit used in the

electroslag process.
FIGURE 6-66 Examples of joints and welds made with Equipment Required
the electroslag process.
The equipment required for the consumable guide elec-
troslag welding process is also shown in Figure 6-67.The
systems become more complex as additional electrodes
root opening between the parts, RD. It is desirable to are added. The use of oscillation provides greater latitude
have the root opening as small as possible to use a mini- of the consumable guide method.AlI the electrode wires
mum amount of weld metal. A limiting factor is the size are mounted on one oscillating assembly, so only one os-
of the consumable guide tube and the insulators that are cillating device and control are required.
required to keep it from touching the sides of the joint. The power source used for the consumable guide
The root opening must be large enough to provide suffi- electroslag welding process should be a direct-curt nt
cient volume of the molten flux to ensure stable welding welding machine of the CV type. It must be rated at a
ondltions. 100% duty cycle since some electroslag welds take hour
The water-cooled backing shoes are designed to to complete.The power source should have high voltage
accommodate the different typ s f j Ints. Shoe are ratings since tarring voltages as high as 55 V are some-
available for the square-gr ove w Iding with reinfor ing times required. Transformer-re tifier machines at' best
used for butt j Ints and 01' other joints where the sur- suited for electroslag welding, Primary ontactors and
laesof tbe plates to be joined are flush. For square- provisions for remote control, inc1udingvoltage adjust-
groove welds involving orner or T-;oiots, fillet-type ment .should be included.
shoes are used. Wh,en water- ooled backing sho are u ed, a sy~
tern for water circulation and hear removal is required.
Welding Clr ult and Current When running war r is avatlabl and when it an be ea •
ily di posed of, this is the simplest solution. Howe er, wa--
ter circu.httingsy terns, which include heat exchangers,
an be used.
Materi ls Used
the face of the weld joint, Other reusable items are the When a bare guide tube is used and :if the weld is over
strong backs used to hold the retaining shoes against the 12 in. long (304 mm), insulators should be placed on the
weld jOint. Wedges are used to hold the retaining shoes in tube to avoid the guide tube coming in contact with the
place.The strong backs and wedges are reused many times. sidewall or face of the joint or the retaining shoes. Coated
When more than one electrode is used, a steel wool ball is guide tubes are also available and the coating is an effective
placed at the bottom of the joint under the electrode wire insulator, particularly when working in tight joints.
to aid arc initiation. Steel wool also can be used for single There are several variations of the consumable
Wire applications, although it is not normally required. guide tube system. In some cases bars arc tack-welded to
. When the work surface is irregular, it is necessary to the guide tube, or tubes are tacked on edges of bars.These
instajj a puttylike material to seal the cracks between the bars contribute metal to the weld deposit.
shoes and the work. Commercial materials such as fur-
nace sealing compound can be used.
The functions for an electro slag flux are:
Deposition rates of the electroslag welding process are
1. Providing heat to melt the electrode and base metal. among the highest. The electroslag welding process pro-
2. Conducting the welding current duces a high-quality weld metal deposit. The high quality
3. Protecting the molten weld metal from the atmo- of electroslag weld metal is the result of progressive so-
sphere lidification, which begins at the bottom of the joint or
4. Purify.ing or scavenging the deposited weld metal cavity. There is always molten metal above the solidifying
5. Providing stable operation weld metal, and the impurities, which are lighter, rise
above the deposited metal and collect only at the very
Two types of granular fluxes are normally used for top of the weld in the area that is normally discarded.
~lectroslag with the consumable guide tube. One is a start- Electroslag welding is a low-hydrogen welding
l1lgflux, and the other is a running flux.The starting flux is process; hydrogen is not present in any of the materials
~eSi~ed to bring the electroslag process into quick srabi- involved in making the weld. Because of the slow cool-
ZatlOn.It melts quickly and wets the bottom of the sump ing rate, any impurities that are in the base metal and are
~ .faCilitate starting. TIle running flux is designed to pro- melted during the welding process have time to escape.
:rre.
d the proper balance for correct electrical conductivity,
t bath temperature and vi co ity, and the proper
emtcal analysis. Running flux will op rate over a wide
The cooling rate of the el ctroslag weld is much slower
than the cooling rate of welds made by other arc weld-
ing processes. The slow cooling rate allows large grain
range of conditions. Only a relatively small amount of elec- growth in the weJd metal and also in th heat-affected
trOsIagflux is used.Approximately 1/41b (lOO g) of flux i zone of the bas m tal. The slow COOlingrate minimize.
U ed P r vertical foot (320 rnm) of the joint or height. the risk of cracking and reduces the hardness in the heat-
Wi .1'h electrode for con. umable guide electroslag affected zone sometimes found in conventional arc
eldmg uppJics ver 80% of the deposit d weld metal. welds.
The gUide tube supplies th remainder.The electrod wire Weld metal produced by electro lag welding will
nluS.t match the base metal. Since an electroslag weld de- qualify under the most strict codes and specifications.
~OSlt is sinillar r a asttng, it is ess ntial that the prop r" The du tUtty of th weld metal is r lattvely hlgh, in the-
tf s of rh t as- as t metal should ov _rrnatch til in chant al range 25% to 30%. The Impact r qulremi nrs for elec-
~op rues ~f~le parts being joined. It is important to. COI'\- troslag welds wiU me t thosereql.lired b theAWS stru ..
etct"the dllutton factor provided. by the base metal. In a tUt'al·welding code. V~notch Cbarpy impact speci1n n8
~onSllmabl. gu:ld w ld, dl dU'uti-on runs from a low of prodUCing 5 to 30 ft~lb a.t O°F at' normal and expe t d,
S% to. a lugh o.f 50% hac' In tal. The 'tmOunt of cJj]utlon
0. bas· ttl tal u pen!ls on to w"'ldlng 'onditions,
w The fll.l:X_add, no. alloys and has little effuct onth Weld Schedules
'l .1? d pOSit In r Jat;io.nslti;pt - tt;tc analySiS of, tbe wite.
lIb trodcWites desigl1 d ~ l' gas metal oc weldillg. nd
w rn rg 1 ur w Idin~ arc ei11ployed f'Oi' Ie troslag
c Iding.'T'h 5/3 ln, l. mm) e1 t1"od siz is th mOSt
gonUnoo.lt i lhe tn st asHy used to 1\ ed through a
.11.iO , III • and pr d. 8 th_ highest dcposi ..ton rat .
tIt .0 c ctmsum~'lblf!gU.ltle tttbe m It ju_t .uho'V . tb.
Wh:i\t e of he m It l'l81~g b:tth.A gut tllb nnst D _ lS d
, en ve the length f th ~ Itl is 6 in. (160 mOl
'fl: I
. 'S Imlflg tho t rIl be. d i
shown as a rate of speed.There is a dwell time at each end rent creates a large mass of metal that must be contained
of oscillation, which is normally 4 seconds. within the weld cavity. If the backing shoes should fail and
allow the molten metal to escape.it is best to evacuate the
Welding Variables area, turn off the equipment, and wait for the metal to so-
lidify. Obviously, the surface under the welding operation
Electroslag welding differs from arc welding processes in should be noncombustible. The work being welded must
that the base metal melting results from localized heat be securely braced to eliminate the possibility of it falling.
generated in the molten slag pool instead of from an arc.
The heating involved in electroslag welding is concen-
trated in a volume of molten flux, which is the product of Limitations of the Process
the metal thickness by the root opening and by the slag
pool depth. The major linlitation is the welding position limitation. It
can be used only when the axis of the weld is vertical.A
. In the arc weldlng processes, the localized heating
tilt of up to 15° is permitted, but beyond this the process
IS confined to the much. smaller area of an arc and pool,
may not function correctly. The second limitation is that
but the arc is at a much higher temperature. The opera-
the process is used only on steels.
tion of electroslag welding is thus different from the fa-
miliar arc processes. In electroslag welding the metal
surface to be melted (joint sidewalls) is parallel to the axis
of the electrode. Thus increasing welding current does
not increase the depth of penetration of the sidewalls of Electroslag Cladding This is a variation that deposits
the base metal. The higher the welding current, the surfacing materials on base metals. It is very similar to strip
higher the deposltion rate. cladding with the submerged arc welding process except
With all arc welding processes, an IncreaseIn arc that the heat required to melt the surface of the base
voltag causes the weld bead to widen. In electroslag metal, the strip, and the flux is generated by resistance
welding, the same thing is true, but now this widening heating from the current flow to the strip and through a
causes an increase in the depth of penetration into the shallow layer of electroconducttve slag (Figure 6-68).
sidewall. The increased voltage raises the slag bath tem- Electroslag cladding has become popular because it
perature and causes more of the base metal or sidewall to provides for high deposition rates and low dilunon, In ad-
melt. Increasing voltage increases the depth of fu ion. Ex- dition, it can be used with the same equipment as that
ce sively high voltage will cause undercutting. Too Iowa used for submerged arc strip cladding. Magnetic oscilla-
vQItage may result in ar 'ing betw en lectrode wire and tion of the arc is recommended for best results. The elec-
the m Jten w Id m tal at the bottom of the flux pool.Th troslag process will deposit approximately two ttmes as
perat r must be continually alert to make adjustments as much metal per hour as the submerged ar rneth d. Dih..l-·
requJ dduring the welding operati n.The operator must non is controllable and is usually les than with submerged
have a. good Operating knowledge of ele troslag welding arc. It willrange from i0% to 20%. It is possible to clad :ti. r-
b ca EI of the different effects' .f changing the various rttic, rnartensitic, and austenitic stainless steels, nickel-bas
pal'amtCl's .. 110ys, and some hard-surfacing materials. Strip width is Ill?"
TIl depth Ofd.l .molten slag pool should be checked. proximately 2 it1.(50 nun to 2~ In.(61mm),The major us
if p 58tbl . WI en h pool i& acces sible to tbe perator, a
d.i.pstIck can b ll' cd to determine its depth, Experience
Will ulJdy show that when. th pool ts qui t and the
<
pro e8~is Jttlt'lIlU'iJ wtthout sp~lrking or sput ering, the p . 1

d pthts corse t.lf tIl pool d pth be n es to $11II w,
.parks will emjt from th Sl.11'ftt an an be s n by the
()p~ratr.Ad Uti naffll.1~ should be ado" t tbepool.
.....
~......,.
~f;thttb klns~*oesJeak~nd water gets iflt() tbe
:". 'weld cnV'li:f, t:\} QP~ti.tion nUiBt b StopI' d.Tl1is~an re~
" ~~. a~},.'~~f haza!' f and Wi.:l:lr at ~goo per. tty iu th
.. 1"'eld tn tal. W rb fe. P" .t to wat . N! 0.1 d sb es, th op·
. nn,orpst" n$llf tbattb~· W'to flow is \ n he fl'upted
. 4 Ifil1~t1 C'ntir w' l~ll1g 01 .(ion.
for electroslag cladding is the deposition of austenitic A common application is the welding of continuity plates
stainless steel on carbon steel for tube sheets and other inside box columns.The continuity plate carries the load
~orrosive-resistant application. Another use is the deposi- . from one side of the column to the other side at the point
tion of corrosion-resistant coatings on large shafts. of beam-to-column connections. Continuity plates must
be welded with complete penetration welds to the two
sides of the box column. The electrical machinery indus-
Industrial Use and Typical Applications try also uses electroslag welding. Electric motor housings
The major user of conventional consumable guide tube are rolled from a single plate, and a single weld is made
~lectroslag welding has been the heavy plate fabrication to join the two abutting edges. In other cases, the mate-
mclustry, which includes manufacturers of frames, bases, rial is heavier or the housing might be square. Electroslag
and metalworking machinery. A frequent use of the reduces total cycle time because the housing was previ-
process is the splicing of rolled steel plates to obtain a ously welded with submerged arc one joint at a time.
l~rger piece for a specific application. A typical applica- There are many, many other applications of the con-
bon is the splicing of an 8-in. (203-mm)-thick plate, 12 ft sumable guide version, both in the shop and in the field.
~4.m) wide, to make a press frame (Figure 6-69).The weld
JOtnt was set up in the vertical position, strong backs
W .
ere attached, and the two-wire feeder was placed at the
top of the joint. Four water-cooled backing shoes were
6-8 ELECTROGAS WELDING.
~.sed, two on either side, which were moved progres- Electrogas welding (EGW) is an arc welding process that
ivety from bottom to top until the weld was completed. uses an arc between a continuous filler metal electrode and
PreViously, With submerged arc welding and turning the the weld pool, employing vertical position welding with
plate OVerafter every few passes, the splicing operation backing to confine the molten weld metal. The process is
required 80 hours.With the consumable guide electroslag used with or without an externally supplied shielding gas
process, the weld was completed in slightly over 4 hours. and without the application of pressure. It is a limited-
. J\nothel' user of electroslag is the structural steel position arc welding process and is a Single-pass process
~dustry, for making subassemblies for steel buildings. It that produces square-groove welds for butt and tee joints.
as also been used for field erection on the building site. There are two basic Variations: One uses the upward-
moving-head variation, the other variation uses the coo-
sumable guide tube system described earlier for use with
~12GURE 6-69 Using electroslag to join 8 in. thick x electroslag welding. In addition, both of these variations
ft. wide plates. have two variations. One us s the solid consumable 1 c-
trode wire and externally supplied shielding gas, normally
CO2.The second uses a flux-cored ele trode wire and does
not use an external shielding gas since shielding gases are
produced by the flux-cored electrode as it is consumed in
the arc .Pigur 6-70 shows the rno abl -head variation.
gas flow during the entire welding operation. The arc
voltage is used to provide control of the vertical motion
of the apparatus. The motion is controlled so that the arc
======-1 length will remain constant.
,
:. SHIELDING The electrogas welding process is a limited position
--~-----j/ GAS
~,-::==;-i-- - - __ .I process. It can be used only when the axis of the weld joint
If
"'I
is vertical or varies from the vertical by not more than 15 0
•
WELDING
I~ HEAD
r----'
Weldable Metals and Thickness Range
/r -- --T1. __--i_SHIELDING
____ J GAS The metals welded by the electrogas process are low-
_..J
carbon steels, low-alloy high-strength steels, medium-
carbon steels, and certain stainless steels.The process can
WATER ...
OUT
_WATER also be used for welding quenched and tempered steels
OUT
providing that the correct heat input is maintained for
the type of steel being welded.
WATER .....
IN
Under normal conditions the minimum thickness
of metal welded with electrogas is 3/8 in. (10 nun). The
maximum thickness using one electrode is 3/4 in. (20
rom). Materials thicker than 3/4 in. are welded by using
FIGURE6-70 Process diagram for electrogas welding. additional consumable fillers.
The height (or length) of the joint is practically un-
limited.The process can be used for joints as short as 4 in.
(100 mm) and as long or high as 50 ft(18 m).The only lim-
tube Of contact tip.This assembly will travel vertically along itation is the weight of the elevating mechanism for mov-
the joint to maintain the normal arc length between the ing the weld head vertically.
electrode and the molten. weld metal. In some cases one
backing shoe is stationary and can be made of steel, thus
becoming a part of the joint. Or the molding shoe can be Joint Design
made of copper and does not become a part of the [oint, Fillet w Ids and groove weld can be produced by the
but moves upward. On the side with the wire f edlng electrogas process. or making fillet w Id a Ingle ba k-
m chanlsrn, the moving shoe is normally mployed, which ing shoe is requtred.This shoe fits on the face of the fillet
rises with the wit feeder assembly to maintain the w Id and provides the fillet size. For groove welds, th square-
me,~alwithin th t;avity; Normally, only one electrode wire groov d sign can be us d up to the maximum pos ibJe
is used fol' making 11. weld, In the consumable guide varia- with one electrode (usually 3/4 in ..
tion, exeen al shielding gas is not used, but the consumable
elec~rod Wire must b of the flux-mlcd type. Both shield-
tng. gas and flux are fed income arc, TIle flux contained
Withitl the el cirod wit' turn into slag, whi 11 overs th The welding tr ult use I. for tbe elecrrogas welding
weldd poSit. Since the orrect am unr of flux cann t be proc $S is; ess ntiaJ[y th same as for the other continu-
. ' ptovtdc<1hMed. QtHhe plate thicJmes~and the root oI)en- OIlS or ~onsumable el nrode process s, TIl block dia-
lng. a $UtplllS 'f flt1X will be generated. "le ffuxmust not gram tor "Ie trog s welding Is shown in Jgure 6·69.
actunul. te and b om too d· p, whi 1 would tJn- DIre -current w -tding power i employed and th J •
. guish, t11 . r, If SO, .the operati n would b ome.an clcc- tr d is po ,Iv (D EP. TIle c nstant-voltag system
: troslag w l4.Th .. CS$ molt n flux 1 ~lk$dlroughth~ slots with the oflstant/adjt1stabl sp d wire fe d(u' is us d.
. ~ rl~.·Wf1~ef.coold:retainiru; tJho .s t avoid flux buildup. Thewe!gcing CUrrcllt .nay t".t.ng .from a low 100 A to
f.
'i" •
as high as SOOA.Thweldins volt;,tgewiU mg~from 3()
to 50 V; The welding volta 'j, tlS d to. cont;tol the v l"t:t~
..'at trilv 1 sp >d of tb wtldlng 'he~ld.Th we kUng h· ad
apr aratus normally in'tude the mOving shoe rcquh' d
OSl. th ct tr let· ae nh <:} !joint.
trogas welding are given in theAWS "Recommended Prac-
WIRE
REEL tices for Electrogas Welding.,,(22)
CONTROL
SYSTEM
POWER
SOURCE
.Electrode Wire
The electrode wire must be matched to the material be-
ing welded and can be specified according to the AWS
"Specification.s for Consumables Used for Electrogas
Welding of Carbon Steels and High Strength Low Alloy
Steels.,,(23)This covers the solid wires and the flux-cored
wires.The shielding gas, which is normally CO2,would be
specified as welding grade.

I
I
The deposition rate of electrogas welding is relatively
:
L__ high. Flux-cored wire deposition rates vary with wire
types and manufacturers since the ratio of fill to metal
varies.
Electrogas welding is' considered a low-hydrogen
type of welding process since hydrogen is not present in
any of the materials Involved in making a weld. Electro-
FIGURE6-71 Circuit diagram for the electrogas gas welds possess properties and characteristics that sur-
welding process. pass welds made with shielded metal arc welding. The
higher-than-normal heat input of electrogas welds re-
duces the cooling rate, which helps reduce impurities.
This aUows larger grain growth of the weld metal and
also in the heat-affected zone of the base metal. This
maUy mounted on a carriage, which is elevated as the
lower cooling rate minimizes the risk of cracking and re-
we~d progresses. For shipbuilding. the entire apparatus,
duces the high hardness zones in the weld and heat-
~htCh may' also carry the welding op rater, will move
affected zone sometimes found with shielded metal arc
rom th bottom of the joint to the top. This Is done with
welding. The hardness of the weld is normally uniform
~ Pecci ion elevating syst m controlled by the welding
across the weld's cross section and is ery similar to the
ar Voltage. TIle control for the entire operation is
unaffected base metal.
m:oun ed with the welding head and available to the
Weld metal produced l>Y electrogas welding Will
Wcldingoperator. This enables the operator to start the
qualify under most codes and specifk» tlons.The ductility .
W ldand have. t run continuously until the joint is
of the weld metal of electrogas weld is relatively high, in
rnpleted.
the range of 25% elongation. Impact ~equitements for
81 . the power sour ze used for eJe trogas welding ele troga w Ids will meet those required by- the AWS
be a ell ct urr nt machine of the constant- oltage
\0111<1.
Structural Welding ode. V-notch Ch; rpy impact .spect- .
leY) typ .It must be rated at 100% duty cycle Sill' e som
mens producing StQ 30 ft·lb atOoP.(l9 to 60 joules at 210
trogas welds take 0 er an.hour o complete.
to .234°C) are normal and expected, .
Th Wire drive' d motor and ontr 1sy tern is the
same a that It•.ed for other consumable electr de wire
fir . . Weld Schedules'
: esses. Normally, th wire fe d motor is mount dad-
Jac fit to t1'1 weld joint. with a contact tub delrv' rysys~ Wi Iding proeeduc schedules for electrogas welding. may
~'Ill bringing ttlC electrode Into the center of the joint not neceSSArily betb.e o.riJy conditions t11~ltcan 15.e~ed,
ad POinted <10~ nward within tl1ecaVity. It is possible that welding pal"dmet;· r can be adJ\l$t~d to
. The shielding g..;s d~U ry syst 01, wh n llsed, must braIn optimum results;however1 (]t4'Uifi ation test.~>
~~o Ide effi i nt shi kUngof th molt 11.tn al to a,vQid should b mad before u irtg pubHshed w Idltig p«
a ~( phetl com tnjna on. TllC movillg oa king shoes dur s hdul 5, .' p ciaUywl n Iding tit! al job ,
f 1 or.tnally wat t, ooled an'l c1 signed for 'the specUl
~"nt d. s gn,n, yprovid~n WRt ttl w ohanneJand are
st;ltue f COj~Prto ayotd ro .1tifis.Thewater trcUlat~Otl
uto b ot u 'h volum as to It 0.10 ;tny S'lu;t'ac melting
)1 the sh()~. wat r it '\11. tOt' that tnclud "5 b at. x-
j
.langer 1s n.ormhlly ~l ect •.MOfC d tails C011 ·cff:1ingel·c· .

must have a good operating knowledge of electrogas
welding because of the different effect of changing vari- 6-9 OTHER CONSUMABLE
ous parameters. ELECTRODE WELDING
If the electrode wire is not properly centered, the
penetration on the opposite sides of the weld joint will PROCESSES
be nonuniform. The electrode should be centered be- Automatic welding began in the early 1920s, but the cov-
tween the backing shoes. However, if one shoe is steel ered electrode, which produced higher-quality weld
rather than copper, the electrode should be directed to metal, replaced bare electrode automatic welding appli-
the side of the joint with the copper shoe. cations.Automatic welding was improved by using lightly
If the backing shoe does not fit tightly along the coated wires and later by using knurled wires, which held
joint, the molten weld metal may run out of the cavity. If more of the stabilizing and deoxidizing coating materials.
this happens, steps must be taken immediately to stop the The quality was not as good as that produced by covered
Ieak.This is done by using a puttylike sealing preparation electrodes.
made of clay.Any leaks should be immediately sealed off Many efforts were made to produce an all-position
to avoid loss of the weld. automatic welding process that would produce high-
Sufficient wire should be available on the machine quality weld metal. The coating on the covered wire cre-
prior to starting the weld. Once the w ld is started, it ated two problems. The coating was fragile and brittle
should run continuously until it is finished. If the opera- and could not be bent into coils without cracking and
tion stops for any reason, the machine should immedi- falling off. The coatings were insulators and the welding
ately be turned off, correction made, and the weld current could not be introduced into the meta] core wire
restarted .Ar the point of stopping and restarting, there is in an efficient manner. Several developments deserve
normally an unfused area that must be gouged out and brief consideration.
rewelded with an arc welding process capable of welding One early attempt was made to extrude coatings on
in the vertical position. With respect to water-cooled large-diameter electrode wire and then coil the wire into ex-
shoes, the operator must ensure that water flow is unin- tremely large diameter coils. At the welding head a cutter
terrupted during the entire welding operation. removed the coating from one mall area of the wire. The
welding current was conducted to the core wire through
the slot in the coating by multiple pickup shoes. This
Safety Considerations proces had limited success and has been eli ontinued.
The safety factor involved with electrogas welding are Another variation, known as the Una-Matte process,
mu h the same as for th otl er continuous wire arc weld- used impregnated tape. Shielding i obtained from d -
ing p ocesses, A welding helmet and shield should be composition of an Impregnat d tape wrapped around th
w rnb us the arc i continuous from start to fini h. A bar ete 'trade as it is fed into the ar . h tap , similar to
safety factor involved is the pre ence of larger-than- tnsect s reen wire, was woven in narrow Widths, impreg-
normalamounes of molt n weld metal.jr this metal es- nated with stabthzing and deoxidJzing chemicals, and
ap s, i reates a safety hazard and a fir hazard. The coiled. This tap was wrapped around th bar lectrode
work b ing welded must b securely braced to eliminate wire below the current pi kup jaws and above the ar .'fhJj
th . po Sibilit~ of it falling.ll1additioJ1, 'inc ver teal proc s had limited sue ess and has be n discontinued.
1\ if'll'ts are i valved, th qulpm 11t should b restrain d Anoth r system us d the magnetl field surround-
s l;;is not to faU aJlUP .rsollllel should have protective haring the electrode wtr to arry flux into the at' ',the bare
tle8sc$Withsaj1 ty Iin.es in the event of a .faU. electrod wife was {'Cd,it to the r .surround •.1 by car-
bon lio"i Je gas that carried powd red magnetic flu .
Th magnetic fll~ j. aUra t d to the 1 trod wire by
th' n ago 1. fi ld and c e:r d the 1 ctfode wk as it
~nt"red th ar. 1'11 • flux p rforrt1ed the normal func-
tion, Tlle carhon dfo~cte gao ",bielded the moltefcl weld.
n etal from the attl1osph.erc, It n v r peC'tlmc j:mpulat
d le largely to tb problems f f ding the flux.
Hiddtt ar w'ldlng "lAW) is at lltom ti' arc
w ding pro ss r ntly d A101 d by th M cow 11-
sy Insdt\.lt· In Russb", t us . a quar ·.gro w Id de-
>$ign and is lsuaUy used 1n the vicat. position. 'nr'
w {ding 1 ctrode is <'ut 0 flppt6:Ximat 1y 11 n. thi k
mat ril the xa' siz .. th <. jqint to b wit d,~rh' nta"
t ~Il~$ , aF d with < w ~fdjng nux,. or il !lux contain OS
insulation, and is placed on both sides of the electrode. instead, they cause a change in a primary variable, which
The electrode assembly is clamped between the parts to in tum causes the change in weld formation. Secondary ad-
be welded.The electrode is connected to one pole of the justable variables are more difficult to measure and accu-
welding machine and the material to the other pole. The rarely control. They are assigned values and are usually
arc i initiated at the bottom of the joint by momentarily included in welding procedure schedules.They include tip-
shorting the electrode to the work. The entire periphery to-work distance (stickout) and electrode or nozzle angle.
of the joint is encased by copper bars. The are, once The third class of variables is known as distinct level
struck, automatically oscillates from one side of the joint variables, since they cannot be changed in a continuous
to the other and gradually travels from the bottom to the fashion, but instead normally in increments or in specific
top. No operator assistance or attention is required. When steps. Distinct level variables must be preselected and are
the weld is completed, the arc is extinguished. The cop- fixed during a particular weld.They have considerable in-
per bars are removed, and the resulting weld is complete. fluence on the weld formation. Distinct level variables that
No further work is required. Th.e deposit weld metal is must be preselected are included in. welding procedure
equal to, 01' exceeds, the quality of the parts being schedules. They include the electrode size, the electrode
welded. So far, the HAW process has limited applications. type, welding current type and polarity, shielding gas
composition, and flux type. These variables are selected
with regard to the type and thickness of the material, [otnt
design, welding position, deposition rate, and appearance.
6-10 ARC WELDING VARIABLES
During the manual welding operation, the welder has
Control over factors that affect the weld. For example, the
Primary Adjustable Variables
Welder can increase or decrease the speed of travel along The primary adjustable variables are welding current, arc
the weld joint.The welder can increase the length of the Voltage, and travel speed. To explain the effect of these
arc, which increases the Voltage, or decrease the length of variables, bead on plate welds is shown with the three
the arc, Which decreases the voltage. In this way the characteristics involved: weld penetration, the weld bead
welder is also changing the welding current. The welder width, and the weld reinforcement. Each variable has a.
an also change the angle of the electrode or the torch to distinct effect on the three characteristics.
either pu h or drag, and these changes can be made while When making welds to establish a welding proce-
w Iding.When an the variables are in proper balance, the dure or in revt wing welds that did not meet require-
w Id r will hay control over the molten metal and will ments, judgment is based 011 these three weld
~ posh high-quality weld metal.This section will explain characteristics. Weld penetration is the most Important,
hen the w lding variables interrelate and how some of and it is affected by all three of the variable .Penetration
t em are more ea ily changed and are useful for control. is also affected by the secondary adjustable variable and
. The effe t of changing th se variables and the re- by the preselected variables.
~till,g change is essentially the Same for all of the arc In analyzing the weld if it is decided that penetra-
e1dh)g processes when the weld metal crosses the arc. tl n must b increased, one of th preselected variables
All wetds shown are on teel; however, the same factors may be changed, For example, if the maximum welding
apply t other metals. current for a particular electrode size is being . used, it'
Welding variables can be divid d into three classifi- would be neces ary to change to a larger electrode size
c. ~t'tons: prtmar adjustable variabh 51 secondary ad- to fur~her increase the 'welding current. This Same ration~
JllStabl variables, and .preselected or· distinct level ale may haveto be followed to change the beadwtdth or
\I {iables. 'I'h primary adjustable variables are those w ld reinforcement if the limit of a prtmary variable i
roo t c mmonr u d to chana the cll. tact risttcs of the r ached without obtaining .I:b. desired results'.
Wl~ . eo.
:re d. ~ ate tray t spe d, arc Voltage, and w ldtng cur- Thre se s of Ul'V I) show the ' ffect of the thre e
. rrt.. bey tan be , astiy measur d and contin\laUy ad- primary variables 011 the. three weld charnct· ristics,
a
~ted over wide range. These prltnat"£ vt\riables control Figure 6-72 shews th~e· ts of tbe tlll'e· vadabl~. 011
l.:tbl1matioll Q. tb weld by influen iUg the depth of . weldpenetmtIon. :" .-
Pen tratton, t]l b ad wklt.h, 'Qlld the b ad hight or reo Penetration is
the· cUStanc 'that the J\lsiort zone,ec~
t t)r "m nt. 111 y also aff. . (l position rat, at· tabil~
t ~lnt Pl tt r 1 vel. Sp I valu s re a,c;sign d to th 'S
tends b. low th original llrfa e ofth paris being.wdcled.
J int d ,ign is (loa f4 tor tJ; at must be cQnsider d, Till,
III fl, bj s.'rh y a in 'Iud 'd in welding 1'1'0 ed'llr s hed- urv ~is bn d on fIord flfC WI Idins,bm would appt
, and can b . clupli t d tune atte,r tim . ..t() :rMAW;s\lbm.rg dare wetdil1g,anQ, to a fttirly large ij' ...
c.;h . 1:h.. Sf! I'rtlm")Jttdjtt. t;lbLvari .bles tall also It-e . grce, SMAWThe 'Value ujay; 6han~ b\.lt the. rela:ti~11&hfpS.'.
'(1 og, d (')l1tlnuou.ly 0'V r It wide t'lmg .TIl' ecoJld~ al' 'Sltnjl~lr,tQ~p]nJll 7~$hoWt b ad a~
this, Flgur 6.... .'
tlst'lnl· V4:1ri~bl "S dnot dir tly affl'ct b ~d.tbrmati .p aratlCth nd« 8 ct onorw"ld tn(d Witllth )i·.
process. Wi lding conditions were 3/32 in. (2.4 mm) elec- since, for economic reasons, the goal is to weld at a max-
trode, 29 V, electrode positive, and travel speed 20 in./min imum speed possible.
(510 mm/min). The depth of penetration increases as the The relationship of penetration and arc voltage is
current level increases.The welding current and weld pen- not a straight-line relationship.The curve shows that there
etration relationship is almost a straight line and is the most is an optimum arc voltage where penetration is maxi-
effective in controlling this weld characteristic. It should be mum. Raising or lowering arc voltage from this point re-
considered first when a change of penetration is required. duces penetration. Thus a long arc or a short arc will
The relationship between travel speed and weld decrease penetration. For a given welding current, a cer-
penetration also is a relatively straight-line relationship. tain voltage will provide the smoothest welding arc. For
Penetration is increased as travel speed is decreased. this reason arc voltage is not recommended as a control
Travel speed should not be used as the major control for penetration.
The weld bead width relationship to the primary
variables is shown in Figure 6-74. Bead width is an im-
FIGURE 6-72 Weld penetration related to primary portant characteristic of a weld, particularly when using
variables. automatic equipment to fill a weld groove. The arc volt-
36~--,---~--------~--~--~ __~ age variable, or arc length, is a straight-line relationship
30 with weld bead width. As the arc voltage is increased,
TRAVEL 24 bead width increases.This can be explained by consider-
speeD 18 ing the welding arc.The welding arc has a point-to-plane
I.P.M.
12 PENETRATION relationship and is conical in shape with the point of the
cone at the end of the electrode and the wide portion at
~
~.L Ir---O>----, the surface of the weld. This is shown in Figure 6~75 and
explains the relationship between the longer arc with
34 .
h.igher voltage and the bead width. This shows the arc
32
voltage at different arc lengths and how the arc spreads
30
ARC 28
out and makes a wider bead.
VOLTS This relationship is also hown in Figur 6-76,
26
which shows the weld surfac appearance and cros sec-
24
tion of flux-cored arc welds made at different arc volt-
22
ages.Welding conditions, such as electrode size and travel
370 speed, ar th same as previously; but the urrent is main-
330 . tain d at 50A.5.ince increasing the ar voltage make the
WELDING 290 bead wider, the relnfor ernent Is redu ed because the
CIJRRENT "50 same volume of weld metal is- involved. Conversely, re-
AMPERES" .
210 du ing the arc Vi ltage makes tho bead narrower and in-
170 creas h. height 0 the reinfor ment.
Travel speed is the second choice for changing
INCReASING peNETRATION
SHAI..LOW DEEP bead Width, slnc it has a,relativ Iy straight-line relation-
FIGURE li...,73 Weld penetration versus

weldi ng current.
31 TIle welding current to bead height is a relatively
29 straight-line relationship. This is based on the mass or
23 amount of weld metal deposited.The travel speed relation-
TRAVEL
SPEED 19 .ship to the weld characteristics is shown in Figure 6-78,
I.P.M.
15 which shows the weld surface appearance and cross sec-
11
tion of flux-cored arc welds made at different speeds.Weld-
7
ing conditions: electrode size is the same as for the
previous; welding current is 450 A, voltage is 29 VAt the
36
lower travel speeds, the weld is large in mass, whereas at
34
the high travel speed, it is smaller in mass.This relationship
32
is easily determined by relating the cross-sectional area of
ARC
VOLTS 30
28
1I BEAD
WIDTH
the welding electrode times the wire feed speed to the
cross-sectional area of the weld times the travel speed. As
more electrode is fed into the arc, based on higher welding
26 { CJ \ current, a greater mass of meta) is deposited. However, as
24
the speed of travel is increased, this mass of metal will be
spread out over a longer length. The relationships shown
600
relate penetration, bead width, and reinforcement to weld-
550
ing current, arc voltage, and travel speed. Notice the inter-
500
WELDING
action that occurs. These relationships can only be varied
CUFIRENT 450
AMPERES within limits, since there is a fixed relationship between
400
arc voltage and welding current within the stable operat-
350
ing range.This relationship changes for different processes,
300
shielding gas atmospheres, and electrode sizes.
INCREASING BEAD WIDTH
NARROW WIOE All these relationships are relative. Different values
would be used for different processes. The shape of the
FIGURE 6-74 Weld bead width related to primary curves and the changes in weld bead characteristics
variables.
would be basically the same.
Secondary Adjustable Variables
ARC
VOLTAGE 3?
t
ARC LENGTH
~E'6-75 Weld bead width related to arc voltage.

FIGURE6-76 Weld penetration versus welding
voltage. 27 volt. 29 volt. 31 voUa 33 volt.
TRAVEL
SPEED
LP.M.
8EAD HEIGHT OR REINFORCEMENT
t
tl 0 ....,~.:t~<.
.ARC
~~ :~-'/~;.~
VOI,.TS
FIGURE6-78 Weld bead reinforcement versus travel

speed.
the curn nt pickup tip and the work is the sum of the v It-
age across the arcand the vQltagedrop in the electrode eX-
, " t nsion. As the Iectrod extension or stckout In. reases. '
the ctr utr r su lance increa and tbe. welding c\.rrren.t
stays c n tant; th ttfOl'e, more Vi ltage 0 curs a .ros th'
- -
-INOR&.A&IN,G BEAD,..tIGHT-+ HIGH ex easton and tbl I S5 voltage cur aero s the all .Th
decrease of both vottag 'and ,urI.' illwOl red e the p tl~
.tMion of the arc.The stickout that am b us dis Jinllted;
Conver ely, as the stickout lecttodcritens16t1
d cr as 1tbpre ating effi ct is r tduc d and the Wi td·
fn!ll We! ur furnishe mol.' urrent.thls in reas'iP
'w laing current provid a p.r0PQrti n, in ,rea. in
p n rraucn.
Mother secondary atljustahlc.V'llciflbl is th Iec-
tt'· de' or.nozzle tr-avel angl ,wbicb basJ1n app:r, dabl~·i"
Ii ct on pen tra,tlon:JWo~ngI at t lir d t d fin' d't.
po itlOfl of an '1 erred oe wIding gun nozzle: (1) th
,'"'ttavcl'antUe and, 2) tbework fl,ngl' '.
PUSH ANGLE FOR
DRAG ANGLE FOR DRAG ANGLE FOR WQRK FOREHAND WELDING
BACKHAND WELDING A_NGlE
BACKHAND WELDING AND TRAVEL ANGLE
"-NO TRAVEL ANGLE AND TRAVEL ANGLE
WORK _j
PUSH ANGLE FOR \ ANGLE I
FOREHAND WELDING V I'
AND TRAVEL ANGLE \
CENTERLINE ___
OF PIPE
FIGURE 6-80 Travel and work angles for pipe welds.

(.1 GROOVE WELD
PUSH ANGLE FOA

the centerline of the electrode or welding gun, in a plane
AND TRAVEL ANQU
determined by the centerline of the electrode and a line
tangent to the pipe at this same point (Figure 6-80), The
travel angle for a pipe weld is the angle, less than 90°, in
the electrode centerline or the torch centerline and a line
perpendicular to the weld axis at its point of intersection
with the electrode centerline, in a plane determined by
the electrode centerline and a line tangent to the pipe
surface at the same point.This is also shown.
It is found that maximum penetration is obtained
when a drag angle of 15° to 20° is used. If the gun travel
lbl 'tLLETW£LD angle is changed from this optimum condition, penetra-
f.IGURE 6-79 Travel and work angles for groove and tion decreases. From a drag angle of 15 to a push angle of
0
fillet welds. 30° ,the relationship between penetration and travel angle
is almost a straight line. Theref re, good control of pene-
tration can be obtained ill this range.A drag angle greater
than 25 cannot be used.The gun travel angle variable can
Q
The work angl is the angle, less than. 90°, between

also be u ed to change bead height and width, since the
a line perpendi ular to the major workpiece urface and
gun travel angle affect'S bead contour. A drag travel angle
V:la~edetel'n'$1ed by the electr-ode or centerline of the tends to produce a high, narrow bead.As the drag angleIs .
~kbng gun and the weld axis. In a T.joint or a corner
reduced, the bead height decreases and th .width In-
j nt, the line is perpcndicularto the nonbutting member
fgure 6-79). creases. This relationship is shown by Figur· 6-81, The
push travel angle is used for high travel sllceds.1hesean-
th • The ttavellUlgle Is the angle, less than 9(j~, between
gles vary sUghtlywith different processes and procedures,
e electrode centerline, or centerline of the welding
~n, and the line pet·p ndicular to the w ld axis, in a
an det. rmined by the electrode' axis and the weld
a)(is.TJti is also shown in. 'PIgur 6-19, . Distinct L vel Y, riabl s.
ad 'fhetmVeI angle is qescribed f\'lrthet as being eitbe~.
an rag anglor a pu~hangJe;The drag angle is the travel
8le wh n the el ctrode is pOinting ill a direction op-
~ it to tile regression of welding (points backward .
. l~ltsh an 1· is the trav l an Ie wh n th el ctrod is
.~ tntlng in tho dire Ion 0 weld progr ston points f r·
an~d.The push angle is also known asiollehand )Veldlilg,
the·drag.angle is a]. 0 known as l1acRhand welding.
l ~. In... Pipe w Mlng) til ark an le is. the a.ngI • less
$\1an I b tw . n a line that: is perp. ndicuJar t the pip
file at the point (>f ultel"'Sc(:tiott: oJ the weld ws and.
6. The familiarity of the personnel involved in making
EFFECT OF NOZZLE ANGLE:
ON PENETRATION the joint
7. Other factors such as the engineering capabilities
~ to design and the user reaction to the method
DRAG
The ability to join the given metal must be the flrst

consideration. In many cases the metal can be welded with
a number of welding processes; then the selection depends
on other factors. The quality of the joint produced by the
processes is the second basis for process determination.
The designer must be aware of the quality requirement of
the product, which involves the service requirements,
specifications, codes, and environmental exposure that can
be expected. The metals to be joined must be selected on
the same basis. It is then necessary to determine the join-
!!l ing process that will provide a quality joint.
~ The third factor is the thickness of the metals to be
CI +20"
z joined and the position of the joints to be welded. Some
~
a.
processes have all-position capabilities, while others are
limited to a few welding positions.The position capability
+30" ~
PUSH may not be important since many assemblies can be posi-
tioned to place them in the position for most advantageous
-'INCREASinG PENETRATION __
welding.The position cannot be altered in some cases: for
FIGURE 6-81 Travel angle versus penetration. example, in the field, erection of large products and in the
repair welding of products that cannot be moved.
electrode wtre,h deeper the penetration. Larger-wire These factors will narrow the choice of welding
electrodes produce wider beads and less penetration. processes. After analyzing these three, there still is the re-
In GMAW and FCAW, the us of CO2 gas shielding quirement to establish the optimum and most economical
provides deeper penetration. It is the characteristic of welding process.The welding cost factor should be used.
carbon dioxid to provide deep penetration. Also, in The two major components in welding cost are the cost of
MAW the typ of shielding gas affects the weld bead labor to apply the welds and the cost of the materials used.
shap and pen tratlon patt im.Argon has a characteristic The cost of labor continually increase . t is impor- .
deep center or point d penetration, whil 2 provide
tant to select proces es that are most productive. The
a wldec pattern .The .0z-atgo.n mixture is between these. productivity is r Iated to its deposition rates. Deposition
By fttUYuna rst,nding the relation hip of the variables rate data for each of the processes ar presented in the
and th lr effi ct on weld charactensnc .It is possible to es- pr cess etten. S me processes pr vide high deposl-
tablisha wel(Ung procedure to pr-ovide the exact type, don rate but require more weld metal to. complete the
aMp ~I ize of weld. and weldtng producnon rat that ar w Id jolut.Ioint design and the amount ofm tal r qulred
requtred. to mak the weld joint ent r into thls. Pro. es produc-
tlvity relates to labor cost, since each process may be ap-
pljed, in more than one way. Sa 1method of applying' haS
a sp jil operator factor n d Ity cyd ba . d upon the
amount of time that th pro 'C s is in actual operation dc-
N po iring m "[.1; v rsus the tim availaple.
The nth factor ha t do with cost of material . Jt 1S
impOtUlnU reeogulze that allfLllerlm tals are not used t"
tIl sam d groe.The filler m tal with t:f::iJ lowest 1.1tilizatiOft
is th· covered Je trade, Only about 65% of the W1 jght of .
th 1 ctfod "5pllrchas d b om, (1 po ited weld metal
in th produ t. tll, Bas tn ~ I welding nd tro IM~
\VI 1Uti th amou. t of purchased. Jdrota! d 'posit d li1
the j in u 9 %. whn th amOltnt of fl:u~ ared lectrOOe
'Win! d pos~t@din til j' int app,roa hes QS%
~b avai1biUty of qlJtpmcnt «1so has a
tb pro 8S Ie 'ti 11.Pr du" ts .ttl1J d to thQ n tmaUY
.p .dtl edwiU. utfli~etbe sam"c' ~ipment. If tl1,e neW
item is sufficiently different from existing products, its Other factors must be considered. One has to do
produCtion may require different equipment. TIle cost with the ability of engineering and design personnel to
and the availability of the equipment are important fac- adapt to a new process. There is reluctance to switch
tors. TOOling for high-volume production or specialized . from a well-known process to a new unknown one.An-
precision welding must also be considered. other factor has to do with the user of the end product.
It is important to be objective and question Users are familiar and apparently satisfied with the pres-
Whether or not the availability of equipment overweighs ent method of production. Change can upset relation-
~ew equipment that might be more productive. Chang- ships and cause users to discontinue the product made
lUg to a more productive welding process can make by a new process. When suddenly confronted with a
aVailable equipment obsolete. This may be justified by a welded assembly, they may have questions concerning
quick repayment of the cost of the new equipment. This the new part and its ability to withstand rough service.
is important when considering robot welding. There is also the reluctance to change versus the neces-
The familiarity of the personnel can have an impor- sity to improve products and reduce costs.
tant bearing on process selection. It may be necessary to When all these factors are considered, a manage-
provide a training program to teach existing personnel able plan evolves. It will enable the metalworking execu-
new skills. An objective view should be taken to compare tive to chart a course with the known factors and to
the availability of skill of the existing workforce versus arrive at the preferred welding process. Alternative se-
What would be required if the process were changed. It is lections may result and practical production tests should
necessary to consider inspection, material preparation, be made to obtain the best answer.
and supervisory and administrative personnel as weU.
QUESTIONS
6-1. I CO2 shielding gas used for GMAW welding of alu- 6·10. When is cooling water recommended for the GMAW
minum? torch or gun?
6-2. Wh.at is the main purpose of the coating on stick 6-11. Wbat is the major difference between FCAW and
electrodes? GMAW?
6-3. What are three types of metal transfer in an arc weld- 6-12. What equipment changes are nece sary to change
ing process? processes?
6-4. What is th main purpose of submerged arc flux? 6·13. What are the three cla siftcattons of'welding variables?
Oth r purposes? 6·14. What adjustments chang weld penetranon? Explain.
6·S. Why iso't submerg d arc welding an all-position 6-15. What adjustments change weld bead Width? 'E'Kpialn.
welding precess! 6·16. What adjustm nrs chang weld bead rcl.nfo~ ment?
-6. If is us d for submerged ar •is it C or V? E plain,
6,7. Is a welding helmet requir d for submerged ar 6~17. Wh. t is stL kour.and what effect does it ha e?
welding? 6.18, Define ~vork angle and tra;uel angle.
For GMAW. wh t chang s are r quit d in weJd j tnt 6.19. Wh~ t: mak s et c'troslag welding different from sub-
design? merged arc welding? '
6,9. rib th leceogas process otwektlng, For what 6-20. Wb .t welding 81'0 ve design Isnormally 11. ed f r
po ition is it. us d? et troslag w ldt g?
8. A. Lesnewich, "Control of Melting Rate and Metal Trans- 16. "Recommended Practices for Gas Metal Arc Welding,"
fer in Gas-Shielded Metal-Arc Welding, Part II," Control of AWS C5.6,American Welding Society, Miami, Fla.
Metal Transfer Welding, Research Supplement (Septem- 17. "Specification for Low Alloy Steel Flux Cored Welding
ber 1958):p.418s. Electrodes," AWS AS.29, American Welding Society, Mi·
9. A. A. Smith, "Characteristics of the Short Circuiting CO2 ami, Fla.
Shielded Arc" (proceeding of a symposium on Physics of 18. "Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes and Fluxes
the Welding Arc, The Welding Institute, London, Oct. for Submerged Arc Welding," AWSA5.17,American Weld-
29-Nov. 2,1962): 75-91. ing Society, Miami, Fla.
10. B.}.Bradstreet," Effect of Surface'Iension and Metal Flow on 19. "Specification for Bare Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes and
Weld Bead Formation," lVeldtngjournal (Iuly 1968): 314s. Fluxes for Submerged Arc Welding," AWS A5.23, Ameri-
11. "Speciftcatlons for Mild Steel-Covered Arc Welding Elec- can Welding Society, Miami, Fla.
trodes," AWSA5.1 .American Welding Society, Miami, Fla. 20. "Improved Practure Ioughness and Fatigue Characteristics
12. "Specifications for Low-Alloy Steel-Covered Arc Welding of Electroslag Welds," FHWA/RD-87/026, Federal Highway
Electrodes,"AWS A5.5,American Welding Society, Miami, Administration, Washington, D,c., October 1986.
Fla. 21. "Specification for Consumables Used for Electroslag
13. H. B.Cary,"Gravity Welding- AVariation of Shielded Metal- Welding of Carbon and High Strength Low Alloy SteelS,"
Arc Welding," Welding Journal (November 1979): 36. AWSA5.25,American Welding SOCiety, Miami, Fla.
14. "Specification for Carbon Steel Filler Metals for Gas 22. "Recommended Practices for Electrogas Welding," AWS
Shielded Arc Welding," AWSA5.18,American Welding So- C5.7,American Welding Society, Miami, Fla.
ciety, Miami, Fla. 23. "Specification for Consumables Used for Electrogas
15, "Specification for Low Alloy Steel Filter Metals for Gas Welding of Carbon Steels and High Strength Low Alloy
Shielded Arc Welding," AWSAS.28,American Welding So- Steel,"AWSA5.26,Amedcan Welding Society, Miami, Fla.
ciety, Miami, Fla.
OUTLINE
7-1 Oxyfuel Gas Welding ....._ DIRECTION OF TRAVEL-
7"'2 Brazing
7-3 Soldering
7-4 Tnermfte Welding
7-5 Solld-SrateWelding
7...6 Miscellan ousWelding Processes
FIGURE7-1 Oxyacetylene process.

7..1 OXYFUEL GAS WELDING
O:llCyfuelgas welding (OFW) is a group of welding processes
. that prodl.lces coalescence of workpieces by heating them The intense heat of the flame 6,300oP (3,82°C)melts
~ith an oxyfuel gas flame.The processes are used with or the suetace of the base metal to form a molten pool. Piller
Without the application of pre sure, and with or without m tal can be added to fill gaps or grooves.As the flame
filJer metal. Th re are three major processes within this moves along tb JQin~the melted base ttl tal and tillet.
~lP: oxyacetylene welding, oxyhydrogen welding, and metal soH,difyto produce the weld. ,
PresS\.U'e gas w Iding. Another pro ess, of minor tndustrial 11 t emperarur of the oxya etylene flam is not
.i8niflcanc ,is known as airacetylene welding.This process uniform tl1;vnugbo\\t its l.ength, and cornbtlStion: is a~sQdif-
1$ actually a chemical welding pro ess, ferent in different parts oftbe flam ~.Ftgure 7 ..... hows
The most popular pro ess in. this group 15 0 y- the temperature in different portions of 'the 'tlame. The
a 'ctyl ne Wi ldlng, whl h is an OFW process that us s temperature is high st just beyond th end of thetnn r
(Zetyl ne as the filei gas. Oxyhydrog n welding us "8 hy· 'one and d cr as s gradually toward. the nd of th. .
(~r g n as the.fue] a .It is not popular, but finds appli a- flam .TIle bemtcal r action for a 1: 1 ratio of ac tyle.i.1~
tlOns for. OFW welding of alumtnum. Tbe thtrd major and exygenplusatr is, a,. follows:·' . ,
I>toce~ is pll SStl! gas welding (PGw), which i an oxy-
fllel ga!i weldin' process that pradu es a w Id Sim.ult-ane.
o ls1y Vcr the entire faying surfaces.Th pro' ss i~u .d
>
With th . appU ad n of pressur ~nd without filler metal.

OF feather is called the acetylene feather. If the acetylene
·C
feather is twice as long as the inner cone, it is known as a
w 3000
a: 2X flame, which is a way of expressing the amount of
~ excess acetylene. The carborizing flame may add carbon
~ 2000 to the weld metal. The oxidizing flame, which has an ex-
:E
~ cess of oxygen, has a shorter envelope and a small
w
:E 1000 pointed white cone.The reduction in length of the inner
~
u, core is a measure of excess oxygen. This flame tends to
oxidize the weld metal and is used only for welding spe-
cific metals. Most welding procedures use the neutral
flame.The welder soon learns proper flame adjustment.
INNER CONE
The oxyacetylene welding proc ss has many advantages.
FIGURE 7-2 Temperature of the oxyacetylene flame. The equipment is portable and relatively inexpensive and
can be used in all welding positions. The equipment is
also versatile: It can be used for welding, brazing, solder-
ing, and, with proper attachments, flame cutting. The
equipment can be used as a source of heat for bending,
forming, straightening, and hardening. Another advantage
is that the molten pool is visible to the welder.
The oxyacetylene welding process is normally used
as a manual process. It can be mechanized, bot this is not
common. It is rarely used for erniautomatic applications.
Oxyacetylene welding is used to weld most common
metals.
When welding any metal, the appropriate filler ma-
terial must be selected. The filler metal must match the
composition of the base metal to be welded and normally
contains deoxidizers to aid in producing sound welds.
Flux is also r quired for welding certain. materials.
The xya etylene welding proce s is normally us d
for weldtng thinner materials up to 1/4 in. (6.4 m:m) thik.
It can be used for welding heavier material but is rarely
used or thick metal .It major industrial applications are
in the field of maintenance and repair and in welding
small-diamet r pipe.
Welding Apparatus
FIGURE7-3 Basic orw flame types.

TIP
SPAR\~
WORKING PRESSURE CYLINDER PRESSURE
LlGHT~ GAUGE GAUGE
MIXING CHAMBER
ACETYLENE OXYGEN
NEEDLE VALVE NEEDLE VALVE
""---"'''"1..IJ...I-/OXYGENHOSE flASH BACK
ACETYLENE REGULATOR..... ARRESTORS
CYLINDER PRESSUR.s-- .
GAUGE
CET~ OXYGEN
LENE
TWIN HOSE
FIGURE 7-4 Apparatus and equipment employed for oxyacetylene welding.
~RE 7-5 Torch used for oxyacetylene welding. Courtesy of ESAB Welding and Cutting Products,
There are two basic type f torches, the medium-

T>t ~Sure tor h, which is most popular, and the low-
\) e Sur r Injector typ . Wh 11 using th medium ...
pressur torch, both oxygen and acetylene are supplied
~ ,apprOXimately the same pr 'sure, which may vary
1IQ.1ll 1 t 10 psi, dep nding on the size of the ttp being
.s 'd. 1'11 two gas s are mixed t g th 1" ill themixing
t'hl' f ib 'r In th arch handle. Som tor ihes have the mix-
fig h~mb t· in ttl ti.p (Figure 7-5),
. . .' h injector tYpe of torch us s acetylene at pres-
than l.p iand; al'i lC$tgn do' that the oxygen
:l:~f.iS I .ss
a higher pressure draws the I:\. tylene into th miXlng
,l'll1bet:Any change in oxygen flcw wlll pr clue a rela-
i chung in acetyl ne fl w so that the proportion of
1 . two ,gas' r ronins 'o!l.stant.This type of tot lis not
'Il l}l..ll.ar.Thc 111ve on thbotly 0 th torch C ntr l th.
:nOU?t of o~~'n Rtj(l ac tyl fie or fu 1 gas that flows to
~ rn ing 'hambt'f, wh re 'th ~yare combined: Differ nt
t.~lt·lditl~ttp~a' avail: ble .0 that the sam tot' h handl
. 11 b u ed fOJ (wide ariel: oPeration ,,\Velding tiPs
Gas pressure regulators are required for both the the cylinder, the other shows the working pressure that is
oxygen and acetylene. Regulators reduce the pressure of being supplied to the torch. Figure 7 - 7 shows a cutaway
the gas in the cylinder or supply system to the pressure view of a two-stage gas regulator.
used in the torch.The pressure in an oxygen cylinder can The operation of a regulator for controlling gas
be as high as 2,200 psi (15.2 MPa), and this must be re- pressure and providing for uniform gas flow is rather
duced to a working pressure of from 1 to 25 psi (6.9 to straightforward. The regulator consists of a flexible di-
172 kPa).The pressure of acetylene in an acetylene cylin- aphragm, which controls a needle valve between the
der can be as high as 250 psi (1.7 MPa), and this must be high-pressure zone and the working pressure zone; a
reduced to a working pressure of from 1 to 12 psi (6.9 to compression spring; and an adjusting screw, which com-
82 kPa).When gases are piped to the workstations from a pensates for the pressure of the gas against the di-
central supply, the pressure is lower but regulators are aphragm.The needle valve is on the side of the diaphragm
still required.A gas pressure regulator will automatically exposed to high gas pressure, while the compression
deliver a constant volume of gas to the torch at the ad- spring and adjusting screw are on the opposite side in a
justed working pressure. The regulators for oxygen, for zone vented to the atmosphere.The spring is compressed
acetylene, and for liquid petroleum fuel gases are of dif- by the adjusting knob on the outsid of the regulator. In
{I rent construction. They must be used only for the gas the closed position. the diaphragm is flat and the needle
for which they are designed. valve closes the orifice to the high pressure zone. In this
There are two types of regulators, the single-stage cond.ition the compression spring is not loaded and the
regulator and the two-stage regulator. The singJe-stage adjusting knob is backed off. As the knob is turned clock-
regulator reduces the cylinder pr ssure of the gas to a wise, it compresses the spring, which in turn presses
working pres ure in one step. Single-stage regulators against the diaphragm to open the needle valve into the
must b readjusted from time to time to maintain the re- high-pressure lone. As the valve opens, high-pressure gas
quired working pressure.The gas pressure in.the cylinder enters the chamber and tends to push the diaphragm
decreases gradually as gas is Withdrawn. Single-stage reg- against the compression spring.Thls will tend to close the
ulators are Jess expensive than two-stage regulators and needle valve. When the spring is further compressed, it
are more popular. Figure 7...6 shows a cutaway view of a will open the needle valve further, allowing more gas
single- tag r gulator; The two-stage regulator makes the through th orifice and into the pressure zone. By bal-
reduction of.pi: ssure in two steps.The first step reduces ancing the compression spring againsrthe pres ure of
th yHoder p essure to an Intermedtate pressure. The the gas, the needle valve is kept at the right opening to al-
SCCOllQ. step redu s this intermediate pressure to the de- low the correct flow of gas through the orifice. he com'
sired working prcssur .. A two-stage regulator i simply
two singl -stage regular rs in t11 sam case.The two-
stag' regular r pr vides more a urate regulation and
eltrnlnates the need to readtustthe regulator as the I re FIGURE 1-7 Cutaway view of a two-stage regulator.
sure intne supply tank i 1,' educed. R gttlators have two
pr ~ssur . g::u..tg s: ne show th pr s ur of the ga mstde
,cutaway view of a single·stage regulator.

pression spring balanced against the gas pressure keeps The hose fittings have the same threaded connections as
the valve at the proper opening to allow the required connections on the torch and regulator (l.e., oxygen has
flow and pressure on the low-pressure side of the regula- right-hand threads and fuel gas has left-hand threads). In
tor. Figure 7-8 shows a diagram of a gas regulator. Single- addition, the acetylene hose connection has a groove
tage regulators are used for plant piping systems since around the outside to distinguish it from oxygen hose
the pressure in the pipe system is much lower than in the connections. There is no international color code for gas
cylinder. Torches, regulators, and other gas apparatuses hose. In North America, green is used for oxygen hose and
mUst be approved by one of the approving agencies.They red is used for acetylene or fuel gas hose. In Europe, blue
must also be properly handled and maintained. is used for oxygen hose and orange is used for acetylene
or fuel gas hose. Black is used for oxygen hose in some
parts of the world. Hose should never be used for oxygen
Flashback Arresters gas if it was used previously for a fuel gas. Hose and con-
A. backfire is an explosion in the welding or cutting torch nections should be kept in good repair, and if leaks occur,
head. A flashback is combustion in the torch. Both are repair them immediately or replace the hose.
dangerous and highly undesirable. Backfires and flash- A torch must be lighted by a spark lighter consist-
backs can be avoided by the use of flashback arresters. ing of a flint on a lever so it can be moved across a piece
The torch-mounted flashback arrester is primarily a of roughened steel. Matches or cigarette lighters should
check valve that prohibits reverse gas flow from the not be used to light an oxyacetylene torch since that
torch, as shown in Figure 7-9. The regulator-mounted brings the hand too close to the flame.A convenient ac-
flashback arrester is a combination check valve and cessory is a gas saver or economizer, which includes a
porous s.intered metal barrier. The gas flows through it, bracket for hanging the torch. When the torch is hung on
but the flame is unable to penetrate it. Both torch- the bracket, it closes the valves to stop the flow of oxy-
mOUnted and regulator-mounted flashback arresters gen and acetylene. The device has a pilot light so that
~houId be employ d for maximum safety. They should be when the torch is lifted from the bracket near the pilot
ItlstalJed in both the fuel gas and oxygen lines and
light, the torch can be lighted.
checked periodically for proper operation.
Gas Hose Gas Supply

b as hose, used b tween pieces of apparatus, is described The oxygen required for oxyacetylene welding can be
l-l tanda.rdANSJ/IP-7," Specifications for Rubber Welding
c supplied in several ways. The more COmmon way is the
1.°•. "(1) Ho e is available as Single or double vulcanized use of high-pressure oxygen cylinders at the welding sta-
:~n
tile, .Th doubt lines onsist of two has 8, one for oxy-
~ld one for fuel gas, connected continuously along
6 e sldes so that the two hoses ate an integral unit. TIlls is
tion. Another way is to manifold. oxyg n cyllnd 1'S and run
the oxygen through a piping system to the welding sta-
ttons.Thts is common where a large number ofwelding or
l~r ease in handling, The maximum working pressure is cutting stations use oxYgen. When a piping distfihUUOll
W' P i (1.03 MFa), Hos, is available in thre strengths,
h ttll thestanda_cd dutyi<type "the most popular.Welding FIGURE7-9 Flash arresters, Courtesy of £SA8 Welcling
0
8. ispe ified by its in old diameter. The nominal in- and Cutting Product».
, td ~ diameter m st popular is the 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) size.
----------------------------------~-----
FtGURE 7"'0 Gas regulator operation.
FLXI8lS
DIAPHRAGM
-COMPftESSION-
SPRING
lOWPRUSURE
QAS.
system is used, It can be supplied by liquid oxygen if a the hot filler metal rod in the flux. Sufficient flux will ad-
large amount of oxygen is used. here to the rod to provide proper fluxing action as the
Acetylene or fuel gases are often supplied in cylin- filler rod is melted in the flame. Other types of fluxes are
ders taken to the welding station. However, they can be of a paste consistency, which are usually painted on the
piped throughout the plant in the same manner as oxy- filler rod or on the work to be welded. Welding rods with
gen. The acetylene may be supplied to the piping sys- a covering of flux are also available. Fluxes are available
tem by manifolding cylinders or by an acetylene from welding supply companies and should be used in
generator. The acetylene generator produces acetylene accordance with the directions accompanying them.
at the plant site by the reaction of carbide and water. In
all cases, the installation and operation of piping sys-
tems must be in accordance with strict specifications
Quality of Welds
and safety requirements. The quality of a weld made with the oxyacetylene
process can equal the quality of the base metal being
welded.This is based on the use of the proper filler metal,
Welding Rod the proper flux, and the skill of the welder. The procedure
The Ame.ricanWelding Society provides specificationAWS will show the proper tip size, torch adjustment for the
AS.2 covering welding rods or filler metal used for the proper type of flame, and the trav I speed. Figure 7-10
oxyacetylene or oxyfuel gas welding process. The four shows a good weld and common welding mistakes.
grades are shown in Table 7-1.1ne specification number
has th prefix letter R.This is followed by two or three dig-
its, 45, 60, 65, or 100, which designate the approximate Welding Schedules
tensile strength in kst (1,000 psi).ThecheroicaI compost- The oxyacetylene welding process is rarely used for JOU1-
non requirements are given in the specification. ing heavy thicknesses. Table 7-2 is a schedule that can be
In the case of nonferrous filler metals, the prefix R used for welding material, ranging from the thinnest up
is followed by the chermcal symbol of the principal con. to the heaviest. The tip size is gtven by showing the ori-
stituent metal in the wire. The initials for one or two ele- fice size and the equivalent drill size, since manufacturers
ments will follow, If there is more than one aUoy use different numbering systems for their tips. Each man-
containing the same elements, a S lffix letter or number ufacturer relates tip size number to either the drill size Of
may b add d. the orifice size.The length of the inner cone is shown, as
. Table 7-2h w the base m tal thicknesses weld- wen as the r commended oxygen and acetylene pr s~
~bJe by th oxyacetylene welding process.Thts table also sure. The' diameter of the filler rod i also shown. 111jS
shows rh typ of flller m tal required, the flame type, schedule can be used for all-position welding. The major
and th typ of flu . requir rnent for out-of-position welding is the control 0
Weldin.g :flux is requir d to maintain cleanliness of th w ld pool, which relates to the skrll of th welder.
the base mctatatth welding area and to help remove the This schedule 15based 00 welding dean mild steel
o .id :tUmon th . urfa e of th metal. Th welding area using a n utral flame and not using a flux. Information
should be cl aned, :'llX melts at about the m Iting point concerning the welding of th diffi rent metals is pro-
of 1h bas metal and h Its prot t the molten metal vided in rh metal chapter.
from tIl atmosphere. TI.e molt n flu o mbtnes with
. bas m tal o,qds nd remov Ii them.There is no national
st311d~'orps ~.Idit1gflllxes.TIleyaf c tegodz'd -<leo Safety Considerations
cotdlg to t1e base Ing ~tlj nt ill th {lug or the base
rn. tal,fqr whi 1lthey ar . to b I.\S d. I1'h.:· a'" ually io.
powcl"'t form. 'nt s' !luxe .. at· ft n a pli d by $ti king
TABLE 7-2 SCHEDULE OF OXYACETYLENE WELDING OF MILD STEEL
Approx, Gas . Approx. Gas

Material Pressure (psi) Consumption (ft3/h4)
Thickness Filler Rod Tip Drill Orifice Cone Length
Range (in.) Diameter (in.) Size Size (in.) of Flame (in.) Acetylene Oxygen Acetylene Oxygen
22-16 gauge ;\ 69 0.029 fir 1 1 2 2
rs - k , 2
12 64 0.036 4 2 4 4
k - fa 1
'8 57 0.043 fo 3 3 10 10
fa - Til5 1
55 0.052 3
4 4 20
'8 '8 20
fa - 7
Til 5
Y2 52 0.064 7
16 5 5 45 45
7
Til - t 3
Til 49 0.073 ~
1
6 6 60 60
i-i 3
16 45 0.082 ~ 7 7 70 70
~- 1 fii
t 42 0.094 8 8 80 80
Over 1 inch t 0.107 i
-
36 9 9 90 90
Heavyduty t 28 0.140 i 10 10 100 100
~~te; Based on use of neutral flame. For.welding,clean steel, flux is not normally used. T~ere is ,no standardized tip size for gas torcnes=-tnls
a Ie gives data based on tip orifice size In dnll size and Inch diameter. There are no metnc equivalents.
A GOOD WELD
The main variation is gas pressure welding. In this
process the entire area of abutting surfaces is heated
with gas flames. When the heating is completed, the
0000. eVEN
P!NETRATION
SMOOTH. EVEN RIPPLE flames are removed and pressure is applied to achieve
the weld. This process has been used for joining tubular
members such as pipe. It has also been used for joining
railroad rails and other parts. It is not of major industrial
COMMON
significance today.
WELDING MISTAKES
Th other variation Is the use of hydrogen instead
of acetylen . If hydrogen is used, the apparatus must be
proper for hydrc gen and qutprnent designed for acety-
lene cannot b used. Oxyhydrogen welding is not popu·
Iar and details are not pres nted,
7..2. BRA,ZING
libT ENOIlGH Ii At
~ 7-10 Quality of OFW welds.

Dip Brazing ployed, which provide the proper preheat, brazing, and
cooling temperatures. In either type, specialized holcting
There are two methods of dip brazing (DB): molten chem-
fixtures are required.
ical. bath dip brazing and molten metal bath dip brazing.
Flux is employed except when an atmosphere is
In both cases brazing is accomplished by immersing
specifically introduced in the furnace to perform thiS
clean and assembled parts into a molten bath. Dip brazing
function. Flux should not be used where postbraze clean-
is used for brazing small parts. The assembly should be
ing is made difficult by the complexity of the design of
self-jigging so the parts will maintain the proper relation-
the brazed parts. Furnace brazing is often done without
ship until the brazing filler metal has completely solidi-
the use of flux but by the use of special atmospheres
fied. By using a high-quality furnace and controller, close
in the brazing furnace. Flux is not necessary if the brazing
temperature control is obtained with the dip brazing
is done in a reducing-gas atmosphere, such as hydrogen
meth d.
or other special gases. Inert gases-argon or helium-are
'TIle molten material is contained in a pot-type fur- sometimes employed to obtain special properties. Fur-
nace, which is heated by oil, gas, or electricity, or by means nace brazing can also be performed in a vacuum, which
of electrical resistance units placed in the bath. Normally, prevents oxidation and may eliminate the need for flux-
the parts to be brazed are first preheated in an air- Vacuum brazing is widely used in the aerospace and nu-
clr ulating furnace.When the parts have reached the pre- clear fields, where reactive metals are being joined and
heat temperature, they are immersed in the molten bath. where entrapped fluxes would not be acceptable. In vaC-
The difference between the two methods of dip uum brazing, the vacuum is maintained by continuoUS
br-azing is the molten material in the pot. In the molten pumping, which will remove volatile constituents liber-
chemical bath, the bath Is called a flux bath. When a ated during the brazing operation. Some base metals and
chemical bath is used, the filler metal must be preplaced filler metals cannot be brazed in a vacuum since loW'
in the joints that are to be brazed. Fluxing of the assem- boiling-point or htgh-vapor-pressure constituents would
bly is not required.
be volatizcd and lost. The vacuum is a relatively econom-
The other method of dip brazing uses molten metal. ical method and an accurately controlled atmosphere.f
The molten brazing material will flow into the joints to provides for surface cleanliness and allows the flow of
be brazed by apillary action.The parts must be clean and filler metals without the use of fluxes.
fluxed prier to dip brazing.A flux cover should be main- It is important to select t11 correct atmosphere
tained over the surface of the molten metal bath. based on th type of base metals and filler metals beWS
Dlp-brazed parts normally dis tor . less than torch- employed. For xample, copper brazing of steels jS
braz d parts because of the uniform. heating. It is suited normally d nein a reducing atmosphere of high-purit)'
for mod rate- to high-production runs because the tool- hydrogen, For more Informatton, see specification [01: fur'
iog 1s relatively complex. T11 method of applying the nace brazingANSIAW C3.6.
. process may be manual or automatic. The process is The distortion of furn e-brazed assemblies is leSs.
suited for braZing mall to meaium parts with multiple or than torch-brazed parts. Furnace brazing i$ suitable fof
,pjdden joi.nts. It an be used for all the metals that can be jojn1ng thin se tions to thl k s ction .It an bused ot'
brazed. and is particularly suited for alumm im and other brazing parts of aU siz;s having multipl joints and. hid·
alloys with melting points lose to the bru,zing tempera- den joints. M st metals ar completely annealed as are-
tur -, Th braz.ins operanon can also p .rfi rm rtatn of s rlt of furna e brazing. In. om cases the heat-trcatinf
the he.aNr .atlngpe,rat1ons 011 alumtnum, OPCn{tiOIlcan be (Jone in o11junction with the brazitlS
·ylc,provfded that the two pr grams at compatible. .
workpieces is quite complex.The frequency of the power used for supplying the electric current to the parts. \Vhen
~ource determines the type of heat that will be induced resistance-welding equipment is used, it is used at a lower
in the part. High-frequency power sources produce skin power input than when it is used for resistance welding.
heating in the parts. Low-frequency current results in Specially designed machines for resistance brazing are
deeper heating and is used for brazing heavier sections. also used. Alternating current is normally employed. Di-
Heating of the part usually occurs within 10 to 60 sec- rect current may be used but is not as common. The parts
onds. Sufficient time must be provided for the filler metal to be brazed are held between the two electrodes while
to flow through the entire joint and to form good fillets the correct pressure and electrical current are applied.
at the interlace. The pressure is maintained until the tiller metal has so-
Induction brazing is ideally suited for high-volume lidified. High-amperage current at low voltage is used.The
manufactured parts. Mechanized systems for moving the heat is generated at the brazed joint interface and at the
parts to and from the coil are quite common. The filler electrode to the part interface and. depends on the resis-
metal is normally preplaced in the joint, and the brazing tance to the current flow at these locations.
operation can be done in air, in an inert-gas atmosphere, Resistance brazing is normally Jimited to applica-
or in a vacuum-which dictates whether or not brazing tions wher the brazing filler metal is preplaced: how-
~uxes are used. The major advantage of induction brazing ever, face feeding of the filler metal into the joint may be
~s the rapid heating rates that make it suitable for braz- used. Resistance brazing is normally used for low-volume
mg With filler metal alloys that tend to vaporize or segre- production where heating is localized at the area to be
gate.A. disadvantage of induction brazing is that the heat brazed.
may not be uniform.Thin sections tend to heat up quicker The flux used for r .sistance brazing must be given
than heavy sections, and thin sections may tend to over- specific attention since the conductivity of the flux is im-
h at. Field or shading coils are sometimes used to reduce portant. Normally, brazing fluxes are insulators when
the problem of overheating. Induction brazing is applied cool and dry,When they become molten from the heat of
as an automatic process. the brazing operation, they may become conductive,
Fluxes are normally employed, except when all atmo-
sphere is used to perform the same function.
Infrared Brazing
~ infrar d brazing ORB) the heat is obtained from in-
rared heat or a bla k heat sour e b low the red rays in the Torch Brazing
Ipectrutn. Some visible Ught i involved, but the principal
~eating is done by the invisible radiation. Heat SO\lrCeSor
.amps capable of delivering up to 5,000 W of radiant en-
tIlrgy ar used,The lamps. do not nee s arlly need to follow
11 . C~ntour of the parts being braz d, even though the
eatmput varies by th squar of the distance from the
:tl ur ,Radiation on ntrating r flectors arc often used.

f es other than electrl ~ lamps that sl.lpply infrared
tJ ~bltion an b used. Parts to be brazed are positioned so

'\.\~the radiant en rgy wiU impinge on th Joint.
du " With j~rared brazmg, as 10 furnace b~azitlg and ~-
rtC'& n brazlt1.g, th parts can be containe J in air, in an .ul~
(tlllosPhere, 01' in a ac urn. The same omments
i~ll, erning fluxes and atmosph r s apply. Infrared braz-
tn~ 1, ~ t a fast ~\ Indu .tiou brazing: howev r, th equip-
for ~t .lS much les expensive. In tar d brazing is designed
No automatic appltcatiQu {fitd ls :not :ipplied manually. .
11tlllaUy, tIl parts to be bl'llzed ,tre self-jigging, and th
er material is preplac "0 inr n ar th jOi11t.
the electron beam can also be used. The heat input-heat
loss relationship must be carefully controlled to avoid
melting the parts to be brazed.
Almost all of the common metals can be brazed.Ths
different metals and their brazeability-that is, the capac-
ity of a metal to be brazed under the fabrication condi-
tions-are listed in Table 7-3.The thicknesses of the partS
to be joined are dependent on the ability of providing suf-
ficient heat to the heavier sections without excessive
heat to the thinner sections. This can be a problem with
some of the brazing methods and is a major consideration
in selecting the heating method.
Filler Metals
Filler materials for brazing are covered by Speciflcarions
for Filler Metals for BrazingAWSA5.S.TIley are classified
according to analysis.Aluminum-silicon, copper, copper'
zinc, copper-phosphorus.nickel-gold, heat-r sisting ma-
terials,magnesium, and silver are the basic groupings.Ths
composition of the different filJer metals, as well as the
operating range and recommended uses, are given in
Table 7-4. Filler metal selection is based 011 the metal be-
ing brazed.
Certain brazing filler metals contain cadmium In
significant amounts. When these are used, adequate veo-
tilation is required. Filler metals are available in manf
forms; the most common is the wire or rod. Filler metal is
FIGURE7,...11 Torch brazing. Courtesy of Welding also available as thin sheet, powder, paste, or as a clad sur-
Inspection Technology, American Welding Society. face of the part to b brazed.
The placement of the filler metal affects the qualitY
Torch brazing can b used for a variety of materials. of the joint. For normal lap joints the filler metal shoul t
It can b 'used when parts of unequal mass are being be suppliedat only one end and allow d to flow com-
braze4;however,becatlSe of the poor temperature control, pletely through the joint by capillary action. If the .filler
metals that have am lting point close to the brazingrem- metal is supplied at both ends, gas will be trapped in thC
perature arc not normally ton h braz d. etch-brazed parts joint and will create VOids, whl h will drastically redUCe
tend to have W{tt'p'lge or distortion when [otning parts of the ef11euve at a of the braze. Another advantage of sup-
dif6 rent hi kn ess 's':rorch bzaztng is us ed when the part plying filler metal at only 01 e end is for QU3IJtycontrol. It
to bbraz d iff roo larS ! tsan unu u 1shap .or cannot b will b apparent that the brazed joint is complete if h
.h at :,1' by the oth~ m thods. Brazers can b certified by filler matenal creates a fillet at the other end. Filler metal
AWS or q,uallfted a,ccordiug UlASME 8 tion IX. cannot b made 0 flow by rn ans of capUiary action it1 0
a blind joint. Gas will be trapp d : nd will not allow com-
pI te fJ wof 111'r m tal through u th fa.ying surfa eS,
" tb r' In such cases v nting must b pr vtded.Tht applies alSO
tosmall tanks or vess ls.The g sin thes ontain. rs wi11
~pand as at 61llf ofth .1:1 at andwiU pl' vent iller l1le
als from penetrating t!:l,eabuttitig sUlf~ces.
Brazing Flux
TABLE 7-3 BRAZEABILITY OF BASE METALS USING TORCH BRAZING
Base Metal Filler Metal Type Torch Brazihg Flame Type AWS Flux Cl~ssjfication
Aluminum Aluminum-silicon Slightly reducing

Brass Silver alloy Slightly reducing F33-A or C
Bronze Copper-zinc Slightly reducing FB3-C
Copper Copper-zinc Slightly reducing FB3-C
Inconel Silver alloy Slightly reducing
Iron, case, nodular Silver alloy Neutral/slightly oxidizing FB3-A or C
Iron, wrought Copper-zinc Slightly reducing FB3-C
Monel Silver alloy Slightly reducing FB3-A or C
Nickel Silver alloy Slightly reducing
Nickel-copper Copper Slightly reducing
Nickel-silver Silver alloy Slightly reducing FB3-A or C
Precious metals Variable Variable Variable
Steel, high carbon Copper-zinc Slightly reducing FB3-C
Steel, low alloy Copper-zinc Slightly reducing FB3-C
Steel, low carbon Copper-zinc Slightly reducing FB3-C
Steel, medium carbon Copper-zinc Slightly reducing FB3-C
Steel, stainless Silver alloy Slightly reducing/neutral
Noie-:~I-n-m-a-ny-c-a-se-s-, d-j-ffe-r-en-t-fi-lIe-r-m-e-ta-ls-m-a-y-b-e-u-se-:d-:. T::":"h-e-e-as-:je-s-H-o--u-se-f::7:iI-:le-r-m-et-a-:' j-s -sh-o-w-n -:jn-t-:hl-:s-ta-:b-:'e-. C-=-o-:'o-r-m-a-tc-:h:-jn-g-:-"ha-s-:b-e-en-:j-:gn-o-re--:-"d.
Use,types of filler metals, temperature range, and flux form clition, liquid flux can be introduced into the fuel gas and
that the e fluxes are designed to meet. The letters FB at supplied to the flame for torch brazing at the point where
~he beginJting of the classification stand for "flux for braz- it is needed. Flux in the flame may not be satisfactory for
tng Or braze welding." The thi.rd char-acter is a number that large, deep, or complex joints. In such cases preplaced
~ta.udsfor a group of base metals. The fourth character, a paste flux may also be required.
;tt:er, deSignates a change in form and composition within
le bf9act r base metal cIa sulcanon.
Many of th brazing fluxes contain fluorides. The Joint Designs
package shows a warning label stating that brazers must When designing a joint for brazing, the following six fac-
prot ct themselves and others and must read and under- tors must be considered:
tlU'ld the label.This label further states.Tumes and gases
Ctlu b dangerous to your health. Bums eyes and skin on L The type. of joint requited .
~ontact. an be fatal jf swallowed. Us uftl lent venula- 2. The clearan e between til parts
lion to keep fumes and gases It<>11l}'1 ur breathing zone 3. The surfa e finisb.of the raying surfaces
~d the general area."The "AWS Brazing Manual," th edi- 4. Placement of the filler metal
tlon, pro icles sp ific sa~ ty instruction, as well as the
5. The placement f the flux when us d
• rety and weh;ling and cutting document.
t' he appendix of th specification giv sad crip-
6. The possibility of gas entrapment
l~fl a11ti.int nded us . for en h brazing flux classlflcation.
} Otm av labl for ach Iasslftcatton i a 'l1lc to it
~s). }1h.l:X in p wd '1' form is usually used 11 r furnace braz-
:;'& an~.Idip hrating. In many ca es flux is made int a
11: rry by the addition ofwarer or alcohol. Past flux is
PI ttally u ed for torch brr17Jng but can b used, for exam·
I r .IUd\Jction brazina.
,..,Or ~fI . P Flux in Uq\lid form is us d for
\\I' \ brnzh g of j w IfY. FB3-K is used In tor h brazinlit,
ij(ltl~ th f 1 1 gas being rHISS d tht'ough th con ain. r of
lUll! flu • (nd 'urriec.t to th workJ>lace.
tt:~·
b .,., Pl:tc'm
p~1~1I
nl
d JOin1..1)tUte
of thet11:laffect
flult
Ill' ad () eJ' th surfnes
1 the mOStCOll11l')Otl
to b jof.ned. It'i" al
tb> qualitY of th
form and is .
fll t d on III • pI' plac 'd bl':tzlng 011 ;f materinls ..al'tl2.ing

1')( " n
",,011
... IIItot 1·1igb.~volt.},t1le
b ~ ~t'm.fet; . . ,
1'l' duct :on,I:tl~d.,
TABLE7-4 FILLERMETALS
FOR BRAZING
Brazing Temperature Range

AWS
Classification OF °C Approximate Composition (%)
Silver alloys
BAg-1 1145-1400 618-760 45 Ag, 15 Cu, 16 In, 24 Cd
SAg-la 1175-1400 635-760 50 Ag, 15 Cu, 16 In, 18 Cd
BAg-2 1295-1550 702-843 35 Ag, 26 Cu, 21 In, 18 Cd
SAg-2a 1310-1550 710-843 30 Ag, 27 Cu, 23 In, 20 Cd
BAg-3 1270-1500 688-816 50 Ag, 15 Cu, 15 In, 16 Cd, 3 Ni
BAg-4 1435-1650 779-899 40 Ag, 30 Cu, 28 In, 2 Ni
BAg-5 1370-1550 743-843 45 Ag, 30 Cu, 25 Cd
BAg-6 1425-1600 774-871 50 Ag, 34 Cu, 16 In
BAg-7 1205-1400 652-760 56 Ag, 22 Cu, 17 In, 5 Sn
BAg-8 1435-1650 779-899 72 Ag, 28 Cu
BAg-8a 1410-1600 766-871 72 Ag, 27 Cu, 0.4 Li
BAg-9 1325-1550 718-843 65 Ag, 20 Cu, 15 In
BAg-10 1360-1550 738-843 70 Ag, 20 Cu, 10 In
BAg-I3 1575-1775 857-968 54 Ag, 40 Cu, 5 In, 1 Ni
BAg-13a 1600-1800 871-982 56 Ag, 42 Cu, 2 Cd
BAg-18 1325-1550 718-843 60 Ag, 30 Cu, 10 Sn
BAg-19 1610-1800 877-982 92.5 Ag, 7.25 Cu, 0.25 li
BAg-20 1410-1600 766-871 30 Ag, 38 Cu, 32 In
BAg-21 1475-1650 802-899 63 Ag, 28.6 Cu, 2.5 Ni, 6 Sn
BAg-22 1290-1525 699-830 49 Ag, 16 Cu, 23 z-,
5 Ni, 7 Mn
BAg~23 1780-1900 970-1038 85 Ag, 15 Mn
BAg-24 1306-1550 750-843 50 Ag, 20 Cu, 28 In, 3 Ni
BAg-26 1474-1600 800-870 25 Ag, 38 Cu, 33 In, 2 Ni, 2 Li
BAg-27 1373-1575 745-860 25 Ag, 35 Cu, 26.5 In, 13.5 Ni
BAg-28 1310-1550 710-843 40 Ag, 30 Cu, 28 Zn, 2 Sn
BAg-33 1260-1400 681-760 25 Ag, 30 Cu, 27.5 In, 17 Cd
BAg-34 1330-1550 721-843 38 Ag, 32 Cu, 28 ln, 2 Sn
Gold Alloys
BAu~l 1860-2000 1016-1093 37.5 Au, 62.5 Cu
BAu..2 1635-1850 891-1010 80 Au, 20 co
I3Au·3 1885-1995 1029-2091 35 Au, 62 cu, 3 Ni
BAu*4 1740-1840 949-1004 82 Au, 18 Ni
BAu-5 2130-2250 1166 ...1232 30 Au, 34 Pd, 36 Ni
8Au~6 1915-2050 1046-1121 o,
69 Au, 8P 22 Ni
1110-1150 599-621 7 Si, 1 Fe, 91.5 AI

1060-1120 571....-604 10 Si, 4 Cu, 84.5 AI
1080-1120 582-604 1281,87 AI
1090-1120 588-604 10 si, 88,5 AI
1090:-1120 58S-S0ll- 10 SI, 1,5 Mg,.S7.5 AI
~-.; 1080-1120 582-604- 12 Sf, 87 AI
1090-1].20 5Se,..604 1051,'1.5 Mg, 87 AI
1120-1160 604",;627 88 Mg. 2 Zn, 1 Mn, 9 AI
?OOO-2100 1093-114-9 99.9 Cu

~OOO-~lOO lO9a..:1149 99Cu ,"
2000-alOO 1093...1149 86.5 Cu
670-1750 910 964 59, cu. 41 Zn, Sn
1670-,1750 ' 910...964 58 CUt $9.~ Znl 1 So. 1, Fe, 0.5 Mf1,
TABLE 7-4 FILLER METALS FOR BRAZING (CONTINUED)
Brazing Temperature Range,

AWS
Classification Approximate Composition (%)
Copper, Copper-zinc, and

copper-phosphorus
alloys, (continued)
R8Culn-D 1720-1800 938-982 48 Cu, 42 ln, 10 Ni
8CuP-1 1450-1700 788-927 95 Cu, 5P
8CuP-2 1350-1550 732-843 93 Cu, 7P
8CuP-3 1325-1500 718-816 89 Cu, 5 Ag, 6 P
BCuP-4 1275-1450 691-788 87 Cu, 6 Ag, 7P
8CuP-5 1300-1500 704-816 80 Cu, 15 Ag, 5P
BCuP-6 1350-1500 732-816 91 Cu, 2 Ag, 7 P
BCuP-7 1300-1500 704-816 88 Cu, 5 Ag, 7 P
Nickel and cobalt alloys
BNi-1 1950-2200 1066-1204 73.5 Ni, 14 Cr, 3 8,4.5 Si, 5 Fe,
BNi-la 1970-2200 1077-1204 73 Ni, 14 Cr, 3 8,5 Si, 5 Fe
BNi-2 1850-2150 1010~1177 81.5 Ni, 7 Cr, 3 B, 5 Si, 3.5 Fe
BNi-3 1850-2150 1010-1177 92 Ni, 3 B, 4.5 Si, 0.5 Fe
BNi-4 1850-2150 1010-1177 92.5 Ni, 2 B, 4 Si, 1.5 Fe
BNi-5 2100-2200 1149-1204 72 Ni, 18 Cr, 10 Si
BNi-6 1700-2000 927-1093 89 Cr, 11 P
aNi-7 1700-2000 927-1093 76 Ni, 14 Cr, 10 P
BNi-8 1850-2000 1010-1093 69.5 Ni, 7 Si, 18 Mn, 5.5 Cu
BNi-9 1950-2200 1066-1204 80 Ni, 15 Cr, 3.5 B, 1.5 Fe
BNi-iO 2100-2200 1149-1204 63 Ni, 12 Cr, 2.5 B, 3.5 Si, 3 Fe, 16 W
BNi-!1 2100-2200 1149-1204 68.5 Ni, 10 Cr, 3 S, 3 Si, 3.5 Fe, 12 W
BCe-l 2100-2250 1149-1232 16 Ni, 19 Cr, 1 Fe, 4 W, 60 Co
-----------------------------~------------------------------------------------
-----
TABLE 7-5
AWS
~ .
FLUXES USED FOR SRAlllllG
• ;
• .,$
Base Metal AWS

Flux
Common Filler
~.
Ct@$Sification Name" Metal
~81~A Aluminum BAISi 1080-1140 580...615 Powder
tBl-B Aluminum BAISi 1040-1140 560-615 Powd~r
FBI-C Aluminum SAISi ,,1000-1040 540 ...615 Powder
FB2-A Magnesium BMg 900-1150 480 ...620 Powder
rB3-A
Carbon steel BAg and BCuP 1050-1600 565-870 Paste
FB3~C
Stainless steel BAg and BCuP 1060-1700 565-925 'Paste
Ft~3~p
Stainless steel BAg, BCu, BNi, BAu, 1400--2200 760-1205 P~ste
and BCuZn
tB3~e· Stainless steel BAg and SOuP 1050-1600 '.565---870 .tlh:l~id' '
F'B3-F
Fa3~G
Carbon steel £SAg~no BCuP 1200-1£00 '650;.,870 ' Powder'
Carbon steel BAg and BCuP 1050-1600 56&;:.870" Slurry
FB3"H Carbon stef)l BAg 1050-1700 565J..925 Slurry
r93.,1
Stainless steel ~Ag, SCu. BNi, SAu, 1400 ...2200 760-1205 Slurry
and BCuZn
Sta,nlass ·steel . BAg, ,BeLl, I3Nf', SAtl. '140,O~200 7'pQ;..i205 ~
'and aCuZn "
Carbon steel BAg and BCuZn
Atu,rnlnum bron\?ie BAg and BCuP
joint is as strong as the base metal. Unfortunately, lap
joints tend to be unbalanced joints and this produces
stress concentrations that adversely affect the joint
strength. Every effort should be made to provide a bal-
anced lap Joint to properly carry the load. Figure 7-12
shows the different brazed joints and the joint detail.
The clearance between the parts being joined is un-
portant. If the joint clearance is too small, it will not allow
capillary action to cause the filler metal to flow uniformlf
throughout the entire joint. If the clearance is too great,
filler metal may now flow throughout the joint, and a loW
strength joint will result. The brazing filler metal also has
an influence on the clearance. Another factor is the
length or area of the joint, For smaller areas, a smaller joint
clearance can be used. In general, when using an atmo-
sphere system, smaller joint clearances can be used.
Where fluxes are required, the clearances are normally
larger. Clearances range from 0.001 to 0.025 in. (0.0225 to
0.635 rnm) for clearance when fluxes are involved. The
recommended clearances of different groups of brazing
filler metals are shown in Table 7-6.
It is important to compensate for unequal expan-
sion and contractton of a joint design. This can occur
when brazing dissimilar metals and when the difference
of thermal expansion would create tensile loads on the
filler metal during cooling.
The surface finish of the faylng surfaces should be
between 30 and 80 microinch s for best joint strength.
The filler metal may not wet the surfaces completely if
they at too smooth. Furthermor ! the filler metal will nof
FIGURE 7-12 Joint details for brazing. distribute itself throughout the complete joint by capil-
lary action if it is too smooth. If the surfaces are toO
rough, only th high points may be prop rly brazed. With
rough surfaces the clearance will be too great to provide
optimum strength of the brazed joint.
RECOMMENDED JOINT CL.EARANCES FOR BRAZING FILLER MATERIALS

AlA "''' ~ .. ' ,1Ii@", (-
mm Brazill'SConditions
0.002-0.008 0.051-0.203 For length of lap less than tin. (6.4 rnrn) .
0.008-0.010 0.203-0,254 For length of lap greater than ,r to. (6.4 mm)
S.Ct:!PirQu~ 0.001..;0.005 0.025-0.127 . No flux or mineral brazing ftuxes
BAt(sroUp , 0.002-0.005 0.051-0.127 Mineral br~zil1gfluxes
0.00Q,.,0,002 0.000-0.051 Gas·atmo~n;)here brazfng fluxes
6Au fll'OUP 0.002-0,005 O.051,..Q.127 Minerai braliog fluxes
0.000-0.062 0.000-0.001 Ga$~atmospher brazing flux s
0, 00-0,002 0.000-0.051 Gas-atmosphere brazing fluxes
0,002 0,005 ·O~051 Q\lZ7 Mineral brazing fhJxes.
O~OO-4 0.01.0
'. .
-
O. 02 01254' Mineral br'1zlng fluxes
'0:002-0.005 O.051..{).127 . G nerat applications flux or atmosphere
0.000-0.002 0.000-:0,051 Free-flowing typefi, tmosphere razing·
. (Ie; - F ~ • -" Q ,_!!k ~ • J(" tJi? ;, _ riA '
4. The brazing filler metal melts but does not flow.
Joint Cleanliness i. Coat the flller metal with flux before using and
It is important to have extremely clean surfaces for the apply flux generously to the base metal.
brazed joint. Mechanical surface preparations such as ii, Mechanically or chemically dean the filler
~inding, sandblasting, wire brushing, filing, and rnachin- metal if surface oxides are present.
l1lg can be used. However, in every case care must be 5. The brazing filler metal flows away from the joint
taken to make sure that the surface is clean. For example, instead of into the joint.
grit should not become embedded in the surface. Wire i. Provide a reservoir in the joint into which the
brushing can result in the folding in of oxides and bur- brazed filler metal can flow.
nishing of the surface. Chemical cleaning can be used to ii. Reposition the assembly so that gravity will
remOve dirt and oils. Solvents, alkaline baths, acid baths, help the filler metal flow into the joint.
salt bath pickling, and ultrasonic cleaning have all been iii.. Remove burrs, edges, or other obstacles over
Used successfully. When the surfaces have been cleaned, which the brazing alloy might not flow.
flux is used to protect the surface from oxidation or from
Other undesirable chemical action during the heating and Above all, make sure that the filler metal alloy is
braZing operation. Fluxes are not designed to clean joints. compatible with the base metal and that the proper tem-
lb.ey are designed to keep cleaned joints clean during the peratures and fluxes are employed. To determine the
brazing operation.They will combine with, dissolve, or in- strength of a brazed joint, the standard method should be
hibit the formation of chemical compounds that might in- used.TheAWS standardAWS C3.2 outlines the procedure
terfere With the quality of the brazed joint, to be used for making tests that are comparable to others.
For certain work the brazer, or one who performs a
manual or semiautomatic brazing operation, must be
Braze Quality qualified. Qualification is in accordance with Section IX
of the "ASMEBoiler and Pressure Vessel Code." Part C per-
Close adherence to the design factors, filler metal selec-
tains to brazing ferrous and nonferrous materials. This
~O". flux selection, and cleanliness will ensure quality
speciflcation must be read carefully. It introduces new
raZed iotnts. When the joint does not exhibit the quality
uses for positions in flat flow, vertical down flow, vertical
~~Uired, investigate using the following troubleshooting
'lUltS: up flow, horizontal flow, and special positions. The
ANSI/AWS "Standard for Brazing Procedure and Perfor-
1. The brazing ruler metal does not wet the surface mance Qualification," B2.2, is similar and may be used.
and balls up instead of flowing into the joint,
i. Increase the amount of flux used.
ii. Roughen the surface slightly, esp cially the sur- Disadvantages and Uses
face of cold-drawn or cold-rolled stock. The one disadvantage to brazing is the posslbtliry of lack
tii. Acid pickle parts to remove surface oxides. of color match of the parts being brazed andthe brazing
iv. Change work position so that gravity wtll help fill r material.
the filler metal fill he joint. ' Brazing.is widely used throughout industry, and ap-
2. The br4zing alloy does not flow through the joint plications are so numerou that it is Imposslbl to list '
even though it melts and forms a fill t. them. Thr e major industriesustng brazing are the elec-
i. Allow ttl re time [1_ r h attng. tricalindustry. the utensil-manufacturing industry, and the
it Heat to
a higher temperature, maintenance and r-epair industry, .
Iii, t rmine the clearance in th Joint and, if re-
<
quired, rework it 0 be looser or tigh cr.

Iv; Apply fluX' to both tnebasemetals and brazing
fill r metal. 7..3 SOLDERING
v. Do a more th0~ ugh clearutlJ,J-job before as-
sembly. -" .
~. The assembled joint was tight rind it p ns up dur-
1rtg brarJng.
1. he el amp Was too sm~dland a load was tn-
ttodu -d Into on .p rt; whi h a ises the
openin •.
ii, 'rb ~m haV1 un. -q\;lal c~ Clit5, of expan-
-Sion du disstmJiar m tals.
0 '; -
Iii. n, uppit- 'd ~ctjpn might * u improper
<:leamn es due to s~g {rom heating ...
Most of the factors involved with brazing apply to sol-
dering. In fact, slang use of the terms soft solder, hard
Resistance Soldering
solder, or silver solder attempts to differentiate between Resistance soldering (RS) uses heat from the resistance to
soldering and brazing. electric current flow in a circuit of which the workpieces
There are at least eight popular soldering methods are a part.This is slightly different from resistance brazing
In wide use. These can be classified into three general and is usually done with a handheld tool using carbon
groups. One group relates to the means of applying blocks and introducing a low voltage and relatively high
heat, and two groups are related to the means of apply- current to the part to be soldered. This is a common
ing the solder. There are several older methods of little method of manufacturing electrical machinery involving
industrial use today. Descriptions of the soldering meth- soldered joints. Figure 7-13 shows this soldering method
ods follow. in use, attaching lugs to welding cables. The solder is ap-
plied manually. It is also used for soldering copper plumb-
ing fittings.
Dip Soldering
Dip solder CDS) is a soldering process using the heat fur- Torch Soldering
nished by a molten metal bath that provides the solder
filler metal. The solder may be kept molten by any source Torch soldering (fS) is similar to torch brazing except
of heat. Solder dipping machines are automated and are that lower temperatures are involved and air is used
programmed to preclean, flux, preheat, and insert into rather than oxygen. Small cylinders of propane are avail-
the solder. able for this use. The cylinder becomes the handle when
a torch head is attached to it.The solder is applied manu-
ally.Torch soldering is widely used in the plumbing t1"ade
Furnace Soldering for soldering copper tubing to copper fittings. It is shown .
Furnace soldering (FS) is a soldering process in which the in Figure 7-14.
parts to be joined are placed in a furnace and heated to
the soldering t mperature. In furnace soldering the parts Wave Soldering
must be assembled and flxed in their proper position.The
Wave soldering (WS) is an automatic soldering process
solder must be preplaced in the joint.The furnace can be
where workpieces are passed through a wave of molten
fired by any suitabl fuel.
solder. This me hod is used in the production of printed
circuit boards. The circuit boards are assembled with
Induction Soldering electronic components.The pigtails stick through the cir-
Induction oldertng (IS) is a soldering process in which cuit board and are crimped over the printed met. I circuit
the 11 a requir d i obtained from the resistance of the on the underside of the board. The boards at then
workpleees to an Induced electric current. This is similar placed over the tank holding the molten solder. and tbe ,
to Indu tion braztng, wave f solder touches the metal circuit and joins it to
the pigtails of the electronic component with a sold 'red
Infrared Soldering
Infrared soIaetfng RS i 1\ S ldertng process in which FIGURE7-13
. the .be-at ;required is..fu;tnished by iQ;frared radtation. This
1, JmUar to infmred braZing .
.Ir' n S Id· ring

action. It occurs when one or more elements of the sol-
der react with the base metal being soldered to form a
compound.
The ability of a solder to alloy with the base metal
is related to its ability to wet the surface. H at is applied
to facilitate wetting. Alloying is related to the cleanliness
of the base metal. The base metal must be oxide free, and
this is accomplished by cleaning and using a flux. For al-
loying to occur at the interface, there must be intimate
contact between the solder and the base metal. The tem-
perature of wetting may not correspond with the liq-
uidus temperature of the solder alloy.
The fluidity of the molten solder must be such that
it can flow into narrow spaces by capillary action. Tests
FIGURE 7-14 Torch soldering. are available to determine this quality.The fluidity of the
molten solder is the property that influences the spread-
ing of the solder over the base metal surface. The flowa-
bility or spread of solder can also be determined by tests.
jOint. This is completely automatic and produces high- Actual application of the solder involves two steps:
quality soldered [otnts. It is widely used in the electronics wetting the base metal surface with solder and filling the
industry.
gap between the wetted surfaces with the solder. These
two steps are normally carried out together, depending
Other Soldering Methods on conditions and application; however, for "difficult-to-
There are several other methods of soldering. Ultrasonic solder" metals it is desirable to wet the surface of the base
SOldering is a method in which high-frequency sonic enmetal with solder prior to making the joint. This is called
e tgyis transmitted through molten solder to remove un- tinning or precoating.
d
c·stra bI surface films and prom.ote wetting of the base The strength of a soldered joint depend on the de.
llletal. Flux is not normally used. In this method the ultra- sign of the joint and its clearance. Joints stressed in ten-
~niC Vjbrations are transmitted to the soldering iron and sion are not successful. The normal joint is the lap joint,
t en to the sold r and to the work. A source of ultrasonic where sufficient overlap occurs to provide enough area
en~rgy is required as well a. a sp cialized soldering iron. for required strength. The clearance b tween the parts
us methOd is used tor soldering aluminum. being joined must b held to los limits. TIl maximum
Wip sold ring is a method of producing a joint strength of the joint wiU provid a joint onsiderably
~i~: the heat applied by the molted solder-poured onto stronger than the strength of the solder alloy. A clearance
of from 0.003 to 0.00; in. (0.07 to 0.12mm) is recom-
. J int.TIle solder is manipulated with a handheld doth
r padcU So a to obtain the required size and contour. mend d for most applk atlons, If cl arance b tw 'en t11
1 ,e filler metal is also distributed into th joint by capil- joint is excessive, the strength of the joint drops to the
~y a tlon. Wipe soldering was form rly used by th strength 1 v 1 of the soldering alloy. The joint design ts
P "'fnbing industry and ts of minor tndustrlal irnportan: e. th same as used for brazing,
p weae Sol ring is a method in which two or more
te~rt~a~epr at d with solder. assembled into a joint, and Soldering Flux
in leat, d tthout the \.1, e of additional sold r,This is used
,th lectri .al industry for joining wire to onducr 1'S.
Sold ring M eh nism

rr ll1eChanlsm for f il1ing by oldermg involves thre ' '
,(;Js Iy reI, ted fit.ctors: (1) w tting, 2) alloying, and (3 '
1 f'(l~Uary'letion.Wetting i~ we bonding or. preading of a
{fq~llc:lnn ~r m t~d r t'Ill's. on a soHd bas 111tal. For s 1·
Co ng it u\ roore $1' dO . Wh 11 molted sold r 1'av s {\
. ntblQQUS p rmanent film on tl surf'a ~ fm bAS'
~rl, it is S~ti.dto bav" wet' tbat sutfae .'Weiting oc urs .,
n th·r i'41 strong 'f 3ttm lion b tw ' 11 certain
. °l1ls of tl c sold r an 1 th ' 1'.Se m t<1tth'm b l' en the
OOI~ Qf t~4 sold~t~Wl ttln.gi$ e .ntlally :1'1 11'\t aIr"
Solder is available with the flux contained in its composition and melting range for the various ASTM al-
core. The amount of flux in the core ranges from about loy grades. Solders are classified according to whether
0';% to over 3%, 2.2% being most common. Resin-core or not they contain lead. Solders containing lead should
solder and acid-core solders are available. The resin-core not be used for drinking water systems or for food
type is used for electrical work; the acid-core type is used equipment. (2)
for sheet metal work.
The most common general-purpose solder (for non-
water supply use) is the 50% lead-50% tin composition.
Solder Solder selection is based 011 its ability to wet the surface
of the metals being joined.The grade containing the least
One ASTM specification, ASTM B-32, covers all the dif- amount of tin that provides suitable flowing and wetting
ferent types of solder. Table 7-7 shows the approximate action should be used.The appendix of the ASTM specifi-
TABLE 7-7 SOLDERS

ApproximateComposition(%) MeltingRange
Solidus Liquidus
11n Lead Antimony Silver
Sn . , Pb Sb OF DC OF aC
At!. Other
Solderalloyscontaininglessthan0.2% lead
Sn96 96.2 0.10 0.12 3.6 430 221 430 221
Sn95 95.2 0.10 0.12 4.6 430 221 473 245
Sn94 94.2 0.10 0.12 5.6 430 221 536 280
Sb5 94.0 0.20 5.0 450 233 464 240
E 95.4 0.10 0.05 0.5 4.0 Cu 440 225 349
660
HA 90.9 0.10 2.5 2.5 1.5Cu, 420 216 440 227
3.5 Zn
HB 89.7 0.10 5.0 0.20 3.0 Cu 460 238 660 349
1.5 Ni
Sold~ralloyscontaininglead
29.0 0.5 361 183 377 193
36.5 0.5 361 183 361 183
34.5 0.5 2.0 354 179 372 189
39.0 0.5 361 183 374 190
49.0 0.5 361 183 421 216
54.0 0.5 361 183 441 22.1
59.0 0.5 361 183 460 238
57.5 2.0 365 185 448 231
64.0 0.5 361 183 447 241
62.7 1.8 365 185 470 24~
,69.0 0,5 361 183 491 255
67.9 1.6 365 185 482 260
74.0 0.5 361 ,as 5 1 266
14.2 1.3 365 185 504 263
79.0 0,5 361 183 ,. 531 . 217
'7B~5 1JO 363 184 517 210
64.0 0,5 437 225 554 290
89.5 0.5 514 268 576 30~
8i.B '0.2 2,0 514 268 570 299
94.S f 0.5 5815 308 594 3~2
. 97,5 O.{5 '601 ala 611 322
g7.1 0.4 SS8 soe 588 30!l1
'96~S6 0.4 580 304 580 304-
" 9a.85 0,4' 580 304 716 3S0
cation provides much information on solder selection to solidlfy.coalescence occurs, and the weld is completed.
based on the materials being joined. The thermite welding process is applied in the automatic
mode. Once the reaction is started, it continues until it
,goes to completion.Welding uses gravity, which causes the
Solder Procedures molten metal to fill the cavity between the parts being
The Joint must be properly cleaned. It must be free of all welded. Making a thermite weldis shown in Figure 7-15.
oil, grease, dirt, and oxides. This is best done by mechani- The thermite material is a mechanical mixture of
calor chemical cleaning. Solder will not wet a dirty sur- metallic aluminum and processed iron oxide. This mix-
face or a surface covered with oxides. Cleaning can be ture may also include various elements for alloying the
aCcomplished by brushing, filing, machining, sanding, and weld metal. Thermite mixtures can be designed to pro-
using chemicals. duce specific weld metal deposits.The normal analysis of
Heat is applied to the joint by many different mech- thermite employed to weld mild and medium carbon
anisms, and these were described by each method. After steel is as follows:
the metal surfaces have been wetted and the space be-
• Carbon 0.20-0.30
tween them has been filled with solder, the joint is cooled
to room temperature. Self-jigging joints are often em- • Manganese 0.50-0.60
Ployed, or staking. bending, or other temporary assembly • Silicon 0.25-0.50
methods are used. Cooling is accomplished by removing • Aluminum 0.07-0.18
the heat source and/or using an air blast. After the solder • Iron balance
ioun is cooled, post-cleaning is necessary. Certain fluxes
are Considered noncorrosive and may not need to be re- The mechanical properties of normal. thermite are
~oved unless they affect the appearance or later process- approximately the same as mild steel.
lng. Fluxes identified as corrosive, such as the acid types, Thermite powder will not ignite until it is brought
mUStbe removed.They should be neutralized and removed to a temperature of 2,400°F (l,300°C). It is started by us-
to Provide for a successful joint to provide useful service. ing a special ignition powder. During the exothermic re-
Soldering is a widely used metals-joining method. action, the molten steel will go to the bottom of the
~ore information on this subject can be found in the crucible. The aluminum OXide will float to the top as a
:AWS Soldering Manual," 2nd edition. slag, which protects the molten steel from the atmo-
sphere. The molten metal is tapped by a tapping pin at
the bottom of the crucible. The superheated molten
metal immediately flows into the mold through the pour-
7,,4 THERMITE WELDING ing gate into the cavity making the weld. Venting must be
!hern:ute welding (TW) is a welding process that pro- provided to ensure that the cavity is completely fined.
uces coalescence of metals by heating them with su- The parts to be welded must be prepared with .3
Perheated Jiquid metal from a chemical reaction between square-groove joint. The root opening between the parts
a 111 tat oxide and aluminum with or without the appli- is related to the cross-sectional area of the weld. The root
car
tI:1 ion of pressure. Filler metal Is obtained from the liquid opening should range from 3/4 to 1 1I2m.Of) to 37 rom)
~til.1.This is one of the older welding processes but is for joining railroad rails. For larger sections theroot open- ,
Sttll used for specific appll ations, It wa invented by H. Ings should be great r. Parts to be welled are .properly
lal dberg f Essen, Germany, in 1903 (US Patent 729,573, . aligned and braced. A mold is then made around the joint.
The lost-wax technique is sometimes employed for mak-
7V3,735,244 1903 and 875,345 1907),
. The heat for welding Is obtamed from an exother- ing molds of unusual shapes. The lost-wax method In-
mIC tea'Uon betw en tronoxtde and alumfnum.This revolves filling the weld j jut or cavity with wax, then
a ti n is sb.own by he following formula: making the mold around this ass mbly. A riser must be
. a41 + 3Fc30.= 9Ft + 4AllO + beat

• 5' :he tempera,turc ~om thIs reacdon isapproxiroately
c' .~?F (2,500" ).n e superh ated ste 11s contairie(l in a
t'Q tble 1 at d immediately above the w ld joint. TIle
h ~m thcrnli. re cnon r quires 20 to 30 Sf onds no matt r

.. '
st • U<;:hofthe remi alsareinvalv: d. The superheat d
'WJ l~rqns into a moldtb,at IS built m7ol1nd the parts to be
Pc . (.I.Since 'it is almost tWice as hQtas the nle1tinstcm·
th t'atur: f the b~lS l11~till.m Itiog 0 iUtS at the dg s of
.'bl jOimal1d .nays with the molt n st l,trom th cru-
, .Normal heat loss' s cau e th, J1')~$ of molt 11 tPetru
provided as well a a pouring gate. A heating gate at the are used. These molds are made in halves, which are
lower portion of the joint is provided for preheating, clamped around the rail or bar. The molds, which can be
which is usually required. This will melt the wax, which reused, are available for various sizes of rails and rein-
will run out of the mold and provide the cavity for the forcing bars. Thermite welds are relatively inexpensive
molten weld metal. After heating is completed, the heat- since little or no equipment is required.The primary cost
ing gate is sealed with a plug, as shown in Figure 7 -16. is the cost of the therrnite material, which becomes the
The amount of thermite is calculated to provide suf- deposited weld metal. Thermite reinforcing bar weldS
ficient metal to produce the weld. The amount of steel meet the requirements of the Concrete Institute.
produced by the reaction is approximately one-half the Therrnite welds can also be used for welding non-
original quantity of thermite material by weight and one- ferrous materials. The most popular use of nonferrous
third by volume. thermite welding is the joining of copper and aluminum
After the weld has cooled, the mold is broken away conductors for the electrical industry. In these cases the
and discarded, and the gates and risers are removed by exothermic reaction is a reduction of copper oxide by
oxyacetylene flame cutting.The surface of the completed aluminum, which produces molten superheated copper.
weld is usually sufficiently smooth and contoured so that In welding copper and aluminum cables, the molds are
it does not require additional metal finishing. made of graphite and can be used over and over. When
The deposited weld metal i homogeneous and welding nonferrous materials, the parts to be joined mu t
quality is relatively high. Distortion is minimized since the be extremely clean and flux is normally applied to the
weld is accomplished in one pass and since cooling is uni- joint prior to welding. Special kits are available that pro-
form across the entire weld cross s etion. There is nor- vide the molds for different sizes of cable and provide the
mally shrinkage a ross the joint, but no angular distortion. premixed thermite material. This material also includes
Welds can be made with the parts to be joined in almost enough of the igniting material so that the exothermtc re-
any position as long as the cavity has vertical sides. action is started by means of a special lighter.
Thermite welding has been used for many special
applications, such as welding stern frames for Liberty ships
duringWotJdWar Il.These frames were so large they could
not be cast in one ptece and were cast in four sections,
7..5 SOLID-STATE WELDING
which wer joined together by four therrnite welds. Ther- Solid-state welding (SSW) Is a group of welding processes
mite welds hav also been us d to w ld large, thick [- that produces coalescence by the application of pressure
beams and railroad and craneway ralls.They have also been without melting any of th joint component . Sometlmee
popular for wcldlng reinforcing bars. Special mixtur s of erroneously call d solid-state bonding processes, this group
therrnlte ar required for w Id10g alloy steels of this type. of welding process s includes cold welding, diffusion wel~
Wh n th thermtte proce Is used for Joining rails Ing, explosion welding, forge welding.frlctlon welding, 11 t
•nd :reinforc'l1g bars, standardized semipermanent molds pressure welding.roll welding, and ultrasonic welding. In all .
these pro esses, time, temperature, and pre sure individu-
aUy or in comblnatton produce coal s ence of the H.l e
FIGURE 7-16 . De~all5of the crucible and the mold for metal without sfgniflcant melting of the base metals.
therrnlte welding, Solid-state w Idlng includes some of th . oldest
welding processes and sam ofm n w st. Some of the
pr c sses 0 :t1 r advantages sln the base me al does !lot
m Itand form a nugget, The metals being jotned remit!
th Ir original pr p rties without the h t-affected zoo
problems invotv d wh n til rc is ba .metal m ItJng·
When dlssil1iI. r m aJs aT ~ Join d, 11 it th nmll cxpaJ:'
Sion 'at d conducti ity'are of fr.m 1less im partan .. widl
solld~st.~t• Wi MittS than with arc welding.
tim I tein:petatU're~and pressur ate itrvolved;hO\>'V."
vcr, in me P' 0 es es tn '.tim 1 'ment i~ e 'tretfledY
short, lp to a;; ~ onds. In tber eFt. ~, ) the tim I,
t t)d "<.I to V !tal hour . As 'mp 'r'i\tu~ in sc" ,t ll1e iN
U 'wlllyr ·d\.J ',1..
~er'dture with substantial deformation of the weld. Weld- Explosion Welding
ing is accomplished by using high pressures on clean in-
Explosion welding (EXW) is a solid-state welding
terfacing materials. Sufficiently high pressure can be
process that produces a w ld by high-velocity impact of
obtained with simple hand tools when extremely thin
the workpieces as the r sult of controlled detonation.
materials are being joined. When cold welding heavier
The explosion welding process is shown in Figure 7-18.
ections, a press is required to exert sufficient pressure to
Explosive welding was developed in the mid-1940s and
make a successful weld. Indentations are made in the
the first patent was granted in 195753) Even though heat
pan.." being cold welded. The process is readily adaptable
to is not applied in making an explosion weld, it appears
.. ''0'tmng
.
ductile metals.Aluminum and copper are read-
that the metal at the interface is molten during welding.
ily cold welded. Aluminum and copper can be joined to-
This heat comes from the shock wave associated with
gether by cold welding; this is shown in Figure 7-17.
impact and from the energy expended in collision. H at
is also released by plastic deformation associated with
Diffusion Welding jetting and ripple formation at the Interface between the
parts being welded. Plastic interaction between the
Diffusion welding (DFW) is a solid-state welding process
metal surfaces is especially pronounced when surface
that produces a weld by the application of pressure at el-
jetting occurs. It is necessary to allow the metal to flow
eVat~d temperature, with no macroscopic deformation or
plastically in order to provide a good-quality weld. The
~~~tive motion of the workpieces. A solid filler metal may
interface or weld of explosion-welded parts is shown in
tnserted between the faying surfaces.
Figure 7-19. Explosion welding creates a strong weld
The process is used for joining refractory metals at
between almost all metals. It has been used to weld dis-
te~lperatures that do not affect their metallurgical prop-
similar metals that are not weldable by the arc
e:n:1es.Heating is usually accomplished by induction re-
1St< ' processes. The weld apparently does not disturb the ef-
allce, or furnace. Atmosphere and vacuum furnaces
fects of cold work or other forms of mechanical or ther-
u:
are used, and for refractory metals a protective inert at-
phere is desirable. Successful welds have been made
the :efractory metals at. temperatures slightly over half
mal treatment. The process is self-contained, it is
pI' lormal melting temperature of the metal.To accom-

p Ish this type of joining, extremely close tolerance joint
reparation is required and a vacuum or inert atrno- FIGURE7-18 Explosion weld i ng.
'.
ph re t .
IS used. The process is used quite extensively for
D'It~
JOining
fus'·· disst
1S irru'Iar metals. The process is considered dlf- STANDOFF erlo
DISTANCE 11; Of:
rw IOn braZing when a layer of filler material is pla ed be- Df.,.O
11;.4, .,.,
pr~en the faytng surface of the parts being joined.These 0",
sp ces es are used primarily by the aircraft and aero-
, ace industries.
FIGURE7-19
NON ROTATING
FIGURE 7-20 Condenser sheet of 114 inch titanium

PRESSURE
clad on 1 1/4 inch steel.
\;:)
portable, and welding can be achieved quickly over large

areas. The strength of the weld Joint Is equal to or greater
than the strength of the weaker of the two metals joined,
Explosion welding has not become widely used ex-
cept in limited fields. The photomicrograph shown in
PRESSURE
Figure 7-19 is a.cross section of a weld between dissimi-
lar metals. A popular application for explosion welding is ~
th a joining of tube-co-tube sheets for the manufacture of
beat exchangers as shown in Figure 7-20.Another appli-
cation is th joining of pipes in a so ket joint.
Forg Welding
Forg welding FOW) is a solld-sta c welding process that
produ es a weld by heating the workpleces to welding
temperarureand applying blows sufficient to cause per-
manent defomlatl n ;\t, th faying surra es. This is one of FIGURE 7-21 Friction welding process.
th older welding process s and at on time was called
bam'l'ner weldlng.Fc)tge welds made by blacksmiths were
mad by, heat ng. th parts to be Join d to a r dh a 'on-
sideC"~bJybel wthc molten t mperarur .Normal practice and coale cence occurs. nett n w ldin,g was dev lop d
'wns toappty flux loth' interiat;e,TheblacksiTIlth, by skill- in the Soviet Union in 1957.Th results of research wet(!
luI us of a hammer and sn anvil, was ~bf to create 1'1' s- JHblishe<f by·v,I.Vm.c N until 1960 was the pc ss US d
.ur .at the faying suifac 5 suff!. int to call. caw eld.This in th nire I'Stat s.
1 ro . , is of rob: ortndustrial .gnutcan e tod~ y; howe er, h r are r 0 variat! OS. In b original equipment-
. it is oft ,It d HIe nstt'tlteda,S an. old craft J flown a$ (/treet drive, on . part is h Idstationary and tll
ther part,:is rota,t d by a motor whicb maintains an es--
setltial1y onsta:tltrobclUonal $peed. TIle tWo·part$are
brought in,· ontact l.lntl r prc$s:n:re fol" a spe "lfiad perlo{;!
f t m' with a pc 'itl pressu!:t:t. Rota,Ung ,pow :t is dl8en~
gl S d from the foti ting pl ce ~lld ttl pt', :nm" i ill-
':ret A ~c.1, wn' l\ til rotating Ili' 'tops! t:he weld S
. om})]' cd. 'fhis pro css can b a' 'uf'ilfcly ('ollt1'al1ed
when p Cc1d?t¢ sur ,andtill1(;.re c1() If regtlJated.
·T1f ·oth r var1ttio(l. .is calle tnfJ11lt1frlcilon we14~
ing, Ii re . .t1.Rhe -I is' rey<-)lv-d bya motor' undl a pr 5 'Jr.
s,p cd il'· a h d. Jt rotate ou. or th p,~ cs 0 Jl
.W;Jde(1!tll .tn;Qrotlsdisengag~ ftom i1l'eflywhe i flllU . .
the other part is brought in contact under pressure with
the rotating piece. During the predetermined time during
Which the rotational speed of the part is reduced, the fly-
Wheel is brought to an immediate stop and additional
pressure is provided to complete the weld.
Among the advantages of friction welding is the
ability to produce high-quality welds in a short cycle
time. No filler metal is required and flux is not used. The
process is capable of welding most of the common met-
als. It can also be used to join many combinations of
dissimilar metals. Friction welding requires relatively ex-
pensive apparatus similar to a machine tool.
. There are three important factors involved in mak-
ing a friction weld:
1. Rotational speed. This is related to the material to be

welded and the diameter of the weld at the interface.
2. Pressure between the two parts to be welded. Pres-
sure changes during the weld sequence. At the start
it is very low, but it is increased to create the fric-
tional heat. When the rotation is stopped, pressure
is rapidly increased.
3. Welding time. Time is related to the shape and the
type of metal and the surface area. It is normally a
matter of a few seconds.The actual operation of the
machine is automatic and is controlled by a se-
quence Controller which can be set according to F1GURE7-22 Friction welding stud to plate.
the weld chedule established for the parts to be
jOined.
Normally, for friction welding one of the parts to be

\ elded is round in cross section; however, this is not an
~bSOlUtenecessity. Visual in pecrion of weld quality can
e based on th flash, which occurs around the outside
Pumeter of the weld. This flash will extend beyond the
OUtSid di meter of the parts and will cutl around back
to 'a;rdthe pan. If the flash sticks out relatively straight
f~m the [oint, it is an indication that the time was' too
hi Ott th pressur was t 0 low, or the speed was too
I
. gh.Thesejoints may crack.If th flash curls too far ba k FIGURE7-23 Cross section of friction-welded. stud to
• •• • • L
on tile outside dfameter, it is an tndtcatton that the time plate.

~as tq long and th pres ure wa t 0 high, Between
'I e extr mests the orr ct fin 11.hap . h flash is nor"
tb lly r moved aft . welding. Pro isio.ns re made in
t~S P r. 0 that the Inner flash would li~t xtend to insid
tb:~hamber Where itmigbt tnterfere With the nrpction of
, })1tt't. ae sp ia] appli at:lon oJ .frrcdon w ldirig d "
it~rvetiiottemlon,This is" tud w Jd mad byd tion weld-
wg. In stud frJ 'Uon welding th stud is th rotating
, kkP.i .e under pre . ure it ontact with the SCMi nary
of'pi
. t. ·C, as shown in 'igur 7-22.Whel'l th interfa
th ': ~kUflgnd forgin.g tcrmp rature, otatjo11 is
.8'tt,) . he~
sr,PP d UUtOn'latiCftlly anCl. presstlte is mll'irtPtj;tl 4 ft}1' a
;, c rt p ri (1 of tim ~.Weld tim will vary, d .pendin 11.
'iHl"l1'I lCriafs being w I I d al,d tb .stl.ld (llam ...ter. 'rh ~
t
Ii rlot) :Welding tool prQVi ~es th tot. t on -tUQlion

More information on friction welding is available in The welding variables depend on the particular al-
the AWS publication "Recommended Practices for Fric- loy and its thickness. The advantage of the process is that
tion Welding" CAWSC6.1). welds can be made with a single pass and that shielding
gases and consumables are not required. Joint prepara-
Friction Stir Welding tion is a square-groove Weld. A typical application is
shown by cross section in Figure 7-26.The disadvantage
Friction stir welding (FSW) is "a variation of friction
is that only highly ductile material can be welded. Equip-
welding that produces a weld between two abutting
ment required for making friction stir welds is expensive.
workpieces by the friction heating and plastic material
It is expected that many additional applications will be
displacement caused by a high-speed rotating tool that
found for friction stir welding in the near future.
traverses along the weld joint." This new friction welding
method was developed byTWI in Great Britain in 1991.
This m thod uses a nonconsumable rotating tool to fric- Hot Pressure Welding
tion weld metals. It is shown in Figure 7-24. It is unlike
Hot pressure welding (HPW) is a solid-state welding
conventional friction welding in that the abutting parts
process that produces coalescence of metals with heat
do not move relative to each other. It relies upon friction
and application of pressure sufficient to produce macro-
heat generation and subsequent flow of plasticized ma-
deformation of the base metal. Vacuum or shielding gas
terial when a rotating tool pin or probe is plunged into
maybe used.
the abutting edges of the parts to be joined and then
In this process, coalescence occurs at the interface
traverses along the joint. It was first used to thin alu-
between the parts because of pressure and heat, which is
minum sh ets up to 13 rom (1 1/2 inchj.Today the tech-
accompanied by noticeable deformation. The deforrna-
nology has been improved to the extent that it is now
possible to weld 50-nt111 (2-in.)-thick aluminum in one
pass. So far the process has been used to weld aluminum,
titanium, lead, magnesium, zinc, copper, and some types FIGURE 7-25 Stir friction welding joint configurations:
of steel.The temperature attained is le s than the melting (a) square groove butt; (b) combined butt and lap;
point of the n etal. It joins metal in the solid pha e. It is (c) single lap; (d) two-piece T butt, (e) edge butt.
. utogen 1.1S (no filler metal), does not need gas hiclding,
and r quires little surface preparation prior to welding.
Th parts to be joined ar clamped to a backing plate.
The tool, which orate tab ut 1,500 rpm, is pushed
along th joint between the pieces with great force.The
rotational frictional he~r causes th parts to become
plasti .As th t. 01.mot es al og the joint, the plasticized
matenal fills the space behind it and forms a weld. This
(e)
process ontinues as long as th rotating t 01 is moved
through he jo ,nt.Tli sped of welding <.l ' pends on the
thiCfmess' we alloy, at1d the tool' rotational speed and
j
fer . , Squat' • roovc welds fit ro itinely welde I. It is

laim d th~tlap j tnrs.corr, r jair tS,ancll:joint can also FIGURE 7-26 Cross section of a stir friction welded
b m.rtde (sq.Jgure 7....25). Th weldfngspeed is ap- part.
prqxun u iy 7 tn.rmtn .180 mm/mln), Th w lel joint is
quaJ hstf n;gth' 0 he bas' rna erial.
tion of the surface cracks the surface oxide film and in- This process is used extensively in the electronics,
creases the areas of clean metal. Welding the abutting aerospace, and instrument industries. It is also used for
parts is accomplished by diffusion across the interface so producing packages and containers and for sealing them.
that coalescence of the faying surface occurs. This type of The process can also be used for joining plastics and is
operation is carried on in closed chambers when vacuum finding wider use in this field than in joining metals. The
?r a shielding gas may be used. It is used in the aerospace process is also called stake welding.
l11dustry.Avariation is the hot isostatic pressure welding
method. In this case, the pressure is applied by means of
a hot inert gas in a pressure vessel. 7 -6 MISCELLANEOUS WELDING
PROCESSES
Roll Welding
R.ouwelding (ROW) is a solid-state welding process that Percussion Welding
produces a weld by the application of heat and sufficient Percussion welding (pEW) is a welding process that pro-
pressure with rolls to cause deformation at the faying duces coalescence with an arc resulting from a rapid
urfaces. This process is similar to forge welding except discharge of electrical energy. Pressure is applied per-
that pressure is applied by means of rolls rather than by cussively during or immediately following the electrical
hammer blows. Coalescence occurs at the Interface be- discharge. This process is quite similar to resistance
tween the two parts by means of diffusion at the faying flash welding and upset welding, but is limited to parts
sUrfaces.
of the same geometry and cross section. It is more com-
One of the major uses of this process is the plex than the other two processes, in that heat is ob-
cladding of mild or low-alloy steel with a high-alloy ma- tained from an arc produced at the abutting surfaces by
terial Such as stainless steel. It is also used for making the very rapid discharge of stored electrical energy
bimetallic materials for the instrument industry. It is used across a rapidly decreasing air gap. This is immediately
to prOduce the sandwich coins used in the United States. followed by application of pressure, providing an im-
pact that brings the two parts together in a progressive
Ultrasonic Welding percussive manner. The advantage of the process is that
there is an extremely shallow depth of heating and. the
Itrasonic welding (USW) is a solld-state welding pr cess time cycle is very short. It is used only for parts with
~hat prOdu es a weld by the local application of high- fairly small cross-sectional areas. It can be us d for weld-
t reqllen y Vibratory energy as the workpieces are held ing a large number of dlssimtlar metals. It is used f r
gether under pressure. Welding ccurs when the ultra- very specialized appllcatlons, and the process is entirely
d oi .tip or. lectrod , the energy-c upling device, is automatic.
.atnped against the workpieces and is made to oscillate
~ a p~ane parallel to the weld interface: The combined
. tnP1tlg pre Sure and os 'Wating forces Introdu e dy· Plasma MIG Welding
namIcstre e in the bas .. metal.Thls produces minute de-
bQt'ttl<\tiOllSh t create a moderate t mperature rt e in rh
. e mC~l at th w ld zan .This, coupled with the clamp-
:g P SUrc1provides for coale eence across theinterface
!ti PJ'Odllce th weld. Ultrasonic energy will aid in dean-
g
th the weld an a by breaking \.'1? oxid film. and causing
l rn to b earned away, Th Vibratory energy that pro-
t :u the tUinut d orrn tion com s from a transduc r
ihat nverts high·t quency alt mat1ng ere trical nergy
I'It rn '(:han1cru energy. The trnnsdJ,l<=crjs c upl~dto the
:Otk by Yarfou i pes of tooling, tanging from tips similar
ttl f Sisttmce wclCling Ups to r istan e roll w ld:ing elec-
t. I wheels. h. normal w Id i h Jap jolllweJd. The
an:P ~~nlr at th weld is not ,rtlised lh m lttng p~int
cl there 0 11,. no nugg t similar resistan 'C weldmg.
M d tr, ,n_gth.is qWU to tb strength ~h .~ase metal:
on it ~UC~l 111 .taIs ClUl be welded togetb f,nd Itl 'fl,
I lbmntmus ot dis imHar .Ill tals all b w"'ld d.11. .
ifllh • ~ Is t'Cstr:J .t d to r ·tauv Iy fhln 11{tt rials nOl',ul lJ
l()ij r tl'emely thinW41,1g thiekn. 8~ 9. ~)
Ion Beam Welding Spot-Adhesive Welding
Ion beam welding has not yet been developed to practi- Spot-adhesive welding combines spot welding with ad-
cal use. It is similar to electron beam welding, and heat is hesives to produce joints that are stronger, more durable,
created by the bombardment of ions on the surface to be and more resistant to fatigue than joints produced by ei-
welded. The reason for interest in ion beam welding is ther method alone. This process has been called weld
that it has different characteristics from electron beam bonding and has been used on aircraft structures.
welding. Ion bombardment, which is used in gas tungsten It is practiced by the application of an adhesive to
arc welding for the cleaning action, becomes part of this the faying surfaces of the weld joint. Resistance spot
welding process.The ion beam is less sensitive to external welds are made through the lap joints. The joint is then
magnetic fields than the electron beam and there is no x- heated in an oven to cure the adhesive. Another variation
radiation.To make this process practical, it is necessary to is accomplished by first making the spot weld joint and
have a source of ions, to accelerate the beam of ions to the then applying the adhesive at the edge of the joint. By
workpiece, and to be able to focus the beam on the weld means of capillary action, the adhesive flows between
area. Efforts to perfect this process are progressing, and in the faying surfaces and around the resistance spot-
the future ion beam welding may be practical. welded nuggets. After the adhesive dries, the assemblies
are placed into an oven for curing. The process has been
Solar Energy Welding used on aluminum aircraft subassemblies.
All the energy beam welding processes use highly con-
centrated sources of energy to heat metals so that a weld Ultra Pulse Welding
can be made. The sun is a source of heat. For many years Ultra pulse welding is a resistance welding process that
solar furnaces have been used to melt metals. This is ac- uses an extremely short weld time. The principle of op-
complished by focusing the sun's rays with a parabolic eration is a capacitor that is charged from the power lines
mirror toa crucible. The major part of solar energy weld- and discharged through a transformer and resistance-type
ing is a heilosrar, a device using mirrors, moved by clock- electrodes to the work. The charging time is relatively
work, to direct the sun's rays to a fixed point.The rays are long compared to the discharge or welding time, which
directed into a parabolic mirror, which deflects them to is in the order of a few milliseconds. The advantage ofthis
form a small focal spot. TIle focal spot is then directed to system is that it reduces power line draw and make
the work and concentrated to the actual welding polnr. welds in an extremely short time, Heat does not build up
Welding is accompltshed by moving the workpiece with In the workpiece. It is used for welding extremely small
respe t to the stationary focal spot. Fixturingand travel and thin parts. The process is used for producing elec-
meet ani ms ar similar to those used for automatic tronic components and Instrum nts,
welding.To prevent the atmosphere from coming in con-
t.a.ct with the molten bas metal, the weld area is
shielded by an inert gas. Wi ids have been made success- Other Welding Processes
tUHy on material it 1110.039 to 0.118 in. (1 to 3 rom) Other welding processes have b en used but today are of
tllick ina single pass.FUler.tnetal was not use d. Travel little industrial Significance. Undoubtedly, other welding
sp eds t1P toz in. 50 mm) per mtnut have be n ac- proc sses will be developed In the future. orne ofth
compUsh<:d.Wt Ids hav been made in stainless steels currently used processes will fall into di use. These on-
wIth q,uaU~il:lBequal tattle basemetal.so far this process tinning changes WiUultimately help produce weldme:rtt5
t a .Laboratory cudQsity. at lower osts.
. 1 . t _ to •.
'~6... Why shQ\11dn't oU orgt se be used ott {W oxygen

appamtUs
1-7. Is flux t quired for making o"Yac tyt n w Id 011
'of C1f.Yil tyl n flanl S? lean mild see l?Wby?
'·8r Poe brazing requtre ttl us of fillet m tal th t Il
, "h.l8her qr lower m.e1tlnr t .mpetatu.re than the bit
in t4Jl . ..
'~9. 1 lt p ssibl to pbta.l:n bmz d j9blt, tr ng rth~n tb~
tw • U r meti\l?
--' ..10. Wh tts prepla d filler,metMf.
7·11. Explain how capillary action is needed for brazing 7·17. Can cold welding be applied manually?
and soldering. 7·18. The clad coins of the United States are sometimes
7·12. What are the hazards of certain brazing filler metal and made by what welding process?
certain brazing fluxes? What precautions are required? 7·19. Explain the difference between friction welding and
7·13. What is the difference between soldering and brazing? cold welding.
7·14. Why is flux required for soldering? 7-20. Can ultrasonic welding be applied to plastics as well
7·15. Explain how gravity is used in making a thermite weld. as to thin metals?
7·16. Is it possible to thermite weld copper or aluminum?
REFERENCES
1. "Specifications for Rubber Welding Hose," ANSI IP·7, 5. Arthur L. Phillips, ed., "Ultra Sonic Welding," American
RUbber Manufacturers Association, Washington, D.C., Welding SOciety, Miami, Fla.
and Compressed Gas Assoctanon.Arllngton.Va. 6. W. G. Essers, G. Jeimarini, and G. W. Tichelaar, "Arc Char-
2. Safe Drinking Water Act, Amendments of 1986, Public acteristics and Metal Transfers with Plasma-MfG Weld-
Law 99-339,June 19,1986, 99th Congress, Section 109, ing," Metal Construction and British Welding Journal
"Lead Free Drinking Water." (Dec. 1972).
3. "ExplOsive Welding;' National Seminar, September 1975,
London, Welding Institute, Cambridge, England.
4. V. I.VtU,"Priction Welding of Metals," February 1962 (trans.
lated. from Russianj.American Welding SOciety,Miami, Fla.
The resistance welding processes share a cow-
man definition, but many of them are considerably dif-
ferent. The more important processes and variationS
will be explained.
The resistance welding processes differ from arc weld-
8..1 RESISTANCEWELDING ing in that pressure is used but fill r metal or fluxes. rC
Resistanc w Idlng (RW) is a group of w lding not. Four factors are involved in making a reststancs
pro esse!'! that produc s c al cence of the aying ur- weld: (1) the amount of current that passes through the
as with th heat obtatned from resistance of the work, (2) the pr ssure that the electrodes transfer to
workpiec s to tlu flow of h welding urrent In a circuit the work, (3 the time the current flows through the
of Which the workpieces are a pan, and by the applica- work, and (4) the area of the electrode tip in CQ,rttact
tion ()f pressure.There are at least 10 dif£ rent resistance- with the work. Meat is generat d by the passage of cIcc- .
trtcal urrent through a rest tanc cir ult. The maxi-
w lding pr e se s and mat y variations. They are as
follows! mum amount of heat is generated at the point of
rna Irnum resistanc e, which is t the urtace betweefl·
th parts bing [otned.Tt e h gh current.up to 100,000
·Aat low vol ge, generate sufficient heat at this resiSt~
ance pofn so tha th mend. reach s a molten state.TIlt
f r e appll »d b fore, dudng, and ft r the urrent flo"
rges tJ e hated parts tog th r so that oales ence
will 0 cur. I r SSUl'e is requtr d thro ighou th Ddt
weLcling eyel to ensure 'a ntinuolls el ctrial circuit,
he amoullt_o cuxrentemployeu and tbe time period
ate .related to th ]1 eat input tequif d to overcome bent
1 ses and rai. the t "mp ra 1.1t of the ttl t 1 to tbe
w Iding t mp ratur·.
The con ' pt 0 J' ·"l..~t~nc w Idin is most C!lsflY
! which tiS s a \lncl rstood by relatt08 it to spqt VI 1<1og. Sp - Vi ldhlJ
~'j shown in:Pi urfs8~J 'ntld g;,,2.1iIgb e~lrtent • t a 10"
~·lta8· fl ws thr ugh the 'rcuit III a OOrQtlll'e Wjt};l
lun'slaw:
...,..
FORCE H (heat energy) = /2 X R X T X K
END OF WELD TIME where I = current in amperes

R = resistance of the work in ohms
T = time of current flow in seconds
K = heat losses through radiation and conduction
H = heat energy in watt seconds
Welding heat is proportional to the square of the
welding current. If the current is doubled, the heat gen-
erated is quadrup ed. Welding heat is proportional to the
total time of current flow. If current is doubled, the time
can be reduced, which is recommended. The welding
heat generated is directly proportional to the resistance,
which is related to the material b ing w Ided, the contact
area, and the pressure appUed. Resistance is also related
to coating on the metal. There must be sufficient time to
melt the coating or otherwise eliminate it. Dirt, paint, oil,
or other materials on the surface also affect resistance.
Mechanical pressure, which forces the parts together,
helps contain the molten metal until it solidifies.
Heat is also generated at the contact between the
welding electrodes and the work. This amount of heat
generated is lower since the resistance between high-
conductivity electrode material and the work is less than
that between the two workpleces. In most applications
the electrodes are water cooled to minimize the heat
generated.
Resistance welds are made very qui ldy; 'however,
each process has its own tune cycle. Resistance welding
operations ar automatic. Good-quality welds made on
press or rocker arm machines do not depend on welding
operator skill but on the proper set ip andadjustment .of
the equipment and adher nee to weld schedules. Opera-
tor skill is important when using portable gun machtn '\ .
The positton of making resistance welds Is 11 t a fa tor
particularly when weldfug thinner materials ..
Re Istance welding .is widely 1.1S d by mass-
production industries, where production runs andcon-
slstent; conditions are m~nt~lIl1ed. WeldingJ perfortUed
~ftE 8....2 Res!stance spot welding. by operators who normally load and unload tIi welding
machine and push the switch to initht.te the weld opera-
tion.Th automotlve indu try is th m. 'jor user, foJ1ow d
Wh r 1:;::: curt' nt in amp res by the appliance industry. It l~ 'US d by many lndustri .
E =-- Qlta~e in volts wallufacturlng a varJety of pr.Qducts. .mad of" ~h~er;
R;;::; ..reSi&mn.c .of the muteiials in ohms gau.ge me~sand fOt.,nUullUa.. turing pipe;11Jb1ng,·alla .
mall r structtiral se ~tions. R slStatlCeweldin~ has.,the ~ld·'
'n he total en rgy is expres . d by the formula .heat vantag, of producing , high volume of wotk at,·,'high
onCX'gy If qual I x E x r.in wlti nr
is th time 111 CC' spe6 1 that are I rod 1 ible at high quality.
in d$ (1\ lins wl i h Ut"r ,or flows itl th cir Uit. robin·
11 " ....... "
~wQ 'qu~ ti n gives:
, ,f1CheRt.e~etgy):;: ft X J1 X r
TABLE 8-1 METALSWELDABLEBY RESISTANCESPOTWELDING More coated metals are being spot welded. This in-
cludes zinc-coated, tin-coated (tern), aluminum-coated,
Weldabllity
Meta! painted material, and plastic-coated materials. These coat-
Weldability Rating
ings add to. the complication of making spot welds and in
Aluminum Weldable 0.75-2+ general require more sophisticated control systems. In ad-
Magnesium Weldable 1.80 dition, the electrode tips deteriorate much more quickly
Inconel Weldable 2+ when welding coated sheet metal. Special procedures
Nickel Weldable 2.15 and techniques have been developed for coated steels.
Brass and bronze Variable 0.5-10+
Monel Weldable 2+
0.16-3.0
Resistance Spot Welding
Precious metals Variable
Low-carbon steel Weldable 10+ Resistance spot welding (RSW) is a resistance welding
Low-alloy steel Weldable 10+ process that produces a weld at the faying surfaces of a
High- and medium- Possible 10+ joint by the heat obtained from resistance to the flow of
carbon steel welding current through the workpieces from electrodes
Stainless steel Weldable 35+ that serve to concentrate the welding current and pressure
Titanium Weldable 50+ at the weld area.This was shown in Figure 8-I.The size and
shape of the individually formed spot welds are deter-
mined by the size and contour of the electrodes. Spot weld-
(Tabt 8-1). However, difficulties may be encountered ing is the most popular resistance welding process and is
when welding certain metals in heavier thicknesses. described in more detail.The basic concepts pertaining to
Some metals require heat treatment after welding for sat- equipment, controls, electrodes, pressure application, and
isfactory mechanical properties. WeldabiUty of a metal is mechanization are generally true of the other processes.
controlled by three factors: (1) resistivity, (2) thermal A spot welding system needs at least the following
conductivity, and (3) melting temperature, Metals with a components:
high resistance to current flow and with a low thermal
• Welding transformer for supplying power
conductivity and a relatively low melting temperature are
• .A means of applying pressure
ea slly weldable. Ferrous metals all fall into this category.
Metals that have a lower resistivity but a higher thermal • A controller/contacror
conductivity will be more difficult to weld.This includes • Electrode tip for conducting welding current to
the light rnetals=-alumlnum and magnesium. The pre- the work
ci \1111 m tals ill'. di Jicult to. weld becaus or their high Welding machines Includ a11of these functio~·
thermal 'conductivity. The refractory metals, which have They are available from th very smallesc to extrern Jy
e1rtretneIy ltigll melting points, are difficult to weld. large complex machines.
These three properties can be combined into a for-
mula that wfll provide an indication of the ase of weld-
ing ~ metal.Thls tormula is; Spot Welding Machines
Spotw lding machines are available in two categorle6:
l == R/FKt 100
smgle-polnt 0.1' stngle-spot machtnes and multiple-poiOt
machines. Single-p int spot welding machine can be I.'cl#
atively simple. TIle simplest is manually-operated, rated ~l
2 kVAwith a short ctr uit current f 6,0 0 A and capablt
of welda g 20·gal.,lge and thinner carbon steel. A ligHt-
duty hand-op rat d machtn is shown in Figure a,..~,
FIGURES-3 Light"duty resistance $pot w£:ilder.

Courlesy_ofWt.Hdil1g Inspection Technology, Amerfcan
WeldIng Sooiety. .
Machines of this type are used for maintenance, automo-
bile body repair, and light-duty operations.
The more popular machines are stationary single-
point Spot welding machines of either the hom "rocker
arm" type or the press type.The hom-type machines have
a pivoted or rocking upper electrode arm, which is actu-
ated by either the operator's physical power or by air or
hydraulic power. They are used for a wide variety of
work, but are rest.ricted to 50 kVA and are used for thin-
ner gauge.
For heavier requirements, press-type machines are
USed.This type of machine, shown in Figure 8-4, is nor-
mally rated at 50 kVA and up. In the press-type machine
the Upper electrode moves in a slide. The pressure and
motion are provided on the upper electrode by hydraulic
or pneumatic pressure, or are motor operated. Press re-
Sistance welding machines are used for welding medium-
gauge up to the heaviest-gauge materials.
Both the press and rocker arm machines include
the welding transformer. The transformer must be closeJy
C?Upled to the upper and lower electrodes. The control
C~CUitis usually in a separate enclosure mounted on the
slde of the machine. For all but the smallest machines, wa-
ter cooling is used to cool the electrodes. The Resistance
'Welders Manufacturers Association has standardized and
classified spot welders. (2) This information is shown in
Table 8-2, which gives the size, the kVA rating, and throat
depth. A resistance welding machin rated according to
R\VMA standards would have a 50% duty cycle, Thus, a
.().kVA RWMA machine provides 30 kVA for 30 seconds
~f eVery minute, operating ontinuously without 0 er-
he~ting.Machines no rated to RWMA standards may b
Udt to a lower duty cycle, rated as low as 10% to 30%,
.:d wiU overheat (It higher duty cycles unless used at re-
ttced power. The RWMA reststan e welding handb ok
~so provides the tze of welding rna hines requtred to
eld different metals and metal thickness s,
III 'When the work is too bulky to take to the Welding
~ lune, a portable spot welding maehln .,can be used.
rC Portabl - machine is moved 'from on w lding Ioca-
.ton or flxture to another, and a trigger on th gun a tu-
:te. the w Jding cvcle. Portable units are normall
:emt I by air pressur .There ~r thre ty;pe. of P 'ft. ble
~lding guns. In on case, the welding transform r is sep-
p • ted from th welding gun; the weJding gun has its own FIGVRE 8-4 . Press type resistance spot welding·
<=hiess;xre ~\lechMi m, The portability Of this type alma- machine,
. ne Is limited· y heavy cables onnect d between th
~nlt:an.d the transfonner;The cabl s ar usually 'oaxiaJ, to
~11 ~d mov ru fit due to magnetic fi res. lathe mallet
'llt cl Ln s, th transform t t include as a part f the gun.
""1 11\n t manl.lfilly m nipul~ted by the operater.Th .
. f ttl;o~htohhegtm ts.l~'ll1dledby ~balancinglnechjlJ)ism,
. .142 h;.) . ation is estabU hed by th ~opemt r.
In ,0 of tb' arly ppJtcations· [: r()botic spot wId.
tl R w~s tIl ·manlI ul~tion of th. IdtnB gun by < rOb()l;
.\V'd.dnys, , lWt:wclding guus man.tpulated by .robots: ate .
TABLE8-2 RWMA STANDARDSPOTANDPROJECTION
WELDINGMACHINES.FROMREFERENCE
2.
Type of Size Rating Electrode Nominal
Welding Machin~ RWMA (kVA) Cooling Throat Depth (In.)
Rocker-arm spot welding machines 000 5 Air 8, 12, 16
00 7.5 Air 8, 12, 16
0 10 Air 8, 12, 16
1 15 Air or water 12, 18,24
Water 12,18,24,30,36
2 30 Water 12, 18, 24, 30, 36
3 50
Press-type and project welding machines 000 5 Water 6, 8
00 20 Water 6,8
0 30
50 Water 6, 8
30
1 50
75 Water 12,18,24,30,36
100
2 150 Water 12,18,24,30,36
150
3 200 Water 12, 18, 24, 30, 36
300
4 400
500 Water 12,18,30
Portable RSW gun mounted on a robot.

FIGURE 8-6 Automobile ,seat frame assembly on a
, rotating positioner with two robots making the wetds,,"
the amOUnt of noise produced. Shorter weld cycles are E - 2 - 5 - 10
available, and less weld expulsion occurs.A faster, higher- Nose Designation T
quality weld is produced. A -

Pointed Nose
B -
Dome Nose
For high-volume production work such as sub- C Flat Nose
-
assemblies in the automotive industry, multiple-point D -
Offset Nose
Spot sheet welding machines are used. These are gener- E - Truncated Cone
F - Radius Faced
ally in the form of a press in which individual guns carry-
ing electrode tips are mounted. Welds are made in
Seqtlential order so that all electrodes are not carrying RWMA Alloy Class (See Below)
current at the same time.They must be designed for a par-
ticular product and are considered dedicated machines. RW Taper
However, in press welders the part changed for model Length in Number of 1/4·lnch Increments
changeover is the platen that carries the welding guns.
Each individual gun has its own piston, so that it can be
moved, pressure applied, and retracted independently.
The working part of the resistance welding rna-
Conductivity T.nlile
Chine is the electrode.The electrode is the means for con- Group CI H.rdnllS$
(%) Comprestlve
RockweU (~i)
dUcting welding current to the work and for providing
A 1 80 65B OOK
the force necessary to make welds and for dissipating
2 75 758 65K
some of the heat generated. Resistance welding elec- 3 45 90B lOOK
trOdes, the electrode holders, and the electrode material 4 20 33C 140K
pecifications are standardized by the Resistance Welders 5 10 to 15 66 to 858 65 to75K
B 10 35 728 135K
M.anufacturers Association. (3) This standard separates
11 28 948 lOOK
electrode composition into two basic groups: group A, 12 27 98B 170K
opper-hase alloys, with five classes; and group B, refrac- 13 30 69a 200K
tory metal compositions, also with five classes. These var- 14 30 8611 200K
iQtlS groups and classes identify the analysis of the
FIGURE8-7 RWMA alloy class and standard straight
ele trOde alloy, the electrod hardness, strength, and con-
tips.
ductiVity. RWMA recommends different electrode materi-
als for WIding differ nt metals.
RWMA provides a method that identifies standard
Stta.ight tip by a. five-digit code Figure B-7).The taper re-
vary the welding schedule.This in lud s thermal reaction
while the weld is being made. Controllers also provide
lates to the taper on t11 end of the electrode and in the
monitoring and data presentation that Can. be remotely
electrode holder.This .fit must be watertight and provides
transmitted. Tbey also include limit corurol ; which will
an area to transfer the welding current from the holder to
the eJ ctrode. NormaUy, el ctrodes are straight, but bent
shut down the operation or proVide warning wh n the
tp' . ' process is out of control. New sophisticar d controllers
t.· sand double·bent upsar available. Many special dec-
r <les are made, part! ~ularly for gun weld rs. The
for seam welding also include travel speed mechanisms
and tI edback data. .
ttaight.type Ie trode holders ac al 0 standardized,
. tne With an [ector tube and some without, Ther arc
~o lis t holders and oth r features.vanous iompanles Joint Types.
. upply electl.'ods nd 1 trod holders to RWMA stan-
r Is and to sp tal r q nrements.
WIding Controllers.
FORGE DELAY TIMEMAYBE
INITIATEDAT SOMEOTHER .£.O~E.£O~E _
POINTIN THEWELDING
CYCLE /' --- <, \
/---I~-----------_// II
/ r-- FORGE
DElAY TIME----1
~ IMPULSE I
I
I ELECTRODE I
FORCE
/
/
TEMPER
TIME
HEATTIME
--t----WELD INTERVAL------<+----POSTWELD INTERVAL----l
FIGURE8-8 Resistance I------------WELDING CYCLe-------------J
welding program.
welding mills. Another joint, known as the lip joint, is a dressing electrodes in the resistance welding machine.
flanged joint. The flange width should be sufficient to al- Another requirement is to check the tip pressure using an
low spot welding. electrode force meter.
The spacing of spot welds and the spacing of roll Spot welds are normally direct spot welds where
seam welds are important. If the nuggets overlap, the joint the two electrodes are opposite each other, with the
will b watertight. If they do not, water can e cape be- work to be welded between them. This may cause mark-
twe n the nuggets.The resistance welding handbook also ing at the point where the electrode is in contact with the
provides the size of welding machines required to weld work.To avoid this, or where the back side of the joint is
differ nt metal and metal thicknesses. not accessible, the indite t spot is used (Figure 8-9). Tn
this case, both electrodes are applied from one side and a
Spot Weld Quality large flat.or contoured.electrode is on the back side.ThiS
technique is used in the automobile tndu try to minimiZe
metal finishing of exposed spot welds.
Projection Welding
Projection welding (PW) is a r sistance weldiMJ
process that produces a weld by the heat obtalned ftp.fl.l
the r slstan e to the flow of the w 'lding current. he re·
Sultiag welds ate localized at predet rmlned points bY ,
projections, embossnn nts, or inter: ecttons.
}<lgtu,' '8 ..10 shows the prln {pi s of projecti011
welding. Locallzatlon of b .Iltit g i obt ined by. prole .
ti n on n of the parts being ld d.There are s veral
types of pr j uons: 1 th button or dom type. u~lJal1)'
round; 2) longatec1projections; 3)ttn,g projections; C4}
sbould.cr proje tions; (5)cross--wite weldlng~ and (6) ra~' ,
lius pro] tJOl1. The major advan~ g ofprofectton wefd~
1ng is that I. crode life is Incr t ocellus larger
rs to or ,t opt. . urfa.~ at' us ~d.A v common \1 of pr j c·
11'
uon lding i th 11 of 'peel. 1 nuts that ha:v prol' .
of nuns on .the po.rtion . th part to b welded to. th
tlSscu),bJ~These' ttf(: manUfactu ~d With lh projecti~ns·
~lni aSsist n btaining quruity j Ims t th pans ping
we]:l d. Proj tion dim fl.5ion. O1il t b prop 1'ly dC-
-Si-gn d Binet! tb. heigh" un.d.area haveoptitnum. dimCll' ,
Resistance Seam Welding
Resistance seam welding (RSEW) is a resistance weld-
ing process that produces a weld at the faying surfaces of
SPOT WELDING
ELECTRODE overlapped parts progressively along a length of a joint,
The weld may be made with overlapping weld nuggets, a
continuous weld nugget, or by forging the joint as it is
heated to the welding temperature by resistance to the
flow of the welding current.The resulting weld is a series
of overlapping spot welds made progressively along a
joint by rotating the electrode.The resistance seam weld-
SPOT WELDING WELD ing process is shown in Figure 8-11. A resistance seam
ELECTRODE SPOT welding machine is shown in Figure 8-12.
When the spots are not overlapped enough to pro-
(a)
duce gastight welds, it is a variarton known as roll rests-
tance spot welding. This process differs from spot
welding, since the electrodes are wheels. Both the upper
and lower electrode wheels are powered. Pressure is ap-
plied in the same manner as a press-type welder. The
wheels can be either in Iine with the throat of the 01<1-
chine 01' transverse. If they are in line, it is normally called
a longitudinal seam welding machine.Welding current
is transferred through the bearings of the roller electrode
wheels. Water cooling is not provided lnternally; and
therefore the weld area is flooded with cooling water to
keep the electrode wheels cool. In seam welding a com-
plex control system is required. The welding speed, the
spots per inch, and the timing schedule are dependent 011
WORKPIECE WELD each other. Welcling schedules provide the pressure, the
SPOT current, the speed, and the size of the electrode wheels.
(b)
This process is quite 'ammon for making flange welds,
~E 8-9 (a) Direct spot weld; (b) indirect spot weld. for making watertight joints for tanks, and so on.
Another variation i gnash seam wolding; wh re
the lap is fairly narrow and the electrode wheel is at Ieast
.....
,"OReE twice as wide as that us d for standard scam weldtng.The
pressure Is increased to appro irnately 300 tim s normal
pressure.The finalweldmash seam thickn S$ is only 25%
greater than the original slngl sheet,
Another ariarlon for welding coated st el enlpJoys
;JW'. a round copper-wire that.Is fed between the electrode
roll and the work It is formed Into an oval by tho pres-
'""..---~!--__.j! WelDING
sur . in the machine. A wtre Is r qutred for both wheel
TRANSFORMER C;ONTACTQR
FIGURE8....11 Resistance seam·welding.

FINISHED FLASH WELD
STATIONARY CLAMP MOVEABLE CLAMP
UPSETTING
PRESSURE
______ /9-J°r9Of~OJ WELDING

TRANSFORMER
A,C, POWER
'I
""""""CONTACTOR
FIGURE 8- t 3 Flash weld ing process.
FIGURE8-12 Resistance seam welding machine.
electrodes.The opper wire is in contact with the work

rather than the Iectrod. The continuously fed copper
wir 'afl'ics the m lted coating away from the weld area
and provides unlform r ststanc for consistent welds.
Th flattened copper wire is sal aged. It eltmtnates
coaxed m tal pickup on the roller electrodes, and it pro-
pon nts labi:l,mol' consist nt wIding r suits.
-f' h W"fding
FIGURE8-14 Flash welding machine.

flash welding machine with a high clamping pressure.
The upset pressure for steel exceeds 10,000 psi (700
kg;cm2). For high-strength materials these pressures may
be doubled. For tubing or hollow members the pressures
6....__· --I.: ~,..._~~ _1
FINISHED UPSET
are reduced. As the weld area is more compact, upset WELD
presSures increase. If insufficient upset pressure is used,
UPSETTING
a porous, low-strength weld will result. Excess upset pres- PRESSURE
sure will result in expelling too much weld metal and up-
setting cold metal. The weld may not be uniform across
the entire cross section, and fatigue and impact strength
will be reduced.The speed of upset-that is, the time be-
tween the end of the flashing period and the end of the
upset period-should be extremely short, to minimize
CONTACTOR .......
------I'
:=oom~l......_ WELDING
TRANSFORMER
OXidation of the molten surfaces. In the flash welding op- A.C. POWER
er-ation a certain amount of material is flashed or burned

away.The distance between the jaws after welding com- FIGURE 8-15 Upset welding process.
Pared to the distance before welding is known as the
bUrn-off. It can be from 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) tor thin material
up to several inches for heavy material. Welding currents
weld is completed.There is no arc or flash in upset weld-
are high and are related to the following: 50 kVA per
ing. The area at the joint is usually enlarged over its origl-
square inch of cross section at 8 seconds. It is desirable to
nal dimension. This process is used for welding small
U$e the lowest flashing voltage at a desired flashing
wires, tubing, piping, rings, and strips where the cross-
~peed. The lowest voltage is normally 2 to 5 V per square
sectional areas of both pieces are identical. If intimate
l1lch of cross section of the weld.
contact is not obtained because of improper jolntprepa-
.. The upsetting for e is usually mechanical cam ac- ration, the weld will b defective.
tton. The design of the cams is related to the size of the
parts being welded. Flash welding is completely auto-
fllatic and is an excellent process for mass-produced High-Frequency Resistance Welding
P tts. It requir s a machine of large capacity designed
PCCifically for the putts to be welded. Hash welds pro-
dUce a fin around the periphery a the weld, which Is nor-
nlt lIy removed.
Upset Welding , .
lJps t Welding (UW) is a r sistai e welding process that
~. due S oa[escence over the cndre area of faying sur-
I ~es or progre sively along a butt jo nt by the heat ob-
~al '1 J
tl I e(. fr rn th resistan e to the flow of weldingcurrent
p!to:l.lgh the area where rho e surfaces at in contact.
I r~sure is used to complete th ,W ld, ressur is appli d
t~for; . ~eating is started and ts malntaln d throughout
he tUlg I' nod (Figure 8-15) .Th e ulpmenr used fi r
u~ l w ldlng is srmlla to tl at us d for flash ldtng. It
III b. ,tlS d only if th parts to b weld d at' equal ill
pros~e tion.al rea. he abutting surfaces' must be pre..
~~d car 1\111y to proVide 'fi~r pr per heating. The differ~
. tl fr01U n'l'\shv ldin~ i that th parts are clamped in
til; Welding "na 'hi re and fot 'C is' ppJi d, btit)ging th m
It }tty tog'th ,,', H_jgh~amp rag curr m is til I pa,'s d
:)~J~lQb th ,fOint, hicll 'h 'at. th. butting SUtff\C s.
}' n th y h. ve e n b ~t¢u ~oa st1ttabl~ [OtgiJl~ t~n1.
~ t';tiur~ rmup fft.ing fort~hi "'l'p1i d and the Ul'rent is .,
iflll~e.<1.111 t Igh t .rope). turc of the work a.t th abut-
.'
!
b) sl:r a ,~ ,pLns t h lugh p '~UfC, 'It Ises coal" .. ' 'nee
IR; i'll.ace
,#t~r poIing~tn" fore· ~ rclettsad tllld. chi
HIGH FREQUENCY Operators should wear face shields, spectacles, Of
POWER SOURCE goggles, depending on the type of work. Such devices are
necessary to protect the face and eyes from flying sparks.
Operators designated to operate resistance welding
equipment must be properly instructed and judged com-
petent to operate the equipment.
8-2 ELECTRON BEAM WELDING

Electron beam welding (EBW) is a welding process
that produces coalescence with a concentrated beam,
composed primarily of high-velocity electrons, impinging
on the joint.The process is used without shielding gas and
without the application of pressure. It is a fusion welding
FIGURE8-16 High frequency seam welding. process with the melting together of base metal, and pos-
sibly of filler metal, to produce a weld. Heat is generated
in the workpiece as it is bombarded by a high-veloctt)'
surface of these edges.At the area between the dosing rolls electron beam. The kinetic energy, energy of motion, of
the material i at the plastic temperature, and with the the electrons is transferred to heat upon impact. It is a
pressure applied, coalescence occurs.The surfaces must be highly concentrated,Wgh-powered source of heat and
reasonably true with respect to each other and clean. No acts Similar to the arc of gas tungsten arc welding in mak-"
other special preparation is required. TIle process can be ing welds.
used to join most common metals and certain dissimilar The electron beam welding process was developed
metals. The process is ntirely automatic and uses special in Prance.j.A, Stohr, with the French Atomic Energy COm"
control equipment. It is possible to make welds at ex- mission, made the first public disclosure of this welding
tremely high speeds, approaching 500 ft/mm (150 rn/mm) process at a symposium on fuel elements held in Paris on
for thin-wall tubing. November 23, 1957.(4)
Resistance Welding Safety Principles of Operation

TIle original work was done in a high vacuum using a.(l
electron gl1tl similar to an -ray tube. In an x-ray tub tbe
beam of electrons is focused on a target to give off x-rays;
the target becomes very hot and requires water cooling·
In lectron b am welding, the target is the workpiece,
which absorbs the heat to bring it to the molten stage to
allow welding.
A modern ele tron beam welding machtn consiStS
of at least tb foll wing:
• lectron beam gun
• Pow r upply and contr 1
• in and wor motion e utpm nc
.. Welding chamber, with acuum pumps
.. Aligt)lllrtt and vIewing system
• .Miscellaneous auxiliary equipment
the vacuum chamber, with shafts operating through
pressure-sealed bearings.
The next major component is the welding chamber,
which must be absolutely alrtlght.This container, which is
evacuated to reduce the pressure to a high vacuum, must
be extremely strong so that it will not be crushed under
FILAMENT atmospheric pressure. It requires openings to allow the
work to be enclosed and removed. The openings, doors,
CATHODE
and so on,must be sealed to a vacuum tightness.The work
chamber must be sufficiently large to enclose the parts to
be welded, but should not be overly large because of the
time and expense of evacuating it. Early chambers used a
hard vacuum-the same as the vacuum in the electron
beam gun column. As electron beam guns became more
powerful, a second method of electron beam welding
was developed. This allowed welding in a soft vacuum
with a pressure of 0.1 torr (10-1 torr), known .as soft-
FIGURE 8-17 An electron beam gun column. vacuum electron beam welding. This made larger work
chambers possible, with quicker pump-down time.
The third method of electron beam welding, done
. qUais one millimeter of mercury. Atmospheric pressure in the open air, is known as nonvacuum electron beam
18 760 torr or 760 mm hg, which is also 14.7 psi. welding. TIle electron beam gun is housed in the hard-
The emitter is either a tungsten filament or a tung- vacuum chamber and there are several intermediate
sten rod heated by a filament. Electrons are freed from the reduced-pressure chambers between the gun and the
~ngsten when it is heated to a high temperature, causing work. Each intermediate chamber has a reducedpres-
t ermionic emission. Electrons freed from the emitter are sure with small holes from one chamber to another so
~ttracted to the anode, which is the positive pole. The that the electron beam passes through-but they're too
t~a1U Is collected and partially focused and attracted to small for a volume of air to pass. This mode of operation
batl?de, which has a hole. Beyond the anode hole, the eliminates the vacuum chamber for the work; however,
beam IS focused by means of magnetic forces generated certain sacriftces are made. Vacuum pumps are required
ft th focusing coil. Following this, the beam may be de- to eliminate air in the electron beam gun column and in
lb Ct d by magn tic fields generated by d f1 ction coils. intermediate chambers between the gun and the work,
,e beam then leaves the ele tron beam gun through an Two vacuum pumps are required to produce a. hard vac-
eJtlt Port and impinges on the workpiece. uum. A mechanical pump is used to ellminate the large
• The next major component i, th power supply volume of air and will pull a vacuum in the 10 torr range.
nd Ontro1.This unit takes power from the utility lin To obtain the hard vacuum, a dtffuslon pump is required.
a~d pr vides the beam current, normally less than 1 Al The diffusion pumping does not remove large volumee
f
v th acceleration voltage, which is thousands of
~ ts, The b am, power is the produ t of the b am cur-
of air and takes considerable time to reach a hard vac ...·
uum.Th pumps at operated aut mancally by the con-
:nt and the acceleration voltage measured in kilovolt ; trol syst ro e, ·... .
t~!Ulges from few kilovolts up through 50 kY.The con- Th last component is an. optical viewing system to
\\' system has total contr 1 of the el ern beam line up the electron beam With the weld. joitU, This must
tl~eJcJerSfst m. It Iso ontrols relari motion between be ac urate Sine the welding beam is stl1~ll:rh optl 1.1
at~dS\m and workpl e. t pow rs th . va uurn pump system is connect d to th work motion d v!cefor pre·
J't}. Other devic s. outrols for lectron berun welding cis ntignmeQ.t.igure 8"'Jl~ ~bowsa typic~.ll el Ctroll
dr? Illnes ntust be pte ase' and ~l' ~ often computer beam welcUu{{machfne system,\ " . -
<i~~ en. In many In'$tallation the electron gun is fixed
h catl be adJusted for speCific t rg ts. Tile work·
>
q~~ Uing ~quip.m mud to moVi the workpie e 'an be

Qr e Complcx, ranging from sin·SI ·n is motton t ii.v
Ill~()r. ax So. mUon ifJ three pJan and with ;rotafY
'fh_ton.liquip:m:ent ofe.xtv me precision' must be US· d.,
. trtl}trilVt::l n ech~1llsm, D1'l1st be designed rotc wcuum in,;
nishati~us ,b'lce h.lbrican sand rrain inulatinQ vat·~
som es,~ , J cut . mot s may volatUiz in a vaC\;lUm. Tn
n~es, rnOtotS' and ge~r ..bo are, loente(~ out id
FIGURE8-18 An electron beam welding system.
Welding Society.
Electrons in the beam collide with molecules in air
FIGURE8-19 An electron beam welding in a chamber.
A new meth d used experimentally allows tjle

welding to be done Ina soft va uum, which is contain d
in a small chamber attach ~d to th work by means of
seals. This allows the welding gun to mov but requiteS
that a s al b maintained b tween til welding apparatu~
and the workpiece. For som • applications this is possible;
for others it is not.This system is not popular,
The a celeration voltage is another way of specifY-
Ing electron beam welding macbtne .. The low-voltage
machines hay an Output of 15 to 60 kv; and hJgh.vo)tagc
rna hines 11 v an output of 100 to 20'0 kV. It is wffi' utt
to compare equiprn nt on the basi" )f th a eel 'rfltirL~ .
oltag only sin e th baste d ign of th low- and high-
Uag Ii t ms ..r tadi ally different, From a s'w 1;)'
'tandpoint1an ao clerattng voltage of 1 $S than 20 I'V
prodnces soft " ..t"''''Y~J
whiJ..,.an cel:rntit.lg. voltage. of .
over 20 kV prod.u es hard :x·rays. S1) Iding]s.m re d ..
rrnttlding against I'll Hatiol1 as rh • ace I 't'ation volt~l~ jt1~
r ~I's.'rJtt~Iower-voltag . rna 'hlnc& ep .rate • t }l higlWf
em'!' nt; typi(,'ally, 30- to )()·kYma '1 it . operat 1:IL a':;O '
rnA beam urr m, Th. high· (ltag mr nine of 15' k.V
. ot' mte at 4: mA..'1 he high l;V >ltag rna 'hi:l~S l'fQdu e
. llfrcmt r xleptlt·m-widtl1 ratio of the weld .t1ugg -1. 'lJ ];,.
'ot1ld be th dlf( fen 1 tw n a 1 :1 lCpth.to.width
:1 d ·tlh-w-wkllh t"atl'), 'th' J j~hcr-
"t lohgelt:Stfitl <:toff dis_tatl(; " Ultlfl
can low-VOltage machines; however, low-voltage rna-
~hines are simpler in construction and less maintenance
1S required.
Electron beam machines are rated by their output

power in kilowatts. They are available from approxi-
mately 1 kW to as high as 40 kW
The ability of a machine to do work is based on its
beam power, which is the product of the beam current
and the acce.lerating voltage in kilovolts. Beam power re-
lates to the power density of the electron beam. Power
densities in the range 100,000 to 10,000,000 W/in.2 can
be obtained. Temperatures are in the neighborhood of
~5,000°F, which causes practically instantaneous vapor-
llation of the surface of the workpiece. The depth of pen-
ettation is generally considered a function of the
a celerating voltage. The accelerating voltage relates to
the speed at which the electrons travel. The beam cur-
rent, which relates to the number of electrons in the
beam, influences the weld configuration.
The major advantage of electron beam welding is its
tr rnendous penetration, which occurs when the highly
FIGURE8-20 An electron beam weld in 1.375"
aCcelerated electron hits the base metal. It will penetrate aluminum.
Slightly below the surface and at that point release the
bl1lk of its kinetic energy,which turns to heat energy. This
b'
.nngs about a tremendous temperature increase at the
POint of impact. The succession of electrons striking STEEL -
the same place cau e m lting and then evaporation of WELOING SPEEO (M/MIN)
~b.ebase metal.This creates metal vapors, but the electron 1.3 2,6 3.8 5.1 6,4 7.6 8.tI 10.226.1
am travels through the vapor much easier than solid

llletal. This causes th beam to penetrate deeper. Th 1).90 22.9
d. Pth·to-Width ratio can exceed 20: 1. As the pow I' den-
~ty is increased, penetration is increas d. An electron 0,75 10.1
am Weldin 1 3/8 in.alurninurn is shown in F'igtlre 8-20. i:;
(
The heat input of electron beam welding is con-
1C;,2 §
trolled by four variables: (1) the number of lecrrons per I-
~
II:
S cOnd hitting the workpiece or b am urr nt; (2) the
_Jectron sped at themoment of impact, th accelerating 11." i
P tcUtia.!; (3) th diameter of the b am at or within the ~.
!I'.
::l'kpiec I the b am spot . Izet and 4) the sp d of 7.6
, el, the w Iding 'pe d. The first two arlables, beam

3.0
. Uttent and. ace Ierating pot ntlal, are used in establish-
Ing .
. W ~klillg param t rs. The third factor, the beam spot
12 •
, e, JI) related to the focus of th beam, and the fourth 0 0j'J ,00 ,ao ~QQ 2!iO 3QO 3!iO . 10P
bt~t():r is at 0 part of th procedure. Normally, the el tr n W 1.0lNG S~EEQtiN/MINI
'CtJtttl lU,'t'itlt rang s from 250 to 1,000 rnA; the beam FIGURE 8-21 Travel speed versus 'penetration.
.i 1rry n~ anbe as low as 25 mAo Tbe accelerating volta~e
~) 'Wttll1n 'tn twonttig s mentionedprev.lQusly. Travel
'Of d an b ext!' mely hi _b and J' lat s to the hi 1 n 55
•.q) t1he bas.. lllet! l.Th orJ C!' parauleter th t mu 't bon-
t d ..
I '11 ·
'
"tfn
t th guo .. o-work eli tanc·. It I . ult to e tab.
b. 'W "1(llng .h dul ~s f( r 'Je tmn b am .. weldIng
Pl._.it\ts. of th oQmb r. QfariabJes involved. l:lowever.
fl~lre ~2t sl)ov'sthe rel~,tt9n~hipben 'tl ~vel speetl
d nfh: of p '"1l(,tt'JtioP.
I f tit ~~ I 'um Spot, jz n be varl "d b I;h 10 atiOtl
_ j a.1pobJt Witll tespe tto th Sl,tr.e1ce of tIp
Penetration is also dependent on the beam current. Some weld joint details for electron beam welding
• As beam current is increased, penetration is in- are shown in Figures 8-22 and 8-23.Welds are extremely
creased. narrow, and therefore penetration for welding must be
extremely accurate.v" The width of a weld in l-in. (12-
• The other variable, travel speed, also affects pene-
tration. mm)-thick stainless steel, for example, would only be 0.04
in. (0.10 111m), and for this reason a small misalignment
• As travel speed is increased, penetration is reduced.
would allow the electron beam to miss the joint corn-
The power in an electron beam weld would be in pletely. Special optical systems are used that enable the
the same relative amount as for a gas metal arc weld.The operator to align the work with the electron beam. The
gas metal arc weld would require higher power to pro- electron beam is not visible in the vacuum. The depth-to-
duce the same depth of penetration.The energy in joules width ratio allows for special lap-type joints. Where joint
per inch for the electron beam weld may be only one- fitup is not precise, ordinary lap joints are used and the
tenth as great as the gas m tal arc weld. The electron weld is an arc seam weld. Normally, filler metal is not used
beam weld will be equivalent to the SMAW weld, with in el ctron beam welding; however, when welding mild
less power because of the tremendous penetration ob- steel, highly deoxidized filler metal is sometimes used to
tainable by electron beam welding, The power density is deoxidize the molten metal and produce dense welds.
in t.he range of 100 to 10,000 kW/in2. Almost all metals can be welded with the electro!l
Since the electron beam has tremendous penetrat- beam welding process. The metals that are most oftetl
ing characteristics, with the lower heat input, the heat- welded are the superalloys, the refractory metals, the re-
affected zone is much smaller than that of any arc active metals, and the stainless steels. Many combtnattone
welding process. In addition, b cause of the almost paral- of dissimilar metals can also be welded.
Iel sides of the weld nugget, distortion is greatly mini- One of the disadvantages of the electron beaDl·
mized. TIle cooling l-ate is much higher, and for many process is its high capital cost. The price of the equiP'
metals this is advantageous; however, for high-carbon ment is very high, and it is expensive to operate due to
steel this is a disadvantage and cracking may occur. the need for vacuum pumps. In addition, fitup must be
FIGURE8-22 Weld joint types for electron beam FIGURE8-23 Weld [oint types for electron beam
welding, welding.
.:
BEAM
J#'
DURN·THROUGH "T" WELD ANGULAR

"weLD JOINT SQUARE BUTT WELD JOINT
1 I
WELD JOINT
JOINT
as M BE"M BEAM
L 'Cll: J :, I
SOU,Mtf£ BUrrWEl..DWITM lAP WEH.OJOINT
8AOl(ING $1'FHP
BEAM
precise and locating the parts with respect to the beam it creates heat. This heat can be used exactly as heat pro-
mUst be perfect. duced by an electron beam or a welding arc.
Electron beam welding is not a cure-all; there are still
the Possibilities of defects of welds. A major problem is
welding plain carbon steel in a vacuum.The melting of the Laser Types
metal releases gases originally in the metal and results in a Two basic types of lasers are used in metalworking. The
porous weld. If de oxidizers cannot be used, the process is original types are the solid-state lasers, which use a solid
not Suitable. It is expected that the electron beam process medium.The second types are the gas lasers, which nor-
will become more popular for welding specialized metals mally use a mixture of helium, nitrogen, and CO2 gas in a
Where critical quality standards must be met. tube. In either case, when the medium is sufficiently ex-
cited, it emits photons, which become the laser beam.
Three types of solid-state lasers are in commercial
use: (1) the ruby laser, which uses a synthetic ruby with
8-3 LASER BEAM WELDING chromium in aluminum oxide; (2) the Nd:glass laser, which
Laser beam welding is a welding process that
(LBW) uses neodymium in glass; and (3) the Nd:YAG laser, which
uses the heat generated when a focused laser beam im- is a crystal doped with neodymium and made of yttrium,
Pinges on the joint. The process is used with or without a aluminum, and garnet. In the solid-state lasers, the Nd ions
shielding gas and Without the application of pressure.The emit photons when their electrons are excited and then al-
~ser is a device that produces a concentrated coherent lowed to draw back to their original energy state.
bght beam by stimulating electronic or molecular transi- The wavelength of the laser beam produced by
tloIlS to lower energy levels.The word laser is an acronym solid-state lasers is much shorter than that for CO2 lasers.
f?r "light amplification by stimulated emission of radia- A laser beam of this ShOt1wavelength is an eye hazard. In
tion."The laser beam is a highly concentrated source of general, safe lise of material working lasers requires eye
energy that has many applications, It can be used for protection, specifically blocking the wavelength of light
:elding, for cutting metals and nonmetals, for surface that the laser produces. Unprotected eyes are at risk not
eat treating of metals, and for cladding by fusing pow- only from direct laser energy but also from reflected en-
ders to base materials. It can also be used for brazing and ergy.Therefore, eye protection is required when working
Q]dering and for drilling, machining, and marking. It is around solid-state lasers. Beam-reflecting goggles coated
al 0 Used in other fields, induding medicine, communi- with material that blocks or reflects radiation prevents
Cation, marking. compact disc players, barcode reading, the beam from passing through to the eyes,
and survev1n r ...~g. 'TIle beam operating mod for the ruby and
19 The laser Was conceived by Charles H. Townes in Nd:g.la s lasers is usually pulsed.The Nd:YAG laser can be
1.(7) In 1960,T. H.Maiman of Hugh s.Aircraft Research of continuous-wave or pulsed mode. TIle average output
~b?l"'4tOri~S.in California demonstrated a device, wOl~- puls range for the ruby laser ranges from 10 to 20 to
rugIn the VIS1 ble region of the spectrum, using a synthetic 3,000W, with the power levels golng up every year. TIle
e by crystal excited by a gas discharge flash tube and beam dtameter is normally gtven only as a minimum,
J:ltting short pulses of fed coherent, light. (8) In 1961,All whtch is from 1/16 In, (1.6 mm) for the t'uby las f, from
f an of Bell Labs produced a laser beam from a mixture 1/8 in. (3 mrn) for th Nd.glas I and from 0.020 in, (0.05
~, ~eHum and neon gases xci ted direct! by an electrical mm) for the Nd:YA laser, d pending on wheth ,f it i.
0:1harge, The CO2 la er. de eloped In 1964 by Patel of conrtnuous.wav .or pulsed. The upper diameter limit Is
'. j Labs has become the industrial workhorse.F'The fo- the tl, able diameter of a las .r beam and is dependent on
'~' -d laser beam has a high energy c n entranon, on th the pow r limit, tions.
ttl ord r as an el tron t earn in a hard vacuum. It is a Th solid-stat lasers use a single ry, tal tnf d if\~O
'~r f et tromagnettc nargy; r Hght, that can be a round rod approXitnltt Jy 3/4 in. 1 :n:tm) in diamev'r
fOa: very SnaU spot.
JClcd With low divergenc and an be concentrated
'
and appr ximatelyS il1.(200mtll l()ng.Tbeendsurfa ,es.
of tIl rod aregrol.tnd flat tUl.d pf~el1ind ate poljshed$
coh Ltght £tom an incana scent electa Ught bulb is ''In· to ext.teme Smoothness. Bothf1(tt end,s are' 'Qver ,de wInl
bier n.t,"whi 1, means ut [ph s ,and sa r sullO has SllVi r to r fleet light; however." s1llaU areain,Qne ennls
n fth dlV rg n is radiated jJl all dire tiOtlS from th
Or left uncoVi red 1;0 allow thl s"r b tim to i £1:' 1U the
....\.lr I
tat . t i no~ lllonocilromtltic, hich m 'ans that it can- rod. Tl • slid-stat· r d js clo Jyst1l,'round rl by a high-
to t a Wi~ spe truro ofwav J ngths colors),fmm short int nsi.ty 19ht s nf "which is n: lash .ub, With a, .. ~tlon
\Vbic~'S·l1,t: racUatlon from a laser,is .mo~och1." ma.ti " Q krypton elln nt,l~gure 8... 2 is ,a ,impnfIed
''fOr . 1 Dr rvtdes a single waveleflgth,wlll IiU\,turn allows ofat;oHa-stath am·sDur .W;hctJ tl1 -iui>':1$' , ',it
nt (inirnurn b "am <Ii ergen e, The b rtl iS~llsQ '()l1el'· emif-s anint:c-ns put.: . f lisht t])i- t' J~ t,s iot' ftpprq:,q~ "
llt~ 11th~t t1 . JJgbt is nll in ph., .The Jas r bean').has a . nat. ly 2 IUse .111 hitlh·t(1t )1. ity be ,ttl 0 'oti t' It .oo J
. 1'1, ,tay ontcru;tbu· when it i111'Pings ,n a sttrf.-1.e~ Ugbt f 111itted trom'th,' ieaitrllI in, the.s. l:tel'"r~ile~t0l';
,
CO2 LASER GAS
POWER SUPPLY
SUPPLY AND CONTROL
TOTALLY
REFLECTING_
= LASER
~ BEAM
MIRROR
CO2 LASING
MEDIUM
FIGURE 8-24 Solid state laser. FIGURE 8-25 CO2 laser.
Dn one end of the ruby rod.A burst of laser beam light, apparatus.The size of the apparatus and the efficiency of
which lasts about 2 msec, occurs each time the flash the system are different.
tube Is flashed. It is not possible to. flash the ruby tDD of- A summary of laser types and outputs is shown ill
ten because of heat generated in the ruby crystal and in Table 8-3. There are two. operating modes for lasers: the
the flash tube. Thus it cannot operate continuously be- continuous-wave mode and the pulsing mode. These are
cause Df th heat buildup. The flash pulse durations are similar to the operating modes of other welding processes.
short, and there is a relatively long period between
pulses. The other two. solid-state lasers operate in a sirni-
lar manner. Laser Beam Welding
The O2 laser is widely used for metalworking. The The laser beam is intense and unidirectional but can be
carbon dioxide laser uses gas that is a mixture of CO2, he- focused and reflected in the same way as an ordinarf
lium, and nitrogen. Excitation of the gas las ris by means light beam. The fDCUSsize is controlled by the choice of
of hlgh-voltage, low-current electric power.Lasers may use lens s and mirror and the distance to. the workptece.Thv
D DrAC, with A! being low Dr high fr quency. The elec- SPDt slz can be made as small as 0.010 in. (0.2mm) to up
trical di charg excites the CO2 mole 11 s, which on re- to 1/2 in. 13 mmj.The small r fo us SPDt size is used for
turning t th "il' original energy state, emit photons, Mirrors utting and welding, and the larger spot size is u ed fof
are placed on both ends of the tube, one entirely reflective heat treating. The laser beam can be u ed it). open atr and
and the other with a small partially transmissive area to al- can be transmitted long distances with only mmtmal Io 5
low the b am to' xit:nlig forrns a caviry in which phot ns ofp w r,
b\lild up. Tl;le freed photons travel b tween the mirrors A block diagram Df a laser beam weldiqg system i
and exctte th" 0 rno ul 8, starting a chain rea 'tion of shown inFigure 8-26.1'hi8 how the major components:
photon: emtsions.A. tra.tn f phot()llS, the la et: b· am, ex- the laser b am. sour e ( m time alled tll oscillator),
its: tb.rougl;l:th un~ihn~d se 't!on of the on mirror, the power supply) the cooling system. the gaS St.lppl1
. The.wmrelength··ofthe CO;t laser-beam is 10.6 J..Ul1. Of the las r bettm sDurcet th beam delivery system, the
'thIs wa' length is longer and does not pDse quite the ey beam output coupUng 'to. t.b orkpl ce, th motion sy:r
h~zard of the shQrer- 'av ' n >th soUd-stat las 'rs. on- t m for moVing 'ither the b am r the workpJe ,or
v ntjlJmd ali tY ey. w at an giv" satisfa ,tory prote ti n. both, theont:rol syst· m tor. the b am ourc and modol}
. Tf'l-~Oz gas ·1¥Sf ·an ,h perate 1 itl the ontio.UOUB-< system and auxUiary syst m and the teal-tune momO!
!
",w~e or R~11~mode: ~ ga laser beam S free Is shown

. ·;tl,)1i!itJreS:25. . .
or, fee Ib3Ck $Y 'terns. Workpiec. motton, parts bandlltli·
and wrkpiec motion·1I edback or monitoring lln~ siti'li' .
... . 'J~het ar $v, ml typ s of '02 la rs. Thea.rty or Tar t thos of oth r automaticW1 IOing syst filS; e;1tC fo~
·low pi Wet hYP\lli <1ails alcd tub "with pow t O\lt- that th a' l.ltff r f 1\lovem nt ml-lfl b .ve, pre i .
pl. {)f rom jtl ow. '11 fast, xiaHlow (FA typ ., Th h 'am 80tU:: e power supply, oUng system, g s sUP"
whichi. It mot oml))'" tnetl1 d t' l'" QldngJil 'r ply, and· )nt:r J syst ttl t p rtIulnr to l~ r s st m$ and
.roa 1 .'rom 50 ,to 6 kW averale ouiput .at . ased on th t'Yl'cS f laer, itll r lid w.te or ,g., •
efttft' t)1 lllgb.; 'ow 1\ trnn fef.;fl(j(a:s r.
I and Ihe1llod~ o!<lpe·ro.tion,ontint'lou or:ptils ,1. f
is'. n.v~Jfabf lp to as' ,\'t'rh:c laser prod'll lOR $ st. OJ is :'11 b '" 01 <l liv system m ,~ mat h th.l typ' 0 .
.~l$J. OWl1·l ~ ~Jl. .'i tJtat01'. Th' ~ diCf,' nt. typ' C)f 0;( "U.
!lVi .:?i r opt! S il use I t6 ttansrtlit th short-
~rJiitrio1:,fct dif'~ut'de$tiQS
~d~~ Qftb'. b ~1m·pro(lucil1a """W3vel ngth iaS,f beam. r tTl tftesQltd~state 1~.ets~'111«:
TABLE 8-3 SUMMARY OF LASER TYPES FOR METALWORKING
Solid-State Laser
Use. Factors Ruby Nd;YAG (CW) Nd:YAG (Puls~d) Gas (C02) Laser
Wavelength (um) 0.694 1.06 1.06 10.6
Continuous wave (CV) No Yes No Yes
Pulsed mode Yes No Yes Yes
Average power (W) 10-20 0.04-600 0.04-600 50-25,000
Beam diameter (rnrn) 1.5-25 1-6 5-10 1-10
Beam diameter (in.) 0.058-0.975 0.040-0.235 0.195-0.390 0.040-0;390
Use for welding Yes Yes Yes Yes
Use for cutting No Yes Yes Yes
~ 8-26 Siock diagram of a laser beam welding system.

.%
hp;m, (lclivcrysystemfo! th longer-wavelength laser, power density rises above a. certain thresholp levelt key ...: ,
1" i.t'kally th 0zlas r b am, must use a lens and a mir- holing OCCiltS, the sam as with plasma ar 'or electt-otl '
r d >livery system. The delivery 51 tern must match the beam welding. l<! yholh'lg provides for extt tUely deep
Oft ' t' and the parti ular applt anon. penetration, which gives the weld a high deptl',.to..Wid$
Pin. co Wh n using a las r beam for welding, the b am Irn- ratio, KeyhoUn8 also rnmlmlz s the problenl of b am.re-
'en~ " on the urfac of the base m tal with such a con- flection from til shJny' molten metnlslllrface since the
vOl. fatten. of n r.gy that the .surbu:e is melted and k yhole bebaves Like ~ black body anctabsorb cth~nul·
Peratilized. When th m tal Is raised to Its-melting tern- jodty , f the nergy. For rp.ostapplications. Jti,t9tt gas is
'fl t~t: ,·eil Sllrfaonditiotls have a minor ff t on.reused tl e 111 tal vapor Inth weld area will iQni~e);at'iin-
tng h b am, rt gas et wUl mitlimizepl~.sma formation. l>lasfl1n ab-
Pi ,om di t nc ftom til opti al avity to th work" , sorbs en J.'gy l'om th l~s 'I' beam and cnn, acttullly blo k
to l' unSUtae efli r nth JaSl'.Thts is be .l.15 it can be the beam'apd rl1uce qlelting.This so' er.OJll by ushlS
~ ed t . t:l propersl?~t 8,Z: at tb~ work~wjtbthe sa,tl'lC 'an mert-gas je(dlJ;e(;te~,al ~S the (lltaJ'~w:fac r'W.
, un: 01 n 1'8)*llvaUabJewhethcdt Is do PI'lntaway." "e1iniitn~t,s the pl:lMlB bl.tlJdtl,P. cIt alscnd\i.etdsthe"w
(Ii 1 ,Wltn lasel' W Jail 1:11 th moltettm tal tak on it, rai' from the l,trnOSPft re." , ',' ",'
"if qflguqttlon J:cnUarto plasm. at welding) Down TIl weldtn) ~haract tisti s of the h,sc.r fir shn, J;'l'
1i
ttl'I't"1n 0tOD.du tion mod weJr;1ing. \Vb n the' to tbose dftbeele tronberun. mel~er;pat1' weld. ti1~ .~'
.'- ~ - -" " -', . _" , ,- - ~. - , . '.- "~f
STEEL-
TRAVEL SPEED ("'!MINI

O.M 1.3 1.8 2.5 3.2 3.8 4.4 5'\.8
Q/32
&.4
-: 7132 j
~ a.l ~
~
z
3/18 S
It
!: 5132 ~
......
X :J,8 ~
...~
-< 1/8
ii
i
WI
i 2.6
1/18
1.3
1132
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 115 200

TRAVEL SPEED (tNJMIN'
FIGURE8-27 Laser welds made in stainless steel.
FIGURE8-28 Laser welding speeds.
8-4 HIGH ENERGY

BEAM CUTTING
High energy beam cutting (HEBe) is "a group of ther'
mal cutting processes that severs or removes materi91
by localized melting, burnlng, or vaporizing, of the
workpi ces using beams having high energy densitY.-
This is essentially electron beam cutting and laser beafl1
cutting.
a gantry frame that spans the workpiece. Others a.re sim-
Laser Beam Cutting ilar to turret punches; in some cases the table moves, in
Laser beam cutting (lEC) is a thermal cutting process others the head moves.They provide two axes of motion
that severs metal by locally melting or vaporizing with and are driven by a CNC controller. Software is available
the heat from a laser beam. The process is used with or for nesting parts on material for minimum scrap loss.
Without assist gas to aid removal of molten and vaporized Lasers are also used with robots.
material. There are several variations. In one case an inert Typical Iaser-cut parts are shown in Figure 8-30.
gas jet assists the removal of molten and vaporized ma- The dimensional accuracy is better than for oxyfueJ gas
terial. The other, laser beam oxygen cutting, is a variation cutting.The edges of a. laser cut are square and sufficiently
that uses the heat from the chemical reaction between smooth that additional finishing is not necessary.
oxygen and the base metal at elevated temperatures.The The power required for laser cutting i relatively
neces ary temperature is maintained with a laser beam. low. In general, the continuous-wave CO2 laser with up to
~ther assist gases are compressed air and nitrogen. 1kW of power is sufficient to cut thin-gauge metals. The
FIgure 8-29 shows the laser beam cutting process. data given in Figure 8-31 show the travel speed of a laser
The concentrated energy in the laser beam is only beam for cutting different metals and thicknesses. This
lightly less than the energy in the electron beam. TIle shows two different-size laser machines and uses a jet of
ability of both beams to cut materials is essentially the oxygen to improve cutting speed.(12) Sharp corners,
arne. Laser beam cutting has many advantages over elec-
~ron beam cutting. The laser beam can cut metal up to 1
tn. (25 mrn) in air. It can be used with automatic shape-
TABLE8-4 CO2 LASER CUTTING SPEEDS FOR DIFFERENT
CUttingequipment at high travel speeds.The width of the
MATERIALS. FROM REFERENCE 12.
L1Serbeam cut is narrower and the angle of the cut is al-
mOst a perfect right angle. The quality of the cut surface
Is equal Or superior to that of the best oxygen fuel gas cut
udace. Table 8- shows the materials that can be cut Material
With a 4 O-W CO2 laser and the speed of cutting.The CO2 ASS plastic 4 0.157 4.5 177.1
and the Nd:YAG lasers have different cutting abilities, de- Acrylic 6 0.236 1.7 66.9
.~ ading on the absorption of their wavelength. Table 8-5 Cardboard 0.1 0.004 96.0 3779.5
e crlbes the quality of cuts from the two types of lasers Ceramic tile 6.3 0.248 0.3 11.8
SOl'different materials. Cutting power is usually between Formica 1.6 0.063 7.8 307.1
00 and 2,00 W. Galvanized steel 1 0.039 4,5 177.1
Precision Laser cutting machines of various types High-carbon steel 3 0.118 1.5 59.0
at~ cornmer lally avallabl .The more common type uses Mild steel 1 0.039 4.5 177.1
Plywood 18 0.708 0.5 19.7
Stainless steel 2.8 0.110 1.2 47.2
Titanium 3 0.188 4.1 161.4
"'SURE8-29 Process diagram-laser beam cutting.
Wool suit material 48.0 1889.7
FOCUSING LENS
Mild steel excellent

Stainless steel Excellent'
Albfminum . Good
Copper Good
Gold Good
Iltanlum Good
Ceramics Fair
Acrylics ~?Qr '
Pofyethylene . Poor
PolycarbonatG pcioi
OROSS SEctiON OF PlYWood . PQO~
WORKPlaCe
ALUMINUM----
STEEL-
CUTTING SPEED (M/MIN)
,--_...:;o.r:64
_ --r-T
_:I:;...3 __ 2;::.5:.__-:!;!:.__~~_::;;:.____;;6. \8
9/32
114 6.4
7/32
! I
!Ii
w
3/16 \
2 \
~ \
5f32 \
X
I-
..J
«
a:...
1/8 " ...............
...
~
1116
1I500W ............
........ -_ -_ ......... _-- ............... _ 1.3
1/32
o 26 50 76 100 125 150 175 200

CUTTING SPEED
(IN./MINI
FIGURE8-31 Cutting speed versus thickness.
Laser applications ill metalworking will continue to

increase. As more powerful lasers are produced witb
higher efficiencies, there will be more welding applica-
tions for la ers, Lasers will be used for localized surface
heat treating because of the accurate control possible.
Lasers are being used for surfacing with the addition of
FIGURE8-30 Typical parts cut by a laser. powder as the filler metal instead 0 wire. In these apptir
cations, the depth of penetration can be very accurately
controlled.The laser is also being used for fusing thermal
smooth surfaces, narrow cut width, minimum th rrnal spray surfaces to improve the density of the sprayed .rn.a'
damage, non-adherent dro s, and 90° surfaces are all terral and to create fusion with the substrate. It is e$r
acht vcd with J( r cutting. The laser beam an be used pect d that the use of lasers will. greatly increase in tbe
for ddlHng hol s by using the cutting technique but with- next few y ars.
01,11 travel.
~Q~~~.S~.T~IO~N~~~p ~
81. weld? Explain the differ nee b tw en el ctron bean1
8-2. 11 a r 'sistanc" sp t welding in a b, rd va uum, a oft Vll uum, and In tbe
tm spher' •
f WI) i pr elstcn joint pr p • non r: '11.lif d for el .
tron b am w {ding quar' butt i lots?
Wh tare th advant ges aad dtsadVltnt:.qg s of ere • .
troa beam welding in rl1cai:rl .'
Wh t typ of l tron b m weldIng equlpm "nt gen'
rat :X-t y ?
a·li. Wll t th prqhl m 'with I tron 1 m unil1~?
SolS. Wh. t. do s las 'r stani.! fc r?
8·16. , Wbat illlf Pt" :lUlJ $; sltOllJ(, be. tak l\ wl (:11warlC' .
Jl§ rQ'un4:, laSerfl'? .
11las r beams be trtlnsmltt (l1:>y fib r
Wh f. th *I.dvntlt. g ?
8-20. What.is the advantage of laser welding over electron
8-19. Can lasers cut nonmetals? What materials can be cut
beam welding?
besides metals?
REFERENCES
7. A. L. Scbawlow,lEEE Transactions on Electron Devices,
1. R. D. Enquist, "How Easy Can You Join Metals by Resis-
tance Spot Welding?" /1"On Age (August 10, 1961). Vol. ED23, 1976.
2. "Resistance Welding Equipment Standards," Bulletin 16, 8. J. L. Bromberg, "The Construction of the Laser," Laser
Resistance Welders Manufacturers Association. Philadel- Topics (October 1985).
phia.Pa. 9. G. K. Klaumlnzer, "Twenty Years of Commercial Las rs-
3. Resistance Welding Manual, Resistance Welders Manu-
A Capsule History," Laser Pocu IEleetro-Optics (Decem-
facturers Association, Philadelphia, Pa. ber 1984).
4. J. A. Stohr and J. Eriola, "VaCl-lUmWelding of Metals," 10. B.F. Kuvin, "Laser and ELectron Beams for Deep, Fast Weld-
Welding and Metal Fabrication (October 1958). ing," Welding Design and Pabrtcation (August 1985).
S. ]. W. Meier, "High Power Density Electron Beam Welding 11. D. A. Belforte, "Laser in Production Operations," Society
of Several Materials," 2nd International Vacuum Con- of Manufacturing Engineers, Clearwater Beach, F1a.
gress ,Washington , D.C., Oct. 16-19. 1961. 12. "C02 Laser Cutting," Technical Note, Specrr:.t-Physics,
6, "Electron Beam Welding," Point Paper, U.S. Navy, Naval San Jose, Calif.
Air Station. North Island. San Diego, Calif.
ation is described, the fuel gas must be specified. A num-
ber of fuel gases are used. The most popular is acetylene,
Natural gas is widely used, as is propane, methyl-
acetylene-propadiene stabilized, and various trade name
fuel gases. Hydrogen is rarely used. Gasoline can even be
used but is not popular. Each fuel gas has its particular
characteristics and may require slightly different appa.~
rams because of the e characteristics. The characterie
tics relate to the flame temperatures, heat cont€:ot1
oxyg n fuel gas ratios, and 0 n.The general concept of
oxyfu I gas cutting is similar no matter what fuel gas i
used. It is th oxyg n jet that makes the cut In steel, and
c rtting spe d depends on how efficiently the Oxygfl
reacts With the steel. Oxygen for cutting must be 999~
pur . If purity is less, cutting speed and efficiency w;11
9..1 ~YGEN CUTTING be redu ed. or Irnpl! ity, w c nfin our discussion to
the u f acetylene.
The generation of beat by combusn n of acetylctl
and oxryg n is u ed to brn g th b. e metal st 1. up 0 US
kindling tempera Ute, Where .it will jgn1t and burn in aD
atmosphere of pure oxygen. Th chemical formulas for
thr e of the oxidr tion rea tlons are as follows:
2 ~+ l:;:: l~ +h • t 270 I\J)

311+ 2 2;::: t~30 + heat (1 00 kJ)
2F + 1.50~ .. Pe;20~+ h a
FIGURE9-1 Process diagram for oxygen cutting.
Steel and a number of other metals are flame cut

With the oxyfuel gas cutting process. The following con-
ditions must apply:
1. The melting point of the material must be above its
kindling temperature in oxygen.
2. The oxides of the OJ tal should melt at a lower tem-
perature than the metal itself and below the tem-
perature that is developed by cutting.
3. The heat produced by the ombustion of the metal
With oxygen must be sufficient to maintain the oxy-
gen cutting opcratlon. FIGURE9-2 Manual oxy fuel cutting. Courtesy of
Welding Inspection Technology, American We/ding Society.
., The th rmal condu 'tivity must be low enough so
that the mat rial can be brought to its kindling
temperature.
• The oxides formed in cutting h uld be fluid when cutting. The numbering system for tip i not standard-
rnolten so as not to interrupt the cutting op ration. ned, and most rnanufa rurers use thetr schedule for flan e
cutting, clean, mild steel, tip number system. Ea h system
1 based on the sfze of the oxygen utnng orifice of the
tip. These are related to drill siz s. Differen,t tip sizes are
required for cutttng different thlckn ~ ses of arbon ste r
The manual cutting t r h and oxygen and a etyl ne
cylinders atld regulators are shown in Figure 9~ "Mecha-
nized utting is shown in Figure 9,..5. .
Many sp 'iaJ utting tip - fi r sp cit1 appUqttiOl1S
ar vallable.Th s at 1.1 dtor flame g ugirig, to r mov
well d f cts, and for edge preparation. Oth r tips ate d .;
signed fot (I movtng.rtvet heilds, rem iVing rUlers from
~rtstitlg~1iUld fot shaping .sin11lces.:1\ .vadety of tips N'c··
available, at'ld they an beusedwtth either tTlallUlll or
rn l~\ftJZ d qutpment, Surfa ,5 of flam em, et.ig S .are
hews in Fig\jte ...6.
TABLE9-1 SCHEDULEFOR FLAMECUTIINGCLEANMILD STEEL
Cutting Orifice
Material Diameter Approx. Gas
Thickness Travel Speed
(Center Hole) Pressure (psi) (in.imin)
in. rnm Drill Size in. mm Acetylene Oxygen Manual Mechanized
t 3.2 60 0.040 1.0 3 10 20-22 22
6.4 60 0.040 1.0 3 15 16-18
*
i 9.5 55 0.052 1.3 3 20 14-16
20
19
t 12.7 55 0.052 1.3 3 25 12-14 17
i 19.0 55 0.052 1.3 4 30 10-12 15
1 25.4 53 0.060 1.5 4 35 8-11 14
H 38.1 53 0.060 1.5 4 40 6-n 12
2 50.8 49 0.073 1.9 4 45 $-7 10
3 76.2 49 0.073 1.9 5 50 5-6t 8
4 101.6 49 0.073 1.9 5 55 4-5 7
5 127.0 45 0.082 2.1 5 60 3Hl 6
6 152.4 45 0.082 2.1 6 70 3-4 5
8 203,2 45 0.082 2.1 6 75 3 4
FIGURE 9-3 Two styles of manual oxyacetylene flame

cutting torches.
FIGURE 9-4 Manual cutting torch with oxygen and

acetylene cylinders and regulators, Courtesy ofWeldiMt
Inspection Technology. American Welding Society.
Flux Cutting
Flux cutting (FOC) is an oxygen cutting process that
uses heat from an Q}••ryfuel ga . flame, with a flux in the
flame to aid cutting. Powdered chemicals are used in the
same way as iron powder is used in the metal powder
cutting process.This process is sometimes calledflux in-
jection cutting. It is of minor industrial significance.
Oxygen Lance Cutting

Oxygen lance ittlng (LOC) is an oxygen cutting
process that uses oxygen supplied through a consumable
lance.The preheat to start the cutting is obtained by other
means.This is sometimes called oxygen lancing.The oxy-
gen lance is a length of pipe or tubing used to carry oxy-
gen to the point of cutting. It uses a small (1/8 or ]/4 in.
n minal) black iron pipe connected to a suitable handle,
which contains a shutoffvalve.This handle is connected to
the oxygen supply hose.The main difference between the
oxygen lance and an ordinary flame cutting torch Is that
there is no preheat flame to maintain the material at the
kindling temperature.The lance is consumed as it makes a
cut. The principal use of the oxygen lance is cutting hot
metal in steel rnills.The steel is sufficiently heated so that
FIGURE
9-5 Semiautomatic OFC equipment. Courtesy the oxygen will cause rapid oxidation and cutting to occur.
OfWelding Inspection Technology, American Welding The end of the oxygen lance becomes hot and supplies
SoCiety. iron to the reaction to maintain the high temperature.
FIGURE9_6 Surface of flame cut edges.
CORRECT CUT
Cutting liot>s are almost vertical and not very pronounced,
Edges are square. little slag (lvideot.
COMMON CUTTING MISTAKES

PRI:HI:AT FLAMES
TOO SMA!"L
SoUom half uneven and Top edge and cunlng 1111$$
wavy, uneven. .
\.'~ ~.... .~ P~EHEAT LAMES

TOO \."~GE
TOp edge badly molted.
~<~ Middl!l'Il!lOUOft 1$ smooth. t)vep 90uge&.I"to aldasof
$Iag evident at bottom. cu(due to t cK of tlQnlrol.
l.iJ)Psredge m~ltod. Cut- Cut!ln(1 1111Ii err.l tic

ing lin s r ihar cl)arse. \l!l&Ven.
· -,r' f' ,
CUllin lines CUNe In .
eppo lUI r;lir enon of tftl,· y.
'Ipl. Cut adnG l(jo(lUl!\L ._~ 1-_
9-2 ARC AND internal wires, which may be aluminum or magnesium or
their alloys, or steel. The tube may be coated or not. III
PLASMA CUTTING some cases the tubular electrode may be of a nonferrous
The arc and plasma cutting processes are a group of ther- metal. In operation, the oxygen flows through the tubU-
lar electrode and is ignited by an arc, spark, or flame. The
mal cutting processes that severs or removes metal by
melting with the heat of an arc between an electrode and reaction of the pure oxygen with the sheath and the
the workpiece. This group includes oxygen arc cutting, wires inside creates an exothermic reaction. This pro-
air carbon arc cutting, metal arc cutting, gas tungsten arc duces a temperature in the order of 10,000°F. The tre-
cutting, and plasma arc cutting. Most of these processes mendous amount of heat produced is sufficient to melt
are applied manually, but some are used semiautomati- all metals, composites, and nonmetals, such as concrete
cally and others may be automated. Some of these and bricks. This composite rod or tube can be used to cut
processes may be used for underwater cutting. concrete or masonry. It will cut slag, rocks, and other non-
metals. It can also be used underwater. Rods of this type
are known by various trade names such as Oxy-Lance,
Oxygen Arc Cutting Hot-Rod, Slice, Prime Cut, and Burning Bar. Extra special
safety precautions should be taken when using these
types of rods due to high heat and smoke produced.
Air Carbon Arc Cutting

Air carbon arc cutting (CAe-A) i a carbon arc cutting
process variation that removes molten metal with a jet of
ail'. It is also used for gouging.
A high-velocity air jet parallel to the .carbon elec-
trode strikes the molten metal puddle just behind the arc
and blows the molten metal out of the immediate area·
Figure 9-7 shows the arc betw en the carbon electrode
and the work and the airstream parallel to the electrode
from the special elec rode holder.
TIle air carbon arc cutting process is used to cut
metal, to gouge out defe rive metal, to remove infedOf
welds, to gouge roots, and to prepare grooves for welding,
Air carbon ar cutting is used hn slightly ragged edg S
are not objectionable. The area of the cut is small, and,
since the metal is melted and removed quickly. the sur- .
roundtng area does not rea h high temp ·ratures. This re-
duces the endency toward distortion and cracking.
Air carbon arc cutting and gouging is normally mafl"
u( Uy operat d.The apparatus an b mounted on a trav I
FIGURE9...7 Process diagram for alr carbon arc

cutting or gouging.
I't"NO HE\.0 E;1..E;eTROOE

HOI..OER; -- ........ b;;=.=~~
COMPRESSED
AIR
HAND HELD
ELECTRODE HOLDER
l
00
WORK LEAD
FIGURE9-8 Circuit diagram for CAC-A.
FIGURE 9-9 Electrode holder for CAC-A. Courtesy of

Carriage and considered machine cutting or gouging. Spe- Welding Inspection Technology, American Welding Society.
cial applications have been made where cylindrical work
has been placed on a lathe and rotated under the air car-
bon arc torch. from as low as 5 ft3/rom (2.5 liters/min) up to 50 ft3/min
The air carbon arc cutting and gouging process can (24 liters/min) for the largest carbon electrodes. A 1-
b~USed in all positions. The overhead position requires a horse-power compressor win supply sufficient air for
high. degree of skill. The process can be used for cutting smaller electrodes and light duty. It will require up to a 10-
Or gouging most of the common metals. horse-power compressor when using the largest elec-
. The process is not recommended for weld prepara- trodes. See Table 9-2 for requirements.
~on for stainless steel, titanium, zirconium, and other sim- The carbon graphite electrodes are made of a mix-
Ua.r metals without subsequent cleaning. Cleaning by ture.of carbon and a graphite plus a binder that is baked to
f:«inding must remove all of the surface carbonized mate- produce a homogeneous structure, Electrodes come ill sev-
tial adjacent to the cut. The process can be used to cut eral types.The plain, uncoated electrode is less expensive,
mOst materials for scrap. carries less current, and starts easier. The copper-coated
The circuit diagram for air carbon arc cutting or electrode provides better electrical conductivity between
gOUging is hown in. Figure 9-8. Normally, conventional it and the holder. The copper-coated el ctrode is better for
'''elding machines with constant current are used. Con- maintaining the original diamet r during operation: It lasts
tantvoltag can, b ' used. Wben using a power source, long r and arries higher C\UT nt, Copper-coated lee-
Pt a. lions must be taken to operate it within it rated trodes ar of two typ s: the D type and the 'type. The
\' lltP.ut. Alternating current power sources having con- composition ratio of the carbon and graphite is sli&htly dif-
. llU<mal drooping characteristics can also be used for ferent for these two types. The D type is more common.
Pectal. pplications.A: carbon ele trades must bused. Th AC type contains $) e ial. lernents to s~bilize the arc.
S .' q(lipm nt requlr d is shown by the blo k diagram. 111C AC ele trade is used for dir ct current electrode nega-
PIal heavy-duty; high urrent machines have been tive when cuttlngcast irons. For normal use, the electrode
~ad SPifi. ally for the air carbon ar pro ess. his is is operat d With the ele rrode po ttlve. '1 ctrodes range in
b U of extremely high urrents us d for the large ar- dtamerer from 5/32 in. ( ,0 rom) to 1 in, (25. AUll.l!lCC·
on electtod s. trades ate normally 12 in. 300' nun long; however. 6·in;-
{ Th et ctrode holder shown in igure 9-9 Is 'I - 150·mm electrodes ar ~Vrulabl . opper oated eJ '-
Qned fbr th air carbon, r l,r ess.The holder ltlclud s t 'Odes with trp l' ,c;.1 s 'ket joint ar a:vai1ahl for aut
a
<1t mall it lllar grip he~ld, which ontain, th air j ts ~ r m ti operatl n and allow contimlO'lls operation.
I r illg tb .C mpres· ed air along the lectrode,lf:nlso To mal<:e . cut or a gouging opcJ'atiQl1,h· ''Utter''
::s gro ve~rgdpPing_the electrode.This head. an be starts the airllowand .tl1etl $t~ikes·the alL. the·ei ctrode
1tate~to aIlowdifti rentl\-ngle's of the e1 tfode.Aheavy is po.luted In the dire, ti,oa of J:;t'avelwtth.Q. pushanyle {l~
. ctnc4).lI ad and an if $Uppty 1 os at 'QUnect d to pro rnately" I' Wit1:1 d,e flxis of th grooVi . b, peed f
~. 'lId r thropgh II tctfPinal bloc ..A valv is in ludcd ravel, tl e 1 trode angi ,Jl,tidth electro,l, sill! and CUt'·
or ,r trung th 'ompr s d:tit on and off. Hold fS are r l1t I t rrnJn he goo V:. d pth. EJ 'trode dta,nl ,t r de-
'~h(Ilabl . in. e ral si Sf d "P ndJng on the ditty cy Ie p , tertnhl s th g ov wdtb.
b e W rk,p dorm d. th w l<:1in c Iff U-ltt ilnd slze of c. t- TIU! saf.ety ·Pt~Cfl:utjoDS. us d fbr carbon ,l ~wettU g
. and ~h:ieldectmetal areA e.lcUnga,Pl,lyto air carbo-A- (itl Ii
. i1 tll trode used~ or trn..bea ~lury .WI tk. Qt r~
Ql d hold :rs ~~e use ), . ani u lng. Tw .6th rpr" uttoos t1l\.l$t bollS·· .'
($) ) , 'l\ ~li {'H'C,sure roilg'S r m 80 to:tO psi 5 0 to to
tr t; l'll t\ir bIt" t Will "Ill 1 e)l olten me 1 t.1 ~l a
l<.ll.). "h YQJum Of (;omprcs ....d 1'*
r 'quirest-qnges- 1 ns dist'anc~.Met<! I ,dell: ~f nI~iltes SbQ.~ll(I,~~~t~
e ,~m:.~"::','
TABLE 9-2 MINIMUM AIR REQUIREMENTSFORCAC-A
Air Hose Compressor Rating (hp)

Inside Air Pressure Air
Diameter Consumption Interm ittent ContinuouS
TYpe of Torch (ln.) psi kPa (ft~/min) Use Use
Light duty 1 49 338 8 0.5 1.5
General duty i 80 552 25 5 7.5
Heavy duty .1
2 80 552 33 7.5 10
Automatic i 60 552 46 15
front of the gouging operations. All combustible materials DC electrode negative. The current should be set much
should be moved away from the work area. At high-current higher than normally used for welding. This will create a
levels the mass of molten metal removed i quite large and maximum amount of heat in the weld pool, which will
will b come a fire hazard if not properly contained. soon fall away malting the cut.This technique can aJso be
Second Is the high noise level. At high currents with used for cutting cast iron. On thick material a sawing ac-
high air pressure, a loud noise occurs. Ear protection (ear- tion is required to make the cut and to allow the molten
muffs or earplugs) must be worn by the arc cutter. metal to fall away. If the electrode coating is made wet by
The process is widely used for back gouging, for dipping in water, the electrod will melt more slowly so
preparing joints, and for removing defective weld metal. It that more cut can be obtained per electrode.
is also 'Used in foundries for washing pads, removing risers, The metal arc cutting technique can also be used
and removing defective areas of castings, Another major use for gouging when using special 1 ctrodes.These special
is SCi~Ppreparation of metals to reduce them to proper size electrodes have an insulating coating that directs th arc.
for handling. It is also used for maintenance and salvage. he technique is sometimes used for back gouging weldS
prior to making the backing weld.
Carbon Arc Cutting

Carbon arc cutting (CAC) is an arc cutting process that Gasungsten Arc Cutting
IS s an arc betw en a carbon electrode and the weld Gas tungsten arc cutting ( TTAC) is an ar cutting
pool. he pro e is sintUar to flit' carb 11 arc utting ex- pro css that us s a single tungst ~11ele trode with g~lS
cept that th, air blast is not employ 'd. The process de- shielding. The apparatus for ga tungsten arc utung I
pend stri Uyon the h at input of th arb n arc to cause id nucal 10 that us d for gas tungsten arc welding. TIt
th metal-to m It.The molten metal fall, away by gravity gas rung, ten a~ is used to provide high heat tnpiu ~-so
to produce the cut. The pro ess is r elatlvely slow; a very that the molten pool will becom large and unmal'lagC'
,Igf?; d ut r ults, rid 10. U<. d only wh n other cutting ahl and wUJ fall away Ga tungsten arc cutting I used'
equtpment is not :vailable,
',_'
for thinner rn tals and , an be used for cutting almost anr
m tal.Th smoothness ofth . cut depends on th skiU·of
he arc cu t (',
Shielded Metal Ar This p1'O ess bas largely b .co &cuppJalUcdby plasma
iR anal' cutting arc cutting and is of little ndusrrtal significlltlce.
rna Ar Cutting
Ph: sma arccutttng (PAC) is an at' luting process tllQt
uses a onstticted ar • and :removesrue :Ill,Q1t tl. metal wfrh
. a high~vcloity jet of j h-ized.gas is. .Jitlg frOtll the con."
stricting orift· . rtiA hown by tgur, 9..10.
'111 r' a,retwu tmtjor vatiati()nls: 1) 11\ 'low 'Uft:'Ont
!la, ro, ~uttil1g y:;tem, wblch nOJ'm. U uses, Ir for the
plasma and is lIS11 By tn nua.lly appU (,};flUd (2' th higl~·
t1t-l: ant ·pl:tsma >IttinS ,tl'St m, which noruudly U6CS :Ill·
tt'~ft') til' plMttU1 m: di!f U$U~Itt llpfili M llllt()Jntttit~'tl'·
, A vari~ldon of tb ldgh.eurrcnr pklsrna s stem ttS" water
to inlpn t: tl ' 11.1.lfty oj' tn' Ct. t WM ~lfldh gl'l- 'tlrrenl
J)l~~fll. cutting is-sboW'.fl in I'igttres.( '"11 (tnd 9.~1.....
TABLE 9-3 AWJ CONDITIONS
FROMESAB CUTIINGSYSTEMS
MaterIal Type in. mm in.lmin. mrn/rnln-
Mild steel 1
Ttl 1.6 60-70 1524-1778
1
"4 6.4 10-12 254-304.8
1
I 12.7 4-5 101.6-127
1 25.4 H-2 38.1-50.8
4 101.6 1 1
6.35-12.7
Stainless steel
, 1.6
1-1
n; 50-60 1270-1524
t 6.4 8-10 203.2-254
1
I 12.7 3-5 76.2-127
1 25.4 1-2 25.4-50.8
4 101.6 t-i 6.35-12.7
Aluminum 1\ 1.6 150-175 3810-4445
t 6.4 25-35 635-889
1
I 12.7 10-15 254-381
1 25.4 4-6 101.6-152.4
4 101.6 1 25.4....()
Copper 1\ 1.6 75-85 1905-2159
t 6.4 12-16 304.8-406.4
t 12.7 5-7 127-177.8
1 25.4 H-2! 38.1-63.5
4 101.6 1
I 12.7-0
Titanium 1\ 1.6 75-85 1905-2159
t 6.4 14-16 355.6-406.4
i 12.7 5-7 127-177.8
1 25.4 2-21 50.8-63.5
4 101.6 i 6.35-0
Inconel 1\ 1.6 40-50 1016-1270
i 6.4 8-10 203.2-254
FIGURE 9-16 Water jet cutting. Courtesy of Welding t 12.7 3-4 76.2-101.6
Inspection Technology, American Welding Society. 1 25.4 1-2 25.4-50.8
4 101.6 t 6.35-0
9·4 AUTOMATIC SHAPE Orifice 0,014 ln., 0.36 mmj nozzle 0.043 ln., 1.1
50,000 psi
mm, pressure
UT ING
or.;! "
.L.:.:...J.
FIGURE9-20 Computer-generated nesting program.
~IGURE9-17 The quality of a cut surface using AWJ

In I-inch thick steel.
f'QURE 9;..18Electric eye template system (two

~rCh,eS}from ESAB cutting systems. Courtesy of £SAB
~ and Cutting Prodpcts. . FIGURE9-21 Two gantry bridges are placed on the
same tracks.
large industrial gantry machines depends on the accuracy part. In medium thicknesses, the dimensions of small parts
of the tracks, the motion motors, and the control system. can be held within ± 1/16 in. (1.6 rum). Sprocket wheels
They are approaching the accuracy of machine tools. The for driving caterpillar-type treads are oxygen flame cut and
accuracy of the cut parts also depends on the torches and used without further finishing. On larger parts the toler-
the cutting process. ance is not as close, and when chain burning is employed,
TIle gantry bridge crane was originally designed to warpage can create distortion and dimensional problemS.
carry oxyfuel gas cutting torches. Most machines will ac- The American Welding Society has provided criteria
cept plasma cutting torches, laser cutting torches, and wa- for describing oxygen-cut surfaces, AWS C4.1. This pub-
ter jet cutting nozzles.The same bridge can accommodate lication includes a plastic replica showing a surface ref-
more than one type of torch. These machines are precise, erence guide for oxygen cutting at four different levels. It
heavy duty, and expensive; they are becoming popular in includes terms for describing oxygen-cut surfaces, in-
industry. cluding flatness, angularity, roughness, top edge round-
For smaller requirements a small profile cutting ma- ing, notch, and slags. Figure 9-22 shows the correct and
chine is available with a 2·ft.-wide capability and a 60ft. or incorrect adjustments for the machine and the torch.
12-f . length capabillty progr-ams are available for cutting The introduction of the water table has improved
complex shapes and for manual or automatic nesting of large automatic shape-cutting operations. Use of the
the parts. Machines that use cutout templates and electric water table has several advantages. It greatly reduces
eye parterns are also available. the particulate matter released into the atmosphere bY
Dimensional tolerances for flame cutting depend the oxygen cutting operation. It reduces distortion be-
largely on the thickness of the material and the size of the cause the water in contact with the underside of the
FIGURE 9-22 Correct and

incorrect adjustments for the ENOVlEW
Correct AdJu8tment.
D
machine and the torch. Courtesy Top edge sharp.
of Air Products and Chemicals, Inc. CUI surlacearTIooth. drag lines barely visibla.
Ftlce Of cUI square.
OKlde, If any, easily removed.
I3otlom adg!! sharp.
Cutting Speed too Slow
D
Top edge m ned and rounded.
Free of cut Irregular; With deep gouge8.
Bottom odge very rough lind Irregular.
POBS bly o)dde lightly adhOrelng to the
bottom 811rf(lce of the pia Ie.
cut11ng Speed tOQFaet
o
To~ lIdge fairly sharp but wlUl a sllghl beading.
0(8g0n88 hsve pronounood backWard rake.
Cons derl\bI undercutting just below top edge.
fiotfOm edge rounded.
Flnlll comer uncut.
Prlhe t Fillmet tOOHigh Aboveth Work
D
TOp eelg badlY melleQ end rounder;! over.
till£Wt undel(;vtllng luer below kIP edge,
ace 01cut ottr(!Jrw1sesquare.
Bpttom ed(le sharp.
Preheat Flam". JOG OIQM tOlna WQYk
D
oJ) edoa ,lIghlly rWl'!dlld,
He vy I)e ds along tQ~ ecJ a.
F,ChQI out Ill110Qfh andllQl.!8ra.
ijtlJtOl'tled~ .aIlatp. .
Coull;! btl IlOrte!daf· d fglr\y nQQd oyt.
o
o
TABLE 9-3 AWJ CONDITIONS
FROMESAB CUTIINGSYSTEMS
MaterIal Type in. mm in.lmin. mrn/rnln-
Mild steel 1
Ttl 1.6 60-70 1524-1778
1
"4 6.4 10-12 254-304.8
1
I 12.7 4-5 101.6-127
1 25.4 H-2 38.1-50.8
4 101.6 1 1
6.35-12.7
Stainless steel
, 1.6
1-1
n; 50-60 1270-1524
t 6.4 8-10 203.2-254
1
I 12.7 3-5 76.2-127
1 25.4 1-2 25.4-50.8
4 101.6 t-i 6.35-12.7
Aluminum 1\ 1.6 150-175 3810-4445
t 6.4 25-35 635-889
1
I 12.7 10-15 254-381
1 25.4 4-6 101.6-152.4
4 101.6 1 25.4....()
Copper 1\ 1.6 75-85 1905-2159
t 6.4 12-16 304.8-406.4
t 12.7 5-7 127-177.8
1 25.4 H-2! 38.1-63.5
4 101.6 1
I 12.7-0
Titanium 1\ 1.6 75-85 1905-2159
t 6.4 14-16 355.6-406.4
i 12.7 5-7 127-177.8
1 25.4 2-21 50.8-63.5
4 101.6 i 6.35-0
Inconel 1\ 1.6 40-50 1016-1270
i 6.4 8-10 203.2-254
FIGURE 9-16 Water jet cutting. Courtesy of Welding t 12.7 3-4 76.2-101.6
Inspection Technology, American Welding Society. 1 25.4 1-2 25.4-50.8
4 101.6 t 6.35-0
9·4 AUTOMATIC SHAPE Orifice 0,014 ln., 0.36 mmj nozzle 0.043 ln., 1.1
50,000 psi
mm, pressure
UT ING
or.;! "
.L.:.:...J.
FIGURE9-20 Computer-generated nesting program.
~IGURE9-17 The quality of a cut surface using AWJ

In I-inch thick steel.
f'QURE 9;..18Electric eye template system (two

~rCh,eS}from ESAB cutting systems. Courtesy of £SAB
~ and Cutting Prodpcts. . FIGURE9-21 Two gantry bridges are placed on the
same tracks.
large industrial gantry machines depends on the accuracy part. In medium thicknesses, the dimensions of small parts
of the tracks, the motion motors, and the control system. can be held within ± 1/16 in. (1.6 rum). Sprocket wheels
They are approaching the accuracy of machine tools. The for driving caterpillar-type treads are oxygen flame cut and
accuracy of the cut parts also depends on the torches and used without further finishing. On larger parts the toler-
the cutting process. ance is not as close, and when chain burning is employed,
TIle gantry bridge crane was originally designed to warpage can create distortion and dimensional problemS.
carry oxyfuel gas cutting torches. Most machines will ac- The American Welding Society has provided criteria
cept plasma cutting torches, laser cutting torches, and wa- for describing oxygen-cut surfaces, AWS C4.1. This pub-
ter jet cutting nozzles.The same bridge can accommodate lication includes a plastic replica showing a surface ref-
more than one type of torch. These machines are precise, erence guide for oxygen cutting at four different levels. It
heavy duty, and expensive; they are becoming popular in includes terms for describing oxygen-cut surfaces, in-
industry. cluding flatness, angularity, roughness, top edge round-
For smaller requirements a small profile cutting ma- ing, notch, and slags. Figure 9-22 shows the correct and
chine is available with a 2·ft.-wide capability and a 60ft. or incorrect adjustments for the machine and the torch.
12-f . length capabillty progr-ams are available for cutting The introduction of the water table has improved
complex shapes and for manual or automatic nesting of large automatic shape-cutting operations. Use of the
the parts. Machines that use cutout templates and electric water table has several advantages. It greatly reduces
eye parterns are also available. the particulate matter released into the atmosphere bY
Dimensional tolerances for flame cutting depend the oxygen cutting operation. It reduces distortion be-
largely on the thickness of the material and the size of the cause the water in contact with the underside of the
FIGURE 9-22 Correct and

incorrect adjustments for the ENOVlEW
Correct AdJu8tment.
D
machine and the torch. Courtesy Top edge sharp.
of Air Products and Chemicals, Inc. CUI surlacearTIooth. drag lines barely visibla.
Ftlce Of cUI square.
OKlde, If any, easily removed.
I3otlom adg!! sharp.
Cutting Speed too Slow
D
Top edge m ned and rounded.
Free of cut Irregular; With deep gouge8.
Bottom odge very rough lind Irregular.
POBS bly o)dde lightly adhOrelng to the
bottom 811rf(lce of the pia Ie.
cut11ng Speed tOQFaet
o
To~ lIdge fairly sharp but wlUl a sllghl beading.
0(8g0n88 hsve pronounood backWard rake.
Cons derl\bI undercutting just below top edge.
fiotfOm edge rounded.
Flnlll comer uncut.
Prlhe t Fillmet tOOHigh Aboveth Work
D
TOp eelg badlY melleQ end rounder;! over.
till£Wt undel(;vtllng luer below kIP edge,
ace 01cut ottr(!Jrw1sesquare.
Bpttom ed(le sharp.
Preheat Flam". JOG OIQM tOlna WQYk
D
oJ) edoa ,lIghlly rWl'!dlld,
He vy I)e ds along tQ~ ecJ a.
F,ChQI out Ill110Qfh andllQl.!8ra.
ijtlJtOl'tled~ .aIlatp. .
Coull;! btl IlOrte!daf· d fglr\y nQQd oyt.
o
o
metal being cut eliminates the heat buildup in the combustible gases but attains a much higher temperature
metal. The water level can be raised or lowered, and it and particle velociry A variation of the plasma spray
is raised during the cutting operation so that it is in con- process is the plasma transferred arc method, which pro-
tact with the metal being cut. Water tables include vides higher temperatures and is more of a welding
mechanisms for collecting the slag for easy disposal. process.A summary of thermal spraying surfacing meth-
Stack cutting is the oxygen cutting of stacked metal ods is given in Table 9-4.
Sheets or plates arranged so that all the plates are severed The selection of the spraying process depends on
?y a single cut. In this way the total thickness of the stack the properties desired of the coating. Thermal spraying is
1 Considered the same as the equivalent thickness of a used to provide surface coatings of different characteris-
SOlid piece of metal. When stack cutting, particularly tics, such as coatings to reduce abrasive wear, cavitation, or
thicker material, the cut is often lost because the adjacent erosion. The coating may be either hard or soft. It may be
plates may not be in intimate contact with each other.The used to provide thermal barriers for hlgh-ternperarur pro-
?reheat may not be sufficient on the lower plate to bring tection. Thermal sprayed coatings improve atmosphere
It to the kindling temperature, and therefore the oxygen and water corrosion resistance. One of the major uses is to
Stream will no longer cut through the remaining portion provide coating resistant to salt-water atmospheres. An-
of the stack. One way to overcome this problem is to use other use is to restore dimensions to worn parts. The hard-
the metal powder cutting process. By means of the metal ness and composition of the deposit are important and
P wder and its reaction in the oxygen, the cut is com- dictate whether the part will be machined or ground.
pleted across separations between adjacent plates. Based 011 this decision, it is then necessary to determine
Automatic oxygen cutting machines are available the type of material that will be sprayed. If the spray mate-
f~rcutting pipe to fit other pipe at different angles and of rial is available in wire form, the electric arc spray or the
different diameters. These are quite complex and have flame spray processes can be used. However, if it can be ob-
btlilHn Contour templates to accommodate different cuts tained only in .a powder form, the flame spray or plasma
and bevels on the pipe. spraying process can be used.The selection of materials for
spraying is beyond the scope of this section. See the AWS
"Thermal Spraying Practice.Theory andApplication.,,(2)
9-5 THERMAL SPRAYING.
'thermal spraying (fHSP) is a group of processes in Flame Spraying
"'hkh fi.nely divided metallic or nonmetallic surfacing Flame spraying (FLSP) is a thermal spraying process in
~laterialS are deposit d in a m lten or semimolten condl- which an oxyfuel fuel gas flame is the sour. e of heat for
d all o~ a ~\lbstrate or ba e metal to form a thermal spray melting the surfacing material. Compressed gas mayor
ep It.1he surfacing material may b in the form of may not be used for atomlzing and propelling the s\.)rfa -
'pO'Wd r, rod, cord, or wire. ing matertal to the substrate, There are two major varia-
1"ber . are three separate processes within this tions: One uses men t in wire form, and the other uses
;n:
group; ar spraying, plasma spraying, and flame spraying.
three pro esses differ con. iderably since each uses
tnthffer nr sour e of heat and differ nt apparatus.Ther-
materials in powder form. The method of flam " spraying
that us powder is some Imes known as po:wder flame
spraying. The method of flame spraying using wire is
at praying was inVi nted in 1913. known as metalliztrlg or totre flame Sj1't'(l)ltnfj.
au. Taere are sev t;al variations of each.process.A vart- In both versions, the rnatetial is fed t!'wough ~.
. Qll' of flame spray is th detonation method, whi h uses gun and nozzl and melted in the oxygen fUel gas' flam '
SUMMARY Or TH. f'tMAl- SPRAYING SURFACING METHODS

Atomizing, if required, is done by an air jet, which also ize and propel the surfacing material to the substrate
propels the atomized particles to the workpiece. When (Figure 9-25). The two consumable electrode wires ate
wire is used for surfacing material, it is fed into the nozzle fed, by a wire feeder, to bring them together at an angle of
by a wire feeder and is melt d in the gas flame. When approximately 30° and to maintain an arc between rhem-
powdered materials are used, they may be fed by gravity A compressed air jet is located behind and directly
from a hopper, which is a part of the torch. In another sys- in line with the intersecting wires. The wires melt in the
tem the powders are picked up by the oxygen fuel gas arc, and the jet atomizes the melted metal and propels the
mixture, carried through the gun where they are melted, fine molten particles to the workpiece. The power source
and propelled to the surface of the workpiece. for producing the arc is a DC constant voltage welding
Figure 9-23 shows the flame spray process using machine. The wire feeder is similar to that used for gas
wir .This v rsion can spray metals that are available in metal arc welding except that it feeds two wires.The gun
wire form. The variation that uses powder an feed nor- can be handheld or mounted ill a holder with a move-
mal.metal alloys, oxidation-resistant metals and alloys, and ment mechanism. The part or the gun is moved with re-
ceramics. Ceramics can be provided in rod or cord form. spect to the other to provide a coating surface on the part.
It provides sprayed surfaces that can have many different The welding current ranges from 300 to 500 A di-
characteristics. rect current, with the voltage ranging from 25 to 35V.This
High-velocity oxyfuel spraying (HVOF) This is system will deposit from 15 to 100 lb/hr of metal. The
a variation of flame spraying, an internal combustion amount of metal deposited depends on the current level
method that produces a high-speed jet. It uses the energy and the type of metal being sprayed.Wires for spraying arC
of rapid explosions of oxygen and fuel gas mixtures sized according to the Brown and Sharp wire gauge
rather than a steadily burning flame.The powder is intro- system. Normally either 14 gauge (0.064 in. or 1.6 mrn) or
duced into the combustion chamber. When the gas mix- 11 gauge (0.091 in. or 2.3 nun) is used. Larger-diametet
ture is ignited, a ontrolled d ronation wave or flame wires can be used. Flux-cored Wires can also be used.
front accelerates and heats the powder particles as it The high temperature of the arc melt') the electrode
moves down the length of rh combustion chamber. Exit wire faster and deposits particles having a higher heat
particle velo Ities are extremely high, and the tempera- content and greater fluidity than in the name spraying
ture is higher than the normal ft me temp rature.After process. The deposition rate are from three to five times
each injection of powder has been dis barged, a pulse of greater and the bond strength is greater. There is coaleS-
inert gao purges the barre) and chamber. Multiple detona-
tions duriug each second build up the roating, Tempera-
tures ab ve 5,000° F 2,7600 C) and velocities of 2,500
fiGURE 9-24 High-velocity oxytuel .spraying.
ttl arc attain d.The d nsity of the deposited oaring is
extr mely high, and the bond with the workpiece is ex-
tremely good. Sm oth deposits arc a hie' abl becau e of
the high density of the depo It.This process Is shown in
,Jf,ltlt 9 ...2 .'t tere re several varia ions; they go by dif-
. feren trade names, su h as Jet oat, Di~u:l'1nd Jet, D·Gun,
an ~Top run.
r\fC. Spraying
M-C- prayil1g (ASP) is a fl rnudaprayb'lg proc S8 using
an ar 1 etw 'en two ionsurue ble cl 'tf d s of surfa tng .
11 at 'rhus a$ 'il h 'at ,s )'ut , finQa (')n1P ·S. cd gas to atom-
TABLE9-5 ARC SPRAYING: METALS AND SPRAY RATES SPRAY POWDER SUSPENDED
IN CARRIER GAS
Met~l Sprayed Spray Rate (lb/hr/lOO A)
Aluminum 5-7
Babbitt
Brass 10-12
Bronze 10-12
Copper 12-15
Molybdenum CIRCULATING
Monel 11-13
Nickel 9-11
11-13 FIGURE9-26 The plasma arc spraying process.
Stainless steel
Carbon steel 10-14
TIn
Zinc 20-25 chined undersize to allow a sufficient thickness of coat-
ing. For large flat areas, grit blasting is used. In any case, a
roughened urface is preferred, but sharp corners should
be avoided.
cence in addition to the mechanical bond. The deposit is
~ore dense and coating strength is greater than when us- Spraying Operation Spraying should be done imme-
ing flame spraying. diately after the part is cleaned. If the part is not
Dry compressed air is normally used for atomizing sprayed immediately, it should be protected from the at-
l?d .propelling the molten metal. A pressure of 80 psi mosphere by wrapping with paper. If parts are ex·
(:)52 kPa) and flow from 30 to 80ft3 /min (14 to 38 L/mln) tremely large, it may be necessary to preheat the part
is USed.Almost any metal that can be drawn into a small 200 to 400°F (95 to 205°C). Care must be exercised so
Wire can be sprayed. Table 9-5 shows a list of metals that that heat does not build up in the workpiece. This in-
are arc sprayed. creases the possibility of cracking the sprayed surface.
The part to be coated should be preheated to the ap-
proximate temperature, that it would normally attain
Plasma Spraying during the spraying operation. The distance between
lllasllla spraying (pSP is a thermal spraying process in the spraying gun and the part is dependent on'. the
Wlli h a no11transferr dar of the gun is u ed to create an process and material being sprayed. Rec mmendations
ax plasma for melting and prop lling the surfacing rna-
of theequlpm n manufacturer should be followed and
teri;ti to the sub trate (Figure 9-26). Plasma spraying is modified by experience. Speed and feed of spraying
:llt
Smetimes called plasma flame spraying or plasma met-
Zfng. It u. es an ntransferred plasma are, which is en-
rely Within the plasma spray g In. The temperature is
should be uniform. The first pass hould be: ppU 'd as
quickly as possibl ., Additional coats roilY b applie d
slowly. It is important to maintain uniformity of tern-
; ~~ch higher than either ate spraying or flam spraying. peratur throughout th part. When areas of the l?~lrt
. 19h N mperatur materials can be us d for the oat- are t~.log spray d wh re coating is not want d) the Mea
1?&.11:) material t be prayed .ust be in a powder form can be protected by maskingjt wit,h tape: Re,latlv tl'l<-?-
stn 1 is artied into the plasm« spray gun su pend d In tlon is r quircd. The spray gun may be handlleld or m .w
a:~q'be high-temperature plasma imm dlat ly melts the hanically held if the work is moving. Tbfs lsc mn on
~ 'Wd .r"d tnaterial and propels it to the surfa of th practice when b lUdin up shafting ill a 1 the. For larger
Or ptcc . Smce inrt gas at1d ext\"'a,h1gh temperatures areas th gUll an b handheld, or m 'ql.lni at m tion
'tl US tt, tb me 'hanical ancl metalItlrgi<::al prop tries of . devi~ s may be employ d..Robots are,oftenu cd [01-
in co jogs are g nemUy superior teithr fl~lm~spray· tnern;uH sl?,-ayopeiations.. ' . .
~3()t' arc ~pta)'11'1g.nlis includes reduced porosity atld
re:t'QVe<f b 1\d tensil stf ngths. Coa,tillg aensity can Quality ot Coatings .
. l ~ h 95%·'r4 hardes.t metals known, and om with ex- d t, rmin th ..t'th y a fre f":ta ks) pinhol 's; bU t r$)
tl III Iy high mIring IDperatures, an b pr~t'reQWith void ,and so on ... o~~tlngsoyer sharp orn~fS"s lcl1 as k y~
1: hlSnla lSprnyJ ng pro's ; . ySI requ t'
W.... tt:a att ntion:rh$,kill of~h Q'p lit, t 1sa
Ph'.'. major factor in obtftinJng gOOd.qUflltty 'o~ttngs·Wrjtt·~ i· .
uf 't:arahon fot Spraying.. th. mostmpprtant ~sp .ct pc: Cf!dute$_Jil'~,re'ommcutlc :{ot_eadl.,typ'9:.Q'fa~
Pi ';rtna1 }lray} . i corr "ct preparatio.n, (,)f the work· tJ ntM) ,. , ' .. '
. ... , . t l'
11ft' :It tnl,l t be I !lll. M dtJntng ls normally used to pr .

, ~t!;)Uf1(1 P rt ,·'u'l . 'Bhf tlng.Wh. tI tb, fm~ sprnying
~ . 51 \l to cou eta dlm.epsion, the lla:f~. usu'l11y;.nUl·.
.
thermal spray deposits have Jess than 1. 00% density; they
contain interparticle voids. The fusing or recasting opera- 9-6 ADHESIVE BONDING
tion melts and densifies the coating, eliminating most of Adhesive bonding (ABD) is a material-joining process
the porosity. It increases the bond strength and improves in which an adhesive is placed between the faying sur-
the surface finish. In this operation the spray coating de- faces. The adhesive solidifies to produce an adhesive
posit is heated to a point between its solidus and liquidus bond. The adhesive bond is the attractive force between
where the surface attains a highly reflective glossy ap- an adhesive and the base materials, or substrate. TWO
pearance called the slick-up point. This achieves an opti- principal Interactions that contribute to the adhesion are
mum combination of particle melting and closing the the van derWaals bond and permanent dipole bonds.Tbe
interparticle gaps. Shrinkage takes place in the deposited van der Waals bond is defined as a secondary bond ariS-
coating. Wetting and bonding occur between powder ing from the fluctuating dipole nature of an atom with all
particles and base metal, resulting in a dense deposit with occupied electron shells filled. The dipole bond is a pair
low-porosity levels. of equal and opposite forces that hold two atoms to-
Successful application of the fusion or recasting gether and results from a decrease in energy as two end
process requires careful heating. If the deposit is under- are brought closer to one another.
heated, melting and fusing will be incomplete and result Adhesive bonding of metals, plastics, and compoS-
in. poor bonding and undesired porosity. Heating above Ites to themselves and to each other is becoming more
the proper temperature will produce a liquid phase and important.There are no industrial standards for adhesives.
induce shrinkage, voids, distortions, melting, and running They are usually specified by proprietary trade names,
of the deposit and base metal dilution.The application of which relate to manufacturers' specifications. There arc a
heating hould be as rapid as possible. Correct tempera- number of types of adhesives ,We are interested primarilY
ture relates to the composition of the deposited metal. in structural adhesives that are capable of withstanding
Temperature control is required for a high-quality fused significant loads. However, there are others, such as bold·
coating. ing adhesives, that cannot withstand a great deal of force;
Fusion or recasting can be perform d with any heat s aling adhesives used to prevent leakage; lock adhesl eS
source, One of the most popular is the oxyacetylene used to prevent the loosening of threaded parts; retainiDll
tor h. It an also be accomplished by furnace hating, tn- adhesives used to prevent the twisting or sliding of non-
du tion heating, 01' laser heating. Las r heating of de- threaded parts; hot-melt adhesives that are applied in the
posited coatings provides a highly controlled beating and heat d state; pres ure-senstnve adhesives used on self-
m 'lting operation. Sin e the laser has such a wide range sealing envelopes; instant adhesives, which cure within
of energy densities, pr 'ise temperature can be pro. s conds.ultraviol t adh siv s, which. ure when expos d
duced a speciflc depths in th coating.wtth certain high- to ultraviolet light; and heat ured adhesives, whi h re-
temp ratnre mated s the fusion of a thin layer of the quire h at to cure. Adhesive. can b dassifi d accordjng
bas In ta.l at the bond line may be possible without mel - to their compostnon r other charactertsnc.Thts in tudes
tng the sl~face of the coating .' solvent cements, hot melts, siJj on 5, urethanes, epo)riC I
an. erobi , anoacrylates, and ryU s, ch ryp has itS

advantages, weaknes es, and spe ifi·c appU atton ,S.l .
Safety tiOll of the proper adhesiv for peel ic applicanons Is ;I
tcchnl 1sub] 't beyond the scop of thi book.
Tllereafladvaf1tages to adhe lYe bonding.,'11C
stres e~on dh sive-hootl d p rts are uniform over tb~
eotir bond d at' a, whjch may allow th ~se of thiill1 ·c
mat rials. Mat rials of aUsize and typ $ an b bon leO·
I th h ve oif.ti t' l1t cocffi i H f e.x:panslol1,the d"
h sfv bond will mpensnte sin e it r tainS som fle1:~
ibility. AdhesiVj'''hondinB has a ltighxesistance to fatiE.\Ue
inc it ptovf.dcs a damping action and retains s me
fl xlbiUty, TIl r" is no <U tortion w til • dbesive b mdlPg
sin high t.'nlp tatur s ttre voided' nd 1 01' at' not
f
II d.1'h prop ttl < of m tal ~and ot-l r m. rerial... b lf1~

join d r not af£, ere I.Adhcsiv . ha dl fer nt har c~
.t rJ tl i! 8m . may provid elc ttical iA \.ll~tton) w:11i1c.
othe.rs wHl give et ~tt alnndu tt nd~:p ndlng 011 tI .
leo t~n.· Ulesiv bon.d p... vi" , .1 I »r v nt leakS.
Adh '~dv~ bono Jhnin~ t bulg I g. P 1 f r j 'f (:), ,
Indenttttioml wh .n comparuta m haul al fast no'~
or resistance welds. Adhesive bonding provides cost pends on proper control of these four factors. They are
saVings when material thicknesses are reduced or when equally important; however, the performance of an adhe-
operations such as drilling or punching are eliminated, sive depends on surface preparation, and except for the
Or when metal finishing operations can be reduced or adhe ive for oily surfaces, the surface must be clean to
eliminated. produce an efficient joint. Adhesives are normally ap-
There are problems with applications and with the plied manually; however, robots are being used in the au-
ervice life of adhesive bonding. Different adhesives tomotive and appliance industry.The application process
require different handling and curing treatments. Some can range from simple manual to sophisticated robotics
adhesives are toxic, some are flammable, and some and depends on the adhesive. For example, solvent ce-
have a short shelf life. Curing of adhesives varies. ments may be sprayed on the surface; hot melts require
Some require a long cure time with precise temperature heating applicators. Viscosity, whether thick 01' th111,dic-
and pressllres. Others require ultraviolet radiation. High- tates the application technique, as does the time and
temperature service will reduce bond strengths, and method of curing. There are single, double, or triple com-
some adhesives are sensitive to environmental condi- ponent adhesives and catalyst/accelerators,
~io~ such ~s humidity, temperature, and atmosph~re. The cost of different types of adhesives varies con-
Orne adheSives have more than one component, which siderably and must be considered relative to alternative
complicates application. joining methods. In gen rat, the adhesive that ensures the
TIle properties of adhesive-bonded joints are de- most efficient joining and least amount of preparation
Scribed differently from metalworking terms. The joints and curing and that requires minimum finishing yet pro-
~ judged by properties u h as peel stress shear stress vides the best strength is the proper selection.
dl ttibution, tension and compr ssion stress distribution,
and cleavage and peel stress distribution. Testing rneth-
~ds .ha e been established b the American Society for
Types of Adhesives for Bonding
es ting and Materials (ASTM).(5) This includes tests for The most commonly used structural adhesives are the
tensile str ngth, shear strength, cleavage strength, and acrylics, epoxies, urethanes, and cyanoacrylates. Each has
peel resistance. its own characteristics.
1 The joint types us d for adhesive bonding are the
Rubber ..Base Adhesives Rubber cements or solvent
ap/overlap; the joggle lap; the butt joint, which can use
cements are adhesives that contain organi olvents
~O~gUe-and-groove de ign; the cart joint; and the strap
JOInt . 1 rather than water. TIley are based 011 nltrocellulos or
t S1l1g e or double .TIle rnorti e and tenon are us d
polyvinyl acetate, normally elastorneric products; dis-
ar corner joints as shown in Figure 9-27.
persed in solvent.They are free-flowing, thin-s t mat rials
a.dh ':h r arc ertain fa r rs to consider when \lSI11g
that dry to hard, ta k-fre films. Some retain a soft, tacky,
IV bonding: l) adhesive selection, (2) surface
~repat'ation, (3 applicauon of the adhesive, and (4 cur-
flexible film, They are used inpressure-sensttive labeling
operations in .ontact bonding for the woodworking In-
I
,.Tbe S\lCce sful performance of an adhesive bond de-
dustry; and in laminating applications, such as ven ering.
Masti -ryp adhestv s are a solvent cement u eel in the
building and construction ind"tl try.They aretised to bond
iiGUR-=E':'g_-2
...'- ...I....;'e-J-·o-rn-t.-.,.ty-p-e-s
-u-se-d-f-o-r .......
ad-h-e-s-iv-e--
ood and drywall to oncr te nd. other erucal sur-
~Onding.
fa es, Rnbb r and solvent m .QIS "an be spray dor
hand appU d usingaroller. They are 118ually;flammabJe.
i ,: L§§51t-_-,+
>
TIl ch 11listry of th adhesive eli t~ttes it'S harac eristlcs
alld reCO.tl101 ad d u .
applied. Hot-melt adhesives resist moisture and can be shaped by flow into finished artlcles.<" Plastics are or-
used on nonporous surfaces. They are used for bonding ganic, manmade materials. Plastic materials have a com-
metal to various surfaces.They are used for packaging and plex nomenclature based on their chemistry. Many have
in the furniture and woodworking industry. common names, trade names, or abbreviations, which
Epoxy Adhesives The epoxy adhesives can be used to may lead to confusion. Exact identification is important
bond metal to metal, metal to plastics, and plastics to plas- when working with plastics. Most plastic materials will
tics. They are a family of materials characterized by reac- bum, and they have a coefficient of expansion about four
tive epoxy chemical groups on the ends of resin times that of steel.
molecules.They consist of two components, a liquid resin All plastics fall within two categories, based on their
and the hardener to convert the liquid resins to solid. chemical composition and on their elevated-temperature
They may contain other modifiers to produce specific characteristics. They are classed as either thermoplastiC
properties for special applications. Some epoxies will or thermosetting.
bond to concrete. One of the newer advances is the oily Thermoplastic materials have long, chainlike poly-
metal epoxy that bonds directly to oUy metals "as re- mer molecules held together by relatively weak van def
eived" with norma) protective films on them. The oily Waals forces, hydrogen bonds, or the interaction of polar
coating need not be removed. Other epoxies can be a groups. When the plastic is heated, these forces are weak-
one-component type, but these require a heat-cure oper- ened so that the material becomes soft and flexible. At
ation, Epoxies are good surface wetters. They achieve in- higher temperatures it becomes a vi cous melt and can
timate molecular contact with the surface to be bonded be molded or extruded into the required final shape.
and will achieve high adh sion on almost any surface. Thermoplastic materials can be repeatedly softened by
Epoxies are the most expensive of the adh sives; how- heat and hardened by cooling. TIley can readily be
ever, they offer more advantages. welded by the application of heat, making a monolithiC
structure; fusing occurs across the bond line. Typical
Solvent Joining of Plastics There are two basic meth- thermoplastics arc polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride. poly'
ods of joining plastics by chemical action, the solvent styren , polypropylene nylon, polycarbonate, and acetal.
joining method and the adhesive joining method. Solvent Thermoset plastics ate formed by a chemical reac-
joining i applicable to the thermoplastics group of rnation. Normally, the reaction occurs above room tempe1"ll"
tertals, whi h at: readily dis olved in a solvent. Solvent ture and under pt ssure during the molding operation.
joining cannot be appli ed to inert materials such as poly- During molding,polymer molecules capable of further r ...
oletln S.111 th olvent cementing technique, th surfaces action are chernlcatty cro s-ltnked into a clos network
to be joined ar coated with a solvent and then held to- strucrur .When cooled, the r sulting product is rigid. If
geth r und r pressure until the solvent has evaporated to extra heat is appU d.the mat rial wlll degrade.Thermoset
form a s at. Butt.lap, and tongue-and-groove joints are em- plastic ar not weldable by any method that in olVes
ployed, The joint strength is del' end nr on the material heating. Thy can be joined by adhesive bonding;Typic:t1
and'the i9int'design. Improved bonds are achieved by us- thermos t plastic are ph nelforrnaldehyde, melamine-
ing:, 1'" ~clally develop d olvent c rn enrs, .hi h ontain a forrnaldel yele, urea-f rmald hyd , and epoxies.
smalfqun1'l:~ty of the plastics of the type used in 11 com- Th . .suc e sful us of plastics of en requires tllttt
pon nts to b join d. 'Th ",' olvent cern nts hay an ad- p rts b j( in d toged ersecurely.M, cl anical fastener' 11
vantSlge' ov r straigbt solvent w )(Hng inC th y wUl n bud; 11 w f, f;r permal t jining a,better method
v:oi<J$Jnpo(),rlyfittcd joints,Adhesive j ming of l?lastics i js (iesir d. P rmanent joitling m.ethods::filll wlthin tw ~~<
. . 8tlt\flar tQ adb,
Stye joining 0 metals. egorl s; welding and adhesive bondil1g.W Idlng pr ducc,
a monolithi ,,>,structure,but adb stve bonding doe not.
<
(NING PLASTICS
- ,. -- ,w Idability of Plasti s
01' sOlid state to a transition into a leathery and then a duced in different ways. The heating method identifies
rubbery state.This is followed by a rubbery flow and then the different welding/sealing/bonding methods:
a liquid flow to a true molten state. Solidification is grad-
• Electromagnetic (or induction)
ual, in the reverse process. The energy requirements re-
main relatively constant as the temperature changes. • Friction (spin welding)
Crystalline polymers have an orderly molecular • Heated surface (heated tool/hot plate)
Structure due to the chemical energy or interaction • High frequency (dielectric heating)
':'ith1.n each molecule. They can be considered as being • Hot gas
bke either flat or coiled springs.The higher the degree of
• Implant
crystallinity, the more complete the springlike structure.
~ryStaUine polymers have a sharp melting point.The plas- • Radiant
ttc r mains rigid until it reaches its melting point, and • Ultra onic (sonic)
tben immediately becomes fluid. As the temperature of • Vibration
t~e crystalline materials approaches the melting poinr, a
bIgher level of heat energy is required to continue to in- Electromagnetic Welding The electromagnetic
~rease the temperature. Solidification occurs just as rap- bonding or magnetic heat sealing method uses induction
lell as melting, due to the sudden release of energy as heating for creating the weld. Induction heating uses
Chemical interaction or crystallization of the molecules high-frequency alt mating CU1Tent:,which creates heat in
takes place. In general, amorphous thermal plastics are magnetic particles in its field. 111 electromagnetic plastic
a iel' to weld than the crystalline forms. welding, micron-sized magnetic particles arc dispersed
There are five steps to the thermal welding of ther- within. a thermal plastic matrix. When this material is
mOPlastics: placed between the faying surfaces to be welded and ex-
posed to the electromagnetic field, heat develops at the
1. Surface preparation
interlace, causing melting and subsequent fusion of ther-
'l. Heating mal plastic materials. It produces a polymer-to-polymer
3. Application of pressure linkage between all compatible thermal plastics. It can be
4. Diffusion or welding applied in hot melts or solvent binder systems, .or as
5. oolmg implants in the joint. Equipment required is a high-
frequency power source from 2 to 20 ·kW output with a
. Surface preparation i important since most IT quency of3 to 30 mHz; 2.5 to 3.5 mHzis most often
OlOl<ted plastics have a c ntaminated surface layer known used. Work coils, usually water- 001 d copper coils, pr
~l~a :nOld 1·e/ease.This must be removed) and for certain du the magnetic fi ld in the workpiece.They call be in-
fo o:e~ es the abutting urface must be absolutely flat corporated Into the fixtures.They can be us "d on thick or
tr}f tnttmate ontacr, Heating is accomplished by differ nt thin sections, irregular shapes, ~nd with the right vehicle
cthods and is the basis for identifying the plastic weldan be used to fill voidsIn the joints. They call be auto-
ng .methOds. mat d c nd are used to join plastic that ar normally dif"
. \Va ~lC <lppUcation 0' ' pressure is done In dtfferent ficult to Weld. They are. relatl "ely fast.n.nct are .uaed fo,
* ry:, It can be done manually; in presse ,01' in autorn ti produ tion appll ations,
t tur '. It is oft n c mbtn d with to ,ling, which may In-
"",'ltd'part of the heating apparatus as well as the pressure
<'i thOd.
h1t Dtffu ton 0 tits once th 1iquld.to~l quid interface

n ,8 b. 'en t bJi, bed. Djft\lSioll .0 urs aIm st insta:.nta~
\,\h \lfilywith' RtalJtne r s micr)? ··trolin mat rial , or
I1~QphOL s.m fi rials heated only slightly abo e th nl It·
I Oint, chffU8ioo Ulke~long ~t., .
~ b .'I~eIiital step-in m' .k;.ng the weld i" to cool tb~as·
b 1'1)mu'Ly ~u1'LresoUdifth J" int.Tlle lond or pressure must
ltff . lOtaln <J tlllW th t '~in h 'suf't'i I nt tr ngth and
11' S t) stll pot the total W Idtnent.
Heated Surface Welding Heated surface, sometimes same manner as an oxyacetylene torch for welding met-
called heated tool, hot plate, or heated bar welding, uses als,(7) Compressed air is most often used as the heated
h at that Is generated in the hot tool. Electrical resistance gas; however, nitrogen, or in some cases argon, is used to
heating coils are normally used to heat the tool or bar. help eliminate problems associated with oxidation. Hot
There are two variations. One is used for sealing plastic gas welding is normally a manual operation requiring twO
films or thin materials, and the other is for joining heavier hands. Manipulative skill is required.The hot gas welding
pieces. method is used to produce large fabrications made of
When joining thin materials, the parts are held to- sheet materials.An example is ducting work, pipe workt
gether under pressure and heat is applied for a short pe- and ventilator hoods for exhaust systems handling corro-
riod to produce the weld. There are several variations, one sive gases. The apparatus used to produce hot gas weld-
of which is known as impulse heat sealing, which uses the ing is relatively inexpensive, consisting of a hot gas torch,
pressure bars but has a resistance heating element cov- gas regulator, an air compressor when required, and the
ered by fiberglass. A pair of bars produce pressure on the plastic filler rod.
pieces being joined; short impulses of electric current The parts to be joined are beveled along the edges
provide the heating to complete the weld. Another varia- to provide a groove for filler material from the welding
tion uses cir ular bars, or wheels, which are heated and ro- rod. The welding rod is of the same composition as the
tate and traverse the joint, providing heat and pressure. parts being welded; it is usually round and smaller than
Circular bands are also used, but in aU cas s the bonding the groove. Multiple passes may be used.The plastic weld-
is accomplished by the direct application of heat. ing rod is not fluid but semifluid, and fairly easy to COO"
For heavy materials) this technique requlr s that the trol.The application of hot gas welding is shown in Figure
two fac s to be joined be flat.The e two faces of the parts 9-28.
are held agatnst a heated metal surface. When the plastic
surface begins to melt, the heated metal plate is removed Implant Welding Implant welding uses heat gener-
and the pieces are.quickly brought together and held un- ated by a metal implant or insert in or adjacent to the
der pressure. In this application, a flash 01' reinforcement weld joint. There are two basic variations. One useS a
occurs at the joint. Both of these methods can, be auto- molded-in resistance wire, which produces heat when if
mated and programmed.
The hot plate method is wid Iy u ed for plastic pipe
welding for field installations. It is used or making butt FIGURE9-28 The hot gas welding method for joining
w ld and for branch [otnts. Portable serniautornati thermoplastics.
qulpment is used in the Ield.
t.Jigh.;frequencyWelding High-fr quency sealing or

bonding 'Us 5 heat produced b di lectrrc heating. Dt-
1. tric heating occurs in insulating marerials th t pos-
ses Iec l' . " dip Ie m merits and xlub polartzatton In
a.hll!h.:fr(!Q,uency·1 ct(ic field.Pblarization and mole: ular
flg tatlon of the mated. 1.cr tes heat. Nonr spon nve inft·
t rhus '~ttl be bonded by usinga .film Of coattJg b tween
,the two pjtt·~'to be bonded. which generates tIle beat n
tho . rnagw, ticf e~cl,'fUgb"fr quen zy gen raters WIth out-
puts up' to 5 1W arc us d, with R fr qu ne of 27.12
Ml:fz, Th1s fr qu :y is u 'd tQa~'()id cadi int mr nce
W tll .: tnn ll1f.~ation ,The pow J: i progtatlll1l 1, a d
is
,tF1:'iig , lJlethod 11$·,1 l'rim~.ctly in automat d systems,
.; ::;Wl11tt;lr:pl~Jq luatnp~c'$o:r.pr ~.'SLlw-applying devl e.
'. i' 51? ciaU;1i"s ar'oft@; 1.t. <.t:whi 11tl~ar alsQ mba, he
JOiltittsn at~ii1 Lbi. some appli atJons, olHyp ~ tOoling is
,1 s· f [0 11• k a 'ontitl,UoJJS weld, .
connected to a source of electric power. The other tal, which converts the electrical energy to mechanical
Uses a metal insert that is heated by induction via elec- energy in the form of vibrations. The frequency of 20 kHz
tromagnetic radiation. Both methods produce high- is above the audible range for most people. Weld cycle
strength, high-quality welds in a variety of thermal time is short, usually on the order of 1 to 2 seconds. Most
plastic materials. thermal plastics can be joined by ultrasonics and the rigid
The best known application of hot wire welding is plastics are the most easy to weld. Materials with a low
~he joining of pipe to fittings.The electric resistance wire modulus of elasticity attenuate vibrations and are more
IS molded into the fitting, Heat is produced by the resist- difficult to weld. Dissimilar plastics can be welded if their
ance of the wire to electricity provided by a special power weld points are similar and there is chemical compatibll-
iOurce usually operating at 24 V DC. Pressure is accom- ity. Ultrasonic welding of plastic parts is shown in Figure
Plished by the thermal expansion of the part that is 9-29.
heated.The disadvantage is the extra cost of the molded-in Vibration Welding Vibration welding uses heat gen-
reSistance wire, which remains in the joint.This process is
erated by relative linear motion between the parts being
commOnly used for field welding of thermal plastic pipe.
w lded, which are held together under pressure. The
The other variatlon, metal insert welding, uses in-
magnitude of movement is from 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) to
dUction heating of the metal Insert.This could be consid-
1/8 in. (3 mrnj.The frequency of movement is on the or-
ered electromagnetic welding, but it does require that
der of 100 to 300 Hz. This method is similar to friction
the implant use electromagnetic power, which generates
welding and is sometimes called ltnear friction weld-
~~t ~nthe implant placed at the interface of the parts to
ing.As oon as the generated heat causes melting of the
. e JOmed.The implant can be a piece of iron or steel or
surfaces at the interface, the vibration is stopped and the
Iron or stainless steel filings in a matrix. Screening is
parts are aligned in final position and pressure is ap-
ometitnes used.The high-frequency power source used
plied. \Velding time ranges from 2 to 3 seconds, with a
to create the heat is similar to the equipment used for
L-second holding time for the joint to solldify. It can be
electromagneti welding. During the heating period,
used to weld most thermal plastic materials. It will weld
~re sure is applied to the joint. This method can be read-
numerous complex shapes together srmultaneousfy.The
. :y automated with the power source programmed. A
equipment is designed especially for this welding and
buccessful application is the plastic membrane seal in
can be automated.
ttOttlecaps. In this case the m tal c mponent is a part of
TIle AWS is currently developing 3. program to c r-
~e pr duc~. and the weJ~illg occurs where the plastic
tify w lders to Join plastics and composites.
mbranelS in ontact WIth the metal.
'lad· .'
I f lant Weldlllg Radiant welding use heat from an
n l'ar d heating SOurce or from a, laser b am. In either FIGURE9-29 Ultrasonic welding or sonic welding.
as<!, heating is due to el itromagnettc waves being ab-
, rb" . .
p . d by the mat rial urface, The weld surfaces are ex-
0
111 led 10 infrar d lamp~ or to a laser and are heated to
trt }t th th rmal plasec. When the therm l plastic is
I 0 ten, the parts are pres d together until the material
~~' ooled.1'hts method is U ually automated, and a cu-
d
t;aln l a.r~u,d ropr S5 the parts together and main-
fn tn inl~nSlOnql accuracy, This process is rather critical
""'. a time pint of vi and has not been extremely
"", ce sful.
hra o·
<: 11 <1 n1~
Wel d'109
Itrasoni welding, som tim s
brati()~~()ntcUleldi~1g. uses heat that is gcnenl.ted by vi·
. tn 1 betwe n the pn:rts, causi:Ilgtbtwo ~utfucesto .
.
ris, 111l1vto each oth f. 1titsc~ms s a te.mperatur< .

.1:\
A'0: lm. 'b~n} · In rgy 1s cony rt doh.' t.The heat
f~{. t~, d is Suffi f nU high to tn Jt th surfaces lTl on-
iog ~l SSllr 'is quir ·~dto hold the pa.tts together dur·
nitra,'\ . ~ Iding . p rat1 fl. Til workpi c S tran~ul1it the
. ":ith tn~., vibratlOJl to th tnt {:!nee,The cat,a. t a~ 'a
11 'in ~ S ttl Pt'Ob f t'h. w 14lng machine, d e$ !lot
f ~) t«mp nttutc,. n there 18 no marklng. 'l''''qU"'I1. los .
, (JUt' , ) 3 ~tz lH' us ·d,· qu pm 'ul' 'onslst' of a. power
:t1dJt ~g:~ y OJ'! '1't~nft1da pi~oclectti clo/ti~
place; (2) as it deforms, it distributes the stress through
9..8 JOINING COMPOSITES the reinforcing materials. The matrix must be more duc-
AND CERAMICS tile than the reinforcing material. It must transmit we
forces to the reinforcing materials; thus, there must be an
Composites are being used more and more by the auto-
intimate bond between the reinforcing material and the
motive and aircraft industries. A composite material is
matrix.joining composites depends entirely on the type
composed of a combination of two or more con-
of composite.
stituents differing in forms that are essentially insoluble
The polymer-matrix composites are joined by me-
in each other. Generally, they combine high-strength re-
chanical fasteners, adhesives, and, if the polymer matriX:is
inforcing material, which is normally in a fiber form, and
a thermoplastic material, by welding. (9) For welding the
a holding material, 01' matrix. They offer certain advan-
are treated the same as a plastic material, based on the com-
tages over metals and are replacing metals for some ap-
position of the matrix. High-strength carbon fiber polymer
plications. The basic advantage of composites over
composites can be joined by using resistance heating of
metals is their high strength-to-weight ratio, their corro-
the carbon filaments and pressure. Another system fof
slon resistance, and the fact that they can be made ei-
producing Jap welds is the use of induction heating with ~
ther nonconducttve or conductive to electrical current.
wire screen placed between the faying surfaces. An indu •
They offer design flexibility, reduced flnishing costs, and
tion heating system introduces magnetic flux through the
ease of parts assembly, and can be fabricated with less
plastic to the wire screen, which becomes heated and cre-
expensive tooling. (8)
ates melting of the surface and, by means of pressure, pro-
Composites have disadvantages. They are more ex-
duces a Weld. Fairly low power at a high frequency is us d.
pensive than the metals they replace.They are difficult to
Embedded resistance wires can also be used, as well as ul-
join together, and certain types have specific dlsadvan-
trasonic and friction welding. See Section 9-7 for details.
tages: Some are flammable, others do not have high-
The metal-matrix composites (MMC) have the aP-
temperature properties, and ,0 on. Even so, it is becoming
pearance of metals and are considered weldable with
neces ary to join composites to make larger assemblies.
some of the welding processes. Welds have been ma.d
There are basically three categories of composites:
successfully using the gas tungsten arc welding procesS
1. Polymer-matrix composites plastics) on titanium composites with metal reinforcing wires.
2. Metal-m trixcomposites (MMC) metals) Alumtnum-boron composites have also been welded
with ga tung ten arc welding. There can be severe dam-
3. eranuc-matrtx composites (ceramics
age to the boron filaments if the heat input is not ac u·
rarely controlled. Re arch is ongolng.The plasma ar and
electron be am processes are not acceptable since dleY
usually cause m lttng of th boron filaments and result iJ1.
metallurgical reactions that decrease the strength pf tpe
jotnts. Resistance welding, particularly spot welding. :ha'
b en. us d for lap w Iding aluminum-boron composites.
Resistance braztng and weld bondmg f4'1V been used
cessfully; Brazing. and diffusi n Wi lding have .. usC
b n applied successfully to th joining of me al ....n'lat~
composites. Ccramic-matri· 0Q'lposit 5 arc tee3te')· jtl
th same ay as ceramic mat rial .
.
rarru
nitrides, carbides, and oxides. The two most widely used
nitrides are silicone nitride and aluminum nitride. The
rno t common oxides are alumina and zirconia. The most
popular carbides are silicone carbide and boron carbide.
Ceramics are used by the aerospace industry, prima-
rily in jet engines, the automotive industry, and the elec-
tronics industry. Much more use is planned as ceramic
products are improved, as they have more consistent prop-
erties, and as additional data are acquired. Ceramics can be
jOined by means of adhesives and by means of cement-
mOnar-type inner layers. Unfortunately, adhesives do not
have high-temperature properties and thus are limited to
medium-temperature applications. Cement and mortar
have higher-temperature capabilities but do not provide
SUfficient tensile strength for many applications. Fusion
welding has not been applied successfully to joining ceo
tam.ics. S iccessful joining has been accomplished with the
use of metallic inner layers. TIle joining process usually in-
"oIves brazing, soldering, or diffusion bonding. The inner
lay rs are usually ductile metal foils placed between the
Parts to be joined. High-quality joints have been produced
With metallic inrerlayers using the diffusion bonding pro-
cedure. TIle joining of ceramics to metals has been more
llccessful. Mechanical joints are widely used.This is the fa-
miliar method of manufacturing spark plugs, which is
done by crimping the metallic portion around the ceramic
POrU n of the spark plug. Adhesive bonding has also been
~. ed and has many applications; however, it is severely lim-
d du to th lack of high-temperature properties.
The joining of ceramics to metals seems best when
~ metallic Interliner is used. Interliner.metal mu t be se-
eo d 0 that it will "wet" both the metal and the ceramic
llnd h
th .·ould have a melting temperature tose to that of
tI; e metal. The diffllsion bonding technique seems to be
f 1~1ll0st uccessrul, and with a voltage applied across the
n~mtl the bonding eerns ven more successful, Silicone
t{~ttid h' .be n jolned to variou metals using a copper-
'£) taniutn in ertnetallic or filler alloy. n of the major
bleln With j lntng erarnlcs to rn etals is their difll r-
.~... 0 therm 1expansion, which lUuits the possibtllries.
g ~ ~terJne :allichtyer seems to be an as tsr in this re-
~.. '. \.1 h a a t tantum lay r of filler rn tal in auatinett
~I In.! as ste 1. Mu 11r s ar h, and ultimately b tter solu- .
ns, ill b Com It ailable.
9..~ PREHEAT AND POSTHEAT

f< ATM NT
A common method of preheating is by torches or Normalizing is similar to annealing. The heating ratC
burners using flames. Figure 9-30 shows a natural gas and holding periods are identical, but in normalizing the
burner used to preheat the lip of a powershovel dipper. cooling rate is faster and is usually done by allowing the
This subassembly is a critical part made of quenched and part to cool in still air rather than in the furnace. Due to the
tempered high-alloy steel. The preheat and interpass higher cooling rate, normalizing usually provides a sttuC-
temperature must be maintained throughout the entire rure with greater strength and less ductility than annealing·
welding cycle. Open flames such as this cannot be as pre- Tempering is a heat treatment done at a much
cisely controlled as other methods and are therefore used lower temperature than ann aling, normalizing, or streSS
only for preheating and maintaining Interpass heat. relieving. This operation often follows a quenching oper-
ation. It tends to reduce the hardness and strength of a
Postweld Heating steel, but it improves ductility and toughness.
Fusing is a specialized process of heating a therrnaJ
There are a number of postweld heat treatments for weld- spray deposit to cause it to coalesce, solidify, and bond.
merits, but stress relieving is the most widely used. Some metallurgically to the base material. This can be done bJ
of these other heat treatments are ann aling, normalizing, almost any heating method.
drawing, and fusing. Annealing, or full annealing as it is Stress relieving is of major importance to weld-
sometimes called, is a heat treatment that increases the ments. It is similar to normalizing except that it is done at
temperature of steel above the critical or r crystallization
a temperature below the critical temperature, usually i11
temperature, followed by slow cooling. It is normally
the range of 1050 to 1200 P (566 to 649°C).
0
heated to a point about 1Ooop (38°C) above the critical

Both annealing and normalizing relieve residu:d
temperature line of the steel. Cooling is usually done in a
stresses better than stress relieving. They are carried out
furnace to provide a substantially stress-free condition.
above the critical temperature. They involve changes in
Fig'\w 9-31 shows tills in a diagram. grain structure and tend to produce heavy scaie.rner maY
also produce serious dimensional changes and reqUj[e .
that complex large structures are braced to avoid saggil1g,
SUe. s reli ving is required by 'orne codes. Refer to
FIGURE 9-30 A natural gas burner being used to
the specific portion ofth code that is applicable to ded~
preheat components before welding.
on the tress-relieving. chedule. Many products not bUIlt
und r code at str ss r lievedfor the following reasons:
, ,
1. To reduce the residual tre '8 ' inherent in all
weldment, cas ing, or forging
2. 0 Improve th rest ranee to orrosion and caustiC
embrtttlement
3. To improve the dimensional stability of the weld-
ment during rna hin operati ns
• To improve the servt lit, f the weldment
FI~URE9-32 A typical car bottom furnace loaded
WIth weldments that have been stress relieved.
FIGURE 9...33 The use of resistance heating coils for

both pre- and postheating.
extremely expensive due to rising energy costs. If this is
the case, mechanical stress relief can be used. There are
three basic types of mechanical stress relief:
1. Overstressing, creating plastic deformation
2. Surface treatment by hammering or shotpeening
3. Mechanical vibrations: vibratory stress relief
All three methods are used successfully and each bas
specific application advantages and disadvantages. .
The overstressing method can be accomplished jj1
several different ways.The objective is to stress the weld-
ment beyond the yield point stress of the metal and cause
plastic deformation. Overstressing loads can be applied
slowly or rapidly. When the load is removed, the maxi-
FIGURE 9-35 Using a portable pyrometer for mum stresses remaining will be below yield point and uo- .
measurement of pre- and postheating. der certain conditions may become residual compressive
stresses. One way of accomplishing this is by proof test-
ing the weldment with 150% to 200% of the maxiroUJIl
design load.This will reduce the yield point stresses wheO
the load is eliminated. Another method of overstressing
is to thermally expand the metal adjacent to the weld.
This is done by means of gas heating torches that arc
moved parallel to the weld joint. The expansionO'Vcr-
stresses the weld and the heat-affected zone, which ed
duces yield point stresses. This method has been use
successfully to reduce residual stresses in welded ShiPS:
Surface treatment by hammering or shotpeenblg l
widely u d in many metalworking applications other
than welding. This plastically d forms the surface, wbjQ1
reduces the surface yield point stresses.Thi technique call
provide urface compression stresses and is widely u ed t?
increase fatigue life.The p enlng and hammering are dlfft
cult to control but widely used for 10 al tr fi lief. ~
3 tress reltef by exposure to mechanical VibratiOfl jS:
FIOtJRE g..r3S' Using
t~mperature,.indfcatingcrayons becoming more widely tIS d.ClnIt is performed by!lt ..
for meastnement of pre- and postheatlng. ta hing a mechanical vibrator, usually an eccentric 1'0 tat-
ing wIght. to the Wi Idment . .t\n example is shown In
Figur 9-37.Tbe vibrating d vtce I flrmly atta 1. d to dfe
FIGURE9-37 Vibratory stress rel,lef.

Weldment and is shown attached to a large pipe weldment. Frequencies up to 100 Hz are used. One of the ad-
ment assembly. The speed of the drive motor that con- vantages of vibratory stress relief is the reduction of dis-
trols the frequency of vibration is adjusted until it tortion during machining. This is due to the removal of
matches the resonant frequency of the total weldment or residual stress in the surface layers of the weldrnent and
of a specific area of the weldment.This is controlled by a its effect on the weldment when machined away.
speed regulator in the control panel shown to the left in The vibratory stress relief technique can be used
the picture. According to some experts, resonance is not while welding on complex weldments.This technique re-
required for stress relief. However, vibrations of sufficient sults in minimum distortion of the weldment during
Power at or near the resonant frequency of the we1dment welding and during machining. Vibratory or mechanical
reduce yield point stresses. This occurs due to the alter- stress relief has not been accepted by code-making bod-
nating stresses that cause slip in individual grains. The ies, and there seems to be considerable technical skill in-
critical cycle strain amplitude must be exceeded, and the volved in accomplishing the desired results.
Weldment must be allowed to deform freely during treat-
QUESTIONS
9-1. What five conditions must apply for successful oxy- 9-10. What is the advantage of using water with plasma arc
fuel gas cutting? cutting?
9·2. What is the best way to compare various makes of 9-11. Is semiautomatic plasma arc cutting possible?
cutting tips? 9-12. What are the three thermal spraying methods?
What methods are used to guide an automatic flame 9-13. Are powdersllsed for the electric arc spraying
cutting machine? processes? If so, why?
How is the ne ting program for automatic cutting 9-14. Bxplatn how parts are prepared for spraying.
machines generated?
9-S. 9·15. Explain th differ nee between flame spraying and
What i stack cutting? What problem is sometimes the detonation spray method.
en ountered?
9-16. 'Vbat ar the two major categort s of plastics?
9-6. Explain the oxygen arc cutting pro ess. What metals
9-17. What ate the major typ s of composit s?
can b cut?
9·7. 9-18. Wh'lt is interpass t mperarure!
Explain the difference between air arbon arc cutting
and carbon ar cutting. 9-19. Explain the differ ence b tween ann aling stress re-
9,8. lieving, and normalizing.
What is the advantag of plasma arc cutting?
9,9. 9-20. How can you measure the temperatures of a heated
Which process is fastest for cutting l/4-in. (6. -mmj- weldm nr?
thick material?
{. ,i
,2£ ;M '_1. - . ''iii e- i if 5 _
7. R. L MUler and D. R. Wink} ms 0, "'"Veldng Phtsti

od: Downstr am Op rati n for ustcru M Id r ,"
PI(:I.st'icsEngin ring ( .prtl 1980); 38. .
8. M. M. chwartz, O1'1tpOSU~ A1aterltJ/i. J-Jan(lbook. ,(N "W.
,Yo.rk;McGrit·HUl.1 83. .
Resistance is the restriction to current flow in art
electrical circuit. Every component in the circuit, includ-
ing the conductor, has some resistance to current floW',
Current flows more easily through some conductors thllll
others; that is, the resistance of some conductors is le~i
than others. Resistance depends on the material,t:hC
cross-sectional area, and the temperature of the conduc'
tor. I is designated by the letter R. The unit of electrical
resistance is the ohm. Copper is widely used for conduC'
tors sine it has the lowest electrical r sistivity of com"
mon metals. Insulators have a very high resistance and
will not conduct current.
The simple electrical circuit shown in Figure 10..1
includes two meter for lectrlcal measurement, a alt·
10~,1.ARC WELDING meter and an ammeter. It also shows a symbol for a bt-
lECTRICITY t ry:.Th longer line of th symbol rep! s nts th positiVe
terminal. The electron cur ent flows from thenegati\f~ .
Tl1·el "ctrlcal arc weldlng circuit is the same as any elec- (Zeo t11, positive I).The arrow shows the dire tion '0
trical cir<.'tllt. In t.11 Irnplestelectri al trcuits, her ar urrent flow. onventional curr or flows in th oPP fre
W'" fa toes: dlrectlon, .
l1trent~flow of electricity Th ammeter is a Iow-resistance meter.shown by t~
; 2. Pte. sure.force reqtli d t cause the cur ottofl w
round drc1 and arrow adjacen to th J tt rL 'Ill pre l
r oltag cross th batt ry an be t lere u d by a I,·
3'.R "8ist mce: fo~ e us d to regqlate ~ :fJ IWof u rent
. met r. Th . voltmeter is a hjgJ'Hesist~Ulc met r,shown t>
the round etrcl and arrow adja nt to th letter 6.
FIGURE10-1 Simple electrical circuft.

The resistance in the circuit is shown by a zigzag confusion, whenever polarity is discussed the term elec-
SYmbol.The resistance of a resistor can be measured by trode negative (DCEN) is used instead of straight polarity
an ohmmeter. An ohmmeter is never used to measure re- (DCSP), and electrode positive (DCEP) is used instead of
i tance in a circuit when current is flowing. reverse polarity (DCRP).
The relationship of these three factors is expressed The ammeter used in a welding circuit is a millivolt-
by Ohm's law as follows: meter calibrated in amperes connected across a shunt in
the welding circuit. The shunt is a calibrated, very low-
pressure
current = resistance conductor. The voltmeter shown in the figure
resistance will measure the welding machine voltage output and the
or voltage across the arc, which are essentially the same. Be-
fore the arc is struck, the voltmeter will read the voltage
volts E with no current flowing in the circuit.This is known as the
amperes =-- or J =-
ohms R open circuit voltage and is usually higher than the arc volt-
age or voltage across the machine when current is flowing.
Where J = current in amperes (flow) Another unit in an electrical circuit, and important
.E ~ pressure in volts (EMF) to welding, is the unit of power. The rate of producing, or
R = resistance in ohm of using, eJectrical energy is called pouier and is measured
in watts. Power in a circuit is the product of the current
Ohm's law can also be expressed as
in amperes times the pressure in volts, or
E
.E = JR or R=- power = current X pressure
J
or
By simple arithmetic, if two values are known or mea-
SlUed,the third value can be determined. watts = amperes X volts
A few changes to the circuit can be made to repre- or
fit an arc welding circuit. Replace the battery with a
Welding machine, since they are both a source of EMF (or P=]XE
oItage), and replace the resistor with a welding are,
where P = power in watts
"'hi h is also a resistance to current flow (Figure 10-2).
~'le lectron urrent will flow from the negative terminal J '= curr nt in amperes
t 1rough the resistanc of the arc to the positive terminal. E = pressure in volts
1 In th early days of arc welding, using bare metal When welding using a 1/8·in. electrode at 100 A and
~ e tr d " it wa normal to connect the negative side of an arc voltage of 251 the power would be 2, 00 watts (W);
wk
e g nerator to the electr de and the po. itlve side to the 2,500W can b expressed as 2.5 kllowatrs (kW).Poweris
d Or piece. 'Thi$' was known asst:raight polarity. When
. P 'r penetration was requir d on the base metal, the
measur d by a wattmeter, which is a combination of
an
pOl . amm ter and a oltmeter,
t"lty WOuldb re ersed.This conn cted the electrode
III addition to power, it is n cessary to know th
t,T.} ~1e p . itive pole of the generator and the workpieci amount of work tnv Ived. Electrical work or energy is the
°he negativ pol ,1'11 w ld r could quickly hang th product f pow r tim s time and is e pres d as watt-
P la '. .
.sW' rtty of th elding curr. nt by means of a .polartry econds or jO\1J 5 or kilowatt-h U1'8.
~t h. mrnarking welding machines and pol fity
i tit • .~S,th~> old t £0 s.wereus dandindi~~ted th po- Wor~ :=; pow "1' X time
v . as tnught wh 1'1 th . el trod is l1<:gatlVe,!\nd r - or
r. hen tt I tr. de is positiv .In this book, to a. ojd
DING MACHIN
Alternating current and voltage are measured with
AC meters. An AC voltmeter measures the value of both
the positive and negative parts of the sine wave. It reads
POSITION the effective voltage, called the root-mean-squat» (rrllS)
OF COIL IN
DEGREES voltage. The effective direct-current value of an alternat-
ing current or voltage is 0.707 times the maximum value.
270" 360
An alternating current has no unit of its own, but is
measured in terms of direct current, the ampere.The am-
pe.re is defined as a steady rate of flow, but an alternatlO,g
current is not a steady current. An alternating current IS
said to be equivalent to a direct current when it produces
the same average heating effect under exactly si.rJlilar
conditions. This is used since the heating effect of a neg-
ative current is the same as that of a positive current.
FIGURE 10-3 Sine wave generation. Therefore, anAC ammeter will measure a value caUed the
effective value of an alternating current, which is shOwn
in amperes.AllAC meters, unless otherwise marked, read
effective values of current and voltage.
Ohm's law also applies to AC circuits. This is be-
cause Ohm's law deals only with voltage, current, and re-
sistance. In AC welding circuits there are other factors,
and one of the most important is inductance. To \..ulder~
stand inductance we must refer to magnetism.
A magnet has a north pole and a south pole, Wh1cb.
have identical strength. Between these poles are lines of
force. This effect can be shown by sprinkling iron filings
on a sheet of paper and placing it over a magnet. The d~
tinct pattern shows these lines of force running from olle
pole to the orn r. Similar lines of force exist around el .
ttl conductor that carry dlr ct current. This can b
pr ven by pia ing a small compass near a urretlC-
carrying wlr .The needle will den ct wh 11 the urre11t
is tum d off and on. Magneti lines of force reate ph :1-
cal forces between magnet or magnetic fields around
current-carrytng wires. This is the principle of operatlOt1
of an el etn ' motor. The rnagnett Pi' perues of a ferre;-
magnetic material su h as iron when wrapp d with a COIl
of wire are uch that the . robin tJ 11 will prodtl C d
mu h stron r magnctl field h n the magnerl net
pr due d by th . oil alone. Th coil of Wire aroutld a.o
it n cor is a magnenc ·it uit. Magneti cir iits w.urt'lJ .
a sp . ifi Indu tance. Indu ranc expr SS s the results
.rt.ln arrangern nt f OI1()-U t rs, it- n, and tn~1.gP tI
Ids. Indu tan inv lves h ng sin i fun tion. 1'I1~
when magneu Hues of for· ..are cutting aero sIC ti ~'J
t
condu tors. In(lucta:t;lCe ts imp. J;tant only in Ae elt w
01" in D Circuits wh n they Me . nne t d or dlSCO~
nc t d,Wl1. n th urtent is turl1ed of the; nlagn ti field
I
c 1J ps "sand tIt 1n' of fa e Ct1t ~ ross m wir.5llt1d

itldu
. . urr nt 11the wit' .. i tn" sa dlr ri)[ a 1r11!l r
b tl flow ng, Tftil . oil is c n:o~ t d alt rnatltig II
.rent.tl:1 lines ~fforc( b\illd up 0 thm. t}1uuaod the:
co:Uap e and th n·build up in the 01'1' sit tfit' f:datl:O ~
mlnUl(l) an oHaps each :y 'le: If anoth·r Oil .
p.la' ~d on. th" RdTh Ir! C 1< find :'j(') to th firl'it cO !i
th. magnetic Uu $ f 10£ e ~iU c; ut acrosS:.tti"cseOlld CO
100
90
INPUT
-
PRIMARY
AC
80
70
TRUE CONSTANT CURRENT
NORMAL CONSTANT
CURRENT (CC)
OR CONVENTUAL
LU 60
STeEPER SLOPE
AC ~ 50
~ 40 l--L__~ __~~~~~~~ __~~~~

--------r
~.:.-e='F~?§~~~~~~~
SECONDARY
FIGURE10-4 Transformer principle. 30 VOt~~GE

RANGE
~ _l
SHORT
10 CIRCUIT
VOLTAGE
and induce the EMF in it. TIle closer the coils or the o
stronger the magnetic lines of force, the greater will be 100 200 300 400 500
AMPERES
the induced EMF. This is the principle of the transformer,
shown in Figure 10-4. By changing the magnetic cou- FIGURE10-5 The basic welding machine static volt-
pling of the two coils, we can control the output of the ampere characteristic curves and variations.
second coil (the secondary) and thus the output of the
welding transformer. This coupling can be changed by
1l1oVingthe coils closer together or by increasing the
strength of the magnetic field between them. The
strength of the magnetic field can be changed by putting
m.ore or less iron in the area between the coils or by ad-
JUStingthe availability of the magnetic field In other ways.
The output of a transformer welding machine is al-
te~'lting current of the same fr quency as the input
Power.A rectifier is a device that conducts current easier
in one direction than the other. It has a high resistance to
llrrent flOwing in one dire don and a low r si ranee to
CUtrent flowing in the opposite direction. A diode va -
uum tube is an efficient rectifier but will not carry sum-
Ciel t current for welding. Another typ , the dry disk
rectifier, e:tnploys layers of semiconductors such as sele-
~jl1rn·between plates.The newest and most popular tee-
tifl r is the Silicon diode.These ar mad of thin wafer of
'll1. n tbat have had small amounts 'of impurities added
to mak them semJcon luctors. Th > wafers are spe 'ially
treat d and then ass rob) d in hold rs for mounting In
Welding rna hines The diodes are conne ted to the out-
Pl.lt of a welding transformer to produce a!'. cttfter weld-
ing flla hblith DC utput.
10..2 WELDING ARC

REQlJlREMENTS '
characteristic curve that is desired.This curve shows the
normal arc voltage range for consumable electrodes. Spe-
cial processes such as puJse welding may require unique Ii)
~
...J
volt-ampere characteristics. o
>
Historically, the first welding power source was a bat- o.c.v.
tery with a resistor in series with the arc.To start the arc,
the battery, or open-circuit voltage, would be approxi- POWE R SUPPL Y
mately 90 V. The adjustable ballast resistors would allow
the welder to vary the welding current. The static volt-
ampere curve could be approximately a straight line on an
angle, depending on the resistance. The voltage drop 35
across the ballast resistor and across the arc would equal
the total voltage of the battery. Today this is an impractical 25
solution due to the power dissipation and low efficiency,
but it did provide a stable arc, with the welder having the
ability of lengthening and shortening the arc to control the
". WELDING CURRENT AMPERES
welding current.This first welding arc was between a car-
bon electrode and a metal workpiece. Electrical engineers FIGURE 10-6 Output curve for a conventional
studied the arc and the characteristics and designed the drooping welding power source-single control.
necessary parameters for a practical generator welding
machine.
The first machines designed for welding were used could become thinner and the root opening wider.
for manual bare metal arc welding. This employed a weld- Higher current would be required in the first case, and
ing arc between a bare or lightly coated metal electrode lower current in the second case. By lengthening or
and the work It was used without shielding and required shortening the arc, the welder can control penetration to
a good power sourc to provid a stable arc. Bar metal obtain a good-quality weld. Th longer arc will reduce th
arc w Idlng was soon replaced by the shielded metal arc current, which in turn reduces penetration and allows fOf
w Iding proc 58 manually u ing covered electrodes. In the a smaller weld pool. The shorter arc (lower voltage) in-
early d~lYsthe welding power source W<lS designed for use creases the welding current and increases penetratiO!l·
with bare el .tr des and had ell" oping arc characteristics. Thus, by lengthening or shortening the ar , the weIde!
Now known as a conventional welding power sour e, it is can control pen tration during welding without touell-
till us ed for shi lded met. 1arc (stl k) welding. ing the machine controls. This i particularly lmportaD'(
for vertical welding. When th welder lengthens rile ~tc.
briefly, the. current is redu ed, the at! spr .ads out, and
Constant Current System molten metal freezes more qul kly. The amount or oj;
ume of molten metal is r duced,which allow the welder
to control the m Iten III tal in vertical welding.The slol'
of til charact rtstic urve through the arc voltage range
det rmlnes the hang in w lding curr nt for a p dJ:i
change in arc voltage. Thls Jed in th . arly days to the de'
Vi lopment of th duaJ· on t n d generator to g1 ,tl1
op rat r mor ontrol.
Th single- 'ontfol conventtonal rnachln is most
ommon. It has only on adju rm nt, a range switch or
plug~in connectors, which hang; s til current output
. from o1iniJ!nnn t maximUJ)1.By nd)ustlngthe U~ ntCOtl•
t.ro1,a t1umberof output 'ueve' ~re obtffined~l'he (tl.{l .
Jin' sh w tot rm, diate adjQstm nes of tb rnnc;1dl1C. ~
rilfl{; :wit h 1) plu ·in ,I "d toe, rll 1 nm.l 'f of llC
will c tr ,pond to th J1l.unb)r of t, PI or plu8~in '01111,1'
o.ltio a nUabl', Mo t. tr.m 'fo 01 '1'5 and transform (.
r tiJ1t rna hin s at.' singJ~ pntrol we! ling maciljfl S,
,.I'3,t ft cLuat·c( n:t4'oJma "hines: normally g 1'1 p'lItPt:
W 'ldlflg mn, hin' ,.were d '" lop d to trovJd(! iTI0r"
. ...-ttl·
I' xiI '1 t;y fot 11£ r '.nt wcldb g <tppli lni ns. Th sc v~, .
line. have both Ctlfr r antl vdltas _<J.lltro ,t10rnlH11l
-,
....
,
--- 'i"
- - - -:~
0
- 0«,
- - - ~~ - - ,,'?' - - --.~---
<?-'?'
~o .;:..0'-'
....
-,
---- ,....,,.... -,
.... ,
WELDING CURRENT-AMPERES AMPERES--
FIGURE 10-7 Output curve for a conventional welding FIGURE 10-8 Output curve-constant current with arc
POWersource-dual control. force.
:~d
two different adjustments: one for coarse current control
the .other for fine current control, which also pro-
tdesadJustment of the open-circuit voltage. The welder
Constant current welding machines are used for
some automatic welding processes. The wire feeder and
control must duplicate the manual motions of the welder
Can adjust the machine for more or less change of curr nt to start and maintain an arc. This requires a complex sys-
Or a given change of arc voltage. Figure 10-7 shows two tem with feedback from the arc voltage to compens ate
~amcteristic Cl1!VeSobtained on a dual-control machine for changes ill arc length. These are known as voltage-
! adjusting th fine control knob to 80 V or 60 V open- sensitive control wire feeders. Constant current power
If \.I.it voltage. Wh n using the 80 V curve, a steeper supplies at rarely used for very small-diameter electrode
~pe is produc d than wh n the adjustment is for 60 V. wire welding applications. .
rough the ar voltage range a flatter or steep r slope is As gas tungsten arc welding became more popular,
,,~tai~1ed:nl flatter sloped curve provides a digging arc there was a demand for a pow r source that had little or
le nil 'Inequal change in arc olrage.Tl e steeper slope has no current change with arc length change. The welder
ViS change for the sam change in arc length and, pro- ould not maintain a perfectlycons istent arc 1 ngth, and
tod a . oner ar . Dual-rang machil:es aJ10w the welder this caus ed the welding curt nt to change when it was
ontrol tll. current over a fairly WIde range, Dual-rang not desired. This led to the devclopm nt of'a power
maCh' uies ar no longer P pnlar, sour e With a true constant current volt-amp Orecurv
'v t Later. the .AC tt n f 1:11 er weldi~g machine ~as d - within, the arc oltag ~ range, shown in 'i.gtlre 10-.8.. he
fUnoped for .shielded metal at weldtng. Th static volt .. welding urrent remains the rune whether the aI,'i is
"o pev .'\ har4! tenstic curve is as shown " in Figur 10...6. short or lOl'lg.Thi 1 d to th d velopment of an ru.:c for
" n) ttan fornl r w ldi.tl.g power sour s ha e flo. and to avoid shorting, whi.ch k1 ksul at a \falu of or lightly·
"oar
'hi ' . ". "<.I'JIl tme t kn bs but Rr n t dl~a}..control ma- blo r the norm. 1low a~ voltage. It proVi<,leshigh f U ~
II e~. Alt nating Ctlfl" nt welding di£f11 S from direct l'etlt at a low mIt gel whi 1im:pro es arC;st.ab:U11Yby pt'a.
1.~ .00. welding . ill e volUtge and urr nt pass througb \'iding quick r 0\1 ry during parthll (lIe <,utages-, Ate 10J', ~.
'<;ttl. ' at each eurt nt revet5a1 accorditlg to the line fre- isadjusul1)le,assnwn byclash:edJit;t' smFlgurel(}~$.Tlu. " ..- .
nt ~ y, 100 or 120 times p r S ond. R.encmllc design d i811 gra at'lvanta8 of gas 'tI.mg$ten.arc welding sin: e tl1. ,,"
n~ tIle 1Uachine caus s a ph. s > shift:betWeen the VOltage workIng .~~ 111gtU 0 the tun.f:Jst tl arc is limited. It pr "
lh . llttent, so tb 'y do not both go th ugh the zer at vid sam t' drivtn a:r for ~ht11 d III tal arC 'e1dlng;"
: {1 iam ',~nsta:n .Wll nth urr nt g es tbrough zcro,th
01 . (.·XfL.nguiShd, bu b'" aus of pI¥' dlf6"l'n .. ttl
iQQ;B, Present h. Ips. t ..re stftoIlsh,th. q,r(! qui .ldY:Tn
1" nl
Zfiu),n tb~ -af stream af~ t~ the- volt~ required to
, n:~bl:il'i.ht~l.. ate "nd 0 '''ndl stabUity orth <}.f.At 8t~h
ti't)(..l,.~ IOnIZ{'sac 11l"'ludCd n th ~ ating, of ele-
o ,::sUcdgn d "1'A'G~cldiJlIPO[ltJy'jc;t>astabl 'teo
(f)
~
o
>
35 - __
1
AMPERES -
FIGURE 10-9 Output curve-constant current with arc

force.
SHORT ARC 100 AMPERES

o~ ~~ __
o AMPERES---
10 The rapid change of amperage with

FIGURE10.....
small changes In voltage.
circuit. Changes in wire feed speed that occur when the
welder moves the gun toward or away from the work are
compensated by momentarily changing the current and.
the melt-off rate until equilibrium is reestablished. The
same corrective action occurs if the wire feeder has a
temporary reduction in speed.The CV power source and
r - MACHINE RATING
fixed wire feed speed system is self-regulating. It is an ex- I
cellent Wire feed system, especially for semiautomatic FLAT OR HIGH I
welding, since movement of the cable assembly often

changes the drag or feed rate of the electrode wire. The
CV welding power source provides the proper current so
that the melt-off rate is equal to the wire feed rate.The arc
length is controlled by setting the voltage on the power
ouree.The welding current is controlled by adjusting the
'Wire feed speed.
The characteristics of the welding power source
mUSt be designed to provide a stable arc when welding OL- ~--~----------~
o AMPERES-
With different electrode sizes and metals and in different
atmospheres. Some CV welding machines have a means FIGUR.E 10-11 Output curve slopes for short circuiting
of adjusting the slope of the volt-ampere curve. Slope arc transfer.
Control provides control of the magnitude of the short
circuiting current: the steeper the slope, the smaller the
hon circuiting current. Experience indicates that a 0.001 SEC
CUrvewith. a slope of 1 1/2 to 2V per lOOA is best for gas TO
I 0.01 SEC 1
Oletal arc welding with nonferrous electrodes in inert I. '"'I
gas, for submerged arc welding, and for flux-cored arc I
I
welding with relatively larger-diameter electrode wires. A I
~t'Ve with a medium slope of 2 to 3 V per 100 A is pre-
t ,
I
~e:rredfor welding With CO2 gas shielded metal arc weld- I
ltlg and for smaller flux ored electrode wires. A steeper I
lope of 3 to 4 V per 100 A is recommended for short clr- I·
I
~iting arc transfer. These thr e slopes are shown in I
19u1' 10-11. he flatter the slope of the curve, the more I
I
the urr nt changes for an equal change in arc voltage. I
, The dynamic characteristics of the power source I
ll'l\l,t b car fully engineered. If the voltage changes
o TIME--'
abruptly witba short cit ult, the urrent will tend to in-
eas qui:kIy to a cry high value.This is an advantage in FIGURE10-12 Dynamic characteristic versus
tatting th at but Will cr ate unwant d spatter if not response time.
t ()ntro~ d. It !' otlt;rolled by adding rea itance or indue-
AAce 1'0 th clreuir. This changes the time factor or r •
~POt1 time and t rovides a stable arc. In most machine
djff, rent am unt f reactanc .whlch an be r sistanc
. t~U'le, i tn.c1uded in the elr uit for the different
sIf in. du.
i '.P.ln til, new inverter p w r sour '6) the cltarac~eJ:l'
ts are. QDl:l;'olledcJ cttonically.
01 lWQ .factor determln .th arc st~biUty: the static
t",. Olpere 1 am terlstlc '\1fV1 and the dynamic har-·
rt ttc of the roll hlne. Ch og s in v ltag and urrent
r ~ vtd·. the drown. h. ract risU . I which r lat prim'
(} .t til two tr m mdltJ0ns f short-er nit and
(: ttCl:lir olta-ge.At Shoft "it 'uit th. voltage dr-ops to
v~r:O~.hhntdYzero. Wtlen the short- \11tdears, th ~..
1~~\8will tis qui klYifollowed b tabU z. ti n of the
01" _ t • to. v.alu· l w th p . i1' ·\.li..t" ltag, aJl d
\lJ~ l' CO .
tJQr altag. n'l· C"l"t fit uses rat:rl.dly" dUtitlQ the
The conventional welding machine must contain the of power sources and a classification system. power
proper balance of impedance or inductance to stabilize sources can be described as rotating machines, static ma-
the output of the machine quickly. The entire concept of chines, engine-driven machines, transformer-rectifier ma-
machine control to match the physics of the dynamic chines, and so on. All of the machines are for a single
welding arc is changing with the design of the new in- operator; that is, they are designed to deliver current to
verter power sources. only one welding arc.
The first way of classifying a welding machine is by
the basic type, rotating or static. Rotating machines gen-
erate power for arc welding at the point of use and are
10-3 TYPES OF usually run by an internal combustion engine. Static
WELDING MACHINES power sources have no moving parts and convert power
available from utility line to power required for arc weld-
A special kind of electrical power is required to make an
ing. There are three basic types: the transformer, the rec-
arc weld.The special power is provided by a welding ma- tifier, and the inverter.
chine, also known as a welding power source. Power di-
The second way of classifying a welding power
rectly from the utility line cannot be used for arc welding.
source is by the type of welding current provided, whether
A welding machine must deliver controllable current at a
AC or DC, pulsing, or a combination output. In connection
voltage according to the requirements of the welding
with the type of current produced, the static volt-ampere
process. Normally, the power required Is from 10 to 3; V
characteristic output curve must be analyzed. There are
and from 5 to 500 A.The various welding processes and
two basic types of output characteristic curve. One is the
procedures have specific arc characteristics that demand
conventional or CC welding machin that has a drooping
specific outputs of the welding machine.
Electric power for arc welding is obtained in two
volt-ampere characteristic curve. The other is the cv
sometimes called constant potential (CP) power source,
ways: (1) generated at the point of use or (2) converted
which has a relatively flat volt-ampere characteristic
from power available from utility lines. There are many
curve. The actual output characteristic curves are slighdy
ways of describing electric power used for welding. It can
different. The terms constant current and constant volt-
be direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC). Re-
age are widely used, even though the actual machine out·
quirements of the welding process may be supplied by a
put curve is not true CC or CV but is fairly lose. Constant
onstant curr nt (CC) with a drooping characteristic, or urrent or conventional machines are ometimes referred
it may require constant voltage (CV), which is a flat char-
to as variable voltage (VV) machines. Pulsed-current weld-
a teristt output, Figure 10-13 shows the principal types
ing has been ad pted f r other pro esses. It pro ides more
pr else control in m chanlzed welding system .
A third way to categorize a p wer ourc 1 by tbe
output ratlng.Thls is the machine rating or the rated OU~4"
FIGURE10-13 Simplified system of classifying put current in amper 5, which is usually given as a ma:xi~
welding machines. mum, t nd the duty cycle, which is based on the time umit
o prating th machine at a specmc current output.TttC
rating i the load urrent produced by the welding mfl'
chine without creating excessive temp rature rise wi hill
th • machine.AlI arc welding p wer sources are designed
and rated in a cordance with lEe 97 -1, "At Welding
Equlpm nr, Part l;Welding Power Source ~ )1'I1J intet"
nat! nal standard is ace pted or approved l)y natlonll]
standaed sod Ucs il mo r of th· Indu trtallz d counme .
In th n ted States it ts the National!!l trt at MamJ!ac'
turers As ocia tt n eNEMA). which fannerly provjded.al'l
electdc ar ~w[dlng apparatn tandaTd for tlnftcd.
tftte8 This 1 't~Tldard is a perform. standard th;l1
provtd d finitions, nvtronm ntal test typ and c ndl-
. dons. t signs f r prot. Hon ( lnst: eJecrri '. 1shock) th ~
mal e . Uif ments in Imlihg heatlng t ts, overload
prot etion, and des gil for san opcmtion.lt a)SO ovtJ'$
rh design of the ma bin ~o(hmx:Uia appa tl:l~ wdt
M )"t DUO j '$ bl\vC dol' 'd tbi stWldard.
On ( th _. tl ~ to d t tll n h ' pacity of ~ 111:t~
- c1 J e in addition to it~rntft!d OlUPUI; i~ by it duty tl. te,
! '; I
the ratio of arc time to total time in a Io-mlnute period. volts and amperes to become out of phase.A single-phase
The machine must operate properly without overheating AC transformer welding machine has an inductive electri-
during this period. For example, a 60%-duty-cycle ma- calload.This causes the current curve of the alternating cy-
chine must not overheat when providing rated output for cle to lag the voltage curve by a number of degrees, This
6 out of 10 minutes. creates a lagging power factor. The electrical utility com-
A number of terms used to describe power sources pany monitors industrial customers and establishes a
reqUire explanation. TIle term slope relates to the slope of power factor for the company. This Is entered into a for-
the static volt-ampere characteristic curve of the machine. mula so that the factory will pay a penalty when the power
It is defined as the output voltage change to the change in factor is less than unity. The power factor of an industrial
OUtput current expressed in volts per 100 A. The term ap- plant can be improved or moved toward unity by correc-
plies to both flat characteristic machines and drooping tion devices such as power factor-correcting Capacitors.
characteristic machines. Slope is important within the arc In the case of a single-phase transformer welding machine,
Voltage range since it relates to the stability of the arc. a power factor-correcting capacitor can be built into. the
The tsstn.potoerfactor also relates to welding power machine to provide a correction factor, bringing the
sources and is an electrical term of great interest to the power factor close to unity, and is normally recommended.
el,eCtrical utility company and to plant engineers. In direct Common usage has generally matched the power
current, power is expressed in watts or kilowatts (kW). In source to the welding procedure and welding process.
a DC circuit the product of voltage and amperage in the Table 10-1 shows the more popular arrangements. Direct
circuit is all usable, and it all registers on the electric current electrode positive (DCEP) is used for gas metal
POWermeter.With alternating current, however, kilowatts arc welding.When DC electrode negative (DCEN) is used,
are used 0 indicate usable power, and kilovolt-amperes the arc is erratic and produces an inferior weld. DCEN
(kVA) are used, to indicate the total product of amperes can be used for submerged arc welding, flux-cored arc
tltnes volts delivered by the utility company: The power welding, and shielded metal arc welding.
factor CPF) is the ratio of usable power (kW) to total power The CV principle of welding with alternating cur-
(kVA).When AC voltage and current are in phase, the rent is normally not used. It can be used for submerged arc
Power factor is said to be unity or 1;thus, with unity power welding and for electroslag welding, but is not popular. A
fa tor, kilowatts (kW) equals kilovolt-amperes (kVA). CV power system should not be used for shielded metal
The power factor of an industrial user company is arc welding.Jt may overload and damage the power source
rarely unity, however, since most electrical equipment in a by drawing t 0 much current too Iong. It can be used for
fa tory genetally consists of motors that tend to cause the carbon arc cutting and gouging with small electrodes.
, ~eldlng Precess
Nonconsumable electrode process
Gas tUngsten arc welding <GTAW) Yes No Yes Yes
Plasma arc welding (PAW) Yes No No Yes
Carbon (1YC welding (CAW) Yes No Two carbons Not used
StUd welding (SW) Yes Possible No . Not used
Consumable electrode precesses
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) . Yes No
GMJ\W inert gas, nonferrous MIG . Possible Yes
GMAW spray arc transfer MIG Possible Yes
GMAW globular transfer MIG . POSSible Ye$
~MAW short circlJitlng transfer MIG No 'Yes
f1MAW pulsed arc transfer MIG, pulsed Special . Special
....lIX~redarc wald1.ng tFCAW) Yes Yes
SQorn~rgecj rc weldingiSAW) Yes .Yes
Efec rogas welding (EGW) POSSIble Yes
~ cttogas ~elding CEW) Possible Yes
In the flnal analysis, the welding power source must commutator and large carbon brushes. The commutator
provide a stable arc, instant arc starting, and a high degree required periodic maintenance, and the brushes needed
of controllability. No matter what welding process is periodic replacement.
used, the power source must provide usability for the A newer design of rotating power source is knoW11
welder and must provide welder satisfaction. A power as a revolving field or alternator-type generator. In thiS
source that will enable the welder or the automatic weld- machine the welding power is generated in the stationary
ing machine to produce high-quality welds using the windings of the generator's stator. A small amount of the
process and procedures specified would be the best stator power is fed to a solid-state diode rectifier bridge.
welding power source for the purpose. The rectifier produces direct current used for the fields of
the generator, which revolves with the main shaft. The re-
volving field produces the magnetic lines of force, which
generate alternating current in the stator windings of the
10-4 ROTATING WELDING generator. This ac output may be used directly for AC
welding or rectified by solid-state diodes to become DC
MACHINES output for welding.The advantage of the revolving field or
alternator-generator machine is that only a small amount
of current is carried by the brushes and slip rings.This re-
sults in alower-cost.more reliable generator power source
that requires less maintenance. Figure 10-14 shows a
block diagram of a revolving field welding generator.
A special type of alternator-generator design is to-
tally brushless. This means that no electric current passes
from the rotating part to the stationary part of the machine.
TIlls is accomplished in a variety of ways. One method is to
use a second generator as an excirer'Ihe exciter consists of
a stationary field that causes AC voltage to. be generated in
the rotating armature. The AC voltage is rectified by soUd-
state rectifier diodes mounted on the rotating shaft, The di-
rect current from the rectifiers is then used to supplY
current to the revolving fields of the main generatoc'Thesc-
in turn, produceAt; voltag inthe stator windings. Some of
theAC vol tag from th main generator stator j.., rectified to
D to. power the stationary fields of the exciter. Only mag-
netic flux: crosses the Interface between the stationary and
revolving portions of the generator. A bl k dlagram of ~
brushle s typ of machine ts shown in igur 10-15.
FIGURE 10-14 Block diagram of a revolving field

generator.
FiEVOLVING
PORTION
/
STATIONARY
PORTION
REVOLVING PORTION the exciter, the field coils change their magnetic polarity.
\
\ When the polarity of the field coils is changed, the polarity
\
\ of the output of the commutator generator is also changed.
ENGINE The output of the generator, which is alternating
\
\
current, can be processed and controlled in the same
\
manner as the transformer welding machine. If direct cur-
rent is desired, the generator output can be processed
STATIONARY and controlled in the same manner as the rectifier weld-
PORTION
ing machine. It is possible for the AC generator to power
an inverter and provide the various output characteristics
and procedure programs.
DC WELD
One of the more popular heavy-duty generators
with a 60% to 100% duty cycle provides alternating cur-
'-- ACWELD rent with conventional characteristics, direct current with
'-----------AUXPOWER conventional characteristics, and direct current with CV
characteristics. Cable terminals are provided for th dif-
FIGURE10-15 Block diagram of brush less generator.
ferent outputs. These machines can be used for SMAW
(stick) welding and for semiautomatic GMAW and FCAW
welding. These machines are many times air-cooled diesel
engine-powered. The heavy-duty machines usually have
electric motor starting systems. Most machines of this type
include welding voltage and ammeters, engine hour me-
ters, oil pressure gauges, and fuel gauges. Somemachines
provide single-phase 115- and 230- V ACreceptades with
circuit breakers for auxiliary power. Most machines In-
clude automatic idle systems for fuel economy Other op-
tional equipment and accessories are normally available.
A lightweight, light-duty, air-cooled, gasoline engine-
powered generator provides the ultimate tn portability.
TIle e machines have either L ctri key 01' recoil starting
systems. Trailer mountings and other auxiliary items, S ich
as wire feeders and spool guns, are normally availabl ,
A fuel consumption curve is provid d for engine-powered
welding machines. This provides fuel consumptionat dif..
ferent current levels at a specifi operator factor.
~RE 10-16 Four-pole revolving field or rotor.
10..5 TRANSFORMER
WELDING MACHINES
current, supplies the lagging phase angle every half-cycle
to smooth out the welding current output.
The output of the transformer welding machine caD
be adjusted in a number of ways. The open-circuit voltage
of the machine depends on the turns ratio and the inCOIll'
ing power-line voltage. Changing the magnetic coupllilg
of the two coils changes the current output of the weld-
ing transformer. There are various ways of changing the
magnetic coupling to change the output of the machine.
The control system box, shown in Figure 10-17, in-
dicates a means of changing the magnetic coupling of the
two coils.This changes the output current of the welding
transformer. There are numerous control systems. The
FIGURE 10-17 Transformer principle for AC. more common systems are:
1, Tapped resistance. The amount of resistance .ill

prin iple of the transformer is shown in Figure 10-17, the secondary is changed by moving tap switches.
where mutual induction is used between two coils in the 2. Tapped secondary. This changes the current's ttl-
same magnetic field. The AC power in the primary coil tio between the primary and the secondary at dif·
causes magnetic lines of force to build up to the maxi- ferent tap switches.
mum in one direction during one half-cycle and then col- 3. Tapped reactor. This is similar to the tap second-
lap e. Magnetic lines build up in the opposite direction ary but changes the reactor coil turns by moving
during the other half-cycle of current flow and then col- tap switches.
lapse. The econdary coil is in the same magnetic field 4. Moving coil, This sy tern moves one transformer
and the magnetic lines of force cut across the windings coil with respect to the other, which changes the
in the secondary coil and Induce a voltage. A welding coupling.
transformer is a step-down transformer. The voltage 1" Ia-
5. Moving reactor core. This moves a core in the re-
tlonship between the primary and se ondary is deter- actor coil.
mined by the number f turns or loops in ea h coil. The
primary coil has a large numb r of turn to accommo-
6. Moving shunt coil. This moves a shunt to change
the coupling. .
date th high voltage f the pow r ltn s.' he secondary
coil has fewer turn and a lowe r open-circutr Voltage.
TIlls is' known as the turns ratio. Th power or watt
Vahle in both prirn~u~yand secondary coils is approxi-
mateJy the same cept for electrical losses. The product
f th primary voltag tim es the primary urrent equals
the product of th secondary voltage times the. s condo
ary curt 'nt whtl wIding, as shown by the formula Ep x
lp ~ E x 1$' The freq n y of t.11 alr fnating curr .nr is
de sam in both-me prln1ary an I sec ndary TI wave-
81 ap of th s ..ondary. output is -'ssentiaUy the arne as
that ohlle primary outpl.lttnQt1nally sinw ojd~ 1.1'h mag-
.n tL cor of n wel{li.n~ rna 'bin' is made of thin. iron lam-
lnanon .Lin '$ of ,r e ar .onc nt at .-( in th ron r .
.. .Th ttt"nsrorm tis lil:J S the il1con jng primary voltag ,
t;l~ualty tehtt1V:i41y lligrh -rom ,the secondary cit· rut of the
oW lding l'Uit¢lltne."rbls ttl tisafetY reature,Tbjs prin pIe is
tl•. <I itJ illl tNlnsfQl'.n1 r and :transform. :t te Lifter w d<ling
I
SLOPE THROUGH I
/ ZEROLINE +
+
ARC EXTINCTION
AREA
0
/ 0
I
,
I
I
I REIGNITION
POINT
DISTORTED SINE WAVE

CONVENTIONAL SINE WAVE
TIME
TIME FIGURE 10-20 Distorted sine wave.
FIGURE10-18 Current waveform for AC welding.
CONTROL CONTROL
RECTIFIER RHEOSTAT
SATURABLE
REACTOR
F===F=f:::.;==?1/
SECONDARY
AOl.lNE
WORK
RANSFORMER
.~ A%
v
~!Q~RE10-19· A simplified version of the saturable
~or method for controlfing machine output
HI VOLT AGE HI VOL TAGE
.------'-~J---~-- ,·'----'l'
TRANSFORMER
,
,L
~
f --If
J L_,
CAPACITOR
f
-r
,
I
EFFICIENCY
AC LINE ': ~ SPARK GAP
':'~ I •
• 1 I i
W HI FREOUENCY COUPLING
TRANSFORMER
POWER FACTOR
(WITH CAPACITORSI
----------- ~-~I
FROM POWER SOURCE
",2:
~
FIGURE 10-21 A simplified circuit diagram of spark ,_

\
POWER
z FACTOR
gap arc stabilizer. ~ (WITHOUT
~ CAPACITORS)
u
o
,_
w
<
a:
case of welding machines designed for GTAW. High-
o 500
frequency oscillators, also available as stand-alone units
external to the welding machine, were called the "miss- AMPERE OUTPUT (AC)
ing link." NOTE: SING LE PHASE UNIT
High-frequency stabilizing current must be carefully FIGURE 10-22 Performance curves of a transformer
controll d. High-frequency current superimposed on the welding machine.
welding current an be radiated by the welding leads or
can enter the welding machine's power input lines. Equip-
ment must be installed correctly, and shielding is required
to avoid radiation. Radiation of the high-frequency current
can cause interference with aviation communications,
broadcast,and1V stanons.The length of the welding leads
and their arrangement has an effect on radiation and on re-
du Ing the high-fr quency current at the ar '. The use of
hlgh-frequcncy spark gap oscillators is appr ved by the
ederalzwtarton.Authonty, provided tha they ar in tailed
in ac ordan 'e with manufa tur rs' instructions. In many
cases, remote high-frequency unirs are installed near the
at' to provid consistent ar starting.
'lrans,former welding machines are normally air
ooled, H avy<tutyindu trial transformer power sources
11 y th rmostat-controlled .ftUls to 001 the machin .
verh atlt 9 .tllay 0 ur Uthe fan is not operating or if air
pa. sag s llt . locked. Il-cooled transform r power
8 ur es that u il culat iog UJn a s al d clr uit ar avail-
. abl for special i:rIB-taUationswhere dustY and corrostve
environmc::nt. are encountered. '£'h y are us d mostly in
Eur.opc, h tUaU,lim,it d..inpu rnachh es.use c nv ti n
qUog 'Lnd r '\y on air th, t norm Ity ir utatcs thr ugh
tll' l~uv t [n the '~lbiI °t 0 the t1U\chin .
"', 'the traosfOfrner weldttlg nUl hi oe t a v ry efficient
"\VC'lding:tl1:u...hlp.e ,from the, eIr: ~Jlic power pOint. of view. .
lthas higb, ftlC{e:neyl the fewest fto~load losS'es alld~with
. PlOp 't j, )W tioftlctOf Q);r' ·tlnn, a d· p. Wet fa tor.
igur 1()...Z2 show's th. p ,OfOl1l.tl . u' e of a typJ at
~()~h'rit'fl,h.'O ,
.h . 'ieJl yo.f It ltlS orJ,ller W'''ldillg ma hin
. ':~',U:J;nttinfAO( ~J O~V{oaU ~ from 80% to 90%.Th nQ<.
. ';:'i;;~lOa(1;l~<i.~ug-· J'Ql1 .ISO~ta .J.5\l·n:intUn ontbe
" n r h til • ,h:':p 11/ t to') l' at: t ·V load Etapp" xj~
m~lt~lf...1' . wid ot:lt'Qrrectl.ol'l, but b I, imp v ) b
-the·~ti:a.,}£~~t'3l:U;ot$.i1h;·,'(jtl't 'tioft {J1tf
;':J. • ; ~ .
n -of C:llpa 'itQf~'
Transformer power sources offer some advantages.
They are the least expensive and very efficient.The main-
tenance expense is the lowest of any type of welding rna-
hine.The use of alternating current reduces the problem
of arc blow on complex weldments.
Despite the many advantages of the transformer
~ower source, they are becoming less popular. The lim-
tted input, hobby, or farm-type welding machine is now
practically obsolete. It has been replaced by the DC light.
duty rectifier or inverter power sources with built-in wire FIGURE10-23 SCR power diode.
feeder.
10-6 RECTIFIER WELDING

MACHINES
Die ct current is used for most arc welding processes
and for most welding application .Alternating current is
~hanged to direct current by means of a rectifier. A rec-
tifier is a de ice that conducts current more ea ily in
O~le direction than in the other, For many years the
d~odevacuum tube has been u ed in radio power-supply
~1l'Cltits to produce the required direct current. Large,
caVY-duty vacuum-tube rectifiers were developed for -\0+----- BRAIDED
.......
titdi transmitters and used in indu trial battery charg- CABLE
~r,. Ix mer ury apor vacuum-tube r cnfiers w re used
~n three-pha e circuit to power the first rectlfi r weld-
H--1l---- GATE
t.n~ rna hine. This pioneer machine, developed in the REFER(::NCE
Il'lld'1930s by theAlli Chalmer ompany, was called a LEAD
cId- Tron.Ie bad a 75-A rating. Vacuum-tube rectifiers .I----WELDED
..l~t'e..not suffi. iently rugged for industnal welding ap- HERMETI"'~=9~tF1=~l:rJbJ TUSE SEAL
SEALS '
~ t atlon~, so solid-stat r ctifi rs ere develop d. The
tiding indu try adopted the dry disk rectifier, which
i:PloyS a l~yer of a semiconductor such as copper ox.
titl r 1 mum betw en adta em plates. eleniurn rec-
BRAZED
re ~ d lop d in the 19 Os w re used in many arly TUNGSTeN
t ctifi r wetdblg pow r our es, TIl high- rurrent, solid- rbCOPp~R .
t9~ SHico~ di d . re tift r wae d veloped in the mid- JOINTS
nd t us d for mo t weldIng rnachln s today .
.fl' A sill .on -dioder ctiff rls a s mlccnduceor made
"t' 110. W. c.r of s ]j n that has smafl < mounts of i.mpu~
", tes add d BRAZED JOINT
. e t 11 ak them semi ondll t r .111.c w"ftl\
( 'd~pe ~aUytr 'ated and nea.p ul t d und r pr ssut i1,1
Q.ttl rabIe, por 'lain h01.l~ing for welding machine r •
.It ~m: n .' gure 10:,23 !thaws a typical sUi on diad.
tOg lhlcs curt-ent to flow in one directIon wl:lil. block~
Iud ~ the oppo ite lit lion. It has two terminals, ~m FIGUf'E 10-24 'I~tenlal consfruemm (lan.spRpower'
n ,lnd a ' hod . ih internal' parts of a SiUCDtl- diode.
tt ~tXll1d ~ . Ware sh wn in Figut' 10-. This re ~.
I &~tt~",' ~~:Iar t( a 'iJi on diode 'ut bas. tl1ird tetminaJ
fen' !'~ ~~ rl cUi al trcuits t cballgf! al~em(tillg (.1;1f<'

ole tlft l nt w·.r· borrow 'd IV ttl th radio 'Ie .
UI'
fC'l . , t':
'hnot gr. AsimpUfi d Iia n"'.lnl Of inC ba.i '
t U'Cutl:S 1. sll WJ:l in EtglJr lO-2.5."bitllOQtMe.,
ACINPUT RECTIFIER CIRCUIT DC OUTPUT
o nV cu
SINGLE PHASE
,__ 'I __.,:: :IL-...l..-{\~{\~
HALF·WAVE
RECTIFICATION
TRANSFORMER INDUCTOR RECTIFIER SCR
£~
SINGLE PHASE
+
:lfYVYJ FULL·WAVE
RECTIFICATION
(REACTOR) THYRISTOR
THREE PHASE
tE : I ~ +
-:
+1
0 rvv;::::::
RECTIFICATION
TRANSISTOR CONDENSER ARC RHEOSTAT
~ ~
.?~----Z:~=:::_--=_
+C==
0 FULL-WAVE
FIGURE10-26 Symbols of electronic components .
THREE PHASE
RECTIFICATION
FIGURE10-25 Basic SCR circuits. reactor transformer welding machine. This transformer .
power source was discussed in Section 10-S.The power
rectifiers were added to the basic transformer. Some fll~'
chines remained with single-phase input and provide AC
or DC output with a conventional CC volt-ampere chat'
acteristic curve.The DC rectifier power source soon used
three-phase input and produced only DC ourput.This rna-
chine was an advantage since it provided a balanced load
on the utility lines and had a full-wave rectifier that prO'
vided a smoother arc. As gas metal arc welding becaJ1le
rnor popular, three-phase input machines were de-qe!'
oped to provide CV output. Soon afterward, combination
CC-CV machines appear d.
Another solid-state device used in welding rna'
chin s was the stlicon-conrrolled rectifier (S R) hoWl' ,10
Pigur 10-2 .The e devices were also called thyristors.
which is a conrraction of the word tbyraton, a type 0 v, C'
uum tube who e characteristics ar Similar to an SCR.1I1d-.
transistor Thi. s mlcondu tor ts a three-layer, hre'
t rmlnal devt that is similar to til diode except for the
addition of a thin elem nt alled the gate, which is pI' ed
betwe 11 the cathode 31 d th, ~n de. Th output of ttl
SCR is ccatrolted by applying a sat UiS!lal to the gate.
which in turn controls a large amounr of current.The ~
i a. nrc 11 d dl04 ,in th t k has the capa ty of bl clt-
Jog urn n flow ill both dir tions.Jt forwardblo Idtl~
action c. n be $Wit h d on or off. his, Witching functiofl
is a c n1pIish d by a s gnat !I d to the third t rmit1al~ ,
called the gate. onducnon.st rtS when a.controlleds.' ,
nafls applied to the gate·.Whcn,m.egate sign:. 118a.ppll~l
the R b gIn tocondu 't ut.cnt.#rl1e $ will otltitl.U
to .. ndu t t11' urrent ft· eh g~t 81 nul t p ,as l(lfl~
Its t lrrent continu s t flow. If th UCfI nc is 1;1,;11'11.
() 'f, 11 'tb gq;tc signal iR f quit I to t r· h urfefl~ .'
flowIng it :tin.Th 8 IHums off the U:PfentaU\01l1 ti lly
wh· IIthe:! at ern, tingcurt'tttgoes woYgb 'era in -1;\ ~!m::
s 1<.1 J A • :W(1V fi rm. When I'h ' S· R ftdl ·mft f 'ottdu' .
Uon, i returns to a bl ck ng Wit un '1 th g t" sign:11.
agMtl a;epli t
LINE (AC)
FIGURE10-27 A simplified circuit diagram for the

phase-angle-controlled machine.
The phase-angle system has become popular for

COntrolling the output of the rectifier welding power
oUrce. This single-control machine uses SCRs to change
th trigger point or angle of theAC cycle.The SCR can be
made to become conductive at any specific point on the
ft. waveform.The SCR conducts current only a portion of
the cycle based on the phase angle from 0 to 1800 of the
Current . By turning on the SCRs full time, the maximum
Cllrrent will flow. By decreasing the ignition angle, a lesser
CUrrent will flow. A sirnplifi d circuit diagram for the
Phae·angle controlled rna hine is, hown in Pigue 10-27.
The COntrol jr cult bas d on the current control knob of
the machine will trigger the gate of the SCR at the appro-
Priate angle, This pr vid sane-knob c ntrol from mlni-
mUlll t maximum urrent output. Thi basic circuit can
Pro id con nu nal output for SMAW; constant current FIGURE 10-28 Printed circuit board.
r G'Iaw, r onstant voltage for GMAW and Faw. It is
Well controlled and he become the ba is for most r ctifier
Wi !clingpower sources.
ontrol circurts use another electronic d vice,
'l6
known as an integ1"Clted circuit (IC). I s are omplete
100
Ie'tront it nits of minj( tur components mount d on
• Ptint d circuu boards. 1:;lnYdifferent typ of elec-
trt d clr ults are available as tntegra d Ircutts. stnce
th ar sm H, tt Y use 1 w oltage and low curr nts,
<:1'1 p board plugsInro a s cket for a:._ of repla emcnt.
Tn are Iso us d to control wir fe Cl r and mod n de-
Vi s. A Print d ir dt board is shown in Flgur 1.0...28.
. Th electtjcal emciencyand power factor perfor.
l'W<atn.. e 'llrV s fot a Nl1'1i"'.It
al r tificr weldi.ng·.. .power
lIrce rc shown in.lilgure 10-29.
tl r rifirw llingmach;n s b came more p pular,
tt" n ~quir 'd mOll f, at\w . Sin . th Y ont:ti.ncd a power
ofU f rm r. Ai t .nnlnals w re p.t'Ovid d ~Ul I th tnms-
"~ ftll ,fit ·... ctor 'ldlilg ma 'hine becafUe avail.!>! ; TIllS
6aVe~be'W1. rone ma hin . apahl ofptoVldlnrip W'!t
~ SMAW (sli 'k w ldtng). iT"!W (TIG ·'i"ldin t lMAW
1 e. l nd 1, .t\W. his 1 d 0 numf ddi 011. 1 f tUt'C.
I
t· .'of .tbe. nvruhtPiUt of .httlh.pow r ~1 el tt,tlj ~

BALANCEDWAVE
EN-50% EP-50%
:I~\ --t-I_LI--- _C
__.l.--] -
~L :J -c- J -+--
MAX.STRAIGHTPOLARITY· MAX.PENETRATION
~t---1L==-E_N_-Z-:_~-=--t-rr-l--E_P-2_0%_J-I-R-+--
MAX.REVERSEPOLARITY- MAX.CLEANING
r C
~
o
E.N-45%
l\ ]
:Y-S.5%
L J l-
-------- TIME
FIGURE10-30 Semi-square wave output, balanced

and unbalanced.
200
180 A
AIOVERSE 150
POI,.AAITY
CYCLE
TIME 3 MS
TIME20MS
STAAJGIft
POI,.ARJTY 140A _'
CYCLE
FIGURE10-31 Square wave output of a variable

polarity power source.
ables, which must b matched to the sp clfic appli ation.
r---
Spray transfer (see Chapter 6) is achieved when welding
HIGH
LLSE
above a specific critical current value using argon-rich
CURRENT shielding gas. It has many advantages, such as minimum
I-
f.- HIGH
PULSE
TIME
+ LOW ~
PULSE
TIME
I
LowLLSE
CURrNT
spatter, nice weld surface, and a larger electrode. Its major
disadvantage is the large siz of the molten weld pool,
which makes it impossible to weld out of position and on
thin material. Pulsed spr-ay welding reduces the average
current and reduces the size of the molten weld pool.
TIME---
Needham's Original concept of one drop of molten metal
FIGURE10-32 Pulsed current-time relationship. crossing the arc t each current pulse was conttnued.The
early version based on pulsing at line or double line fr -
quency was abandoned because the power sources de-
pool. Normally, the high current pulse is twice or 1M veloped for this variation wer difficult to adjust. The
time the normal steady current that would be em- ability of the new inverter power sources has greatly en-
Ployed for a irnilar application. The time period for the hanced the pulsing mode by providing for a change of
high current pulse may ary from 0.20 to 1.0 sec.The fre- pulsing variables, current amplitude, frequency, and
quency of pulsing ranges from less than one to five waveshape,
Pul es per second.The low current pulse has enough en-
rgy to sustain the arc properly. TIle time is adjusted to
allow the molten po 1 to partially freeze. The values can
be adjusted by the welder to provide optimum welding 10-7 INVERTER WELDING
Conditions.
\Velding with GTAW-Pallows very close control of
MACHINES
the mol en weld metal. GTAW-Pcan be used in both man-
l.ta1and automatic modes: It can provide increased or de-
creased p n· tration and can be coordinated 'With
OCiUation. It can be used to weld thick or thin materials
and to Pi'Ovide high-qualiry welds where steady current
sy. terns cann t. Proponents claim it improve weld met-
aUurgicRl characteristic ,reduces warpage and di tortlon,
'llld pro-videa w ld with a lower heat input. It is com.
III nly tIS d on many automatic applications, including
automatic tub head welding ..
. In ad(litionto pulsing, programs wee developed to
rr(}\rid changes in current ba ed on tim . Programs al-
p~Wthe curren to advan e to a particular level, be ta-
. ta red down as the part be arne heat d, and th 11 be
, t P r d to < lower valu b .~r stopping th weld. Th
~~e 0.. programs be am in teasingly important for
V(!} ita} tUbe welcUng machines. Power sources were de-
PI Oped with programmers built In.Various lev s f om-
0\11 h;y 'W, t d signed into lif~ r en progran mers, which
b (j h mter hang din th lOW r sou ·C. h s wer
t~ on q,dju t bl ,rheostats. ud adj1.1stable tim r Som
.ll'l tCSb ~ttn Increasingly cOlllt 1 and indud d
ape ~r ~. '"? cem~oUers t (lnw 1 automati·w ldlng
Pur <altQn~.MaChtncs of this ruttUl hav .largeJyb en re·
t ~by u
r pow r s6ur . USing amp) x I •
t
TttiI n1;rol sy. t 01$, hi 'h in orn ·cs in olv'
t'oPro $sors n<t (mpu r..
\\' {tti ill-lIs .~spray w lding WdatiQn o.f gas,ffi tal arc
l ~
.W ~ltd~g·~known as GMAW ..RPtlfseU spr.aY,met:ll tr'.msfer

, lilt tl':~ ffl'l'S an adv\ult. g s ver Spl11YOt short ir~
~ld ,m~cr w 1<.1 ng. t1: rov:ld' toot! ItaI I m 1 n
P ot and- introdu d lIUU1Y tl w pro dur· \'afi~
inductors. In the inverter the cycle time is so much faster
and there are no iron-core transformers or inductors,A-
the frequency of the inverter is increased, the reactiotl
time is even faster.
The inverter, the heart of this new type of power
source, changes DC power into AC power with higb-
speed switching devices with switching speeds of 1 to 2
microseconds. The inverter can be made to control the
machine output characteristics. Different types of invert-
ers are used.The exact frequency depends on the type of
circuit and the value of the components. These are co.ro-
plex solid-state devices designed for specific uses. The
more common types of inverters are the forward, full Of
half bridge, and the series resonant and isolated gate bipO-
lar transistor. Typically, inverters use transistors as power
switch components, and the series resonant inverters u e
thyristors. The thyristor changes the DC power to A
FIGURE10-33 I nverter power source. power; it does this by the on-off action of the high-poWer
solid-state swttches.This action alternately connects and
disconnects the primary of the transformer and has tbC'
same basic effect as that of applying a regular sinusoidal
waveform. The different types of inverters do this differ-
ently and are controlled differently to produce and ColY
trol the output of the inverter. This complex procedure IS
beyond the scope of this book.
L~oc.. Inverter power sources are about 25% the weight
,, , I I
, and size of a conventional rectifier of the same capRdtY·

The conventional power SOUl'C transformer, made oflaD1-
, 1
, _....,...,.............- ......... VOI.TAOE' ,I
,- ..... - .... _-
, .. _ .. _4
mated silicon steel, is rated at 450 A, 100% duty cycle, and

weighs 283 lb .The small one for the inverter power sour e
FIGURE10-34 Simplified circuit diagram of an using high fr quency with tile f rritf cor j rated at
inverter power source. 500A, 100% duty cycle, and w ighs 29lb.The outward ap-
p aran of the inverter power source i v ry lmilar to. d$lt
of a onvennonal r ctifier power ource except for th sjze·
The intermediate operating frequ ncy of the inverter
weldtng m htn is tmportant.At th low r frequencies of
approximately 5 kHz, audjbl nols is bothersome. ThiS 1
alsotrue at abou 15kHz.However, b v 20 kHz the nOi.
is inaudible ept to. p ople With very ke n h aring. 'I'll
trend is toward high rro quenci s, up to 50 kHz.
ther tlu n the small iz and light weight, the ll'la' .
jOt advantag . of invert p r sour es i th r abUit t
c ntrol output, b th stat! J do. n mi c.An in rt nlSe.
I tr nrc t< 'i.mular hange in tnductat1c and rC'lct:
ex ptionaJly fast to dynanu, hanges.Th . st tl., ch.aftl~'"
ter:isti elltv' can. l).avc ~ldrQoping rolt"'~U'llP re chfU1l "_
t d$ti utput for SMA\XI; a Vetflft P l:ltput or C '
1J put ft pt'eds (1TAWor ]lAW.or it n 11 ·a t1'1t l¢'
a tetlsti l.ltput for ,MAW' ,)rV AW.Th· am basi. J,l'\{"
hine c. t pt'O~ramm dOLl' 0 id ~n ()llt})\1t
ch, tl tcd ,t s. ln this ..' gard th in. rte 'an b' . (1:-11.1'
f d,a (l truemultipr ~esweldl1:\g po~ . r s(jur.ce. '.
l"b tnV1 ft ({loWer out. e.hi\$·p n d the door ftr_
many cliff'rent types fput.'log Jt'Og1'lJ1l16. It 'm.1 pr yIde:
dy:t i utI It fo uls' w 'ldi g oj ~lmost any n'l',
p¢ _stbl '. otr T·. .m~n lor. an ill. rt '1' pow t' ~LW'
can provide various pulsing waveshapes. This has ush- program selected. The knob adjusts average current from
e~ed in many different types of welding programs to pro- minimum to maximum. The microprocessor of the
vIde Specific arcs for specific needs. Sensors and power source and its matched wire feeder automatically
~)ecialized circuits monitor the output and control it to adjust wire feeder rate, pulse frequency, and other vari-
match the needs of the welding process and procedure. ables.There are two versions. One uses a "dumb" or stan-
A recent development is known as synergic pulsed- dard conventional constant-feed wire feeder; the other
Spray metal transfer (the term synergic is a Greek word uses a "smart/wire feeder interconnected to the software
meaning "working together"). In synergic welding the program of the power source microprocessor. These
shape of the pulse waveform can be changed. The dura- types of machines have become popular. Synergic sys-
tion of pulse and the amplitude of peak current and pulse tems provide for a controllable weld pool, which results
frequency are matched to the electrode type and size and in a smooth weld with controlled penetration and virtu-
to the shielding atmosphere. The optimum welding pro- ally no spatter. Caution must be exercised to maintain a
C (hIre variables are built in to the software program that constant stickout distance while welding.
Controls the power ource microprocessor and in some The newer control circuits for inverters use instan-
C s the wire feeder processor.This results in a variable- taneous feedback from the arc voltage and welding cur-
frequency spray metal transfer mode that produces a con- rent. They feature closed-loop feedback monitoring of
trollable weld pool and a smooth weld with virtually no minut changes in the welding arc or current and adjust
patter.TIlere are two types of synergic systems: (1) man- the output immediately. The feedback data are related to
llal Control and (2) one-knob control. With manual con- each pulse, where the microprocessor reads the welding
trol the welder has independent control of the waveform, conditions and alters the program to provide the output
in. }Udingpulse current, pulse time, and background cur- desired. These changes are made immediately and re-
rent, as well as wire feed speed and pulse rate (fre- spond to fast-changing conditions in the arc. Micro-
quency). As the wire feed rate (current output) is processors can be programmed with different software to
Changed, the welder mu t hange the frequency of the provide different arcs for welding different metals of dif-
wa ciorm to control and maintain a stable arc. ferent thi. knesses or to provide different characteristics
I With one-knob control the waveform values and to the arc.The inverter power source is changing the en-
llC Wire feed rate versus frequency relationship is pro- tire concept of arc phYSiCSand control of power sources.
gtatnll1ed into the system by means of the microproces- As inverter power sources became more widely
sor, When th welder adjusts a single knob (average used, more complex monitoring and control cir uits
Current Or Wire eed rate), the control automatically were introduced.Th pulsing parameters at preset at the
h.1t)g s the other alues to maintain the desired arc char- factory for dlffi rent base m tals and electrode sizes and
a 'telistics, or one-knob syst ms the pulse power source provide optimum onditions.A single switch changes the
and tb ire fe d rare 'el ctrically mat d" and must be output characteristics of th rna hine and allows t11. use
OPerated as a system. In the yn rgic mode the metal of different welding processes. Different pulsing sched-
~~Sfer is pr cis Iy regulated. It has a broader range of ules can also be dialed in. Pulsing schedul changes can
perating param.eters.ThiS mode of metal transfer is r c- be made in the field USing a pr gramrning pendant. Th '
()tn • .
au rn nd d for lugh-quality pr clston welding for emi- pen lant has til capability to provide a customized pro-
tomat! •meet anized, or rob tic welding applications. gram by changing the starting current, peak time, peak
I in .' ,'h r ar several oncepts of syn rgt welding \'18- puls current, and I a kground voltage and current,
teg m\i rte~ power iources with matched wire feed sys- The a.tItomobil industry had a need for Wf!ldlng 7"
ms.ltl
Sl'tnl b On. ca I;'!j the freqtl ncy. of pulsing r main
.. the tretnely thin mat;erilliswith a flatpeao shapa11d no spat"l
btl k' ut th tna:xhuumor p uk pul 'ed urrent and the ter.nus requir d a nic-'*a.pparing welq with a minimum
ot thiro In~ tlfr ') t vary. In th oth f'a ,the frequency of finishing. This requircm n,t, esp· jally f'Or aluminum
, put mg ades but th ~backgroun(l pulsing Ul'rent w loin. • J 'd to the d velop,rnent of a n pulse MAW
tltho rf ...... ·
0'Ut ""-,,,'HtlS tll same. The wir {i"'eler must mat h th p weI." sour~c known, na t'lVi"I,4:nv wt<l" $')'stf!11'J..'n. 1191''''
Stl0PUl of thcpow raOUl" . Sam . powu 'our e have a mal in ,ert r power. sOtu'ce _lut,S,,~n)n~rte1' Oll the ~ri"
Jl\tl,prngl"dtn that pr-ovides ttt 1'\.11$ 'wnveforll1 for ea 11 mary Side of the main tratlS{ol'ulcr.-thetw:i-n in~rfet· bll$ .
U •This av (J rm Will change with diff< r nt applica- a eond unrcrter fot'l'Qla-rlrY,$Wit bing 0(1 th ·~e'ondary
tnl:\' h.s tj ()n th fill r tntnJ type, izc, and sIll Iding g, s sid .':nljS rot hine proV'fd.s ariabl polarity output f tld .
•n .'QSPh ~1' • So twar it'!. 1h rot r pr • s r d t fJ'):lin . control pen ttflr:1 n by bt\ngtng til et t};'Qd P Iarity,
clq u.~ f~rm g om try of ~l h 1'\.11' . In ne S I tIl It chan~ s polarity output 1 y switching t); m p s: tlve to
h". t S I Qts the dsi:r' d p.r galIn ~c rd:ing to work to 11 gat! e nnd htl k ~lgtnanl·' 'QlUtj tb'~"ratl(){}, te··,
s~~ tm ~<l no Wire Size and aIlalysis and, by ,m 15of , 'Vers ··llt\l trni~ht p,Qlarlty n ,.·~~l1le eroprOCe5 __ oJ' .,~ .
rn;.r~':!~TI~. h, • 11. adjust t1 mad In frofrl minimuOl to ,controls tll ow our (? preel. ly sthlt wcld~. n b '! .'. '
ClIft! ~m )ll.t.{)Ut. I>'. k tlf otl p. ,tim, backgro It'ld I ,q .• .t 10' an\!' 1(!.,valuWlth puls :rot' q{ It,d to
It,. n~l f1' 'gtJen y.are adjusted autom.ati ally b r the pro ~d to ~¥P- ,.~ ~ld(;l sIt·eo.
The need for more precise welding procedures con- 4. Type of pourer available. If power is not available
tinues. One specific desire is for welding extremely thin from a utility company, engine-driven generators
materials, including aluminum in automobile bodies.This are required. If utility power is available, the tYpe,
brought about a power source that uses two inverters, the number of phases of AC power, and the voltage
known as a twin inverter welding macbine. It provides are specified.
variable-polarity welding at extremely high frequencies. 5. Auxiliary devices. This includes water and shield·
The length of the electrode negative time period and the ing gas control systems, current control systen1S,
amount of amplitude can be increased or decreased to wire feeders,and any other factor required to alloW'
change the penetration. This is necessary when welding manual, semiautomatic, or automatic welding.
thin aluminum.This system is known asAC pulse welding
6. Duty cycle. The duty cycle is a measure of the
or dip pulse welding. The microprocessor in this case
amount of work that the power source will do.
us s arttflclallntelllgence to ensure proper pulse-wave
Low-duty-cycle equipment is designed for light-
control. duty work. High-duty-cycle work equipment is de-
Another innovative welding system made possible
Signed for semiautomatic or automatic welding·
by inverter te hnology is known as surface tension trans-
Duty cycle is the ratio of arc time to total time and
fer welding. It is similar to short-circuit transfer except
is explained below.
that less spatter is produced.This is based on monitoring
the individual pulses while the electrode is in contact Rating of the machine is determined by tests and is
with the work. The urrent is reduced for a very short related to the static volt-ampere characteristic curves.
time.The curr nt is then increased until the shorted elec- Machines are rated according to the duty cycle at a spe-
trode wire separates from the deposited m "tal. The arc is cific load Voltage. Load voltag standard changes from 28
monitored by the microprocessor, which controls the in- to 44 V, depending on the size of the machine. TestS are
stantaneous current to reduce the spatter.Thts lower cur- tun at the duty cycle specified to determine that sp due
rent level eliminates the patter normally associated with temperatures within the machine are not exceeded.'[hc
fu e-effect ar. restarting. It is claimed that this method method for testing and rating welding machines is in a -
will allow CO2 shielded without spatter. cordance with IEC 974-1 Standard.s"
Inverter power sources allow more precise control In general, 200/0-duty-cyclemachines are designed for
and different waveforms, pulse mechanisms, and fre- light-duty work,60ro-duty-cyde machines are d signed for
quencies. hey ensure p rfect starts, reduced fum 5, con- manual shield d metal arc work and for some semiauto-
trolled P netranon, improved app arance, and r duced matic welding, and 100O/o-dmy-qrclemachines ar de igncd
spatter with both semiautomatic nd auto mati applica- for automatic welding. Wi lding machines can be us d at
tions.Along with the digitally con troll d microprocessor, higher levels than th ir duty-cycle ratmg and/or welding
the invert r power source will be the power ourc of current rating under specifi condlti n . It may be ncce
the.fumre. saryto u e a machine to weld automancall; or £or.100% 0
the lO·minute cy te, even though it has a 60% duty "''Yet .
TIlt is possible i the current i. reduced b low the rating·
In other ases it may b n cessary to us the machin at It
10-8 SELECTINGAND higher current rating but for a short P Nod of time.
SPCIFYING A POWER SOURCE .a th th s ituattons 'an be r solv d by l1 • of
of the following formula:
of . (rated current)?
d ireddutycyc1 (%) ~ --~---
(d sired urrent) 2
x rat d duty cy 1 (%)
,or cx,'lmplc, a machin rat d m: ,OOA lU1d 60% duty y.
n "ed ··t proct.\lC 3-50A. What is tbem~lXfrm.lmdLlt1
ycJc that c.1n used?
(300)~
d sit d d }ty cl (%) =: (. 2 X '0.60
350
500 3. Rated load voltage. Welding machines for pro-
I..... duction requirements are rated in accordance with
400 ...........
the standard.This system shows that minimum load
'-l "'
I' !'oo.. I ~ volts are related to the ampere output of the ma-
...... "...... 400 AMPS•
300 chine. For example, the 200-A machine has a mini-
......
~ ~
I
r-.I, ......
60% DUTY CYCLE
mum load of 28 V and this increases as the machine
ratings are increased,
'"r-... ~ I
300 AMPS.
60% DUTY CYCLE
4. Rated load amperes. This is the rated current that
<,
1 r-... ~ the power source will deliver at the rated volts.
150 I, ,
I
[
t"-.. 200 AMPS. 5. DUty cycle. Most production welding machines
!
I I 60% DUTY CYCLE are rated at 60% or 100% duty cycle, in accordance
with the standard. The manufacturer's data will pro-
i
100 vide this information.
90
80 6. Voltage of incoming power. The welding ma-
70 chine must match the power available at the fuse
20 30 40 50 60 70 8090100 box. Most industrial welding machines can be re-
% OUTYCYCLE connected for specific voltages. The voltage that is
FIGURE10-35 The duty cycle versus rated current available must be specified.
Plot. 7. Frequency of incoming power. This is the fre-
quency of the power provided by the utility com-
pany. In North America this is normally 60 Hz. In
60% In the other Situation, the same machine, a 300-A, some locations in the world it is 25, 50, or 60 Hz.
ktUty-cycle machine, must be used on an automatic S. Number of phases Of incomsngpousen For in-
W~ding application. It must run at 100% duty cycle, or for dustrial equipment, three-phase power is normally
: InU 10 minutes.What output current could safely be ob- provided. Single-phase power is used for limited In-
a. d from this machine? put or low-duty-cycle welding machines. Some ma-
chines are capable of opera ing on either single- or
(300? thre -phase power.
1.00 ::: x 0.60
(desired current)
For englne-driven welding machines it is wise to
(desired currenrj'' ::: (~~Z~2 X 0.60 = 90!000 X 0.6
specify the maximum rated spe d in rpm a,t no Ioad.Tlu
information outlined above permits ac urate specifica-
tion of the welding power source desired. Probably the
d Sired currenr ::: 5 ,000::;;; 232 A
most important factor is to specify the precise voltage of
'lnu for an ' . power that will be ava.ilablC at the fuse- box.
co: . automatic operation running 10 minute
~~~UOtl If, th rna hine output must not exceed. 232 A
O1i Ut overloading the power source. These same deter-
rtl1~,~i~ns,can b u: ed without using the foregoing for-
Plotcigu~ 10-35 1S the d1:ltr,cycle versu rated current 10..9 INSTALLINGAND
ct.. this fonnul'.t. The slopmg lit es show tvefcal rna-
Ullle {"«tin' . ~It' MAINTAINING A' POWER SOURCE ..... . . -
th ) , .gs, and, by drawm.g a sloping line in parallel to
reqU:ir~lO. n,different duty cycl s or diffirent load urrent
dI Jl1 nts an be determined. Manufacturers provide
cy Ie Versus rated Curt ne curv s t1 r their machlnes,
Sp" if }ling the quipment

'fa S:p' f&.
fit <:... , a WIding power our prop rIy, tbe foUow·
dat. hOllld be pr vid d:
I, M , ;1'r.
1'V4 ·turer~~rn.a btnfl a(/Sigl1~rttol1'.This i d .
tUlill d by onsulting tl tllallufa tor r's catal B
Ot' data she':s. ~ ,
.... l'f(flflPI: ....
, 1\ t ~Jacturer~ff 'CfJttit/og nU11'1bel: Thi is sll wn
h n:t.nufa IUrer's Ut rntu nllct i )8\1.\l1y gtv
• thod 1 number"
manufacturers' recommendations. The power source months and cleaned. In extra-dirty environments, or
should be installed to avoid exposure to high ambient when the machines are exposed to high humidity or cor-
temperatures, high humidity, dust, or corrosive liquids or rosive fumes, the inspection period should be shortened.
fum.es.The case of the power source should be grounded The electric power shouJd be removed from the weldiJ18
to an earth ground. It should be installed in accordance machine at the disconnect SWitch, which should be
with local or state codes.When state or local codes do not tagged, and the dirt should be removed from windings bY
exlst, it is recommended that the National Electrical blowing them out with dry compressed air at a pressure
Code® be followed. It should also be installed in accor- of 25 to 30 psi. High pressure should not be used sit1Ce
dance with the manufacturer's instructions and must this will tend to drive the dust and dirt into crevasses,
comply with all rules and regulations of the owner. Power which will reduce the cooling efficiency of the machine.
sources should be connected to the utility power using Vacuum cleaning can be used if metallic dust is preseot.
correct leads from the disconnect box to the welding ma- In dirty environments filters are recommended to ke.eP
chine. Manufacturers' instructions provide disconnect dust from entering the machine. Look for internal corro-
box sizes, fuse sizes, and cable size. sion and internal mechanical damage, and make sure that
If the power source is utilized for GTAW, it may in- ventilating fans are operating properly.
clud a high-frequency arc stabilization unit. These are Specific types of machines require specific atten"
SOurces of electromagnetic interference (EMI). Machines tion. In the case of engine-driven generators, the engin
with high-frequency stabilization must be grounded to requires much attention, such as changing oil after ea h
earth in accordance with manufacturers' instructions. week of continuous operation. Inspect and replace oil fil·
:n1e
Newer-type, all-solid-state power sources are susceptible ters and fuel filters, check coolant and batteries each t).l"·
to .EMI. Machines of this type must also be grounded to fuel is added, check the radiator daily, and check idling de-
earth. If automatic welding equipment involving motion vices weekly. The engine manufacturer's reconunenda·
is involved, emergency shutdown systems should be pro- tion must be followed. TIle generators should be checked
vided. In addition, load suppression relays should be in- monthly.This includes windings, contact points, brushe ,
stalled. For detaUs concerning this, see the manufacturer's brushholders and commutator, control switches, ajld
instruction manual. b arings. Bru hes and commutators need special att L~
The power source must b match d to the primary tion since they tend to wear. Bearings should be check"t :
utility pow r. Most Industrial welding machine - include monthly to make sure that they are properly grea ed. n
voltage changeover links to ac ommodate differ nt line the generator is exposed to corrosive or salt attJ1O"
voltages.The tnsu llation of welding machines must be In- spheres, sp cia! att ntion should be given to exposed
sp ct d with a ch cklisr using the items mentioned pr . m tal parts.They should b cleaned and r painted and ill'
vtol.lsly.Tl se must be in accordance with all standards. sulation replaced as n ce sary.
jJc'
odes, and Instru tlons, Motor-gen r tor welding rna- Most industrial inverter power source have btl .
chl.n s must be checked for direction 0 rotation. This is in protection f atures. Many machines have a gree~
asHy done sin.ce arrows on th machin indicate the cor- light that indicates that the machine is "r ady to weld·
r t dir cti n of rotatlon. ransformer welding rna hines This i dtcator light will turn ff nda red i.tldiCF!Jof
must be mCaUed to balance a three-phase pow r Im.c. light wUl turn on if bel' are interllal problems in tile
They must b pbas. d with respe t to adjacent UJlits, s- rnachlr1 .A red indicator light may indicat on of the
f> 'lallyif nu>re than on tntnsf; .rmer pow r our e wiU ollowing problems; Input voltage is too high or ~oo
P4;lu.edon th same weLdmetlt. low,opel'(ltion i vet' apacity, or he nt.ll hint is over:
i
heated. Til ina hine can b re tart dafter c rre dot1!io
hac b nmad.
tv\ .jr't nanc Nonfot. tlng welding ma hines r quiv> t .' -lal at-
tention.In mOSt ~ s s'th y lncltlde a ntilMing fan ttl t
shm.dd be che ked p tiodl aUyta rnak sure it i opCt:l~
ing orr, ctly.AlJ tIe triad ~ontacts and terminals- sl 0111r
be ch. ckJ dfor tightlless~but til m()st.itnportan~ l?~,a)d '
lion is 1)1' pe handl ng of print d circuit bogtds. Print ~
'ircui bo fds and oth r devi s of' an ~lc 1:tQoi' nUfl.l{'
m' y b • t (f etcd by ,tad' 1 td ity. Slle
J
'ial h~nd1ing prt-"
, '
:nulons at· r qlltf d. Most m. nU11:ttl) rs bnv' an jt'
~lallge progr m . itlCfamany uset are \.lOal·1 to fe'll' i
. print d Clryult board .It iti dvisU ble to Jfeep $ dctil}i d ,11·
spe ti n tecord fo.! 1'1 m. hlh b or al \.loll [,1ft!
p' tion and p t'i tlie m. int fl. n e find t
aCtivities oruuf.intcnan cJ)cr ofm.:t.
Troubleshooting not adjusted properly, cables are not tight, work is not
!roUb1eshooting is required on a welding machine when properly connected to the work connection, and so on.
It does not operate satisfactorlly.Troubleshooting is a mat- Skillful diagnosis is required to determine the true cause
ter of sol ing the problem of the machine and should be of some welding problems.With complex qutpment the
done only by trained and qualified personnel. Many of the owner's manual and a checklist should be employed,
~lewer machines are equipped with a fault-lamplight to There should also be information related to the welding
Indicate problems. TIle instruction manual will outline process, so that the distinction can be made between a
th solution. This type of work should be done without welding problem and an equipment problem.
rCtnoVing the machine's case. It is wise to do this type of
'WOrkin connection with the welder, who understands
the welding operation, and with maintenance personnel, Repairing
Who understand equipment problems. Most static power If the diagnosis indicates that the machine must be re-
sources are sufficiently complex that it is necessary to paired, it should be removed from service and taken to
U the maintenance manual, which normally has trou- the maintenance repair shop. If in-house facilities are not
bleShooting instructions. They list various problems that available or if the diagnosis indicates problems with con-
:n
may be encountered with a list of potential solutions.
e get quue complex as the equipment gets more
C001Plicated. It is important to distinguish between a
trol circuits or printed circuit boards, the equipment
should be sent to an authorized repair station 'or to the
manufacturer. Local repair shops that have been ap-
':elding problem and an equipment problem.This is par- proved by the equipment manufacturer call normally
tiCUlarlyapparent when the welder is using unfamiliar handle most of these problems. It is essential that genuine
eqUipment or when first using a different welding replacement parts and replacement PC boards be used
frocess.Welding processes have their own specific prob- for all repair work and that the repair mechanics have suf-
em, areas, and often the welder may tend to blame the ficient knowledge and skill to accompllsh this work.After
~Ulpm nt when it might be a problem with the process. the machine has been repaired, it should be tested and
. any difficulties are encountered when the equipment is checked to make sure it will fulfill its original function.
QUESTIONS
lO·I.
What arc th two major type of welding power 10-11. What is th advantage of aft invert r typ of pow r
SOur ? What ar th diff v nc ? source?
-2.
What ar th thr e types of stati welding machines? 10- 2. Why is an inverter pow r SO\lCCe lighter in Wi i ht
lO-S.
Wl'll\t are the static charact risucs and dynarni char- than a imila· sized rect1:flerpower source?
acted tic ofa pow r s ur e? 10-13. Wh is high fr quency 11 eel in It pow r sour ?
10•.
What is a. brushl 88 g n rator? 10-14. What i .1 programmable power sourc ?
n·s. WhQt d termtn the op n .,'rcult voltage of a trans- 1.0~15. What system can be us d to iontrol an' Inverter
ormer welding machln ? p W r OUf e?
to.
How d s the saturable f actor system wQrk? 10~16. L<xplain a twin inverter'nUlchin .
1(),.7••
Whatate t:li principal ru thods f adjusting th ; out.. 10·1'7. What dftta ar nee Sstl.ty to spedfy a welding POW()l'
Ptlt of fllUsformet' welding ma. hill ? source?
O-t..
What I til fWl don f rectlfi r? 10-18. Who sh uld do ele trlcal trollbl '110 tin.g on ~Ul' ,~
it ·~9.
How (Jo 3t\ S .R work? tric J.Iy hot power ,ou~ ?
l040.
How{I ~ Ih ph, aug! cir<;l1it djust th· olttputof 10-19. What is pre ent.i l"runt !lIm
a weJdln3 mncllln ? to weldll:1l,;nlacl:t1nes?
'_ P il;
Po~ r ..
tf1 t., hni al Corn· .
to actuate the flow of air. These are described in S c-
tion 5- .
Stud welding uses a special gun that involves 111"
chanlcal action to carry out the stud welding operation.
There are basically two types: the drawn arc type and We
discharge type. Stud guns are described in Section 5-5·
Gun or torches for gas metal arc welding and fl~'
cored arc welding are basically the same.They are used to
direc~ the welding electrode into the arc, to trans1Dj~ w;
11..1 ARCWELDING welding current to the 1 ctrode, and to supply the ShIel d
ing medium for the arc area. In general, they are calle ~
GUNS AND TORCHES guns when used for s miautomanc applications slnc~
they ar held manually.They are called torches when tIC ••
for me, hanized welding.Thereare two major vadatlo~
those that employ external shielding gases and most! tJ1ll .
do not.Th yare descrlhed In seen ns 6- and 6~5.. til
111e submerged ate welding proce sues bO
manually held gun and automatic torches.There ate ~)
systems for s mlautomatic submerg d arc weld:ioG. Itl
On ca 'e. flux: is carried in a hopper am ched to t11
igure .11-1 , and in the oth r method compres cd "
g~;
f, ecs tb.. flux through. cable assembly to the~'lf'
Igure ll-~). In most cases, m nl1ally held guns are · r-
ta h "d to cable assembll , wh cl are a'Vailabl It dif 1
t:~'l
ot 1 ngth .In others, th el ctrod able is onne
directly to the e]ectrodllQldef, '
A l~alorfun fiori. of the torch or gun nsin~ 1.
trade wire systems is to d Hver th Wi kUng lrre:f1t of
th mOVing 1 'tt de wit' . Thi rsdon by meaP 'I'1t
tlt t tit s or, conta jaws. 11' am not -0 utre
e
tt"aq,Nmit cd ls a way of sh:ing eJding guns and tor n +
. Tbls is the welding cur t r-ating.normally the 11~~of .
mum current that canb us d with a particular gO!1~ .
tOfi h. f-ti!¥hcr U.fte.nfS are g n rally \lsed with J3!$,it
di~unQt or -I trod> wit s. ltd ng anta'ts Ii r trarlstt 1
t.f.Jl811lrgc~tmO'llnl:S of curti iltgeti tate 11 t. II atM1{;41
FIGURE11-1 Semiautomatic submerged arc welding
where flux is carried in a hopper attached to the gun.
FIGURE11-3 Curved head welding guns.
about different sizes and types of guns ~U1dtorches, dif-

ferent styles, and other details.
NEMA Standard EW3, 'Semiautomatic Wire Feed
Systems for Arc Welding:,(l) covers guns that use solid or
flux-cored electrode wire with or without gas shielding.
FIGURE11-2 Semiautomatic submerged arc welding It also covers GTAW torches. One provision is to list the
Wherecompressed air feeds the flux through a cable maximum temperature of external surfaces of welding
aSSembly to the arc. guns. Th maximum temperature of a metal handle is
122°F (50°C . For a nonmetallic handle; the maximum
temp rature is 1 O°F (60°C).TI1e maximum temperature
of the nozzle Is J 580. (50aC) if metalli '. If nonmetallic, .it
is 203°P (95°C).The maximum temperature are based on
continuous use.
Welding Guns
ELECTRICAL
STICKOUT
-.
BUILT-IN
STICKOUT
INSULATOR
WIRE (lUtOE
AND CONTACT TUBE
DIRECTION OF
GAS NOZZLE TRAVEL
CONSUMABLE
ELECTRooe
WELD
METAL BAse
METAL
FIGURE 11-4 Cross-sectional view of the curved head

FIGURE11-6 A gasless gun for self-shielded, flux-
or gooseneck gun.
cored arc welding.
Manufacturers recommend specific tips for spe-

ciflc wire types and sizes. Efficient transfer of current
from the cable to the electrode wire is necessary to
avoid overheating. Contact tips are made of copper 0:
copper alloys. Pure copper i very soft and the inside dJ-
--·'Tr."f~
-..fI'."UOuT
....
ameter wiU wear rapidly. When th inside hole becoroe~
oversized, the welding current transfer efft iency (11'
minishes and more heat will be generated. Hence,
contact. tips must be changed on a t gular basis. LOOS'"
wearing ontact tips are available and ar made of sp
ctal Opper alloys. In some ases, special ins rts arc
incorporated. The copper alloys are, much harder tbllll
pure copper and will provide 1 nger life, but ar more
expenst e.
FIGURE 11-5 Pistol-grip, water-cooled, straight-line
or welding alumtnum, extra-long contact tube. #1ft:
gun. recomm nded because or dl oxide coating on tbe a.hl·
rntnurn elect!" d wire.The extra-long contact tubes-Pro-
viet mor area to transfer the welding current to b
l erode wire.To impr: ve th . urrent ttansfer, 'ome coj\"
tact tubes incorporate ~ slight b. net to mskesure thef [S
positive tiding ontact between th electrode Wire ~lDd
the onta tip. L nger on act rubes U \.tally 01'+111
strnigh:t*Jio, I plst I-grip gu.n .
The aoo neck typ ~ f atr-coo! a gun is most pop"
. ular for welding t 'cIs, particularly using' smilll«djametcf
electrod Wire. 'The :pistQl.grip or sttalght-lltlfi!'gun i. ill· re
) ten used with aluminum sin the urve in th gOOse-
ne gun tends to cr t reststan c t th I'~.tod ,,~ire >
wt t ~hmay ...\.1S jamming of tn cab) as, 'mbJy. •d

\VcJdlng guus and at Ie ass mbUe. tnw t b •scr 1(;
regularly tn pt'(}vI de cf4)c;:iem .operation.th. !Hi t wire ,~t}11'
dl.lit m:: lstb.rcp-ladetlon l"et,"ula:r hasis sto<::: It [cutillO,
fill With lo:it opp r· a'log, me at s_havtnf(s, and a (1(1i
I pt r ar avail bl or' tt:a. hing tIl • gun a,bc~
_~-A$sembli of)) mal1q{ac:::ttttcrto· th' Wt!!efe' 'd rpt ~(1
other. Quick-connection adapters are also available and ployed, In addition, weight is less important since it is
are Widely used.
held by the machine rather than by the person.Torch cur-
There is no standard method of rating welding guns " rent pickup tubes or tips can be selected to accommo-
or torches or for measuring the angle of goosenecks, the date different wire sizes. For large electrodes, heavy-duty
wight or balance point, or the size of the guns. In view torches with spring-loaded current contact jaws are used.
of thi • it i nece sary to use the manufacturers' data to Spring-loaded contacts usually are made from special
specify guns and torches. Most manufacturers provide a copper alloys.The jaws are loaded against tbe wire to pro-
~uty cycle fating for use with CO2 shielding gas and for vide efficient transmission of the current to the wire for
mert shielding gases. cooler operation.
Automatic Welding Torches

~orches for mechanized welding are usually straight-
line torches. Figure 11-7 shows a variety of torches for
11-2 ELECTRODE FEED SYSTEMS
peciftc applications. The two torches on the left are All of the continuous electrode wire arc welding
U d for smaller-diameter electrode wires. The torch on processes require an electrode feeder of on type or an-
t~e extreme left provides concentric shielding gas de- other. It is used to feed the consumable electrode wire
~very, and the next one is for side delivery of CO2 shield- into the arc. There are many types of wire feeders. The
l~g gas Since CO2 gas is used at a higher flow rate. most widely used is used with the consumable wire
Ide-delivery sy terns normally pick up less spatter and processes, where the electrode is part of the arc welding
are wid Iy used for automatic systems. Side-delivery circuit. The other type of feeder, known as a "cold wire"
torch h feeder, is used with the arc welding processes, where the
es s ould be used only when CO2 is used for
sh' .
teldtng. The ther four torches are for larger-diameter electrode is not part of the welding circuit. The basic reo
electrod Wires. The third and fourth torches are for quirement of the wire feeder is to feed the electrode con-
oncenttic ga delivery. The larger one is water cooled tinuously into the arc and to maintain a stable arc at the
and an be used for inert shielding gas. The fifth torch desired welding current and voltage. The basic require-
u~es larg r. electrode wire and has the side delivery of ment of the cold Wire feeder is to feed the fiUer wire into
sf t 2 Shi~ldtng gas. Thts same torch is used, without tbe the arc area at the corre t rate to maintain proper melt.
g (,e-deli cry nozzle, for submergedar welding and for ing and deposition. The components of a Wire feeding
t~ Ie S foil! -cored arc welding, There are exceptions to system are the welding gun or torch, the wire drive
he. tratght-line d Sign, shown by the extreme right- mechanism, the Control circuit, and the wire handling
p~n<l~or h. his is curved for a peciftc automatic ap- and dtsp nsing s tern. See the NEMA standard "Serniau-
. tennon.ThiS type of torch is also us dfor robotic arc tomanc Wire Feed Sy tern for Arc WeJditlg,,(I) for more
el<ling. d tails.
'Weld'The automatic torch must be selected tb~t the
to thlng. process.Th t rch must be selected with respect Wire Feeder Types
un e stze f the lectrode wire, the current range, and
t()ttY C cle of the operation. It is generally best to use a
h
rated at hlgh r CUff nt le el than will b em-
~~~"~--------~------------~
F1GURt11-7' Torches for 'mechanized welding,
FIGURE11-9 Suitcase-type wire feeders used for
semiautomatic welding. Courtesy of ESAB Welding and
Cutting Products.
FIGURE 11-8 Wire feeder used for semiautomatic

welding. Courtesy of ESAB Welding and Cutting Products.
It includes an LED meter, which shows either wire feed

speed or voltage. Many feeders have an optional timer so
that it can be used for arc spot welding. These types of
wire feeders allow a variety of feed rolls to be used for dif-
ferent types of electrode wire.
Other wire feeders are designed to be used with
conventional CV power sources and pulsing power
sources, and in some cases with synergic welding. The
wire feeder must be matched to the power source. In
these ases the wire feeder may have its own micro-
FIGURE11-10 Typical spool gun used for
semiautomatic welding.
processor ontrol. It is important that the wire feeder and
power source be matched to obtain the ultimate in syn-
ergic welding control.
They are, however, more awkward than a gooseneck gun·
To provide better portability, smaller, enclosed or
They come in several siz s. A lightweight spool gun fot
suitcase-type wire feeders are used. These weigh slightly
aluminum will weigh approximately 1 lb. Spool guns arC
over 20 lb and will pass through 14-in.-diameter man-
less rugged than pistol-grip or gooseneck guns. The wife
hal' s.Th yare totally enclosed and normally use a small
feed motor is smaller and less robust; but, mar i011'or-
spool of LC trade wire that can carry 20 Ib of steel or
tantly,the electrode wire, when purchased on st'PaU
:; lb of aluminum dectrode wire. A typical example is
spools, is more expensive.
shown itt Figure 11-9.
In SODle cases the wir feeder is built into d1t!
power our e cabinet. This J rovides a single unit th~t i$
~p olGuns relatively portable. This kind of equipment can be t~t"13
. T'Lt :p.~olgun is 11-'ulti.lJl..1te in portability and is attained into remote areas. It is also. used for light production worj{
by combining the wire' fi .cd r and the gun,The wire feed and by hobbyists, and i!lormally operates on 115V A .A .
.fQ.otof; i-$ located in the gun.wtth the drive rolls just be- typical example is shown. in Figur 11-11.
hJ;nd to 'J: tn.nozzl .El ctrod wir is pushed only s_v·
<
When dlffer nt weldtng parameters are u ed on tJ1C
nicl, Inches.' 11 $1'001 gun als . ontain th wire supply sam' job, s' veral cUffer nt types and stzes of el ectr' df.!
a:n:dues 'a very small pool f electr de wire. .ontrol is wit s wiJl be reqntre tAll xample is the root-pass weld,
QJ}mt. ed in some cases by a.separae centro! box, but the [ng of a ,pipe joint with the Jill t pa ses made by larg ri
)1 W~U~~U1JS
'ttavtbe c()flttol" S'temmount'd in the guo •. diameter flux-cored wit; Forthjskilld of wock a 4JJ~T.
-:'lb.ey'v .rOest,gll dor p\l$h:J:ng small, sof ele trade 'Wife fe der is 11sed,with twO diff~r .1lt eoHs of electr d
'. Wire Rl:ld./or very small- Ham tef eJc ttnde wir s.A typi- wire and tWogun-cable assc11lbli s. UnJts of this IYpe ~rC
ftli
~at ~a 01 iUJ.1isslJQwn in. Fj,gur" fl-10.These guns ~U'e very ommon 1n pipe fabrJ 'atiort, shops. A tYPJc' ex1l
ngl~tweishtiind W' ll-bl1lffJl - p:ior . as of manipl.ll(ttion. -pte of a atm.l wire feeder j8 shown bi Figur "11 ...)2.
FIGURE11-13 A typical push-pull feeder system used
FIGURE11-11 Self-contained 110 V AC GMAW used for semiautomatic welding.
for semiautomatic welding.
'~'GURE 11-12 A typical dual wire feeder used for

Sernialltomatic welding .. FIGURE11-14 A typical electronic control type feeder
system used for semiautomatic welding.
Equipment with flexibility that uses large packages

Of tlUer metal is the push-pull system. A drive motor in- and the power source, but arc easily adjusted by the
.1Ucledin th welding gun pull the electrode wire, and welder.
, anOther dri'Vc bead placed at the.wire supply pushes the Several features should be incorporated in wire
electrOde wlre.rbese motors ate designed so that the pull feeders for semiautomatic welding. The wire feed motor
tlnlt maintains a slight tension on the wire as it passes and electrode supply should be insulated from the cabi-
through the flexible conduit and prevents kinking of the net so that the wtr feed r au b placed on the work.The
\Vire.l'h se units, shown in Figure 11-13, are used fi r alu- gun abl asembly must be easily.attached and detached
llllnutn 'Welding. .
from the wire feed~r, Certain ontrols .shopJct be a.tthe
tl'Qn' On of the newest ,.,,t"tvoesorwtre feeder is the elec- wire Ieeder: the" itich"butto~J.fto thread auew collnf Wire.
. S . tc COlltral type, which allows presetting thewtre feed
the tach/reverse witch toretractth wire, and the p~lrge
peed and ar voltage, Some wire feeders have twa or button, The ontrol clr uit should induct dyoami b!' at-
~lOl'e Schedules that can.be preprogramrned into the on-
lng Qf the wit to prevent a ring, it sb uld include pre-
~Ol1 r rn mary if uit. his allows m r control of the flow and postfl w of hieldlrtg g. s, and it shQ"iJd ha e a
('li~ctlng0peratll;)fl, but also allows the welder to leer bumback ontrc] for crater fUling.
~ent s hedules for different types Qf wark.A typical
. pI is shown in Flgur 11-14. .
P\.l1 •Spe. tal Wire feeders ar . sometimes. required for Cold Wire Feeder
S
QUi Q a1 W] ling and/or synergiC ,W. IdlnB. These. re-
,re C:;Oordin.atiollontrol betwe n -tbe wJte feeder
The voltage-sensing wire feeder uses the voltage
across the arc and regulates the wire feed speed to main-
tain a preset arc voltage. This type of unit is used with a
CC or drooping type of power source.The control system
replaces the feeding action of the welder. It slows down
or speeds up the feed rate of the electrode wire to main-
tain the set arc voltage. This system uses the arc voltage
to control the wire feed motor. As the arc lengthens, the
arc voltage increases, which increases the speed of the
FIGURE11-15 A typical cold wire feeder used for a
wire feed motor. This causes the electrode to feed faster
gas tungsten arc welding.
and thus shorten the arc.Another system uses a feedback
circuit, which takes the arc voltage and compares it to a
standard, and the difference is used to vary the speed of
gas tungsten, plasma arc welding, and high-energy beam the wire feed motor. The voltage-sensing system is self-
welding processes. It is occasionally used with sub- regulating. Welding current is adjusted at the welding
merged arc welding. Normally, the filler metal does not power source. A voltage-sensing wire feeder may be used
carry current. An exception is a variation known as hot- for either DC or AC welding. It is most popular for feed-
wire welding, where the filler wire carries current to im- ing large-diameter electrode wires and was originally de-
prove deposition rates. Current and voltage are sufficient veloped for submerged arc welding.The wire feed system
to heat the filler wire but not to create a welding arc.The may also include a retract circuit for automatically initiat-
feed rate of the cold wire feeder must be very accurate, ing the arc. Touch start and quick break of the arc are
and the wire feed must have a continuously adjustable used for starting and stopping the arc in many semiauto-
speed over a wide range. Cold wire feeders feed wire at a matic systems; however, a trigger circuit is more popular.
much lower rate than do consumable electrode wire A comparison of the electrode wire feeder types and
feeders.A typical example of a cold wire feeder for a gas power source types for different applications is shown to
tungsten application is shown in Figure 11-15. Cold wire Table 11-1.
feeders are now available as cold wire spool guns. The newer control circuits include memories for
multiwelding schedules and also provide precision con-
trols for pulsed MIG and GMAWwelding, with partiCular
Control Systems emphasis on ynergic systems. These more compla
The control system, or control Circuits, is of different control Circuits are incorporated into the wire feeder
types, depending on the features required of the wire controller.
feeder and tho type of power source [nvolved.There are
two basic types of systems, dictated by the type of power
source involved. TIle most popular type is the constant
Wire Drive Mechanisms
f ied speed system, whi h us s the fixed burnoff rate ver- Th wire drive mechanism, al a known as the feedhettd,
sus welding current relationship of the el .ctrode wire. consists of the drive motor, gearbox, and drive rolls as'
This sy rem must be used wirh a constant voltage orflat" sembly that actually feeds the wire.The most popular type
.haractertsttc power sourc .The el trode wit' feed rat of fe ding system uses pmch r lis, whi 'h tran form the
is set by the speed control of the wire feed motor.The CV feed motor rotary motton to the electrode wire to puslllf
".pow I'source automatically furnishes the correct in a linear motion. The pinch rolls gtip the wire or).oppCY
.~Imount of 'lInen to burn it off at the .am ~rate that it is site sides and by means of pressure provide positi linear
~ d into th arc.Tbus the wtr >C ed rate contr L the weld- motion (Figure 11-l6). Two roll drives are rnos COm"
iJ"g currcat.Th voltage at the arc Is ontrolled by chang- rnonly used, Light-duty fe ders .use two drive rolls ~tld
.log .the output voltage of the power source. It is a only one roll ts powered. Heavy-dury feeders USe two dri~e
'self~regtllatipg'sy$~e1tl and is popular for srnall-diarne er rolls and bothare powered. For sp cial applicattons, four
d ctro~ wires, It was origU1ally develop d for gas m tal delve r Us ar usee. and all four itt powered, 'file ad~'
arc W Iding to ~Umin~lte stubbing ~U1dhutnback.The wire tag of the [! ur c1d e rolls is th tIs pressure is required
fe¢d tates of cot')stant·sp·edwir fc lers at adjust~lble on the electrode Wit .This Is partiCularly important wh {l
over a. Wide lJlllg' .f sp . :>ds.Th'" rang must inctl.lde the j) cling flux-cored lectro I wife Sin th sh ath of d1e
w'kUpg condition. InvQl eGl in be desir ,I welding pro- wIre lUflY c Jlapse if the I'll" s "ure is t 0 gr at.
..... di;u:ed!_A:OQ,Shlut-Spe "d ~~iret'e d'r may be used on a 'TIte deslgu;of the drJyingl.nirface of throlls is ~
:;d pr"~:tooI~ii.lg"chara tcdst! ~pow f' source, btlt it is dif·· ctr mely important. Oi.fllretlNype roUs' r-e us d fO,trdiffcr-
f{ ult to ~ldjllSt the yat'lotls COilU' 1$ 'prop rlYi tuttI'! t- m typ s and Sizes. of -Jectro Ie ;wir s.The drive .rons are
"1110ref ~u.4tcn ; :tang ilJ- welding 'otlditin ,m.ay ause steel n4 approxinltltely 2 ill.).o cliall1 t r. Th dif:fereflt
,.,ID ")y~mm:)t1)'go (t~lt(Jf'Ot1tf()l,';' _ drlving surfaces are;
TABLE 11-1 A COMPARISON OF THE ELECTRODE WIRE FEEDER TYPES AND POWER SOURCE TYPES
Power
Electrode Wire Feeder Type
Source
Type
Voltage Sensing Constant Speed
CV, Difficult to adjust; seldom used; self-regulating Best for gas metal arc welding; best for flux-cored
direct within limits arc welding; best for submerged arc when using
current
small-diameter electrode wire; self-regulating
CC,
Best for submerged arc when using large-diameter Difficult to control; not used for small wire GMAW;
direct electrode wire; used for GMAW on aluminum; not self-regulating
CUrrent self-regulating
CC,
Used for submerged arc (medium and large Difficult to control; not used for GMAW; not self-
alternating electrode diameters); used for flux-cored arc regulating
Current welding; self-regulating
groove and accurate feeding will not occur. The V-groove

has advantages over the flat drive rolls in that there are
four points of contact rather than two. This provides bet-
ter control and better transfer of power to the electrode
wire. In some cases the drive rolls are made as two indi-
vidual pieces, which can be reversed to provide a new sur-
face to replace worn surfaces. Figure 11-17 provides
selection information for electrodes of hard wire, soft
wire, and tubular wire of different sizes. Hard wires are
steel, stainless steel, and nickel alloys. Soft wires are alu-
minum, magnesium, and copper. Tubular wires are flux-
cored electrode wires.The method of applying pressure to
the wires should be positive but adjustable. Rolls should
be adjusted so that they do not Slip on the wire and do not
deform the wire. Knurled rolls tend to indent the wire,
which makes it more abrasive when going through con-
duits and current pickup tips. If too much pressure is
used, it will deform the wire and possibly stall the drive
motor. If too little pressure is used, slippage will occur.
The wire feed motors for heavy-duty wire feeders
have up to 1/4 hp, Smaller motors of 1/8 or 1/10 hp are of-
ten used Smaller motors are used for the hand guns. Most
feed motors are the DC shunt type; however, permanent-
FI~URE11-16 Roll drives for wire feeding electrode magnet motors, stepper motors.pancake motors, and print
~howing both two roll and four roll. motors are aU used. TIle resistance to. the motor is the drag
on the wire as it passes through the condutt, drive rolls, and
current pickup tub . If there are kinks in the electrode
• Flat-smooth wtre, additional resistan e is encountered. A problem with
wire feed motors in automatt systems is th need to pt111
• FI t-kl1tlrled
wire from large spools. ThiS causes lugh-Inertia starting
• SmootliV-groove loads.and the:llfe·ofthe wire feed mOiOl'lll.'Wbe shQrtened~
• !(nUl'led V-groove Each. weldtng procedure has a spectil~ electrode
• -groove wire teed rate, given intnches perrrumue, mjIlinli 'tees per
• Cog wh eJ minute, and 'Sometimes, m t rs P er hour, Wire feeders .
nave a range of Wire feed sp ds that can be 4 djustcd.A
to The gr90ve ill th drive rolls 1 important and relat s typical mtnlmumf ed rate is 50 in. (127 em) p~r: Jttimlte .
. 0il17 ire ~rive c;ffipicncy.The; U.sbaped grooves are not r~~~
and t;h~lllaxi:ll'lum is 1;000 in,'(215-4Q cmpe,:rmlntJtc;UliS
'till nCllded becaus of problems with, the el ctrode Ql- speed range would be aJllple for most welding a:ppU'a- .
k tC~ J'iWhi<:h can va IT by 60.001 in.Uthe' 1 ctrode wtre tions.1"llis tange is very broad and norrnall rqt)i:1;' s S ar.
to 00 lars .It wtll not fit into the groov r may require. I box cbauge~. Manufacturer I data. slleet$, prQvlde the
QrnUChforce.lf the wlte is too timID}, it wUl slip in the illaXimtun flud mtJliJtnitn 'wire: feed mtes·':ta~a-ble ~tr,~.'
ELECTRODE WIRE DIAMETER ELECTRODE WIRE TYPES
Hard and Tubular Hard and Tubular

mm Hard Wire Hard Wire Wire Soft Wire Wire Tubular Wire
in.
0.024 X X X
0.030 0.75 X X X
0.035 0.9 X X X
0.045 1.1 X X
3/64 (0.047) 1.2 X
, .3 X X X X
0.052
1/16 (0.063) 1.6 X X X X
5/64 (0.078) 2.0 X X X X
3/32 (0.094) 2.4 X X X X
7/64 (0.109) 2.8 X X X X
1/8 (0.125) 3.2 X X X X
5/32 (0.156) 4.0 X X
3/16 (0.188) 4.8 X X
7/32 (0.219) 5.6 X X ,

1/4 (0.250) 6.4
Flat - Smooth Flat - Knurled Smooth Vee Smooth Vee

X
Knurled Vee
X
Cog
l
FEED ROLLS SELECTION
Smooth Vee Smooth Vee Smooth Vee Smooth Vee Smooth Vee Cog
FIGURE11-17 Selection information for electrodes of hard wire, soft wire, and tubular wire of different sizes.
dlff rent-mod 1 wire feeders with different gearbox ra- Wire drive mechanlsms, or feedheads, are also used
tios, maximum and minimum size of Iectrode wire, and in automatic welding systems. Normally, the feedheads
the different types that Can be used with a particular wire are the same as those ina heavy-duty semtautornatic syS-.
:fJ. eder.The data. sheets aI· 0 provide the speed regulation tern. For automatic welding a more complicated control
and length of conduit that can be accommodated by a system is used. Mounting hardware is available for at-
parUnbu' wire f eder, The wire feeder hould have. a ta hlng the feedhead to motion devices or in fixtures fof
s1' ed range-that include the range of wit feed peeds specific applications.
fot the welding conditions tbaf are to be used.The speed
tegu!flr,tJOll oftheieeder .in.dicates h. wmuch the wire
,feed 'motor will. slow down when extra resistance is
Planetary Type Wire Feeders
··pla 'C Ion the ding ofth" electrode wire,
f< Planeu ry electrode wit feeders, while not as popularllS
As an aid in. s .1cctiJ g a wire ~ d r, s e the. charts pinch roll feeders, are tlnding incr ;!Sing use. They ate
showing tll feed speeds of different electrode types used sometimes known as linear feeders or concentric WiT
w.lth 41!iercm welding pro esses. ,FigufCs 11...18 al d feeders.This concept uses the plane ary motion 0 tWO at
.11...1911hoW.thewtl'c t'ee(i sJJccd V1 tsns welding current. tbree drive rollers,Xhese rolls are mounted on' an ass¢W' .
Flgur;c·ll ....18 J.8 for.the gaS t\'lct3l ~rc and flux-cot'cd arc bly.attached to the drive motor that revolves arc>undele'i
w lilbig pro s using SQUd.and tubular small-dlam tel' trode wtre.The electrod wire runs through the cet1ter()~
$~el Wi $.11igur~ 11-19 is als {I tMAW but for non- . the feed motor shaft. PlaneulfY .~ed roll rotate ,60
,fcirip:1.11i f;!leCtrodtwlres;'Ftg:t,lre 11 ..Z0is JOt .stcel·ele~, . )ltQun lethe electrodeWire.Thc colls are skew d at ~ ~tl·
.. ' i. trodWi.t, 5, used W:f.dl ~ubl11crged at' welding, 81 " so ha.t with eacb revolution of the driY; motor ttl'
, I"
NOTE: CURVES ARE FOR SOLID STEEL WIRE
3/32"
UNLESS MARKED TUBULAR
0.045 z z
1000 ~
...., i
.._
z ex:
w
900 0 t-
w w
w
e, 60 !
III 0
800 0 w
~ w 50 w
w &
700 u..
w 40 0
ex: w
~ III
u..
§ 30
S 600 w
ex:
~ 20
I/)
0 500
i
IU 10
IU
~
IU 400
CI: 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
i
SUBARC AMPERES
300
liB"
200 FIGURE 11-20 Wire feed speed versus welding current
for steel electrode wires, used with submerged arc
100 welding.
GMAW AMPERES
FIGURE 11-18 Wire feed speed versus welding

Current for the gas metal arc and flux-cored arc I
Welding process using solid and tubular small-
diameter steel wires.
---AI
• J
I
I
/"'- ?
l
I
- -I
I
1\
I-H+
,I I
1"
750 ------- c... \ \ 't"

---Mg
\ I
i lIOO -
~ 560
1\\
~fiOO
~ ~60 I It, \. \
~.,.,
Q
+ rr-+- I
~ 360 \l J /
i300 \ I /,'
'1/- ...
t
IOQQ 20 010 !IO 8Q 100 120 140 100 180 200 220 240 ~ 280 300 320 340 380 380 400
,GMAW
A'-4PERES
FIGURE 11-19 Wire feed speed versus welding

~LJrrent for the gas metalarc welding process for non-
~s electrode wires.
~~c is propelled by th amount of pitch OJ' skew of the

tloWs: .th
~i
ve rolls. Two or three rollers are used. Pigur . 11-21
principle of planetary linear wire fi ed QPCt"'4·
FIGURE ,11-21 The principle
feed operation.
of planetary linear Wire
l:t~.ll,.'It1 lUte revolvltlg a nur to propel the bolt.The rollers

.l)re -a special -smootb, concave surface where they are in
t1f>nta't ith the eJe 'trade wit . Roll r pressure against
1
s "'ir~Is from spring rorc ,~hich ~l be ~djUsted.Th
: tern 18 self.regulattng.The e]ectro~e Wire rollers do not
'd to be chang d for each ele strode Wit' size. Plan .
welding with solid, cored, or soft nonferrous wires, but
can also be used as cold wire feeders, although the wire
feed speed is greatly reduced.They have an advantage for
feeding small soft wire.
The speed or wire feed rate is based on the rota-
tional speed of the drive motor. The rotational speed is
changed by the controller. Small versions of the planetary
feeder can be placed in the handle of the welding gun.The
larger models are placed at the wire supply spool and may
be used as repeaters in a long cable assembly. They allow
push-pull systems with truly synchronized wire speed.
Powder Feeders
Some welding processes use filler metal in the form of
powder. Among them are thermal spraying, PTA, and
laser welding. The powder is fed into the arc or high-
energy beam by a device called a powder feeder. Powder
feeders are designed to feed metal and nonmetallic
powders at a rate varying from a few grams per minute
to as high as 25 or 50 lb.zhr, They must be precise and
have accurate feeding ability, must be adjustable to
change the fate of feed, and must be programmable.
Powder feeders must accommodate different particle
sizes of powder and different shapes of particles,and
they must feed powder of different and varying densi-
ties, all at a very uniform rate.There are several types of
powder feeders: the auger type, where a feed auger is ro-
tated by a variable speed motor; the metering wheel
type, where the motor rotates a wheel with holes or FIGURE11-22 Typical powder feeder.
grooves; and, the ftuidized-bed type, which uses carrier
gases. The carrier gas may operate at low or high pres-
sure. Each type has its own advantages and must be spools normally require a spool adapter, which is dc-
matched to the application. In genera], thermal spray signed to fit the inside diameter of the spool and engage I
uses lighter and smaller particle sizes, whereas PTA and a hole in the spool. This will provide a braking fu:nctio11
the laser usually uses larger particles. o that wir does not unwind from the spool. Small coilS
Powder feeders must be easily cleaned and should require an adapter or spider to center and retain the colI
have hoppers or storage compartments easily changeable and allow uniform unwinding. These items are avaiJable
$0 that different powders can be fed for different applica- from the wire feeder suppli r,
tions. Powder feed systems arc becoming more widely Large reels require special dispensing equipment.
used.Th type of powder feeder must be specifted for the These reels come with 250 to 1,000 lb. of electrode wire.
appli atton ill question. Specif atlons must b related to The reels ate made of wood with holes for an axle. the
th .rate or'f 'd, the type of powder being f d, the size of larger reels can be unwound with the axis horizontal, it)
tl e particl s, th density of th powder, and the carrier gas, which case an axle must be Inserted in the reel and ar'
jf used,A typical powder feeder is hown in Figure 11-22. tied on a dere ling device. There are two general typesof
dereelers with a horizontal axis. One dereeler allows tbe
wire feeder to pull the wtr and rotate the reel. It may iO'
'Wire 'Handling and Dispensing Systems corp rate a brake to stop the. re ·1wh n the wire feed r
'The wlt: fwdingof 1 trode wire dispensing quip- tops, to avoid unwindln and overlapping of loops.
. mcnt sh uld.accommodate th typo of p kag of th whi 11may cause tangles.Wit feed motors ar designed
el troc:le WJr 'S' plU'ch~lS.C}. Weldjng ele .trod Wit ,solid to \1 e relatively small spools or coils tnat ha relativelY
{jttliblll1ir, comes ill,cllfferCl1_packages to suit. the needs low inertia loads when. starting rorevolve. Theh~ger
.'of'th productionop ntti' n.Ingen ral, they orne pack: reels 'With a large amount of lectr de wire are gnitG .,
ag d oP'small «nd ,Itl (U~ltn·slze(spools, smnll oUs, l' et i heavy; and the inertia loads for tarting a reel In rotatiOn
8t~rn$, pr. payof ka. ks arid.large 'oils, Small
spoolsar are high and catls pt'emal:ure faiJ,\U'e of wire fe d motorS,
tl$6~l4)n 'm~nua.Uy 'hekL wekllng' gullS. Medium~sized' A J,11otorizf.;ddereeler (FigUre 11....23··' ,shaull1 'be LlS(eGt':
-,
\
FIGURE11-23 A motorized dereeler.
FIGURE11-25 Dispenser for wire in drum.
rotating arm (Figure 11-24) Is used. These rotary dis-

pensers are used for a l!16-iJl. -diameter and smaller solid
or cored electrode wire. The arm rotates around the axis
of the coil and there is no inertia load since the coil re-
mains stationary. An adjustable drag brake prevents pre-
mature release of the wire, eliminating taagling.The wire
may be carried in a conduit to the wire feeder. The prob-
lem with this type of dispenser is that it introduces one
rotation of twist into the electrode wire for each revolu-
tion of the arm.This may cause wandering of'the ar .as th
electrode wire twists when fed from the tip of th weld-
ing torch.This can. be overcome with a rotary motorized
, PIGURE 11-24 'A rotary d ,spenser for large coi Is. wire straightener.
Another method of purchasing welding electrode
wire is in a drum orpayoffpack.Th drums.made of heavy
When the wir feed motor ex rts a pull all the s~pply cardboard. will contain 250, 500, or more than 700 Ib, of
teel the dereeler motor starts to rotat the reel. It has a
l
electrode wire. A special dereeling system for drums _is
'V'ariable~speed motor, which matches the speed of the shown in Figure 11-25:It Sits on top of a drum and uses a
'W:irefeed motor. This reduces the load on the wire feed rotating pickup arm anda pulley system to feed the wire.
~OtQl' and improves Its life,:An extra load on the wU'C . to the wit; feeder, There is II Inertia lnce the S'llpply of
fr d r can also occur if the ele trade S ipply is remote wire does not rotat .The Iectrod wire twists one revo-
th°tn the wir f del' and the electrode wire is fed lutton pr r loopa lt ls un Olu1,d.ArotaryWirestmightener
~(mgb conduits. This extra resistance load 0.0 tIl wir will overcome the !U'cwandetiJlg probl U'l. -. '
~) ~~.tt]Otot' can ,be overc me by using a 11l0tOriZ~ddis~ Another method'of dispensjn~ wtreftoln·~'dr);lmor
.. :US10g syst m. Motorizeq dispensing systems will also payoff pack i by means or it rotating table~wlUch 1'~~
~~t· . , . >
in arc starting, pr :t'ticuhu1y When the reel.Is full . volves the wire as it is unwoulld.ThiseliminateS th twtsc.
. Qil III rtro Ie Wire con)' in large coil ofl.lp tQ 1,000 lb. 'to th wire.A special ontrol s stem and,tota-lJns 'eje,lice
. a Pall t. To feed wit' ' fr(?tn.t11 coil; a dispenser wIth a arereqllited. > • ';,. >,
It is important to match the dispensing method to 6. Enlarging the hole in a cable lug to fit a larger stud size
the automatic welding system.The expense of the system
7. Use of excessively long cables, which cause abnor-
must be justified by the cost savings of purchasing the mal voltage drop
electrode wire in larger quantities and packages and the
maintenance cost of the wire feed heads. As the price of electrical energy increases, it be-
comes extremely important to inspect and maintain
welding conductors and the total circuit at peak operat-
Wire Feeder Maintenance
ing efficiency. A hot point anywhere in the welding cir-
Periodic inspection and preventive maintenance will re- cuit is a source of high resistance, a point at which
duce downtime and ensure maximum service from the current is being wasted.
wire feed system.The control circuitry should be cleaned If 10% of the strands of a cable are broken, the op-
by blowing out with dry air at 25 to 30 psi every three erating temperature of the cable can rise approximately
months. Relay contacts and other sliding connections lOoF (5.5°C). Cables will still carry welding current with
should be checked. The electrical connections, particu- up to 30% of the strands broken, but the operating tem-
larly plugs, that are connected daily should be inspected perature can rise 30°F (16.6°C).An easy way to check for
periodically. The grease in the gear case should be damage and points where power is wasted is by feeling
changed at least every 500 hours of operation. The hous- the cable for hot spots.
ing should be flushed and new grease of the same type The work connection, erroneously called a ground
should be installed. The wire feed motors should be in- clamp, is an important part of the welding circuit. Sev-
spected and the brushes replaced according to wear.The eral different types of connections are available, ranging
cornmutating surface of the armature should also be from spring clamps to actual welded-on connections.
checked, and if the surface appears rough or worn, it Figure 11-26 shows different types. Many styles come ill
should be polished. different sizes and are rated according to current-
Gun cable assembJies, when used, should be blown carrying capacity. These connectors should be checked
out once a day so there is no accumulation of dirt in the routinely to see that there is not an excessive voltage
electrode wire conduit. The gun, especially the electrode drop between the cable and the work. Figure 11-27
tip and nozzle, should be checked daily and replaced as shows a rotary-type work connection.
required. Drive rolls should be checked weekly and
aligned or replaced as required. Most manufacturers pro-
vide troubleshooting checklists for investigating equip-
ment stoppages. Maintenance work should be done by FIGURE11-26 Different types of work connections.
qualified people.
11..3 WELDING CABLES

ANDCLAMPS
Welding cables arc the electrical conductors, called the
etectrode lead an I the 'Work lead. These leads arry the
Welding curr nt fromthe p wer so ire to the ar and
back to the power source.The cables, along with the elec-
trode holder and work connection, cornplet an electrt-
at clrcutt .
. The welding circuit can be a source of power waste
.aucla1l economic loss, as w·11 as a SOlJrC of weld quality
1?toQlt1ID.S (1u .to erratic operation. Power losses migbt reo
.sutt :from tlle>followjpg: .
FIGUR£ 11-27 A rotary type work connection.
mge 01' duty:y-

Connectors for splicing additional lengths of cables since the nominal circular mil areas are not equal. The
are commercially available. These allow for quickly in- chart shows the metric size, which is its cross-sectional
creasing or decreasing the lengths of leads. The connec- area in square millimeters. The overall diameter incJudes
tors must be properly attached to the leads and must be the jacket. The dimensions and characteristics given may
well maintained to avoid excessive voltage drops at the vary between suppliers because of tolerance and differ-
connection. Connectors must be fully insulated. ences in standards.
Welding cables are made of many strands of fine
Welding Cable Size Designation drawn, annealed copper.The copper in this form provides
maximum flexibility of the welding cable. A separator,
In North America, electrical conductors and cables are such as paper or Mylar foil, is placed between the copper
Specified in size by the American Wire Gauge (AWG). strands and the insulation or jacket. This separator is an
The AWG numbers range from a small size, such as aid to jacket removal at terrrunanons.jacker compounds
nUmber 54 gauge (ultrafine magnet wire), to cables so are designed to be flexible and to protect the copper con-
large that they are designated by MCM (thousands of cir- ductor from the shop environment. These jackets are
cUlar mils).Wire such as number 10 or number 14 gauge made of variations of synthetic rubber, which do not melt
is used for wiring a house. Welding cable sizes range when they come into momentary contact with sparks or
from number 6 gauge through number 4/0 (pro- hot metals.
nOUnced "four ought"). The cable sizes for welding are
Welding cables are normally made of copper; how-
Shown in Table 11-2.The two largest sizes are 250 MCM ever, aluminum welding cables are available. Aluminum
and 300 MCM.The term mil refers to 0.001 in. One cir- cables have the advantage of being lighter in weight.
CUlar mil equals the area of a circle whose diameter is
0,001 in. Disadvantages are that to compensate for the lower con.
ductivity of aluminum, welders normally must use two
Outside the United States, welding cable is speci- AWG sizes larger than would be used for copper. Termi-
fiedin metric size. The relationship between metric and
nations are more difficult and Critical, and the flex life of
the American Wire Gauge is shown in Table 11-2. Note
aluminum cables is less than that of copper. Aluminum
that these are not soft conversions or exact comparisons
cables should be used for :low-duty-cycle welding
TABLE 11-2
...._ AMERICAN AND METRIC CABLE SIZE COMPARISON
- (
4 j
Resistance Metric
Nominal Approx. DC per Nominal
Overall Weight per 1,000 ft Cross-
Diameter 1,000 ft at 68°F Resistance
Area Secticnal •. ,'CQer , '
(in.) (Ib) (0) -(eire. mils) Area (mm2) -:'-1',C100m),'
0.340 121 0.688 16,510
6 19,740 10 10.5 130 1.75
0.390 137 0.435 26,240
4 31,580 16 11.5 235 1.09
0.440 194 0.272 41,740
2 49,350 25 13.0 330 0.70
0.550 306 0.173 66,360
1 69,100 35 14.5 440 0.50
0.600 376 0.137 83,690
1/0 98,700 50 )7.0 610 0.35,
0.660 464 0.109 105,600
2/0
0.715 563 0.087 133,100
3/0 138,200 70 19.5 840 0.25
0.785 708 0.068 167,800
410 187,500 95 22.0 1120 0.18
0.875 884 0,054 211,600
, <tiOMCM 237,000 120 24.0
0.980 1070 \ 0.045 250,000
\. 296,000 ,150 46.5
1.060 1260 0.038 300,000
3:65,000
applications or where the cable is not normally flexed 100%. Semiautomatic welding is in the top portion of the
during the welding operation. lower-duty-cycle range, whereas automatic welding is in
TIle arrangement of the strands within the cable has the higher-duty-cycle range. The voltage drop in the weld-
an influence on flexibility Rope terminology is used to de- ing circuit should not exceed 4 V.
fine these arrangements. A rope lay has all the strands, There are three methods to determine the amount
groups of strands, and group layers cabled in the same di- of power lost in the welding leads. In the first method, use
rection.Thcre are seven groups of fine strands.six of which an accurate voltmeter and measure the voltage at the
are cabled around a center group.This will produce a con- welding machine terminals and the voltage between the
ductor having the correct combination of service life and electrode holder and the work connection while weld-
flexibility at a reasonable cost. For extreme limpness a ing.Also, measure the welding current. The difference be-
hawser lay Is used. In tills configuration each layer or group tween the voltage at the power source terminals and at
of strands is cabled in the direction opposite to the cover- the electrode holder and work connection is the voltage
ing layer. Hawser lay cable provides greater flexibility and lost in the leads.When multiplied by the welding current,
can be used for a short portion of the lead at the electrode this gives the amount of power lost in the leads. This is in
holder. It is more expensive than the rope lay cable. accordance with the following formula:
power loss = VI (at terminals) - V2 (at holder) X I
What Cable Size to Use
or
To determine what size of welding cable to use, refer to
Table 11-3.Tlu'ee items must be considered: PL = VI - V2 X I
1. Weldi11g current An example would be 35 V measured at the terminals and
2. Duty cycle or operator factor 32 V measured between the electrode holder and the work
3. Total length of the welding circuit. connector or 3 V x welding current of 250 A = 750 W lost.
A second way to determine power loss is to find the
This means the total distance from the power source resistance of the welding cables and multiply this by the
to the work and return.The 100-ft column means that the welding current squared. The resistance of the different
work is 50 ft from the power source.As the distance in- sizes of cables is shown in Table 11-2. Modify data by to-
creases, the cable size should increase. This is to compen- tal cable length. The formula is:
sate for line loss within the cable due to increased length.
PL 512 R
The chart also shows the duty cycle or operator fac-
tor that will be involved. This table assumes two care- A third way is by the use of Table 11-4. This pro-
gortes: (1) up to 60% duty cycle and (2) from 60% to vides the voltage drop for each cable size, based on a
TABLE 11-3 COPPER WELDING CABLE SIZE GUIDE

-- ~ . .
Length of Welding Cable Circuit3 Cable Size (AWG) for
Welding Current (AJ 50 ft. 100 ft. 150 ft. 200 ft.
Manual or 75 6 6 4 3 2 1
. semiautomatic 100 4 4 3 2 1 1/0
welding 150 3 3 2 1 2/0 3/0
(up to 60% 200 2 2 1 110 3/0 4/0
duty cycle) 250 2 2 110 2/0 4/0
300 1 1 2/0 3/0
350 110 110 3/0 4/0·
400· lID 2/0 3/0
450 2/0 3/0 4/0
500 3/0 3/0 4/0
400 4/0 4/0
i800 2-4/0 2-4/0
1200
600,
3-4{0
4-4/0
3-4/0
4-410
-
lead plus.the lepgth oHln'; worK lead.
100-ft-long circuit when welding at the current shown. lugs is one way to achieve a highly efficient joint. The
In this case the power loss equals the welding current thermite welding process can also be used for joining ca-
times the voltage drop, or Pl = I x VD.These data would ble to special lugs. Mechanical fastenings are also em-
be factored according to the length of the cable circuit. ployed; however, these may become loose and must be
retightened to maintain a low-resistance joint.
Termination Technique
The connection of the cable to the terminal lugs, elec- Power Cable
trode holder, and work connector are potential sources of The power cable is the conductor used to carry the elec-
high resistance. Therefore, they should be made as effi- trical power from the disconnect or fuse box of the build-
cient as possible. If any of these connections become hot, ing to the welding power source. Three-conductor cable
the joint should be reworked. Soldering the cable to the is usually used for this application; however, four-
conductor cable is sometimes used when the welding
machine is on a portable mounting. The fourth wire is
used to ground the case of the machine to earth.
TABLE11-4 VOLTAGE DROP FOR EACH CABLE SIZE, BASED ON
The basis for determining the size of power con-
A 100-FT WELDING CABLE
ductor cables is the input power required by the weld-
VoltaseDrop per 100 ft. of ing machine. A factor to consider is whether the
Lead forCable Size (AWG): machine operates on single-phase or three-phase power.
Welding
Table 11-5 shows the three-conductor power cable size
Current (A) 2 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0
guide for welding machines. It provides size require-
50 1.0 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 ments for motor-driven, three-phase welding machines
75 1.3 1.0 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.4 and Single-phase, transformer-rectifier power sources.
100 1.8 1.4 1.2 0.9 0.7 0.6 The power cables are rated ata higher voltage than
125 2.3 1.7 1.4 1.1 1.0 0.7 welding cables since input power to machines can be
150 2.8 2.1 1.7 1.4 1.1 0.9 480 V or higher. The nameplate of the welding machine
175 3.3 2.6 2.0 1.7 1.3 1.0 will provide the amperage drawn at the rated load and
200 3.7 3.0 2.4 2.0 1.5 1.2 input voltage of the machine. This information is also
250 4.,7 3.6 3.0 2.4 1.8 1.5 shown on the data sheets of the machine, available from
300 4.4 3.4 2.8 2.2 1.7 the manufacturer.
350 4.0 3.2 2.5 2.0 The normal color coding for three-conductor
400 4.6 3.7 2.9 2.3 power cables is black, white, and green; for four-
450 4.2 3.2 2.6 conductor cables, It is black, white, green, and red. The
500 4.7 3.6 2.8 size of cables, their diameter, and weight are presented in
550 3.9 3.1 Table 11-6. These cables are flexible tinned-copper con-
600 - 4.3 3.4 ductors with paper separators jacketed with insulauon
650 3.7 suitable for this voltage requirement,
700 4.0
~E 11....5 COPPER POWER CAElLE SIZE GUIDE

; «
Up-24
24-32
32~44
44~64
64-76
'76-88
88-100
100-l~O
. 130-r165"
TABLE 11-6 POWERCABLESIZE DATA
Stranding Insulation Approx. IPCEN Approx.

Size Number of (Number of Thickness Sheath Outside Ampere Net Weight
(AWG) Conductors Wires x Gauge) (in.) Thickness Diameter (in.) Rating (Ib per 1,000 ft.)
10 3 105 x 30 3/64 Type S 0.700 25 305

8 3 132 x 29 4/64 6/64 0.835 35 440
8 4 132 x 29 4/64 6/64 0.915 35 538
6 3 132 x 27 4/64 6/64 0.900 45 567
6 4 132 x 27 4/64 6/64 1.010 45 705
4 3 259 x 28 4/64 Type W 1.17 65 1050
4 4 259 x 28 4/64 Type W 1.27 55 1295
2 3 413 x 28 4/64 Type W 1.34 90 1275
"lnsulated Power Cable Engineers Association.
Safety Considerations in the Use

of Welding Cable
Welding cables are designed to be used only in conjunc-
tion with the relatively low voltages typical of welding
equipment. Welding cable should not be used at power-
line voltage or for other power applications. The Occu-
pational Safety and Health Act contains specific
requirements that apply to the use of arc welding equip-
ment. Some OSHAsafety requirements include:
1. Coiled welding cable must always be spread out be-
fore using to avoid overheating during use. FIGURE11-28 Three-roll wire straightener.
2. Cablesmust not be spliced within lOft. of the holder.
3. Welding lectrode cable must never b coiled or
looped around the body of a welder.
4. Cables with damaged insulation must be repaired
or replaced .
.5. Welding cables must only be joined together by
means of recommended connections.
11..4 AUXILIARY WELDING

EQUIPMENT
A number of auxiliary devi es are employed in mecha-
nlz d welding systems that greatly improve the op 'ration
of
.
th·sy~tem.
.. ~ ..
. ·t FIGURE11...;2~' Rotary wire straightener.
Wire'Straighteners
t ndmg from the end of the torch contact tip will come
out straight.Tbis is to pr event arc wander of the wire iii-
ter leaving the contact tip. . .
~6tary Wire itraigbteners (Fjgure 11".29) aresoOOe-
times used.Tl ey :!trust match the ele .trode siz and. type.
TIl y req lire a motor to provid tQtational motion. In "
rotarr wire straightener the electrede wire runs through
abeartub that is rotathlg ontirruously. .
Nozzle Cleaners
A torch cleaner, normally automatic, is often used in robot
arc welding systems.The nozzle of the torch is close to the
arc and will gradually pick up spatter. Spatter adheres to
the nozzle and in time reduces the effectiveness of the noz-
zle to direct the shielding gas.The robot controller can be
programmed to move the torch to the cleaner periodically
and remove the accumulated spatter. There are also blow
down systems, which attempt to remove spatter by an air
blast. Some cleaners also will spray or dip the nozzle into
antispatter marerial to reduce the frequency of cleaning re-
qUired.These mechanical cleaners can be made automatic
So that they operate only when the program calls for it.
Water Coolers/Circulators
COOling water is commonly used for many heavy-duty FIGURE11-30 Water coolers/circulators.
Welding operations. Plasma torches require cooling wa-
ter; heavy-duty gas tungsten welding and high-current gas
lUetal arc require water-cooled torches. Blectroslag and
electrogas retaining shoes are often water cooled. In ad- minute. There should be sufficient water capacity in the
dition, backing bars in seamers and heat sinks in fixtures system so that if a leak occurs, it will not immediately
often require water cooling. Water coolers/circulators are cause a burnout. Circulators are sometimes incorporated
of two basic types. One system uses a pump that circu- in the control cabinet or in the welding power source. It is
lates water through the torch or item to be cooled to a important to specify the size heat exchanger required for.
reservoir. The volume of water in the reservoir is large a particular application. It is better to overspecify and have
enOugh so that the torch is kept relatively cool. The cir- excess capacity than to underspecify Tap water to be dis-
<:Ulator type of system is recommended for light-duty charged Is too expensive to use, Figure 11-30 shows a va-
~ol,"konly, since the water in the system will gradually rise riety of water coolers/circulators of different capacities.
ln temperature until it reaches the boiling point. For cer-
tain types of work, particularly low-current plasma and
gas tungsten arc welding, stainless steel tanks and tubing
Smoke Exhaust Systems
are required. Insome cases deionized water must be used. Smoke exhaust devices are used In many semtautomattc
For heavy-duty work such as high-current welding and mechanized welding systems. This system is based 011
~r Cooling retaining. shoes, large-volume high-capacity collecting the fumes as close as possible to the point of
~eat exchangers are required. Wh n a large amount of generation. The fumes collected in the immediate area of
t at is generated ov r a long period, the heat must be ex- the arc are passed through a filt r and then exhausted to
tacted from the system and the water must be cooled by the outside. In some cases, the cleaned air is returned to
.! llleans of a heat exchanger. or radiator.This is necessary the welding shop, This is questionable practice since the
to maIntain a uniform cool operating temperature of the filter system removes only th particulate matter of the
1 OOling water Water cooler Circulators are rated by the fume and has no effect on gases. For gas metal arc 01' flux-
leat :xtraction rate, in Btu per hour. For light-duty weld- cored arc welding, a special nozzl is used on. the weld-
rng in the medium-current range, a 2S,OOO-Btl,.l/nrunit is ing gun that collects the fun) from the ;\1'Carea. Th
un~O~mel1ded.For heavy~duty work, a SO,OOO·Btu!hr entire exhaust.system consists oftb.e slllokeexhaustgun.,
cable assembly, vacuum .blowcll1i!ter, and wa$tc (;:811.
l'~:
tho ~ tS recommendeo. The circulator should berated .so
the t mperature ofth water does not exceed 150PE
floe wa er-coottng circulator should have an adjustable
These systems gt'eat1y. reduceihe PQt]utiQnin: the .~. of lit
welding shop. Differ nttyp·· s·ofpickUI devices ate used
i: W tate control, a. flow' or pressure switch, an interlock for shielded metal arc welding. See Cbapt f 4.:.· ,
r
8h Uit, nne! a fan if .ulanng air through th radiator, It .
S\vi~~d also allow »: adjUstabl~ pressure. All flow
,. clies, pressure swttches, and Interlocks should be.
a~e ~d to th welding eontrol circuit. For many
, 111CatlOns the tank and piping system should be non-
1/~rOSive. 'Ihemlntmum flow nne ~hould b at least
g IlO,lpermlnute and.adju~table up to 4gfulons per
as components that can be added to mechanized welding
equipment.There are at least two types. One has a linear
motion and the other a pivoting or swinging motion. Mo-
tion is controlled by mechanical devices such as lever
arms or cams or by electronic devices containing timing
circuits.
The mechanical type provides sinusoidal oscillation
using an adjustable crank arm. Other types utilize cams,
which can be shaped to provide a specific motion that can
include a dwell time at the end of each oscillation stroke.
The mechanical cam or crank arm types are difficult to ad-
just during operation. The newer types with electronic
control can be changed easily.Thedwell time at either end
of the stroke can be lengthened or shortened, and the
width of oscillation can be changed during operation. It is
also possible to change the centerline of oscillation. The
electronic control system can be used for pivoting or lin-
ear motion. If it is necessary to change any of the oscilla-
rton parameters during welding, the electronic controlled
type is the best selection. If wide oscillation is required,
the linear action is preferred to the pivoting action.
Portable Booms
A large number of devices provide portability to the weld- FIGURE t 1-31 Portable booms for semiautomatic
ing equipment.These are particularly popular for semiau- welding.
tomatic welding. These units usually include a boom or
arm that supports the wire feeder so that the gun and its
cable are usable over a wide area.This provides flexibility measuring instruments. The panel meters on a welding
for semiautomatic welding, previously attained with machine are not acceptable for accurate measurements
shielded metal arc welding. Many of these units also carry of arc voltage and welding current. Their accuracy is less
the power supply and th electrode wire supply. Figure than d sired, the scale is too coarse, and they are too hard
11- 31 shows an example of a portable mounting for to read. Laboratory meters must be used. To qualify a
semiautomati welding. The various types provide differ- welding procedure, it is necessary to measure and record
nt features, and selection is largely a matter of personal all of the variables.To duplicate a welding procedure, it is
pr ference. necessary that these variables be the same as the original
qualified procedure.
This quiprnent has brough about the need for
mare ac urate measuring instruments and the need to
'1.1..5 WELD MONITORING measure Variables heretofore ignored. Early methods to
To cone 't informatUm about a welding operation or measure and record these parameters used recording
pro' .dure requires the 1.1Se of many different Instru- meters with moving pap r charts and ink pens.Thts tYpe
m nts, They relat to th weldtng proce sand the de- of equlpm nt was satisfactory fat"many welding opera-
gr . ·of 'pr c1ion r quired, Otiginally, a procedure for tions. However, high open ircuit oltage and use of high
snl Ided metal arc welding was monttor d by a volt- frequ n y in GTAW tended to complicate circuitry,
nte~ei·lanamplnetef.'and a Stopwatch to measure travel which led to 1,roblems with automatic r-ecording instru-
speed. Mil.nUI:}J,W lcllngp,fo edure were developed and ments. fIig.lNlpeed recording Inseruments are used to
In uttored with pan 1meters of the w Idmg machine; rneasur welding parameters and are ften used for moo"
these pro ~dur s rarely used r cordJ.ng met rs, and it is jtoring welding of critical welded produ t./'a; welding
,lgt
gcn' -tallY' d that normal manual 'W ldtug is ba d and pulsed-current welding adds to th ompltc tion,AI-
. :1n,(}raon oper4tor kill u:n..(l ability' than 11 fQllowJ.ng tereanng urn nt welding normally assumes a inuBoid~l
s:{'ti tproce(1ures," . ~ • - . wave form;A met r are bas 0.011 this. Wave form. If t;ll
f'A's'qt.lJIUty,requit ro tlts oecom ..l'OQ.re·,stringent wav" for,1):1is not true sinusotdal~errors may be made. 111
and w lding lpc :Ill s mor . tcchni'ally ori ttt d; it b.• the a of pulsed. urr nt weldin~,the wave sbap of
. Ccil11~S nee ··~a.ryt .t\C ''1trately III asure 'all tho pat"tltll• tit puis and the freqn ncyor pUlSlllg ate extr meJ)' 1Jll-
i¢~sj.t1.,~v¢.tJij.stqu1i;-es'theU8e of suitable, acc1..rnte . . po:rtant to det rmine the total en rgyinput. FOl"thiS ~ea.~
Son,an oscilloscope may be necessary to determine the record all welding process data. In addition, they may pro-
Waveshapes, the pulse shapes, and their frequency. In the vide for instant notification if a parameter exceeds spe-
case of pulsing, the parameters-including peak current, cific limits or if the process goes out of control. These
background current, peak current time, background cur- systems may send this data to remote locations, may
rent time, frequency, and shape-are important. In many summon help, or may shut down the operation. They also
automatic applications the ramping or change rates of verify when the weld in question is satisfactory.
Current with respect to time are required. Other parame- The. monitor simultaneously measures all parame-
ters must be measured and included in a specific proce- ters in real time. It automatically reads out this informa-
dUre.Some procedures require base metal preheat and tion visually,based on a microprocessor. These monitors
interpass temperatures. Some procedures require may also interface with a computer and a printer to
recording torch angle, work angle, tip-to-work distance, graphically print out these parameters. They may be
and the static and dynamic characteristics of the power linked to an Internet system, which remotely provides
source. Shielding gas flow rate and total elapsed welding the information to an office or may in fact connect to net-
time are sometimes required. work webs that send the information remotely to the
In many cases the accuracy required must be veri- main office. Some systems summon help in case a pa-
fied by checking the meters to a national standard. This rameter is out of control.They may,in fact, date stamp and
llleans also that meters and shunts must be checked for ac- approve the particular part, stating that it was made with
curacy periodically.Current shunts and meter transformer the correct welding parameters. Graphic presentation of
leads must also be calibrated and cannot be spliced. Me- the welding parameters are made and recorded, and
ters for welding should be damped for accurate reading. printouts are produced.
Care must be taken to attach meter leads to the proper lo- Monitors of this type can become very complex.
cation in the welding circuit. High-speed recording in- They require numerous meters and sensors. For exam-
struments such as the one shown In Figure 11-32 are ple, they sense the welding current, wire feed speed, arc
often used. These instruments are much faster than the voltage, shielding gas flow rate, and travel speed of the
ink-type paper chart recorders. fixture or travel mechanism.They may sense the fact that
the parts are in the fixture and that the fixture clamps are
closed. They may use video monitors to determine if the
Remote Monitoring and Quality Control torch is misaligned. They may sense the presence of oil
Manynew factors are dictating the need for remote-weld on the surface and the weld preparation.They may sense
lllonitoring: the temperature of the base meta] and record the
elapsed time for making a weld. In other words, statisti-
1. The widespread use of automated welding systems cal process control (SPC) data is gathered and analyzed
2. TIle increasing use of unmanned welding stations by the quality control system. This will, in turn, activate
3. Regulations that require verification that the weld an alarm such as a bell to obtain assistance or a buzzer to
was made properly quickly adjust parameters or to actually shut down the
process if the parameters are beyond the control Iimit.A
Automatic weld process monitoring systems that typical arc data monitor is shown in Figure 11-33. Print-
PrOvidereal-time data acquisition and recording are now outs that provide high-resolution COlOl' graphics are
aVailable, These systems simultaneously collect and shown in Figure 11-34.
FIGURE11-33 Arc data monltor,

~IGURE11-32 High-speed recording instrument.
Systems of this sort are tailored to the particular re-
quirements and may be as simple as a semiautomatic
process monitor that provides signals on the visual in-
strumentation in the welder's helmet. They may monitor
automated production welding operations that will pro-
vide quality control requirements for each part and pro-
vide information by broadcasting to wherever it is
needed. It can also provide information for remote diag-
nosis and correction.
FIGURE11-34 Printout of arc data monitor.
QUESTIONS ...
11·1. What are the main functions of a welding gun or torch? 11-12. Describe the characteristics of hard, soft, and tubular
11-2. What are the differences between a gooseneck and a electrode wire.
pistol-gnp gun? 11-13. What factors determine the size of the welding ca-
11·3. What is the advantage of a pistol-grip gun? ble used?
11-4·. Why is a water-cooled gun rarely used for CO2 welding? 11·14. What is the disadvantage of aluminum for welding
cables?
11-;. What is the importance of the gun contact tube or tip?
11-15. What is indicated by a hot spot in a welding cable?
11-6. What type of contact type should be used for weld-
lng aluminum? 11-16. When should a heat exchanger be used in a water·
Explain the two types of wire feeder controls. Which cooling system?
11-7.
type is used with the CV machine? 11·17. What is the advantage of purchasing electrode wire
In l,OO()"lbspools?
U-8. What is the disadvantage of spool guns?
11-18. Wllat.is the disadvantage of dereellng 1,QO()"lb, pools?
11-9. Wh~tt factors must be considered when selecting the
spe d range of a wire feeder? 11·19. Wllat is the problem of using welding machine panel
11-10. Wllatis the advantage of four drive rolls when using meters?
flux-cor d wire? 11·20, What types of meters will provide a permanent
Why are V-groove drive rolls preferred over flat record of date?
U·ll.
drlv rolls]
_Ii !II
• -
OUTLINE
3. Increased productivity through higher welding
12-1 Automatlon of Welding speeds
1;a....2 Arc Motion Devices 4. Good uniform quality that is predictable and con-
12-3 Work Motion Devices sistent
12-4 Standardtzed Automatic Arc Welding Machines 5. Strict cost control through predictable weld time
12..5 Dedtcated Anromattc Arcweldtng Equipment 6. Minimized operator skiU and reduced training re-
12-6 Fl~ibleAutomation of Welding quirements
12-7 ArcWeldlng Robots 7. Operator removed from the welding arc area for
12-8 Controls: for Automatic Arc Welding safety and environmental reasons
12-9 .Sensors and Adaptive Control 8. Better weld appearance and consistency of product
12-10 Tooling and Pixtures The shift from manual to automatic welding and the
resulting cost reduction has been known for many years.
However, the automation of welding has lagged behind
12-1 AUTOMATION other metalworking operations: This is because arc weld-
ing is a much more complex process. Another reason is
OF WELDING the lack of incentive to develop automatic Wi Iding since
lhe need to reduce the cost of welding is never ending.The the welded product can still be produ .ed by manual or
, ~~ of larger-diameter electrodes and higher welding cur- semiautomatic welding.
:1:$ reduce costs somewhat, but not enough.The quest for
u proved productivity and lower production costs contin-
The major deficiency of automatic welding is its ill- .
ability.to compensate for variations in welding joints in any
s. Tlus has brought about the transition from manual to but the Simplest weldment des! )'11S. Tbere are two potential .
semiautomatic to machine applications of welding that solutions: (1) make the pi ce parts perfect in every respect,
Co r or (2) d velop welding equipment that willcompensare for
tltinued until robotic welding with adaptive control be-
~e available. TIlls has. reduced the involvement of the In- these variations and still produce high-quality welds.: . ",
fact dUal welder and provides an Improvement in operator !he first'. 'solution .seems contci.ry· to.,
normalpto-
. or, Which has a major effect on the cost of weldtng. duction operations. Inthe past) variat1on,shs:ve been a1·.
tl a .Allto~ation of welding became possible and prac- lowed to collect in manufacturing processes, a11d the
'lrc 1 With the acceptance of continuous electrode wire welder would overcome the accumulared.tolerances and
ina welding processes.Theadvantages of automatic wcl~. still produc n good-quality weldment.th weld r would
are well known andtnclude the!oUowtng: . compensate for vadations, using human sKin alldatten~
tion. TIlis .Closed.JdOP welahis ··syst,enl .6vef~Q1l1es:tl:e ,.
o
1. lUreased p~OdUCtivity' through higher operator problems of Variations in mat· rial and lA piee part··'
factor ,pr paration, This is an expensive option. .
.2. lncrea d prOdu.ct!vltY through ,higher deposition. Automatic. welding~s an tipe.tl·loop 5YSt~in tuliil)lc ...
to make n eded co.t'llpensa:tmgliallges.The SOlt)tiofi isa' '~.
closed-loop system to produce a good-quality weld in by the machine, fatigue levels are reduced and produc-
spite of variations. This requires a new method of appli- tivity increases.
cation called adaptive control welding. It is a step be- The functions are:
yond automatic welding since it involves complete
control of the operation, including accommodations for 1. Starts, maintains, and controls the arc
poorly fitted joints, joint preparation errors, and warpage 2. Feeds and directs the electrode into the arc (to
problems.The difference between adaptive control weld- control the placement of the weld deposit and fill
ing, which is a closed-loop system, and automatic weld- the joint)
ing, which is an open-loop system, is the use of feedback 3. Manipulates the arc to control the molten metal
sensing devices and adaptive controls. weld pool
Use of the computer to control process motion and 4. Moves the arc along the joint (travels to provide Ina-
the retention of this data in memory; the development of tion at proper speed to make the weld joint)
power electronics, making welding equipment computer 5. Guides the arc along the joint (to track the weld
controllable; the development of robot and precision mo- joint)
tion devices; and the development of sensors that detect
6. Corrects the arc to overcome deviations (to com-
changes led initially to robotic arc welding, but also to the
pensate for improper fltup)
overall automation of welding.
The chart shown in Figure 12-1 describes the func- Closed loop means that real-time observations are
tions involved in making a weld. It also shows that manmade during welding and immediate corrections are
ual, semiautomatic, and mechanized welding methods are made to compensate for deviations.
closed-loop systems because of the human involvement. In "automatic" welding the welding apparatus is
Automatic welding is not under constant supervision of programmed to provide the exact taught motion patterns
an individual and so is an open-loop system.The functions and the exact preset welding parameters. In many cases
involved in making an arc weld are expanded and show the weldment is simple and the parts are sufficiently ac-
whether they are controlled by the individual or by the curate so that changes are not required in the welding
machine.These functions affect the level of fatigue of the conditions or the taught motion pattern. Good-quality
individual. When more of these functions are taken over welds will result because the inherent tolerance of the
..
~;,
,FIGURE 12....1 Person-machine relationship for arc welding with automation.
.\ '
.---~-~...,...... --~~-.------ ------ -.-:--:---c--,----.--.-..,---,,----,..-:-::-:--:--:- ____
MA Manual SA Semiautomatic ME Mechanized AU Automatic RO RQbotic AOAdaptiveControl
, , Method of (closedloop) (closedloop) (closedloop) (openloop) (openor closedloop) (closedloop)
,.
, Application
..r t P
t
"
;"
f
1
i.~
t\'" !
~';'I,~'
r"~
<: (f I ~tarts·malntaln$. and Person Machine Machine Machine Machine Machine
~~;:~'..
~,
controls the am
\t i
~eeds~and dlr~ctsthe Person Machine Machine Machine MaChine Machine
Qleotrode Into the arc
Manipulates- the arc Person Person Maohlne MaChine Machine (robot) Machine
to cOntrol the molten with or Without with sensor
me~afweld pool sensor
Machine Machlne'via Maohlne (robot) MachiM

prearranged with or without wIth lIensor
Path sensor
Per on Machine via Machine (robot) M chine

.prearranged with or without with sensor
path sensor
Person Does not . Machine (roPoI) Machine
, correct pnly with sensor with $ensor
hence
potential
WEIrd
.... Impe.rfe.cll(;m .
Welding conditions can change if the sensors detect a
change such as in the joint configuration. This is a closed-
loop system and can be as complicated as necessary to
control all parameters to make a perfect weld in every sit-
uation. This system approaches the ability of a human
welder to compensate for changes during the welding op-
eration.The aclaptive controller with appropriate sensors
automatically determines changes in process conditions
and directs the equipment to take appropriate action to
ensure a high-quality weld. Automated welding is becom-
ing widely used.
12-2 ARC MOTION DEVICES

Arc motion devices are required for mechanized welding.
The machine moves the arc, torch, and welding head
along the joint.The person or operator performs a super-
visory role and may make adjustments to guide the arc,
manipulate the torch, and change parameters to over-
come deviations. Since the person is partially removed
from the arc area, higher currents and higher travel
speeds can be used.The fatigue factor is reduced and the
operator factor is increased. Productivity increases, with
a resulting reduction of welding costs.
Arc motion devices fit into five categories:
1. Manipulator (boom and mast assembly)
FIGURE 12-3 Welding manipulator.
2. Side beam carriages

3. Gantry or straddle carriages Other manipulators range from 4 x 4 to 12 x 12 and larger.
4. Tractors for flat-position welding A more detailed way of specifying manipulators is shown
5. Carriages for all-position weldtng in Figure 12-4. Many companies supply mantpulators-
Manufacturers provide specification for their equipment,
The arc m don devices carry the welding h ad and
including the maximum weigh t that can be carried on tbe
torch and provide travel or motion relative to the weld.
end of the boom and the maximum deflection.
They are used for continuous wire processes, gas metal
There are many variations of manipulators. The as-
arc, flux-cor' d arc, and submerged arc welding, and also
sembly may be mounted on a carriage that travels on r;rllS
for gas tungsten arc and plasma arc welding. The motion
secured to th shop floor. The welding power source is usu-
devtc must be mat hed to the welding process. Gas
tungsten and plasma arc welding requir more accurate
ally mounted on the carriage.The length of travel Call be un-
limited; thus, the same welding manipulator can be used for
,tra'Vef,ap& spe d regulation. Thts must be specified be-
different weldments by moving from one workstation to
C;1US tighter tolerances are used in manufacturing and
another. This is a light-ciut;ymodel, to support the weight,
the equtpm nt will be more xpensive.
electrode wire supply, flux supply, and w lding head. Ma'
nrpulators usually have pow r for moving the boom up a.Qq
.:Manipulator down on the column. The boom PJay. extend and nwVi
A,}'leldi;nB'inaniptdator con~ists ofa vertical mast and a through, the vertical adjtlsting assembly as ~shownl or itllC '
, horlzo(l.tal bOQUl tl1nt Cllfl'iestbe W fding head. They ate welding carrfagehead maymove by power inand out alo!18'
Sam times ten :,rredto ~isboom and mast oe column and the boom to provide transverse motion. tn some units the
boom po i'ti.on.rs, Pigur 12-3 show' a welding manlpu- mast may rotate, but no with power. In sele ting and spec'
. l~tto.rbing used £ r subrn rged at' welding th cit urn- . ifying a weJding manipulator. it is important to d ter~jn.
~ fential JOblt of a large tank. M,uipuJators are specified the wciglit to' b carried on the end of the boom apd ho~
:J;y.~tw,;Qqimenstolls:. th ,tl1a~mu:rnb ight"un4cr the at' much deft euon can b allowed. 'IlJc wCldiOgtoi'chSbouJO .
~:,fCtu't11e~flopr lid t11· makf.tntl1n ;f,'eacho,f th arc from move' stTl.oothly at tt'avel peedratco:mpatlbl' with the - ..
I tl nnst.' hem~n.ipllJato can I)", desjgnat¢d as a 6 x 6, welQ,lngpr cess, The rnanip1.1latorc~rt;iage must also mov
. :wblcll; Olean~ tru~tthe,bejght z) W "ldi~l~l¢is 6 ft. high and smootbly at the same sp eds.' a"Jia{;es should bave lligl~'
- '<.ti tlu,'~W~l'lira
dis~e,Ol)6Jt.trOill the face of the m.ast. .peedl'eturtl, Figure 12-5 shqws a preCision m$lpl.l13tot
HORIZONTAL TRAVEL for gas tungsten arc welding. A precision manipulator,
(POWERED) when specified, would have a" tracking" tolerance of 0.0015
-
-;_--
-;-?; ::1-;.; in. per foot of reach runout. Standard manipulators would
have a tolerance of 1/32 in. per foot of reach runout.The
quality of the hardware and adjusting devices largely deter-
mines the precision of the total machine.
VERTICAL TRAVEL
Manipulators are one of the most versatile pieces of
360 ~(POWERED)
0
welding equipment available. They can be used for
ROTATION
r
,",",~....-r-
straight-line, longitudinal, and transverse welds and for
I ...., circular welds when a rotating device is used.
-
_""",-_-_-:::--1_-
"00")'\ _-
MINIMUM HEIGHT
MAXIMUM UNDER BOOM
Side Beam Carriage
ARC
HEIGHT ____....L The side beam carriage is less versatile and less expensive
than the boom and mast manipulator. The side beam car-
riage performs straight-line welds with longitudinal travel
of the welding head.A side beam carriage using the flux-
cored arc welding process is shown in Figure 12-6.In this
case the carriage is mounted on an l-beam modified with
MINIMUM ARC TRAVEL bars to provide for powered travel. Side beam carriages
ARC HEIGHT are available with high-precision motion, depending on
FIGURE12-4 Welding manipulator work envelope. the accuracy used in the manufacture of the beam and the
-----------------------~----------------- speed regulation of the travel drive system. Figure 12-7
shows a precision side beam carriage for gas tungsten arc
welding. The carriage will carry the welding head, wire
supply, and so. on, arid the controls for the operator. The
welding head on the carriage can be adjusted for different
heights and for in-and-out varfatlons.The w lding arc is su-
pervised by the welding operator, who makes adjustments
to follow joints that are not in perfect alignment. The
travel speed of the sidebeam carriage Is adjustable to ac-
commodate different welding procedures and pro esses.
Rapid return speed should be available.A Side beam car-
riage can be teamed up with a work-lioldtng devtce or a
rotating device.
Gantry Welding Machine.

Gantry arc welding machines are motion devices that pro-
. vid one or two axes of motion. T:he gantry eonslsts: of 'l
FIGURE12-6 Side beam carriage.
Precision manipulator. '

FIGURE 12-7 Precision side beam carriage.
FIGURE 12-9 Welding tractor for SAW.
two torches is provided for transverse motion.The X and f

moti.ons are not normally operated simultaneously. The Z
or vertical motion should be available for adjustments.
Welding Tractor
A welding tractor is an inexpensive way of providtng arc
motion. Tractors are commonly used for mechanized flame
cutting. Sometractors ode on the material being welded.
while others ride on special tracks.The tractor should have
sufficient stability to carry the welding head, the electrode
wire supply, flux, (if used), and the welding controls. Tllc
welding tractor shown in Figure 12-9 rides on a track and
FIGURE 12-8 Gantry welding machine with two heads. has an adjustment So that th Ilea Iwill follow the w Id
tolnr, This type of.equipment is extremely popular in s11il'"
yards and in plate-fabricating shops.The trav 1speed of Ule
horlzontal b "am supported at each end by a powered car- tractor must be cl sely r gulated and smooth and relate t to
riage (Figur 12-8), The gantry srru tur straddles the the welding process, It must have sufficient powertO drag
work to be weld d, and the carriages run on two parall 1 cables.A more specialized tractorcarrtesrw heads, strad-
rails secure d tc the floor.This provides the X or longitudi- dles a stiffener,and makes double-fiUet welds to a pJate.
nall;llQU.on and can bequlte long.The length of the gantry Another relatively inexpensive t),1'litis known as if!
bddgc deteroiin s the Width of the parts that can be autOmatic hOrizontal ftllef.weldtng arrtage, Thi.s ligl:1t"
W '.ded\~n'1torch attar ,hes are mounted on carriages that w ight carriage (Fi~'ure 12-10) makes hortzontal nJlet
movc_ along th gan.tryb, am.Thts provides the Y or trans- welds and i used jn shipyards and In plate .fabricatH1g
¥ rse moti n, The tray, 1sp d of the carnages must b shops. It is held in the corner of the weldrnenr by 11111S'
, tnOQt!1 nod match th w ·ldingljp ed of.th welding, neti S, has serrated rubber. tit S, and has s ffi ,l nt POWC:;'
,'p~ot.~s. ~ 1?id t~'avel $ljoul t ,~.availa};)lefor,f~tll.tnillg. It to pull the welWng catile assembly: It travelsiu~etther d ,
, . ''Shmild goln eiti-r r dire tipn ~~tweldihgspeedarid at bigh. re don and 'an. be us d for In\utipass fUle.r;s, wbich :to'
,131 t;ed,The (:)11 or m (' w Jdirtg:h'~\ds Oil the gantryt, bridg quitc~ tbe adjtlstment of t1 e to ch p SiUon. It bas fI~
" WJlJ tPt 'pow.;r tl"J;v~1or wUl baV1 adjUSting devlces tello-automatic stop fun tl n1 whi h enables an. Ol'el'~ltOr f
~re'thc':1'lellciO'Vetfhe',?,elcheam, Sllfl:1ly, n max.itnum of " _ "ufJe sevetal of these carriag s.
"
(a)
FIGURE12-10 Automatic horizontal fillet welding

Carriage.
AU"Position Welding Carriage

There are many requirements for mechanized vertical
OrhoriZontal position welding.A tractor that uses a spe- (b)
Cial track is used. Figure 12 ...11 shows an all-postuon
~elding carriage that carries the welding gun. The gun
~. COllnected to the wire feeder by means of the Stan-
'p~rdcable assembly. In thts case, an oscillator is em-
'" OY~d to provide lateral arc motion. This type of
Z e1dlng carriage can be used in the flat, vertical, hod-
tt~nt~l,or overhead positions. Adjustments can be made
:Hi ahgn the torch to th [oint and for maintaining this
m:ntnent. The track can be attached to the work wtth
gnets or vacuum cups.
izo A sp claJ.type of carriage is used for welding the hor-
>II)nta~g~'th w Ids on large storage tanks (FJgure 12-12).
rn~ carrtage .may sttadd!e the toP. C~tlrse of plates and
of Je'W Ids tmnltanecuslyon the-inside and the outside
.~ .i 1. tank shell, Other arrlages, de igned for vertical
(p dUl.g, carry the Wi Iding bead, controls, and the welding
tafl~t~)t. hey or' used for the vertical joints of storag
teel(!, ~d Sh~1?s. A peclal carriage Jro~wn as a skate FIGURE12"",11 All-position welding tracton
Siq'C q1 is desmned to follow irregU!arjolnt ontours ita;-. (a) horizontal; (bJ verticat~ (c) ove~read.
tl' IIICOmplex srru tures, Skate weld t travel untts are CX w
Only, Iy C()tnpa t and carry a mlniantnzed Wire fe del' or

'111ft a tOr 'h. Skate welders ar used for weldtng inside ~it.
- .ass mbJies. _" . .
all the weldments can be welded in the shortest cycle
time. If there is only one positioner and each weldment
requires a day on the positioner, it would take a week to
produce five weldments. If there were five positioners, all
five weldments could be welded simultaneously in one
day.The cycle time versus the lot size of production must
be considered carefully. In addition, there is the problem
of accessibility for welding. The side attached to the posi-
tioner table is not accessible for welding, and this re-
quires reattaching the weldment 011 the positioner. Most
positioners hold the weldment above the floor so that
ladders or scaffolding are required to bring the welder
close to the arc.This extra equipment must be considered
in the overall capital cost.
Four types of welding positioners are used for mao-
ual and mechanized welding, and one type is used for
manual or semiautomatic welding only.
1. Universal or tilt-table positioner

2. Turnlng rolls
3. Head and tail stock positioners
4. Universal balanced positioners (used only for mall-
ual or semiautomatic welding)
FIGURE12-12 Tank construction welding carriage. Specialized positioners are designed to be used
with robots.These are discussed later.
12..3 WORK MOTION DEVICES Universal or Tilt ..Table Positioner

A welding work motion device, commonly called a The unlversal tilt-table positioners are the most popular.
'welding positioner, is a device that holds and moves a An example is shown in Figure 12-13. Powered position-
w ldment to the desired location and angle for welding. ers are available for handling weldments weighing f1'o(l1
The axis of the welds of a compl x weldrnent are in many 1.00 lb (15.3 kg), known as bench posittoners, to 150 tonS
diffel'entangles. By means of a positioner, the weldment (135 mg) or more forh.eavy~duty· posinoners.Theprur-"
an be moved to put each weld in its best welding posi- pIe of operation is a table that can be tilted from hori-
tion, ,lat-position w ldrng is fa ter because higher weld- zontal to the vertical position and beyond the vertical
ing current can be us d and the weld can usually be made position by power. The table rotates about its center bY
r
with. few passes. It at 0 has a higher quality lev ] and power. Th size of the table, which may be r01.1l1dof
will h~ve a b tter app aranc . A welder welding manu- square, depends on the capacity of the posi ttoners. TableS
ally in the fIflt position wtll.hemore comfortabl ,have range from 12 in. ill diameter up through 10 ft. (3.05 fIl}
Iss fitt:J,g'U .aad have a higher p rcenrage of at time. Positfoners must be securely anchored to the floOf to
. Thej:e ar several negative asp rs to weld position- avoid tipping over due to the t runs imp se I by hea\1'
Ing. l>oitimllng equlpm J1t is r latively expensive, and to loads.' he rotational and tilting spe d of the tabl pert~j:l'
b cost- fl1~ rive th ,savings of 111.ghr rurrent flat weld- to the size of the posttioner.A much larger tabletop 1'0 "
ing mlj 't,pa b,td q~li: kly. The weldmentmust be flrmly tioner Is showntn Figure 12...14, .
, :lttaebC,!il i9 th-e positJbne( fo;rsa(ety feaSo.IlS.-1'hetime re- . .Wben selecting a P~sitiOt;t .£, two factor:s 1~1JStLJd-
<l}~ircd fQtloat'O.ng am:t \.UilO;ldingthe .positiori.er mustoe consldered in spectfying Its size. A positioner IS rat
consider din c st cal '(llattous jllatifying position l·&. based on its ability to pro id specific tilting and rOtS-
'1'11 prim. l'y (.;onside~~attons for scI ting ~l welclitlg tional torques. l~or tilting 1'his is :xpressed ill in :l1;
p0si'tiCJ1lCr tu~ethe size, nape, and w 'i.ght of the weld- pOl11lds,which is the oncentrati~d.w ight or c ntCr 0
tn nUl,ndUl"8iz!typ~,andqtlantitYofw kls.llladditl n, gtlavity of the weldm nt tim s th di tf\Jl ., from h fa
, .COllSidef'.ttiOtlaJ\lstbe·gjve1Jt'o the illt$tze of produ t~O~l of the -table wl\en it is in ,the vertical p·Siti0:11. Tl1iS j~ ,
.;"i~il:dhie; min1ber C)r -a-res wor i:ng'Sltnul tarle-otlsly. ' shown il ' Figure 12 ...15 as weight W:tn po'unds times -di~l "
I t;V
" .t e type of prod~lct.iotl1Q hnp()rtitl ,For exampl I ta'nce 1) in inches. S is the inherent ovcl'bRUg d SIgn. (
if Uk.: eldm 'nlS ~U'eto be . rodl,lccd iJll,1.lltall usly, intO the machine. It is impossible fo!' the c Itt ,rlifle 0
.ptfferefll!"lgt~b,,~t suffictent nl.tt:'l1berof positioners so that gfavit;y to' b· ~t~the table fa e,
UNIVERSAL GEAR·DRIVEN POSITIONER
FIGURE 12-14 Large weldment on bigger positioner.
ROTATION CAPACIT¥ ruT OAPACITY

FIGURE 12-15 Center of gravity of load and location.
~2-13 Table~type welding positioner.
neering drawing, However, its 10 ation can be approxi-

mated in the shop by balancing the weldment on an Jn-
We' For rotation, the rated apacity is the product ofthe verted angle Iron in all three planes. Even with this
c~~t in pounds ~imes the distance in ~ches from the Informattonu is difficult to ~lign the cearer of gravity of ,
tat' (;1.' of gravity of the load to the centerline of table ro- the weldment precisely with we center ofrotat1ot).6f the '
'h~Qll.This is the distance in inches of eccentricity, ~hl~ .
ti 't:)~ljl by E in the figure. Each capacity is determined in. The weldment must be tlriuly attached to the posi-
h 1:& ndel1tly by t11 0 sign of the yoke and kame m m- tlon r table. Most posiUorler tat Ies have slots :forbolts for
1 aa ~f th, posit1oner~ P sttloner manufacturers provide ttus purpos .In some cas s futt'ures maybe attaqbed to .
, fit) thcaptlCity charts that show safe operating ltmtts based ' tbepositioner table.Wh~nev.er flXture 'are empl,oye<!"he "
tb~ ta~'W"eight of the load, the disrance from the face of weight of tll( :Ib:tute must be lnc;luded til establishing the:' '
, '. ~e,and the eccentricity of the load. ' total wetgtir of tl e load, ' . ", ", '.".
th', ceIt is eX:tr melytmp
' errant to know th location of .Rotational. sp Cds are irnponan; Sine> l? sititlllersll'l'e
R:itt(J tu r of gra,vity of weldments that ar pla 'ed on po- ' , often tlse<i for rotating' j:!at'ts \luder a ~"d ,veldins 11¢~ld,>
" llcrs.rfhiS can becalculat d ac ::tll'ately frot)') th engi~ The tjrcll~1'(:~titbu sp ctl r.pt1st pc 'Wlthbn:1:te .{?arru:i1ef~~ ,
of the welding procedure. Manufacturers provide specifi- should be 45°. Double sets of rollers are used for heaVY
cations showing tilt and rotational speeds. loads. They distribute the load over more area of the rolls
Positioners must be well manufactured, with ap- and the weldment.The surface of the turning rolls can be
propriate bearings and motors, so that travel speed is metal or composition. The composition rollers do not
smooth and steady. A variation of the universal tilt-table have as high a load capacity and should not be used when
positioner uses mechanical or hydraulic elevating mech- high-temperature preheating is used. The size of the drive
anisms for raising or lowering the table. Other variations motor is related to the size and weight capacity of the
include the horizontal turntable similar to the conven- rolls.The off-center weight of the weldment must be con-
tional turntable but without the tilt feature. sidered. It also has an effect 011 the rotational speed of the
weldment. The rotational speed of the rolls must be se-
lected so that the speed of the weld will be compatible
Turning Rolls with the travel speed of the welding procedure.The speed
Turning rolls are ideally suited for cylindrical parts such as of rotation must be smooth and steady. Turning rolls must
tanks. Turning rolls come in many sizes and ratings, based be accurately aligned or else the cylindrical weldment will
on the size and weight of the work to be rotated-ranging tend to move sideways during rotation.This is not accept-
from 1 ton up through 250 tons. Usually, a powered set of able when making circumferential welds.
rolls and idler sets are used together. Figure 12-16 shows Rolls are usually used with cylindrical parts; hoW-
the normal arrangement for turning rolls with a very large, ever, by the use of round fixtures or rings, noncylindrical
heavy cylindrical load. For extremely heavy loads or long parts can be rotated with conventional rolls.The rings are
cylindrical members, additional sets of idler rolls can be made in halves, which are clamped around the part to be
used. For flexibility of operations, the sets of rolls can be rotated. With ring fixtures, rectangular, square, or unusual-
placed on tracks so that they can be adjusted for long or shaped weldments can be rotated for ease of welding
short cylindrical weldments.The center-to-center spacing (Figure 12-17). Note the adjustment screws, used so that
of the turning rolls shown by the figure relates to the di- different-sized rectangular weldments can be acco1DJllD-
ameter of the cylindrical part being rotated. Angle A dated. ntis technique has been used for rotating s111all
FIGURE 12-16 Turning rolls.
TURNING ROLLII - POWER AND IOLE:R
,..... MINIMUM 30', MAl<IMUM4IO',

NORMAL 46'
FIGURE 12-17 Ring fixtures holding rectangular parts on turning rolls.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
shipS. Small turning rolls can be mounted on head and tail of rotation of the arm and in line with the axis of rotation
Stock positioners for special applications. of the table. When the weldment is properly located and
balanced on the positioner; it can be moved easily to put
Head and Tail Stock Positioners it in any position required for welding. This type of unit is
extremely popular for weldments that are too heavy to
liead and tail stock positioners (Figure 12-18) perform lift manually but do not require powered. tilt-table posi-
~ll~h the same function as turning rolls, They are similar tioners. When sufficient volume is to be produced, flx-
flQ tdt-table position rs. A tilt-table positioner can be used tures can be attached to the positioner so that when the
iOr the head stock or powered member.The tilting device parts are loaded they are accurately located at the balance
.8 deactivated so that only the power rotation is em.
1 points.These positioners come in sizes ranging from 100
~ °Yed. Head stock positioners norma~y do not ~a:e the to 500 lb. and have proven to be efficient tor smaller
.i .t feature,The capacity of head and tail stock positioners weldments. They are normally used with manual or semi.
;. siruJlar to that of tilt-table positioners and ranges from automatl ' welding,
h tons up to 50 tons. Sine there are two units, the over, There are many other types of positioners; SOUle
,':fl g Weight problem is not important. The eccentricity
are made for special applications. One type, Known as
e eight lDust be considered. Head and taJ! stock position- the cradle or drop center positioner, has two axes of ro-
Dr ·~e Used when long, irregular-shaped weldment ar tation, but the overhang problem is less. They C~Ul be
urOdl~ced.Head and tail stock posluoners are commonly made in liffer nt sfz s and wight capa .it! s, A combt-
Ul .d 111 railroad car building shops to rotate cars during nation f arc and work motion is shown in FIgure 12..20.
e 'Welding operation.
With a computer program it can duplicate thew-ark of a
robot.
tJniversal Balanced Positioners
111e .
Po Se POSitionel's are r lativ iy small compared to most Robotic Arc Welding Positioners
f1.Q;" recl.tUt-tabl posittoners. They ar balanced and do Spectallzed postuoners are used to ImP .ove the versatility
is !{V~?l1taiJ:lpower; however. power rotation of th table .and to tend the range of robotic arc we1dihg systems,
Pi~ "·llable.The universal balanced pOSitioner is shown in TIl 115ableporti011o.f-a robot wOrk envelop <0aJH5Hm~·-'·>·. - .
<
<:\ t lr 1~-19,Theprlnctpt of this type of positioner is to .. Ited becatls tbe weldillS torch 1l10tUlting met1:1od dQcs·
''''en ~ly
~tnfne accurnt the ent(f of graVity 'of the w -I l- not al10w tile tor 11to rC'lcbthe joint ptop fly. 't~lel~d
. ~. iUlcl adjust th angI's o~ the ~rms, of the POSitiOll~r and lag ang~es of tht~_top,:h,Wllich ar~'QfltrQILq b'Y the
at the center of graVity 1S in hne with th main iQC18 robot's wrist movcmcpts,reduc the distances thnt 1'he
HEAD AND TAIl.. STOCI< POSITIONER
fiGURE 12...18 Head stock/tai I stock positioner.
, tcr h tip can b ,cxtended,Thus th robot working range

jg limitedstnee it Is normally anchored at a fixed location.
Spec';ial.posltiQuerS eliminate some orth se limitations by FIGURE 12-19 Balanced positioner.
n,l'id1'\gtue wprkpi,ece IltOl~',~ esslble to the robot weld-
· ing t9r<ili, They also provitl additional axes of motion to
the sYStem, .A vat ety of posittoners is used with robots, In-
'JudIng 1118t· and dual-stanon types and the universal The following is a brief description of sam of tIl
tJ,lt '.able untt manufactured to rtgh tolerances, Backlash mot popular robot posttioners, wI Ich are shown lO
j,~l10rmiLltY'lO.DOl in:,per in h (0.0025 nun pet' 25mm). Figure 12 ...21. Th doubl -end d t tw{n~worktabl jJ1-
wi'tn
,<:;_;,thf::(i1,QSit'iome..rstlScd bQtsA1ustbe mere accurate dexJ;ng pOsitio,ner, also caUe,1 a' turnarouiclid, i5Vel:j'PoP'
" ", ,lharit qUi,red for mau\la!or seltlinutoU11ltlc welding. In ad· ~11t Thlt! lsadual-stattnn untt fo.r small or medium-sit: d
, <.litl01~!rJw ,robotpmdtionet· cornrols must be .cmpattbtc patts.Whit ..welding take, plac at on Station, th other
"apa '('),f.ltl!Ollable.by th ,:I,'e>pot"oott ller t oordinate si· ~ being loaded or ~lnloaded. I t ~n have thre ax" S of f~
'.,mlllt1itle(lUsl:TtoBi'>n of s~vetalaxes whU,e welding. 'tation at ~ach id ,and each side does not ned to be W
12-4 STANDARDIZED
AUTOMATIC ARC WELDING
MACHINES
Standardized automatic arc welding machines are used
for producing certain welded products or tor making cer-
tain types of welds, They are considered standardized
since they are adjustable to accommodate similar prod-
ucts of different sizes and different material thicknesses.
They are tools for making specific items. They can make
longitudinal seam welds on tanks, the weld joining of
heads to the shell of a tank, the weld attaching small
bosses or spuds to sheets, and the welds to fabrica te struc-
tural beams and pipe welds. They can be maintenance
welding machines for building up tractor rollers, track
pads, or dipper teeth.
These machines are usually a combination of an arc
motion device and a work motion device designed to
work together to weld a family of products. Single or mul-
tiple arcs are involved and motion is relatively simple,
usually only one axis. Work-holding devices are often in-
eluded and may be customized for specific weldments,
Many of these standardized machines have complex con-
trols that are programmabl to reduce the time involved
in setup. The operator only loads and unloads these rna-
FIGURE12-20 Combination of arc and work motion.
chines for maximum productivity.
Standardized automatic arc welding machines can
d1me. An example is shown in Figure 12-21b.These units be categorized as follows:
not normally have coordinated motion.
• Seamers, external and internal
Single-axis rotational-type posltloners that provide
• Circumferential welding machines
.Oordinated motion are shown in Ftgure 12-21a,c,and d.
10'lUltaneous coordinated motion is obtained by the • Rotating head welding machines
Combination ontroller, The axis of motion can be verti- • Beam fabricators
calor horizontal. The "turn stock" positioner is used for • Nozzle welding machines
t\V'ofL"{turesor long, slender weldments, Both sides have • Internal bore buildup
fotation, which can be with Ight locked positions or • Rotary buildup Ilia. hines
~~th Coordinatec1motion.This is a dual-station po itioner
• Longitudinal welding machtnes
~nh thl'i e axes of rotation. An example Is shown in
19Uf 12-21e, Machtnesor these types are available in different
Anorh r positioner, known as thd1"QfJ center type, izes with different ouflgurattons from numereus manu-
is au .d a turnover unit.(Figure 12-21f). This unit has facturers. US 1:S sometimes b uld their own rna tun us- .
~o axes of motion. Postti ner motion is locked at spe- Ing. cOlll.l;QcrdallyavaUnble components. Maay
C1flc POints for welding, _ companie sell lnatched omponents for tbis .purpose,
1. A diff-et nt type of positioner, also known a a Following is a brief discussion of some '(')£tll .mot(!/l'up.·:
:::,~n~verunu, Is shown In Figure 12-21g.Tbis unit has ularstandardized autcmanc.arc welding rna 'hlnts,-
i Q ,!Xes of rotation and is designed for heavier loads. Po- Tile most popular Isthe e tet'nat seamer (Fig-
, tion ~r motion is loci ed at spectfi points for welding. ure 12..23 .Thisma 'i)tt'l usesa b am and carrlag :posi~
s} All item that pands the.range of n robot Is the ti ned over a hold",} wnflxture With a,ba kUp. I an h.
1tlt e adj\ls~ d for cUffer .nt, diwl 'eers ~md1 ngths ·of tank snells
", tl carrjagc (Figure 12-22), his has a travel range of
\) 0;1,' 12 ft . posftiGn:cr
, thlcknes$.Xhe seam r.hlitY. be; ;td~;
., .•,TIle wod cau be mounted on the . ofdifferel1tmaterial
ttrriage h' . '
ttbl' t. ,or t. e robot can be mounted Ot1 the earring ,en- justable for non*fltlt·positu'>t1,w h;Utlg. We1di11g on aniti~"
b l~g it to w Id at tw work rations althnateJy. It Quid cliO cl JwnhUl itnprp¥:>s weldtt'(lV1 1 81' eeL ):n.rei'Jlal
i;>Q On,sider"d an a1'C mO~jon devic~. Other speCht 1 robot seamers are 'Oll,st;n.l 'red'diJ-£' t;J,1tly: an ,Iate tl~, c.lf()1~,m..\k.
. Sitl.f>ners ~~ravaUablcfor spe illl ~.lppUcatio1ls. irig tlie m:skte weld. 4fl exampI ;iSJlioW{llllF~~'hte ~·l"~ '.'
(a) Ib) Ic)
(d)
(e)
If) (9)
FIQURE 12-21 Robot positioners.
A. .Companion. piece is a tank head welding mao diameter parts to flat or curved plates.when curved plateS
.chine, sometimes called a weld {cltba or ctrcumfererutat at' Inv Ived, cams are used to follow the irr gular se~lf1l.
welder: his-rna ihlne will rotate th wok assembly under They are quickly adlustab) for different sizes of spudS,
two w :Iding beads and will make two cylindrlcal welds and they may clamp the parts as well as make the wel(is.
sinrultrt,tleously (Figure 12-25).They can be used for dif· A typi aJ pud welder is shown in Figur 12-27. .
fer ot sizes, lengths, diameters, and.marerta; thickness. Another name for. the spud welder Is the uJelil-
. ll~e_y~r,ecominQll1ytJSed t01' making LNG tanks, hot wa- around machine ..Figure 12':'28 shows a variety of partS
. tet ta.n,ks,a1'\d panston tanks, The weld lathe can be welded with the weld-around machine. One vadatiotl .
". \lS ed to weld other types of parts, omettm S Simple fix- for small parts uses a rotating fixtur on the tabl . It j
tur ~ ar~p qutr ·d. Be F.iglJl'c12",26 for e ample. shown in Plgur 12-29, Figure 12 ..-30 shows a tn9rC:l
Anoth r stan.dardi7. ·ct weldtng-machfn is the rotat- complex version with two torches on tbe weJd.~U'o·und
lug he4dwttldintl rnachtne, It is also a.lleda boss welder rna hlne,
:"COf:c$p'ua 'W,C/ldft1gmat:litne.1J,11 tll.'\chil1erOtat s a welding , A simtlar etrculae weRling maclu lei known as' tl '.
heador: s6nlctim s two heads around a relatively s01illIclt- nozzle welder, is used for auachin nozzle to tankS or
. am t r part' Sl,l~ha th spud 0 tl. tank.The h' 'ad t'ot3tes ~oU"rs. This equipment can Oink a fttJlwpenet.ratiO,1
+. tl1· :1'1," "',at nna the periphery of th . part atlO mn1es a ftl· _.#'. Igroove 'W 1d 0.1.' fillet weld on havy lllateriij,l. Ute J1'lW
, :~-'Cletwejd, ~otnln~Oit to ~ plate. Thes machines are used i11- . chine mounts on the nozzle and provides rptary rnotlotl
b n ,d for welling snJall* .fot making the weld. 1t can .~e th submerged ~lrC.flU •
FIGURE12-24 Internal seamer.
FIGURE12-22 Shuttle carriage.
FIGURE·12-25 Circumferential welder-weld lathe.

~.12-23 External seamer.
~Qred)or gas metal arc welding pro ess. Compl x con-

1~~11and rnotion are required for thick material and for
ma OWing oomplex joints QJl small-dtameter tanks, The
. chine must be closely supervised because the welds
~~~t meet code requirements.It 'Usuallymakes multfpass
lx' dS.Atypic'll nozzl welder is shown in Figure 12..31.
p~.l&~\l(,;hl110r compl x than th .spud.w:clder stnce it
h()}~llcesa ,nlll·penetl1lUon groove weld, basically in. the
ZOlltal postu n, and makes multiple passes.
A, End cap [0 cylinder
B, Mufflers
C, Pulleys
D. Girth welds on tanks
E, Shaft to housing
F. Pipe to flange multi-pass weld
G. Rod ends
H, Ring to cylinder (!D/OD)
I. Aluminum tanks
,--",-,--::":';___.j
J, Air receivers
(ccnstruction equipment)
N. Flange/pipe/flange
alignment
0, Tube to plate
(agricultural equipment)
P. Wheels
Q. Hydraulic cylinders
FIGURE12..,;26 .Assortment of weldments made on a weld lathe.
An interesting typ of spectaliz d welding equip- w Iding jet engine blades, and welding augers for mate-
m .ut i$ used for routine maintenanc operations. This rial moving.
type of matntenance tnclud· s buUct{;ng 'up worn surfaces Orbital welding machines welding pipe and tub- f()f
of tra tor part . This special machine is designed for ing, considered to be standardized automatic welding
butlding up crawlertra 'tor track shoe icUers,Wortl rollers ma hines, ate des ribed in Chapter 25. Standardized au-
ate rotat d under the wet ling head to bulld them up to t matte w '{ding rna hines gr atly increas th producuv
their o,igj.n;:usize or to give them a hard surface. A rna- tty of welding. If machine of this type can be kept busy.
hlpe forb:llilaing QproIle,fs is shown in'Pigure12-33. they often are a more economical solution than a robot
Another wear.rtem ora tractor is the track she .
igure 12-3 shows-a w ld buildup machine for track
shees, Ths machine includes s 'veraI welding heads on a
. lin at carrftlg with switches that start and stop th ar ~s 12..5 DEDICATED AUTOMATIC
, thces rriageptc>gr '58 s th J ngth pf tl1 '" t1'a k shoe as-
,embly, Special ..flux-cor, d el ctrod wires are used to ARC,WE~DING EQUIPMENT
ptovjde;weaNfcSi~QtslJrfac7s. ," . Ad~<;JiP;ttedautomatic arc-wcJdlng machine is c1JSto~¢d
6tb· " ap ~ jaHied stan,das'dized welding rna hines equlpm nt designed to we}(f on speclfi part or a familY
, .,aud qt'lltmi fit ~1' llS'ct for rOtltirle~naint nail e at :d ~·e· of. imilal' parts on a' high-Vi tum pro lu tjon basis., Dcdi~
.", ""pal-r WQt~.Tb,i~ i~lCllld '$ welding tl . il:ts.ide qiame,ter ·of ~
rttef;l or.
.
t1s~onli.zedmachine~ are irs
" ... ,.'
d whe:ne ~ridcnti· 'I
, ,: '.' ,.P~P:'l:1:tl1l1ctigesi-fS; ~w !ding th 'als of jet' nginc', cal parts a.reman\1fact1.1ted in sufficient quamitles or ort rl ,
Continuous basis. The automotive industry and the appli- differences.They are quickly adjustable to allow for these
ance industry are major users of dedicated automatic differences. The customized dedicated welding machine
welding equipment. The very first automatic arc welding incorporates arc motion, work motion, and work-
machine (Figure 12-35) was custom designed to auto- handling equipment with appropriate controls and weld-
matically weld differential housings for automobiles. This ing equipment.
machine used continuous bare electrode wire and pro- The major disadvantage is the need to redesign or
dUced good-quality parts in the early 1920s. modify the dedicated machine when the design of the
A dedicated or customized arc welding machine is product is changed. Another disadvantage is the need to
designed to weld one specific part and that part only.This keep the customized equipment operating on a full-time
type of equipment is sometimes called hard automa- continuous basis because it is expensive.
tion. Some dedicated machines may allow for a family of Despite this, automatic welding with customized
Parts that are similar but vary in size .or have only minor machines is used in high-volume production industries,
because it is the most economical welding production
method. It reduces labor requirements, produces consis-
FIGURE 12-27 Rotary spud welder. tent high-quality parts, maintains production schedules,
and standardizes the cost of welded parts.
FIGURE 12-29 Variation of weld-around machine.
, FIGURE 12...,.28 . Variety of parts welded with a weld-around machine.

Customized or dedicated welding machines per-
form the entire welding operation automatically. The ma-
chine may be manually loaded with individual parts.
Usually, it is manually unloaded but may be mechanically
unloaded. The automated welding machine may be part
of a total production line; it is integrated into the produc-
tion operation.
Customized automatic welding machines are as var-
ied as the weldments they produce, which range from
tiny heart pacemakers to giant components for earth-
moving equipment, and from small appliances to large
bulldozer blades. Dedicated arc welding machines can be
classified according to the number of welding arcs em-
ployed, the number of axes of motion, and the number of
workstations. For example, a dedicated machine with a
single weld process may be single are, single axis of mo-
tion, one workstation; single are, multiple axis of motion,
one workstation; multiple are, single axis of motion, one
FIGURE12-30 Two-torch variation of weld-around workstation; or multiple axis of motion and one worksta-
machine. tion. It is also possible for a dedicated machine to use dif-
ferent welding processes at more than one workstation.
Machines that employ two or more arcs simultane-
ously would normally have higher welding productivity
than a robotic that usually has only one arc. Multiple
workstations using turnaround positioners with two iden-
tical holding fixtures will greatly increase productivity.
To obtain a better understanding of the variety of
dedicated automatic welding stations, it is best to con-
sider some typical applications. One early appllcation of
automatic and semiautomatic welding was the manufac-
ture of domestic furnace heat exchangers (Figure 12-36).
These are made in two halves pr ssed from thin-gauge
plain carbon steel or .alumtnized steel. Baffle plates and
spacers are first tack welded to both the right- and left-
hand, press-formed pieces of the h at exchanger. TWO
welders using semiautomatic gas m tal arc welding
equipment do this work adjacent to the automatic weld-
ing machine. The right- and left-hand pieces are then
placed manually in a fixture that clamp th am tog thee
Only the very edges of the two halves to be welded
arc exposed. However, each corner is dffferent.To simplifY
th pro ess, the automatic machine mak s only the straight
w Ids oneach 'ideM r loadlng.the unit is fulfyautornati .
The weld produ ed is an dge weld on all four sides of the
rectangular eecuons.Because of the different corner dC-.
signs, each side of the workpiece has a different weld
1 ngtb.ln operation, the rnachtn automatically selects tbe
we~d length for the first side.makes the Wi ld automatic~Uy,
index s t11 workpiece 90 S leers the next Wi ld lepgtJ'),
Q
,
and r peats the sequenc .'TIlfsprogresses autpmaticaUy

until flU four sides are edge welded. Thi amounts to a total
of 70Jft of weld made at aspeeCl of 42 in/min. wbJch
greatly ex' eds the 15 tn./min attained with semiauto-
matic welding. Semi au ton attc welling is ..till us d to finis»
,tl{c'cQroer j Ints adjacent t the.ol CJ1illgS.Tl setnitlUtD-.
matte weldltlg operarcr removes ,the p rthllly welded 11 a,t
FIGURE12-32 Bore welder building up inside-diameter surface with axis horizontal or vertical.
Figure 12-37 shows a dedicated machine that uses a

single torch but employs five axes of motion. It is used to
weld a crossover pipe to a tubular automotive exhaust
manifold assembly'The part in question is shown in front
of the machine in the photograph. The cam-conrrolled ro-
tary torch motion is-the major feature of thtsmaehine.
Each torch motion is controlled by a separate cam, With
'the cams mounted on a common sbaft.TIusfive~is rotary
motion. provides a 3600 circumferenttal weld even when
the design of the part prevents full rotation. The 360° cir-
cumferential weld was made With only 2700 of Pindle ro-
tation. SfJ,fetylight curtains protectedthe opetato,'from
the motion ofdl machine, Loadi,ng and unloading tsdone
manually and the machine cycle tlmets 14 ~econd'i, .
Th dedicated welding maehin shown in Fig~
ute 12,-:38 is used to weld'f;Wo scpfll1;te models, of aft au·
tomotive ,catalytic .€onvertt;t ,'a~$einbly(s}i(_)wQ, i~, 'the
forcgJ'ound), It·elllplih'$ two nt _iulu·hit1e, ai~~ofca:m~
cO.llt.roll d :rotary motion; A two-piece ti>tatiAg cradle is
-used to locate and clamp th converter body;Two diff~r~
~RE 12-33 Weld buildup, tractor rolls. ent end piec s are located at the . nds of thebpqy
seen n. Ea: n, torch is cam-contrell d.and welqs ncJ'Ps~
the body seam i1ap~s' aJl,d arOU;lQ" edre .'.: C:.
:cbanger, inSel'tS t~ new pieces, and then finishes weld- Of the pip;esattadled te 'acfi °nd. ie tora "le ','
; g the corn rs of each heat exch nger s: ml lltomatiealfy. is used to weld both t:h61atg oval lid ~l1da. sm~lilr
.Ibis i (Jone whUe the automnti 'w ldtug ma 'nine is nlak~ round end t the sam" time, It"ean b chnngcd quickly ,
109 th straight welds. nus ttutotIlatic ,machine increaJ'ie~ a diff'ttr~t Cfttalyttf¥cCmver"tct .slielnbt'S1.,~9 :,.'
't<) . weld,
P1'()dtlctwn by 60% to 65% over :sefl,'ljautomatic wekUng. sepa te p{>wersources and dlffer flrwefd stllediJl s 'ar, ' "
c
FIGURE12-34 Weld buildup, track shoes.
FIGURE12-36 Domestic furnace heat exchanger
being automatically welded.
FIGURE12-38 Welding a catalytic converter.
provided by two separate welding controllers. The pro-

dUction fate for one converter model is 100 parts/hr and
for the other is 180 parts/hr.
Automatic welding with dedicated machines is not
restricted to the automotive and appJiance industries. It Is
being used for producing large structural weldments . In
this example, a dedicated machine is simultaneously mak-
ing six welds to join three preformed stiffeners to the
deck of the approach to a large bridge. These assemblies
'Werefabricated of steel plates lin. (25 mm) thick by 10 x
SO ft. (3 x 15 m), with three preformed stiffeners ~in.
(J 2.5 mm) thick welded to them.These panels were then
assembled and welded into a 40 x 50 ft. (12 x 15 m) as-
Sembly and moved to the erection site, Six arcs are used
SimUltalleously to weld the stiffener sections to the t-tn.
steel deck plates. A gantry-type welding macbine carries
all the welding heads, controls, and electrode wir supply
(Figure 12..39).Thefigure shows the welding with the six
heals being used simultaneously. Flux-cored arc welding
uSing CO2 gas shieldingJs employed. High-quality full-
penetration 'welds were required, whi h passed the nee- .
essa1"ystructural qualification tests. ,
, Dedicated automari welding machines are not all
restricted to continuous electrode wire proc sses.Tbe fl·
ll~llexample is a machine for pr ducing electric- motor
parts, It. is 'used for weldlngthe stamped Iaminattons to-
gether (Figure 12-40), These assemblies are made on
eqUlpnlcnt that Includes two welding stations and two
Welding pro .esses.Tt; first machine, which has four po-
Sitions, clamp and holds the lamination assemhly in the
pt p r postti nand moves it v tlcally in front of two gas
t\Jngsten a.r welding torches.The worksration rotates and
Rla~es two more welds~ThJ;:final QpemtiOll, done on a s~c·
on.d ma bin w Ids a cap t11lg to the stator. A gas metal 31'C
j
Plug weld i mad through prepun hed holes. The man-

dtel, '\Vhi h.holds the stator; turns ll,fter each plug weld is
ttnlde to bring the next hole in Oric withe th rorcli.The to-
FIGURE12-40 Welding motor laminations.
application .. However, the payback period is short, pro- Employment Educanon.and theWorkplace"OTA CIT-235)
vided there is sufficient production volume. TIle dis ad- indicated that discrete manufacturing could be divided
vantage-Is that the machine must berebuilt whenev r the into three categories, based on the volume and variety of
design of the product is changed. products, shown by Table 12-1.
1. Single-piece parts or an xtremely low volume of

similar items
l2~6 ',FLEXIBLEAUTOMATION 2. Batch production of medium lot sizes
OF WELDING· .3. Continuous product! n or a high volume of simi-
lar parts
Job shop production is Iow-volurrie production
with a lot size as small as one piece-that is, custom pro-
duction of Lto 10 parts if it is a large compJeK part, or a
velum of 1 to 300 units if it is a small simple part. Batch
produ tion is a moderate to medium lot size of 10 to 300
hu'g " complex parts, or 300 to 15,000 small, simple parts.
Ma ,If production is htgh-volum production, 'Usuallyover,
300 hirge, complex parts, or over 15,DOO small, simple
parts. This Tlsually means connnuous operation of decU~
cated production equipment: These may be arbitrary fig-
Ul~~, but ar based on this study. ,
_, ',. Jobshopproda nOll involving, single untts or small
I t sfzes is very labor itlt 11 tve, The parts produced ate
TABLE 12-1 CHARACTERISTICS OF METAL WORKING PRODUCTION BY LOT SIZE
Type of Production Job Shop Batch Mass
Lot size (volume) Low volume Medium volume High volume

Large complex parts 1-10 10-300 Over 300
Small simple parts 1-300 300-15,000 Over 15,000
Weld setup Manual setup Fixture, manual loading Fixture, automatic loading
Welded production Manual or semiauto weld Standardized welding machine Dedicated welding machine
Estimated percentage 10-20% 60-80% 20-30%
of U.S. production
FIGURE12-41 Typical parts manufactured with

flexible welding equipment.
very expensive.There is insufficient volume to justify spe-

cial machines or dedicated equipment.
Batch production involves medium-volume lot
FIGURE12-42 Flexible welding workstation with
sizes. This type of production can justify simple flxturing
microprocessor controller,
and standardized machines to make weldments with less
labor. This category is still relatively labor intensive but
produces parts at a lower cost.
Ma s production involves high-volume or continu- allows the capability of changing from one part to an-
ous production. 'This type of production justifies cus- other quickly and needs only a positive locanng point to
tonlized welding equipment. The amount of labor per align the robot's welding torch with the .parts being
part is mlntmum, labor efficrency is maximum, and the welded. Extremely small or medium-sized lots can be
end product Is the least expensive. processed economically in this manner.A different locat-
The flexible automarlonof welding that makes ise lug flxtur is used for each part and for. welding the lot
of flexible m~l1ufacturing system can make batch manu- size requited;
faCturing as efficient and productive as mass productron, Robots are expensrveand musebe kept bu.-sy ena .
Carried to its ultimate, it could even make job sbop pro- fulltlme basts to b economtcally aqcepta.ble.,Thet:e rscah~
d.llction much more effiCient and productive and greatly other way of accompllshtng tl e .economy .f rna s pro-
red lee the cost ofl<one.only" production. duction of small parts produ ed in smalllot siz:es:rypical
. Robotic arc welding ~sthe obvious answer for flex- parts are shown in Figur 12 e- 41."fhis can QC (l n with a
lble autom.ation ofwelding.The us fa robot and Q. weld- flex.ibl welding system ,tll~tis . omputer' ontrpU d. ~
ing fl~ttU,"ethat can be mounted on a work motion deVi e fle:Jdble. automattc welding station f01'wc;ldjpg small sJtn"
1sthe key to reducing welding costs,1\. computer prognml pIe pal't~lsshowutn Figure '12-42.TIus workstati()1i' costs' .
i cI v lop d for each part.The program Ii!!placed in rnern- less tl1an half that of a 1" bot cell.Th weldUl.g sequence:
Ory and used eery time thepartic;uJar part is manufac- , for ea 'h workpiece is progr4f1uned and stored in'ttl
~lred, 'me set1;ll)'time is minimal, and the mbot is k<!pt con1;puterm'9m6ry,.A simple holdill~ al1cUbatinglj:ntit1t' "
. usy welding ll1~tnysmall lot sizes of parts all day long. It is pro'Vid d.D l' each weldrnem. When the ptttt is to b~ .
. ~ .' .
FIGURE 12-44 Modular components for welding
system.
FIGURE 12-43 Head-tail stock system welding bicycle

fork.
which connotes forced labor that was depicted as a kind
of automation in Karel Capek's 1920 play entitled R. UB.
Today the Robot Industries Association defines a robot as
produced, the operator places the ftxture on the table a "reprograrnmable, multifunctional manipulator designed
and calls HI' the program from meroory.This takes very lit- to move materials, parts, tools, or specialized devices, to
tle time. For production weldlng the operator loads the variable programmed motions for the performance of a
fixture and presses the start button, th rnachine makes variety of tasks." The Japanese define the robot as a three-
the w ld, and the operator unloads the finished weld- axis programmable tool. This difference in denntnon
ment.This machine can be programmed for linear arc mo- might explain why there are more robots in Iapan than in
tion using one or two torches. It can be arranged for the United States.
rotating work or arc motion with the axis of rotation ver- Robots were introduced to North American in-
tical or for head and tailstockrotary motion with the axis dustry in theearly 1960s; however, not until the mid-
horlzonral.Pigure 12...,43shows the head-tail stock system .1970s was robotic arc weldtng used in production.
with a bicycle fork being welded with rotation about the Robotic welding grew rapidly in the early 1980s be-
horizontal axis, Figure 1~-44 shows modular compo- cause of the emphasis by the automobile industry. In
nents for a welding station and actual components, the mid-1980s other manufat turing companies started
.p.eequipm nt Is quickly hanged over from one using w lding robots, and today thelr use is widespread
tn')eor motion to another. It is easUy adapted to product and growing,
mix chang s and to small batch sizes. This is flexible , TIle Robot Industries Association started keeping
automat! n of weldmg. It is used for more and more track of robots in arly 1990. In 1994, approximately
hort ...~lmappli raticns on. Simple parts. It will eliminate 8,000 robots were shipped; in 1995, approxirnately
COlnpl x dccUcated fJXtnt s and is fUldlng in rasing a - 9,000; in 1996, approximately 11,000; and in 1997. ap- .
,c ept3nce iJ1:volum~llr()du tiQuplants. Thisquip01ent is proximately 12,000.1n 1998 there was aslight down-
t'l11.1ol11ess,~xp¢nsiv:e that1,q.robot, yet will make the welds turn to 11 ;000, but in 1999 it Increased to over 15,000
at. d~eS~l·mep:vod\~cUontate: units shipped, Today there aremor than 120,000 ro-
bots in use in N rth Amerl a. The pie chart shown in
igure 12- 5 shows that most rob ts are \IS d for mate-
1~,,:7 'ARC WELDING ROBOTS
_:.f '.
rial handlmg, Including mactun loading and unloadtng
. appJJcaUcms, However, spot -welding robots, represent-
'.:l\:r(:'W: ldtng'l-j')bats have be'c:o 'C very. pOPl,1.13f
in the last ing ~pIDr6xhnately 30%.,-are close beh~nd. Ar welding
few y Rl';'h6wev 't,X: bots have D~ 'n around :Ii r nlany robots repl'cscnt 18% tb 20%, th: r appHc~ltion', ill-
y ·ars:), seph Hngl burge . ,.,th fad cr of m dcrn robots, ~ltlping 1 ainting, (;Oati11g, and i;l1~pe ti.on, 'repl'es 11t
.,.~.y~.lQJ?c4 ;t. Jlla ~l1itte.inth' .ml9~J 9508' aqd. gaY!.. it t1;t.e al1b It,10%,wherea~Ul$~embly,ancr dtspnsing reprC$cnt
~.nf,nl ~Qbi>t.Il'l'ts'wiJ..9bascd on ill CZ~
h wotd t'oQota. approxun~tely S% of the toboe appH ations.
DISPENSING ASSEMBLY " WELQING
PAINTING, COATING, ROBOT .
'POWE~ SOURce " MANIPULATOR
ARC WELDING AND INSPECTION. ANO CONTROL, OR ARC MOTION
18-20% 8%-10%
,/
ROBOT
CONTROLLER OR
MASTER C9NTROL
,..........-~---:--..., ,/ "-.._ ..---......,..,.-.--__,..."

ELECTRODE O~rrONAL:
WIRE FEEDER POSITIONER OR
SPOT WELDING WQR,K MOTION"
AND CONTROL.
30% AND CONTROL.
FIGURE 12-47 Robot arc welding system.

MATERIAL HANDLING
33%
FIGURE 12--45 Robot appl ications. or electric. They are coupled together by mechanical
links and may be direct driven or driven indirectly
through gears, chains, or screws. There are different de-
signs of manipulators, ranging from three axes to multi-
ple axes.The mechanical manipulator can be categorized
by its general design. The more common types of manip-
ulators are the (1) cartesian coordinate, (2) cylindricalco-
ordinate, (3) spherical coordinate, (4) anthropomorphic
coordinate, (5) gantry, and (6) SCARA type. Each type has
specific advantages and features, but all can be used to
move a welding torch to make welds.
The complexity of the robot is usually described
by the number of axes or freedom of motion that it is
capable of providing. To provide more motion, most ro-
bots have a two- or three-axis-of-wrist motion in addi-
tion to their basic motions. In selecting robots it is
important to understand the work envelope ill which
the robot can make welds. Each type of robot manipu-
lator has a different work envelope configuratlon. The
shape and size of the work envelope relates to the mo-
FIGURE12~6Robots handling spot welding guns on tions and size of linkages of the robot. Arcweldlngro-
autbbody line. bats were originally designed to match the working area
of a human being.
" The automotive industry first used robots for spot Robot Manipulator Configuration
Welc;Ung(FIgure 12-46). The robot replaced a person us- Four of the six types of robots are shown in Figure 12,.. .8.
ing Spot welding guns.This ha completely changed the The first is the carresfan coordinate robot, based on tl1
aUtonJQblle body producdon llne.Today, almost very au- three-plane drawing system u ed for blueprtars.It is 'Oft n
tomobile body produc d lsspot welded with a robot. called the rectangu!arGQorQinate system: sillce; it;tt:n.ovcS
All arc weldingrobot systems consist of a number within a box-shaped volume based on th x,y, dlQ.:t .di-
of major components (Figure 12..47). The part referred to re tions.The direction· .' stands for lO1'lgitudit al nlOtiop ID'
as the robot is known as the man,tpu.lato1'or mechanical a horfzontal plane. Y stands for transverse or "in or out',
~n~t, Which performs the manipulati e functions. The rn non ina horizontal plane, and: Z stands for up-and-
. l'ru.noft11 robot Is the ontroller, and many allXiliary de- down motion in II· vern ~l plane.Ir haS liding me doom;
Vices lll..'lke.the robot more produ rive. all thrc' _dir~.ctjOl,l~,Itbas tl1j:een'lQtio;nax~$,~19n.~itudittalr
I "'!'be r Dot manipulator ts a series of m chanical transverse, and vern at. ItS work enve-l 'pc.is a tectf\'Ogt}· ,>'
~~tlkag and joints capable of moving in various dlt;ec- b.\t box:. .

IOns in order to provide motion. The mechani ms ar The second is th cyllndric:dcoOfdil18te tobpt,l'lu$
<ll'lven by linear tlctuat()!s, which~ may be" llyoratllic or robot type: is sltuilar tillce it'uses ~liding rosjtiQn 1bv,t'v\"-o~:' i" .
Pl1CUlll:ltic,' l' by rotary ~11otor$,which may'be hydraulic cUrecUorts, th~ ve;tt a) and¢ne (!xt¢f:1SiOl'l, but has n .. "
NOTE: WRIST MOTION NOT INCLUDED
CARTESIAN CYLINDRICAL
EXTENSION
........
SPHERICAL JOINTED ARM
FIGURE12-48 Four types of robots.
rotational or swing motion. The work envelope is cylin-

drical in the plan view and rectangular In the elevation.
The arm holding the welding torch moves up and down
the mast and swings about the mast with less than a full
circle. The torch extends and retracts.
The third is the spherical coordinate robot, also
known as a.polar coordinate robot. This robot type bas
one sliding motion and two rotational motions. One is
around the vertical post, and the oth r is around a shoul-
d r joint.The mechanism holding the arm swings about a
vertical ·axis and rocks up and down, about a horizontal
axis. TIle arm slides to extend and
retract.The work en-
v lop is spherical, with a.similar plan view as the cylin-
drical coordlnate motion robot, but with an elevation
view showing the rotational motions based On the shoul-
<l r rotauon.
The fourth robot is tJ anthropomorphic robot, Or
revalue Or jointed arm robot, The motions are all rota-
tjonal with no slidinS motion.Tbe work envelope is trreg- FIGURE 12-49 Gantry robot having eight axes of
ulatly shapc4 in .the vertical platte ~d about two-thirds of motion.
a clyde .ill the horizontal plane/this type of robot SWings
abotLUtsbas to-sweep the arm ttl a circle. It bends the
upp r. arm forward and bacJcward at the shoulder and The shr:th robot is the SCAliA.SCARAIs an acronym
raises and lowers the low r arm at tl e lbow; for seleouon compuane« a~~,~emhtyrobot arm, also
l11e tlCtb t b t, which can b . OJ1sidcJl!u as haVing known as a bortzlmtal (!I1"tituJaterobot. Some SARA ro-
,,·3 catt' c6bt(Jj.nate·motiQ; Is the snotty reboe (Fig~ bots have all rotating axes and some-have one Sliding axi6
"llftt12 ," ,:the 'g• .ntty.i$ onIypatt of tbetotaJ modorl; ijri ombination With a rotatttig axis, SCAM: robots have
:'.' :$i.it(;, ~lJ< tnt "(1 arm robot r. a tw<r Of three~axis wrist is Jour axes ofmodon, but do. not hav: much v rtt al trav 1.
a.~tR~hedto tll,eg<U1tty ca;rdag to proVide rnaxlmum / Th Y at used for weldina primatiJyin a slngle plane.
,,/moite.lletlt'WftbJri tlle' work.euveJope.lts .work envelope' Tbeir workenve1ope is a'flat ff;f,!tangular box. The SCA1tA
j Is a hit' 1 tectatlg\11ar po ' robot is no~ popuJar6 r welding.
tional axis of motion. This is usually rotation and/or tilt,
U UPPER
which will add two more axes of motion. A jointed arm
ARM robot with a three-axis wrist working with a two-axis ma-
nipulator would have eight axes of motion.
In selecting a robot it is necessary to determine its
work envelope and reach and the number of axes of
torch motion. This will allow you to determine if the ro-
bot will weld the weldment in question.This is difficult to
determine without making tests; however, computer de-
sign programs are available that will help decide whether
the robot can accommodate the weldment. An actual test
is the positive method.
In selecting a robot it is important to determine the
travel velocity while welding and while not welding,
known as air cut time. The welding speed must be com-
patible with the welding process and procedures to be
NAME OF AXES
AXIS S - ROTATION
used. The air cut time movement when not welding
AXIS L - LOWER ARM should be a minimum; the travel velocity when not weld-
AXIS U - UPPER ARM
AXIS T - WRIST TWIST (ROLL) ing should be high.
AXIS B - WRIST BEND (PITCH) An important factor is the repeatability of the robot.
FIGURE12-50 Basic movements of a jointed-arm This is the closeness of agreement of repeated position
rObot manipulator. movements under the same conditions to the same loca-
tion. This means to move the welding torch to the same
point every time it goes through its program. Most elec-
tric robots provide a maximum variation of 60.015 in. in
There can be combinations of these types of motion robot movement for repeated returns to a programmed
systems for special applications. The work envelopes of point. This is affected by operating speed and is accept-
different makes of robots of the same type are similar.The able for gas metal arc welding. For gas tungsten arc or
Variations are due to different lengths of arms and links. plasma arc welding, a tighter tolerance is requited and a
The jointed ann or anthropomorphic robot is the most repeatability of 60.008 in. is desired. This Information is
popular.The basic movements arc shown in Figure 12-50. provided by manufacturers' speclfications: however, a,test
The Work envelope of a typical jointed arm robot is provides positive data,
hown in Figure 12-51. . Accuracy of robot movement is also very impor-
The method for attaching a welding torch or gun is tant. This is the degree to which the aetual posltion cot-
by means of an adapter attached to the wrist. Two differ-- responds to the desired command posttion. nus is
ent methods of attachment are shown in Figure 12-52. measured .by comparing the command position to the ac-
'Inc adapter may have a breakaway feature. which avoids tual position.
damage if the torch crashes into the work or fixtures.The Resolution is also very Important.This is a measure
Wrist, which is attachedto the work end of the robot up- , of the smallestpossible tncrementof chung~jn variable
per arm, allows two or three additional axes of motion. output of the robot. It' is determined by Ule .ability of the
They are very similar to the human wrist. These motions position feedback encoders Or resolvers to determine the
are known as pitch. roll. and yaw. which are boating location of a patti, ular joint and the position of the end-
terms, or bena, twist, and tilt. Fig\.ue 12-53 shows the point, called the tool center point, .
Wrist motions with a. welding torch. attached. Two- or Another fa tor is the weigh~arryjng calla<!ity of
three ..axis wrists at used Wito arc welding robots. the robot, 'l'his. is the Weight ill Will ac~ommQct~~e In: Jts
The body motions and wrist motions allow' the XI-at'mal(Jperatin~ Cllvelopt at tlonJuu ttavel vc]ocities'un
Welding torch to be manipulated In. space in almost the t11 endofthe wrist. Weight<ar:r.ylng capaCity shouldac~
Sllle fashion ( s a human being would rnanrpulate it. This commodate th. welding torch, th to.V.h Pteak~way d •
allows the torch angl and trav 1angle to change to make vices, water and gas hos S, c'Utv~'llt~arrYingooble, and· jn
good-qualir:y welds in all posluons.They are also requtc d some cases the etc. tred wtre feeder or fedl cad andth
tn Qtder to reach difficult·to-reach areas, Even so. a robot electrod Wire. _ c . .
cannot proVid tb' same nuullpulative mQtions ~s a h\l- The qrpe ot morton drive systellli$eX'ttemel~ inl:;'·
lIlan being. but it w1ll come extremely close. . pOl"tant;as is the type. of pp irian ~ edpa,ck setlsots.1h
Additional ~s at' added when, the robot is ' motion shOl.Ud b smooth at au tiroe$ 'in:aU po tlQns. '
tnount~d on,a fllovlllg ~arriage.Tl1iS' will
add an: additional mect;rie driVe tobots:a;r .···mQs·t Md.l¥- \lSeq:t'at;fW ~el"":,..
aXis of In t:i n. A work~ho)ding device C3,l'l add an {lddi· iri~,Hydraulic -drives J n. t e its' d tor' pnmting or SPC) ...
45.3" RANGE OF POINT A
11150mm) ,iB-AXIS MOVEMENT)
f...-- 31.5"
RANGE OF POINT B
I 1800m~) IWELDING ARC MOVEMENT)
32.7"
IB30mm)
64"
11624mm)
56.S"
11436 mm) 54.1"
(1375mm)
15.7"
0.0" I 46.7" l400mm)
122mm)
iI1186mm)
RANGE OF POINT A
IB·AXIS MOVEMENT)
FIGURE12;51 Work envelope of

a JOiqteg-;srrn robot manipulator. ('tORCH LOCATION'lVILI. MODIFY WO!ll'IN<3 RANGE)
welding since ac uracy orr peatability is 1.ss cnncal.Th

, le tic~1robcts r more repeatable sin e hydraul! sys-
Robot Welding Applications
tC.1Tisteild todd!t luctll~Watm~l.lI' and during operatton. Robots are welding 11l~UlY,many differenr products. They
!il1 ~dGUtipp-. ilyclraulicrobot5ay have oil leaks. PmaUy, Can weJdjust about anything that a human beillg an
.,-,<"Qn~d:mttiO_qsh6uld be giVt!fl to mO'llllting positio.Cl, base 'Veld. An.Jnt.eresting applicatioll that shows the moot's
11"~gh:· djus m 'nt;mao.{,puJator 'Y ighi, envtronm ntal apability f welding a complex structure can
be seen in
UQlJttl1 Pia ap.ptovals. _ / igure 12-55a.'fhis is the w lded frame of a large motor-
" ":~;, o,·A1i}tr1feat· obot"ee£l instatl~tion _Is:shown in Pig- cycle: a iinisned lllotot'cycl~ is shown in FJgt;U:e12-5;b.
. 'ur . ~r:5t_hThJ~AlloW'sthe tobotmanipulntof, worl piece Th . following are examples to show th diversity of
. .....
i,~siti'On fland t'I c. ·ssafY',. eq~1ipmen;'
in asaf ty enclosur . types of weld made by robots,
,.' _, .
"I"~ -3, :. '

ROLL
(Twist)
FIGURE12-53 Wrist motions.
F1GURE 12-54 . Typical robot cell with 180~ incex

positioner.
Methods of weldfng gun attachment.

FIGURE12-56 Tubular product.
FIGURE12-56· Robot-welded motorcycle frame.

Case Study: Sheet Metal Assembly This manufacturer
of health care equipment wanted to re move welders from
routine work and from the w lding environments and to re-
duce costs and improve quality The weldment Is a large
Ca~e.Study: Tubular.Welde(:l Product The need was sheet metal part (Figure 12-;7).Thework cell consisted of
tol'l.ilf.\.dl.tnore difft:rent varieties of frames and to increase one robot and three workstation .all within the robot work
productton, Th company took the following approach: envelope. One operator mans all three workstations; how-
FJxtur s weremodta dto handle more than one size of ver, an operator start-and-stop control panel is located in
fr'Mll . n.obo~ and postnoners w re installed.the flxtures each station, Each fixture is firmly fixed.Th operation op-
were mounted 011 positioners, and two positioners were erates three shifts a day and has reduced production costs
tlsetl: wittiea¢11·rqbot: Five parts are requited. The major by usmgless electrode wire; lessCO:;l shielding. gas, andtn-
paiti$thin·wal1i ~Uialth;Jiarneter iubirtg.1'heocher parts ate creased welding speed.The quality of welds is good. and
500et meta} stamplngs. Tack welding Is not us d.', he oper- consistent, so that t111etweld sizes can be reduced.The pro-
a.te:r 10 ' ds th :ftxtur 1 and the frarn is ornpt t.ly welded ductivity has increased over 200%.
before r movin~ from th flxture. On • op rator t nds to
two rob (8 lOttdtn and 'unloading worlq)ie B on 011 po- Case Study: Pipe W~lded Assembly A manufac-
sitit)l1lir, wbU the robot welds .n tfie other; Six robots are turer was seeking to reduce costs with small lot s1z~~
, prodU~illilover 6Q,OOOfuurie.~p r month. Improved qual- ~nd 'sllQ11:production' rims, Its WOl'k invoivea pJpe fit-
im' f"dl..1ced pr d l.ction costs, vh:t\laUy Uminaced scmI' , J,ings that re [utred hlgh-quallty . elds, Short runs art
an~min1mi;r. d, insp etion tiro, t & llted from changing , , it'om 25 to 200 parts, alld ther are '0' dU] 'rent welded
,,:fr01ttfiemIllutoroiti,torobQtie:welding of this appUcation, as e~nblies.The company insta.ueda two-statioll, flve«
. "," ';:si~ own" ftl Ffgtlre 12-56 ..
, ' ,
axis work poshioner atid elected to have diffc1,' nt fi1r-
may not be perfect. The pipe assemblies are welded to
code requirements.
Case Study: Gas Tungsten Arc Welds Gas tungsten
arc is being used for more and more applications. This
aerospace supplier produces accessories for jet engines.
The material is thin and medium-thick stainless steel and
nickel alloys. This company installed a dual-station posi-
tioner and an inverter power source. The material thick-
ness ranged from 0.032 to 0.215 in., which required a
wide range of welding currents. The robot was equipped
with an automatic arc length control (AVC) operating
through the robot software. Precision and repeatability
has been excellent and the resulting weldments are more
consistent than those produced previously. Cold wire
feed is used for heavier materials but not for the thin ma-
terials.This application is shown in Figure 12-59.
Case Study: Automotive Front Cross Member Auto-
motive companies have scheduled model changeovers.
Changeover expense can be minimized by using robots
and dedicated holding fixtures rather than dedicated
welding machines. The product is an automobile front
cross member made from two heavy sheet metal stamp-
ings and miscellaneous smaller stampings.This assembly,
shown in Figure 12-60, requires 56 in. of intricate curved
welds. It Is first spot welded together and then arc welded.
The operation is completely automated, Including trans-
porting the workpiece from station. to station. The con-
veyor transports the workpiece under the positioner,
which lamps it and rotates it 1800 for welding position.
FIGURE12-57 Sheet metal assembly. Following the weld cycle, the finished workpiece is auto-
matically released onto the conveyor and transported to
the next workstation.
Case Study: Aluminum Gas Metal Arc Welding A
supplier to the defense Industry .t producing aluminum
louvered grill assemblies. The company selected a five-
axis robot With a flve-axl , double-ended, dual-station
work position ·r.The·pa:rts were self~jigging hut required
holding-fixtures to keep pirts In 'properaJignmellt. The
holding fixtures were attached to the turntables on each
endof the position r.The system uses a push-pull wire
feeding system with a water-cool d torch, Approximately
150 in. of weld is required to produ e each louver. Wjdl
the.r bot.weld quality has greatJyim.proved, warpage Wts
Pipe welded assembly.
been greatly . reduced , andT,;eodtlCtivitf ''bas itlcrease4
Welding these louvers is ,shown tn Fi8Ul'e l2~6f. .
tures on each nd of the turnaround po: Itlon r, An as- Buying a Welding Robot
sembly is shown in Figure 12-58. TIlls is a flange-to-T
'Welded assembly. Switching to robotic w<flding has in- .
cl'e}tsed produ tivity, since the 0pcratorsets '\.lPwork-
Pieces of various size and ty})es on one 'end of the
~ ntabl~j whit the robot is welding at th other end,
e robo('utlLizes th.rotl~h~the.arcseam tracklng, whlch
provides good quality for every weld, ven though fltup
FIGURE 12-59 Gas tungsten arc welding.
engineered to use continuous wire welding systems, gas

tungsten arc welding systems, or cutting or resistance
welding. Preenglneered robotic cells are available from
basic units with minimum size capabilities to complex
cells overing larger weldments.The advantage of the ro-
bot cell is that it can be installed and immediately will go
to work to produce your parts. Robot cells are engi-
neered with compatible equipment and built-in safety
devices that meet national standards. Robot companies
will also engineer special cells for your requirements, or
you can purchase the ne ssary parts to construct your
own cell for automated weldtng stations. When going
this route, it is. necessary that all components be
matched for the ultimate requirement. For the do-it-
yourself company it is recommended that you refer to
American National Standard ANSI/AWS D16.2, entitled
."Guidefo! Components of Robots and Automated Weld-
ing Installations," This document. appH s to the recom-
mended design, integration, installation, and use .of
industrial welding robotic and automatic systems; It irt~
eludes the various omponents such as the manipulator,
P wer sourc . torch accessories, wire feed system, and
FIGURE 1~...60 Auto front cross member. shielding gas system. It do s not ontain blfol.'mation
standardizing the control system, antral computer sys-
.rems.are qesignedand provided by the-manipulator pre· ,
",.robocsfiild'1tutolllnctic ax wedlng'quipOl enr. However, ~tlcerfor their parttcularmaehine, Enelt'cantl'Ol Sf tero
many;(obot~d.es repre tentartves and lntegrater anas- net control softwar system ar bas d on a particular
. $istY(j)lJin, sel cring th b st somtton for your automated m~nufacrur ris rob .t and may not be. compatible with
, . ><; weldfp,j p.rO:bleril; In'~#ner~lit titi.gllt be advant~geo'tlS to . ornercontrou rs. This problem is· bein.g c01ls1dered by·
, , '.l~ct ~ tf.eeng~l;le
. , red arc wIding robot II.Thes at the robot industry; in faCt,untv rsal robot controllers are
FIGURE12-61 Aluminum gas metal arc welding.
now aVailable for reworked robots and to provide uni- A copy should be obtained from the Robot Industries As-
formity throughout the entire factory. They may allow a sociation, and it should be followed.
llniversal programming system that will standardize the Robots work beyond their bas area and have large
pt'ogramming of' various makes.of robots. work envelopes that may ov rlap with adjacent machin-
. It is strongly suggested that the first robot Installs- ery. Th tmV' 1 speed is. fast, and r bots are multidirec-
tiOn be in th form of an integrated cell. It is important (0 tional, operating with as many as six or more axes.
make sure that the cell you order will perform the robotic Additionally; they start up suddenly and hange dire don
j . Welding on the products you manufacture. abruptlyduring motion.
Due to the varlabl nature of to bot appltcattons.spe-
ciflc safety hazards for ach installation must be studied
Robot Safety on an individual basis, FOr a robot to be tr\.lly effectiv .It :
~Obots were originally designed to dupli ate the job func- must maintain a high degre of flextbiHty.ThiS implies that
tlons or a human being. They were lesigued to relieve the working envelope 111USt be unrestricted to.allow fot
~um:~n.betngs of the drudgery of unpleasant, fatiguing 01' programs and path·~hanges.Robot.'i· work b :~twh:enihey
ep t-ttlve tasks and to remove t11 m from a potentially standwherea person One stood, n ~t() other people:
hfLZa.rdousenvironment. In this regal' 1,robots Can r pla e 'Unfortunately, a robot performing th sarm function a: ~
~ opl in th perforrnance of dangerous jobs and are con- human will 0 upymor spac t~hallthe human.The 1 rl-
~ld r d b n 'fichu for preventing industrial accidents. mar r safety rul ~is that the person and th rob ,CShOl.lld
iow v r, robots 11ve caused fatal a' idenrs. not occupy the same working spac lCIttlle sametitnc.Th
. Thcbe:st do utneflt ,fclatitlg to r bot safety is tbe nature of at' W Idulg Tequires~a penKi.t) tQll.edose td th ....
:xu.
II
rf:c.t11. Nati(mal 6.'tnndura rOf Industrial Robots lind

'rObo~ &'ysWtn.s-Safety Requir m(;ntS ANSI/IUA rU5\06."
l)f:gfatll.T6. remo 'e .
at'cwhile prog,t:anl,tnillg Of ~:na.lyZjt1~(n
the p rson ftom th at moea Unlits tb t'obot' 'fi lbllity·
hi standat'(j pro ld ~sguJd -lin s for industrial robots, It ' and a uracy. H 'ne Oll oJ the major 'p1'Oblem~ ~,S() i·
i)
cover$ l11anlilfacturing\remanufaclmlng. in~;ul'ltioni satl ~' at d wfth rol)o1i(tar·· weJdin~ ts'the pres~tL,e of tl,lmlni.\t)/,'·
gUarding,mafntenan c, t . ting, and tartup reqntremcilts. programmer it"} 1$' proximity to the weldlngtoJ:'hheJd
Control Water Welding
Cabinet Circulator Power
Source
Operator
Station
FIGURE 12-62 Layout of a robot cell with 1800 index

positioner .. ,
FIGURE 12-63 Robot cell with two shuttle index

by the robot. For small weldrnents, this is not a major prob- positioners.
lem. For very large weldments, the parts are heavy and a
completed weldment will require cranes for loading and
unloading.These introduce the normal problems of safety
with respect tomatertals handling. However, they also in-
troduce the problem of brtngtng heavy pieces of material
into tb robot's work envelope,
One of the best solutions for robot safety is to pur-
chase the robotae a complete welding cell, A complete
c 11iaclud $ barriers, all nee SS~ saf ty dey! es, and a
method, of loading and unloading the workstation. It is
best rased f'Ot the preductlou- of smaller weldments, In
general, a turntable, turnover, or shuttle device is used for FIGURE 12-64 Danger warning sign.
load ns .parts Ol,,'tslde the robot's work envelope. The
parts aee thenp!' sent d to the robotinsid the barrier
wh re f1'1' welding 1 'performed. After the weldjng is
c()rnplet~dJthe parts are then transferred to outstde the
, batfirtr. wher(: :thlZYilreunJ,oadedand ti&ntto th if next vice that presents ~dditional safctyhaza.ros,Tbis becomes
d ~ttnatiot1~F4dJfe 12~62"howsa pictprial View. of a to- a special engineered project.
, b()~cell wj,th'a rot~try 18011 Indexing tabl for the work- The robot industry has adopted special safety
$tatlotl.l'hh~ cell isfQr small w laments th~t 'an be loaded graphi s.Although these hav 11M yet been accepted as
and
. l,nload,~ d outsW the barrier. Different ind fixtures
' , a nanonal standard, they are used by many robot.suppli-
.ptu pe , en (qr, ~:rg,et: welum ilts.A rob tic welding cell ers. They should be posted at :appropriate locations. One
. kyO'tlt,'~lth·two pne\1l!liAtic i,U~g slwnle ppsitinners ~amjtlg sign that is agreed upon by all is shown In
. 1tl}tf, two robots' i$ sl\Own in Eig\lre 12-63. Work"hold ing rigt,if 12...64: OANGER-DO NOT ENTER--MACliIlNJ:!
·(l~vi. s can also b' _load.d and nnlbad d ~tutomat.ically,in iMAY STARTATAN'Y TI~E.l·hi5 should be posted at tlIe
':wlltf':h c~e t,b,eym~$twork With a matcr1at.motionde· cell access, Cloor.' .
12-8 CONTROLS FOR Automatic Welding Controllers
Programmers are designed to execute a welding program.
AUTOMATIC ARC WELDING As the welding program becomes more complex, the con-
When making a weld, it is always the intent to produce troller must include more electrical circuits.A typical pro-
a perfect weld. In any of the application methods, ex- gram for gas metal arc welding is shown in Figure 12-65.1t
cept manual welding, a control system is required to run can also be used for flux-cored arc welding or submerged
the welding program. A welding program is always em- arc welding.The top three lines represent welding current
ployed consciously or unconsciously whenever a weld (or wire feed speed) and arc voltage.The next two lines rep-
is made.The program or welding procedure is the basis resent auxiliary activities shielding gas and cooling water
for making the weld. In manual welding these are estab- flow. The bottom line represents travel or relative motion.
lished and controlled by the welder. In semiautomatic At the cycle start point, the operation begins and the
welding a control mechanism in the wire feeder actu- specific activities occur. First is preflow of shielding gas
ates electrode wire feed and starts the welding current and flow of cooling water. After a preset time period, the
and shielding gas flow when the welder presses the gun main contractor closes. The arc starts and the electrode
trigger. wire feed begins. Single-axis travel, rotary or linear, begins
Mechanized and automatic welding have more com- at this point or after a preset delay.Travel occurs until the
plicated programs and control additional functions, in- weld is completed, but many end at different points, de-
Cluding travel or motion, torch posltion, and fixture pending on the welding program. The travel or motion
motion. All motion functions are sequential. Adaptive control circuit includes a motor speed control circuit.
welding, which varies weld parameters in accordance When the weld is completed, there is time for crater fill
With actual conditions, has a complicated computer con- and time for burn back prior to terminating the weld.The
trol system that includes sensing devices and adaptive welding circuit contractor will open, the arc stops, but
feedback. shielding gas continues to flow during a preset postflow
FIGURE12-65 GMAW welding program.

WELDING CURRENT
r-----;.:::~~!!:-O-~~~C!.. ..__,
------' 1
ARC VOLTAGE
r-------K:. --- ....
-------------------- -----,
L-----
1-, '........
I
i'i----~
111 .
~----r~..
I ,..
CONTACTOR
'V'OP'E'N'
y I ,. z
I ,
I
'PU$HSTART
BUTTON !;.wuo ..
TRAVEL
r\
PEt,AY
TIME
period. At the end of this period, the shielding gas and • Crater fill current: the arc current value during
water-cooling valves close and the welding cycle is com- crater fill time.
pleted.The cycle can be made to repeat for arc spot welds • Burnback time: the time interval at the end of
or for skip welds, or it can only repeat when new pieces crater fill time to arc outage, during which elec-
are placed in the machine and the cycle is reinitiated. trode feed is stopped.Arc voltage and arc length in-
To fully understand a welding program, it is neces- crease and current decreases to zero to prevent the
sary to understand the terms used: electrode from freezing in the weld deposit.
• Prefkno time: the time between start of shielding • Downslope time: the time during which the cur-
gas flow and arc starting (prepurge). rent is changed continuously from final taper cur-
• Start time: the time interval prior to weld time rent or welding current to final current.
during which arc voltage and current reach a preset • Upslope time: the time during which the current
value greater or less than welding values. changes continuously from initial current value to
the welding value.
• Start current: the current value during the start-
time interval. • Postfloui time: time interval from current shutoff
to shielding gas and/or cooling water shutoff
• Start voltage: the arc voltage during the start-time
(postpurge).
interval.
• Weld cycle time: the total time required to com-
• Hot start current; a brief current pulse at arc ini-
plete the series of events involved in making a weld
tiation to stabilize the arc quickly.
from beginning of preflow to end of postflow.
• Initial current: the current after starting but prior
to upslope, The controller for running the program in Figure 12-65
is shown in Figure 12-66. Controllers of this type include
• Weld time: the time interval from the end of start
meters for arc voltage, for welding current, and some-
time or end of upslope to beginning of crater fill
times for electrode wire feed speed. It also includes pilot
time or beginning of downslope.
lights for other activities, such as an "arc on" signal to in~
• Travel start delay time: the time interval from arc dicate that the arc has been established. This type of con-
initiation to the start of work or torch travel. troller usually has input voltage compensation. and will
• Crater fill time: the time interval following weld compensate for welding cable voltage drops, and so on.
time but prior to burnback time, during which arc The controller includes motor speed control circuits,
voltage or current reach a pr set value greater or which accurately regulate the wire feed speed motor and
less than welding values. Weld travel mayor may not the travel peed motor. Time-delay Ircuits are included
stop at thts point. when ver a delay period is required.
FIGURE12-86 Welding controller for single-axis motion.

Other activities, such as welding head positioning ters may be required. As the number of axes increases,
and fixture clamping, can be included. A relay controller the amount of computer capacity must increase.
of this type can only provide one function at a time in a The machine tool industry introduced numerical
prearranged sequence. Two on/off functions can be si- controls (NC) years ago. Automatic shape cutting ma-
multaneous, and sequenced functions can be in rapid or- chines use the same type of controller for directing the
der.This type of controller does not have the capability to path of cutting torches. These are known as point-to-
ramp or gradually change the welding current during op- point (PTP) control systems. POUlts are locations in two
eration. This function is included, however, in controllers dimensions in one plane. For arc welding robots the arc
for gas tungsten welding and plasma arc welding. Adap- is moved from one point to the next in space. A typical
tive feedback signals cannot be accommodated with this robot arc welding controller is shown in Figure 12-67.
type of controller. Controllers of this type can be prepro- The location of the arc is known as the tool center point
grammed to provide specific delays for shielding gas pre- (TCP). The path of the TCP is programmed and stored in
flow and postflow time, travel start time, crater fill time, memory. For spot welding, pick and place, and machine
and burnback time.Welding current and arc voltage at dif- loading, point-to-point playback is used.
ferent levels can be preprogrammed, as well as the total For arc welding, playback of the arc motion is a con-
weld cycle time. This same type of programmer can be tinuous path in space.The robot controller must be COOf-
Used with limit or proximity switches, to use motion as a dinated so that each axis movement begins and ends at
Control base rather than time. the same time. The programmer's function is to accept
This controller can control more than one axis of the input of many point locations, relate welding param-
travel motion, and it has extra contacts so that it can con- eters to the path taught, and store this information in
trol other motions, such as fixture clamp and torch ad- memory, then play it back to execute a welding program.
vance. However, it cannot control coordinated or It is beyond the scope of this book to explain its inner
simultaneous motion of two or more axes. Motion must be workings; however, we will explain how it is used to
sequential so that one activity immediately follows the pre- make welds. The major points of interest are the teach
Vious one. Coordinated motion requires microprocessor- mode, memory, and playback or execution.
type Controllers.
Controllers are simple 01' complex, depending on
the number of activities that must be controlled. The one
Shown is for a semiautomatic wire feeder. A relay logic
FIGURE 12--67 Robot controller.
sYStem requires some operator skill because the control
prOvides the sequencing of operation but still requires
the operator to establish parameters, delays, and
decision-making capabilities to ensure a good-quality
Weld.
Controls and tuners can be standard or pr cision,
depending on the needs of the welding procedure pro-
gram. Tachometer feedback of wire speed and travel
peed motors can b included to provide fat more preci-
sion and repeatability. The more precise controller en-
sUres consistent high weld quality and repeatability.
'. Th weld control systems described are relatively
slrnple but are well SUited for many, many applications us-
ing at motion and work motion devices. They can be
uSed for standardfzed and dedicated automatic arc weld-
inS tUa.'Chines w~th not more than two.axes ofsitnultane·
Ous (t)ot coordinated) motion: Controllers such as those
mentioned here and more complex control units are
aVailable from dlft1 rent marmfactur rs. '
ROb0tControllers
For robotic arc welding systems, a much more complex
QnttoUel' is required. Controllers. include a high-speed '
rntCtopl'ocessot since oordillated,imultaneo-us-, connn-
Uou motion of up to eight axes and all welding param .
Teaching the Robot
There are at least four methods of teaching or program-
ming a robot controller: manual methods, walk through,
lead through, and off-line programming. The manual
method is not used for arc welding robots. It is used
mainly for pick-and-place robots.
The walk-through method requires the operator to
move the torch manually through the desired sequence
of movements. Each move is recorded into memory for
playback during welding. The welding parameters are
controlled at appropriate positions during the weld cy-
cle.This method was used in a few early welding robots.
The lead-through method is a popular way of pro-
gramming a robot. The robot welding operator accom-
plishes this by using a teach pendant (Figure 12-68). By
means of the keyboard on the teach pendant, the torch is
power driven through the required sequence of motions.
In addition, the operator inputs electrode wire feed speed,
arc voltage, arc on, counters, output signals, job jump func-
tions, and much more.All of these functions are related to
a particular point along the taught path. In this way, if the
robot speed is changed, it is not necessary to change the
time for certain actions to happen.This means that actions
FIGURE 12-68 Teach pendant.

The robot controller must have a diagnostic system The computer must have communication ports so
buitr in to allow a quick check when problems occur. that it can talk to the overall controller. The robot mem-
Most robot controllers offer other features, which may be ory should be selected based on the work to be done.
built in or optional. Linear and circular interpolation, Controllers allow feedback signals from various sensors.
mentioned previously, is important. Other features avail-
able as options could be:
Weld Execution
• Automatic acceleration and deceleration Welds can be made only when the power is on all com-
• Three-dimensional shift ponents, electrode wire is installed, and the controller is
• Simultaneous control of extra axes in the playback or operate mode.The material must be in
• Scale-up and scale-down the ftxture and ready. Pushing the start button will initiate
the operation. The robot will move the torch to the start
• Mirror image
point. The welding equipment will begin its cycle of op-
• Software weave
eration (i.e., gas preflow.start the arc,etc.).The robot con-
All of these are useful for an arc welding robot. The troller will determine that the arc has started and then
Software weave is very useful since it allows the robot start motion. Points along the taught path will initiate
to manipulate the weld pool like a human welder. It al- other activities programmed. At the end of the taught
lows a larger weld cross section and better bead contour path, the welding equipment will terminate the weld
and enables the weld to bridge gaps. Different patterns program and the robot controller will determine that the
can be programmed, from simple sideway oscillation to electrode wire has separated from the work.After this the
triangular patterns. This is taught in three steps. Fre- robot will. return to its home position, ready for another
quency of the weaving oscillation, amplitude, and dwell cycle.At this point the weld should be checked for qual-
at each end are taught. Once the weaving pattern is ity. The program should be checked and edited to Im-
taught, welding will continue through changes of path prove the weld if necessary and to minimize the air cut
in all planes without reteaching the weaving pattern. path and increase air cut speed.When the weld quality is
Other options include through-the-arc seam tracking acceptable and cycle time is at a minimum, it is time to
and other tracking functions. A thorough study of the freeze the program and start production.
robot is necessary to determine and learn what these
featllres include.
Off-line programming involves the preparation of
the program on a computer. An appropriate language
12-9 .SENSORS AND
tnust be used.The program is entered in 0 the robot mem- ADAPTIVE CONTROL
ory very quickly.TIlis increases the use of the robot, since
The ultnnate automated welding sySterp.wilI simulate the
lead-through teaching ties up the robot during program-
human welder and provide a closed-loop syst m that com-
tning. Off-line programming is becoming more widely
pensates for all.variations to produce a.h:lgh-quality Weld,
Used, but requires experienced personnel.
This is true adaptive control welding.The components of an
automatic welding system shown in igure 12-2 are
Robot Memory chang d to adaptive control as shown in Figure 1.2-:-69.
Adaptive control w~ding can be applledtd robotic'welding
The amount of memory of the controller is u ually indi-
systems or to complex automatic welding system.$, which
Cated by the number of steps and Instructions that can be
are open-loop systems until adaptrv control i~add ed, .
Progranuned with the number of axes Involved.Thts is of-
True adaptive control for automatic ot. fobotj
ten described as having a memory capacity of 2,200 steps
welding closes the loop .becatlse. cnsing devtc s can re-
and 1,200 instructions.Memory shouldhave at least 32K
place jhe human Qperatorforalmost very f}lt~ct1Qrir:.
bytes 'wttn battery backup. There should be a program ..
qulred, as shown in Figtlre ·12,.,1 111 the thf~ right..hatld
llting terminal With keyboard and screen displays in ad-
columns. In practice, however, sensors 'bou]cfbe 'prQ~
clition to th tea h pendant. .
vide I only for the functtons thr t require surv lllance'and
The controll r usually has one or more micro-
control .The number, of sens rs Indtcates the 1 vel Of com- '
proc· ssors. 'a. t r xe nitton, r sponse time to b tt r in-
pl ten 55 of a closed~loopsy tern.. ..
PUt/output control, and overall flexibility· is possible
W:tteotWP or ..ntQre processors arc_~sed. ContxoUer soft-
Two compoliellts must be added toa systCnl· to
provide ~oaptlve~ontrol:>' .. " .... .,
Ware that pt'ovides all the control features is stored ill
l1AM (random-ac' S51nemo y) and R M (read-only m. tn-
Q11"). Memory" an be expanded with e'S:ternal cass.ette
.tap St diskettes, 01' disk drives. ~tertl:a1. srofed imOflxUt ...
tJ.<)t) mtlst be read intO the RAM prioi' to ex cllti.on ..
MASTER COMPUTER CONTROLLER
r------I WELDING PARAMETERS, MOTION, FEEDBACK 1----,
AND READOUT MEMORY
FEEDBACK ELECTRODE WIRE

SENSORS FEED (CURRENT)
x
x
z Y
MOTION X,',?, Z eTC; MISC, FUNCTIONS

OF ARC AND WORKpIEce GAS, WATER, ETC. 1-----'
ON&QI=-"F
FIGURE 12-69 Adaptive control for an arc welding system.
Z. 'Sensing de vi es that provide real-time information drive or a tape drive should be included for making copies
. to qfl~s,eparameter changes
.. . of welding procedures or taking htstortc real-time data.The
robot controller should communicate wtth otherfactory
processors and fit the CAD equipment used. It should pJ:O-
Vide a warning alarm system that i adjustable for va riauons
in parameters if they exceed previously set t Ierances. '
Configuration editors should be included for differ~
ent procedures-and applications,TIle. ell should-have a
.color display monitor widl a touch-senstnve screen so thn.t
th operator can correct operations ea$ily and accurately:
11 controller should have a logl al m nu-driven program
With co! r icons and so md, wrttr n in plain English to
... lead the op rater through the weld procedure. Only se-
,lectiotlstbat make sn~e at.a gtven.time should be pre,:"
sent d to the operaror; If an 'error 0 ~curs,the controller
should sugg st olunons.Tne ontroll r memory should
.ontain hundreds of welding' s h· d rles in its Iibrary tt\;tt
C~ be-recalled and appli d as'r t[Ulred.'rhe· controller
shol.lJdallow procedures to b ch eked by the system fo-r
logical consistency before the actual weld is made. Pass-
Word routines should be used to allow a procedure to be
viewed but changed only by personnel with the authority
to do so. A lightweight portable pendant with a single con-
nector to the main processor console should be provided.
The pendant should contain an emergency stop button,
individual trim knobs for each weld parameter.jog buttons
for each motion axis, wire feed, and subroutines. It should
have a display screen that displays messages and actual
Weld parameters. The programmer controller should be
able to gather data on all activities, provide printouts of
procedures and parameter values, and so on. Printouts
should provide the date, time, operator identification,
Weld procedure, and part identification. Programmers
should be sufficiently flexible that the operator working
at the main menu can touch the screen and review the
Welding procedure or select a new one from the library. It
shOuld be possible to make a dry run to determine the pro-
cedure without the arc on. The operator's pendant, which
displays parameter values, can be used to modify and con-
trol the Weld.The master robot controller should be able
to Communicate with other computers in the factory.Two
tyPical modern controllers are shown in Figure 12-70.
The other components necessary for adaptive con-
trol are Sensors. A sensor is a device that determines or
meaSUres a function in real time during the welding oper-
ation. Sensors are used to determine actual conditions so
~hat the welding procedure can be modified if necessary.
fhey provide signals that are used to modify the motions
of the arc as well as for changing welding parameters. Feed-
back of sensor variations causes the adaptive controller to
change parameters and travel path to produce a quality
Weld despite problems that may be encountered. Sensors
close the loop and make truly automatic welding possible.
A variety of sensing devices are commercially avail-
able. Special software or a special computer may be re-
qUired to match a sensor to the robot controller. New and
hnproved ensors are continually being developed, with'
their 'Use becoming more Widespread. '
Contact Sensors
The two major categoric of sensors for seam tracking
are the Contact tactile) and the noncontact, Tactile sen-
~s have been used for joint-tracking for many years.
lhey range from 'stmpl mechanical systems to complex
~lectriea]-mecha,ll:ical contacting ensor .rne Implest
~lnl track r is a sprlng-loaded roll r With a floating
FIGURE 12-70
Welding tor h. The roller fits against a reference surface
, and causes the head to rnatntain a spe 'tfio dtmenstonal
, relationship wlthtll¢ jotn,t.The head will follow the mo-
tiollS gert rated by the roller. ' ,
l' Th I ctrom 'hal'll at system is more versatile. Ill,
~;tS. YRt ln,a wheel or a stylUS probe wlu contact the sur-
7
tl e,Wh~tbcan.be the plate surface, the edge of a groove,
re c~g of a :joint, or strntlar surfa ,and provide a,signal
on physical characteristics of materials or energy output
relationships, (2) through-the-arc systems that use elec-
trical signals generated in the arc, and (3) optical-visual
systems that attempt to duplicate the human eye.
Acoustics can be used to control the length of a gas
tungsten arc and the standoff distance for laser heads.
The sound energy is linearly proportional to arc voltage.
An acoustical waveguide close to the arc leads to a mi-
crophone. The signal is amplified, filtered, and rectified
and is used to control the torch movement and thus to
control the standoff distance and the arc length. It is used
for pulsed current gas tungsten arc welding and for laser
cutting.
Capacitance is the property used by some proxim-
ity switches. The capacitance limit switch has been used
in automatic equipment for years. It can be adjusted for
different distances. It is also used to detect the presence
or absence of material, such as if a clamp is closed or not.
Eddy currents are currents set up in the base metal by
an adjacentAC field that is generated by a coil located close
to the base metal. Another coil acts as the pickup and de-
tects the eddy current, Electronic circuitry produces a volt-
age dependent on the distance from the base metal. The
FIGURE 12-71 Electromechanical contact-type seam
output changes when a joint interrupts the metal surface.
tracker.
The sensor is oscillated across the joint to produce control
signals, which are processed to give the POSition of the joint
the correction signal. The probe must be sufficiently dis- centerline. Different types are required for ferrous metal
tanced from the arc to prevent spatter buildup.Tack welds and for nonferrous metal. Thickness is not a major factor.
and the Start and end of welds pose a problem. This type This sy tern is for noncontact seam-tracking systems.
of equipment is not suited tor robotic arc welding. Inductance 0.1' induced current in the base metal
The distance from the arc to the sensing location can can be detected and measured and used for seam track-
pose a problem for a mechanical probe or wheel.If the dis- Ing, In this case the sensor contains two coils, which scan
ranee is too great.deviattonscan occur.ff it is too short, the the seam and provide signals t11.1.t give information on the
arC'w.illInrerfere wfth the probe and cause rapid wear and location of the joint.This is similar to the eddy current sys-
deterioration. These systems arc not able to accommodate tem. The sensor must be at a given distance above the
abrupt :ehanges of<Urectlon at welding speeds, base metal and placed ahead of the arc because of its sen-
A d:ifi:er nt type of, touch system is employed in sitivity to heat and spatter.
COlljtJtlc~jonwfth tbl'()uglHhe~;trc tmcldng·systems for a Infrared radiation can be picked 1.1 p by sensors that
robot.l'l'l.is .system uses the .electf.'ode wlre, which pro- are used for penetration control.The infrared sensor is ro-
trudes beyo.nd the' current pick\lptip, as tbe contact.The cusedon the underside of the weld pool to detect th
robot. is progntmmed to move the cl ~ctrod' wire and olor of th metal under the weld. This system's accuracy
.touch' thf; wQtk ell;tt/ace' t diJJfirent points to determine is subject to surface conditions and exact target location.
t1~ locaticm ot the start of the joint. It an al~o b pro- It is no. considered extrem ly r liable as a, penetration
grammed~ to .lle~e the 'Weld ,geometrY and estabii h control system and has limited applications.
c·.ttteBj~e ···~~eweldgfoQve,I'tus.acoJlll'lex:motlon sys-' Through·the"arc Beam trackJng is a nonconract sys-
.tem.l')u$ 'CQtni)ut~t:!drhl1~ system may employ an expert tem with many advantages; It does notneed accessory
. yst "'m·Witlntm,emoty. It is capabl¢Qf sensing the joint iterns attached to the torch. It is a real-ttme system that can
pad in· tlr~ • d m flsions and storing it in memory. Tb b U ed .for most types of welds. M nitortng oc urs while
aJ ulation -0£ til w lei joi nt d tail in connect} m with the the weld is being m;tde.'fher are c eral typ fthrougb-
_,: .1', rf;da~lb~ willestabJiS:!1, ft new w lding ptoce<lure the<'MC syst ms· and th. y Il1 used. both when m.et:aJ
i"~p,dmo~fy'tbe,w' ,1(Jink pa~4eters; crOsscittue arc and .w11enmetal dQ snQt CfOSSthe~rc,
.' "-:,:',~ ~~; .-:-' . " ; . The earliest through·th_e~arc Bensing system was tbe
atc lengtb <';olltrol system fir g{s tungst"fl aTC we1t11ng.
Such a ;yst m is called an art; VOltage controf. (AVG)
sys.tem;hQweVe~ (,~relengtl:r controli)'i it more appr0:pti~ .
at nam .The starting m .chani~m of some Ave system
operates such that when the cold tungsten electrode Optical-visual sensor systems are based on an analy-
touches the work, it initiates the arc and immediately sis of the manual welding operation, which states that the
withdraws to the preset voltage. Arc length control sys- welder derives the bulk of the information required to
tems are very reliable and are widely used. make a high-quality weld through visual i.nput. Optical-
The major use of through-the-arc systems is for visual systems provide real-time signals for fully auto-
seam tracking. The welding torch is oscillated and the mated arc welding. Optical-visual systems find the seam,
arc voltage and/or welding current are monitored be- follow it, and identify and define the joint detail so that
fore and after each oscillation. Mechanical oscillation is welding parameters can be adjusted to produce a high-
nOrmally used, but magnetic oscillation can be used for quality Weld. Optical-visual systems are extremely fast
~as tungsten arc welding but not for gas metal arc weld- and do not become fatigued. However, they are extremely
lUg.Through-the-arc systems can be used for fillet or complex.A system flowchart is shown in Figure 12-73.
groove welds. Figure 12-72 illustrates the principle of Optical-visual systems have overcome the problem
Operation. Control circuits measure the voltage and/or of viewing different colors and surfaces=-bnght, rusty,
current and reference the Jeft- and right-hand values to smooth, rough-that tend to confuse the sensor.They can
equalize them. The control circuit moves the torch to pick up a very small joint in thin material, even when the
the center point between the two equal points.This ad- joint separation is minimal. Many optical-visual systems
justs the path automatically. This system also has a cor- are operating successfully, but no single system can be
ner recognition mode that alJows tracking around a 900 applied universally to robotic welding applications. Dif-
change of direction and is capable of sensing the joint ferent systems are designed for particular applications.
path in three dimensions. It can be used with all modes The image to be viewed can be the weld joint
of nletaI transfer. Welding speeds of up to 40 in./min ahead of the are, the arc itself, the weld pool under and
0,025 rum/min) can be attained. Oscillation can vary behind the are, or the light generated by the arc.The im-
from 1/8 in. (3.2 mrn) to 1 in. (25 nun), and the fre- age selected depends on the viewing area and how it is
quency is from 1 to 4~ Hz. The controls can be inte- lighted. The image can be picked up by means of a TV
grated into the controller. The final pass of a groove camera as shown in Fig'W'C12-74 or by photodiodes
Weld is attained by using the previous passes to estab- arranged in a matrix array'Ihe pickup method affects the
lish the torch path in memory. This system can be cou- image dispJay and processing system. Two images are
pled With the electrode contact system mentioned usually required. In some cases, images are triangulated
preViously,where the electrode wire is used to find and to determi.ne the exact location. Fiber optics Is used to
measure the weld joint. If the root opening or gap in the transmit the image to the camera. TIle angle of viewing
groove joint is excessive, the machine can be pro-
gl<\mmedto select a different procedure from the mem-
ory bank and make alternate layers for each layer rather FIGURE12~73 Block diagram of visual guidance
than a single pass. system.
MASTER CONTROlLEA:
WelDING SYSTeM
FIGURE12-72 Through-the-arc guidance system. ICE!..L CONTAOLt.ER) .
ARTifiCIAl.. ..
INTELLIGENCe ..... -I!Ioi ADAPTive
DATA BANK CONTROl.
FIGURE12-76 Image displayed on cathode ray tube.
is sometimes augmented by a beam from another direc-

tion, to facilitate triangulation for precise positioning.
The image from the pickup device must be processed to
provide a display. Digitizing the image is normal.
The most common image display device is the
FIGURE12-74 TV camera to pick up image. cathode ray tube, as shown by Figure 12-76. Image analy-
sis requires the use of high-speed microprocessors. It also
requires an extremely complex program to analyze all the
data received and put them into a useful form so that the
TV CAMERA
image can be used to make real-time changes based on
variations in the weld.
Adaptive control systems require an interface be-
tween the sensor and the robot controller. It normally
uses a database and an expert system to provide weld pa-
rameters when conditions change. The complete system
will provide the necessary Input and close the loop to
produce the perfect weld.
Each optical-vision system has advantag s and diS-
advantages. Bach-system is \.1 eful for certain applications.
The following is a brief Ust of optical-visual systems:
• Reflecting light with the photodiode pickup
FJIlURE 1277:5 Structured Iight for seam tracki ng. • Viewing the w lding arc With a TV camera
• Viewing the molten weld pool either through the
, torch or adjacent to the torch
• Viewing the joint ahead of the arc
• La: er range-finding techniqu s (rasterlng)
pttcal-vtsual sensing systems are condnually being lm- ,
proved and are being morewldely llsed £<)1: automated aec
welding applications.
The onorntcs of sensors must be considered
Only Ct1SQ s need ct to detect a r peatable p:roblen1
.shoul t be used.Por examplc1in l+Stiti:ple weldm n ,'iftllC
plece parts are alway made a' urately and holdtng dc--..
vices are accurate, there is no need for a seam follower. If
the location of the equipment, tooling, and piece parts
are always accurate, there is no need for a seam-finding
sensor. The more sensors involved, the more expensive
and potentially troublesome the system becomes. Sen-
sors must be small, robust, and durable.They must be able
to withstand the hostile envirorunent near the arc. They
must be easy to connect to the controller. They must im-
mediately and routinely send a correction signal to the
COntroller for immediate weld parameter correction.
The more commonly used systems are the elec-
trode touch system for finding the joint combined with
through-the-arc system for seam tracking. An optical-
visuaJ system is used for seam tracking when welding
With GMAW:A system for maintaining the torch-to-work
(standoff) distance with feedback from a capacitance sen-
SOr is used for laser cutting (see Figure 12-77).The robot
COntrol system must accommodate the different types of
sensors.The selected system should fit the work.
12- 10 TOOLING AND FIXTURES

A weldment is all assembly of piece parts. Automated as-
Sembly should be anticipated in the future. Parts should be
designed so they can be inserted with a straight-line up-
and-down motion. Robots with appropriate grippers will
be Used to as emble weldment parts in the properly de-
Signed holding fixture. If specific welds must be made prior
t~ adding another piece part, consideration should be
given to building the weldment in subassemblies and using
a final welding operation to combine th$! subassembli s.
Fixturing for weldments should be coengineered
by the product designer and the fixture designer. The
Weldment design should allow assembly of the weldment
~n a base with additional parts added to the top side,Self-'
J~ggingshould be incorporated if at all possible. The addi-
tlOo. of parts after a welding operation should be held to
an absolute minimum.' FIGURE 12-17 Terch-to-work distance for laser.
Both designers must take into consideration and an- cutting.
ti. iPate shrinkage and warpage inh rent to weldments.
When a weld cools, it shrinks and this causes warpage. One
advantage of roboetc welding is that distortion wUl north time- on uming hand layout wet tack welding of
~allybe more uniform because the robot makes the weld parts. With m.anualwelding, jf a .uificiellt number ..of
~ ~lesame sequence every.ttme'The designer shculd an.. weldments were' made; the cost. of the '~ure_wouldbe
tlC.tpat the pattern In which the welds will b made and recovered qllickLy due to the elimination of the set\;lJi
a.ttenlpt to balance welding to minimize warpage. The and tack weJding 'Operation: The fixture also incl:eas 1
'W tIt-hOlding fixture for arc welding must a curately 10- theaccuracy of the w ldment by eliminatit'lg the errors
cat. and hold the compom nt parts of the weldrnent in that could Q cur during the. setup operation. With $e .
th tr proper locanon for welding. It must locate the joints advent of mechanized, automated, or:robQii arc weld ..
a CUt:atelyatldtl,lllintain tile correct tItup. It speeds up the lug} the lldvantages of tlXtul~es becatlt(:;,evep.m,~re. P.rn~,:_
ope1'atioQ and improves the dimensio:riaJ. accura y of the nounced, ;,Efficient fii~utes alJow unattended weltJ,bl{(· ~,"
;-eklO) m.1'here are many types of welding flxtUt'cs. and On 'e the pMts at in Ul .'.fi:x1:u~'eand tt \$ prol e~Jylo-
. ~r are mnny rnSOllS for mpl y:lllg them. . .cated~the aqt:omat 4. or rob ticw·ldiJiS.pFo S1\!. 'Cat).~.
'1' - rigumlly, weldingJixt1lreS were used for mauui!f start and opei-ati' . 1tb0t:tt of:> ervation) rilOtlitot1ilS, Qr' ....:
s It 1 cd III tal arc w >lding stick wcldi.ng) to eliminate sup l' isi
It is important to keep the fixture in operation as tachment and easy removal. Clamping might not be nec-
much of the time as possible to quickly recover its cost. In essary if the worktable of the positioner remains hori-
addition to the savings provided by the elimination of the zontal. Attention must be given to the positioner's weight
layout operation, productivity is greatly increased because capacity, which must also include the fixture.
fixtures can be loaded and unloaded while the welding In contrast to the previous information, keep in
machine is malting welds. Arc-on time is much higher, run- mind that extremely simple work-holding devices can be
ning as high as 90%. It also improves the safety of robotic made quickly and will pay back after being used for a few
welding since double-ended indexing positioners are nor- batch runs of production. These fixtures can be built
mally used. Two fixtures are placed on the indexing posi- around a finished weldment. Assuming that the weld-
tioner, which can rotate to position one fixture inside the ment is dimensionally accurate, the parts produced in the
welding cell, and the operator remains on the outside of fixture will be accurate. Fixtures used for manual welding
the cell unloading and loading the other fixture. can be upgraded for automatic welding. They must be
There are basically two types of fixtures used for ro- properly identified, stored, and called up again for the
botics arc welding: (1) those used for tack welding parts next production run of the same part. This keeps the au-
together, and (2) those that hold the weldment during the tomatic welding system running at full capacity, pays
complete welding operation.The second type, sometimes back quickly, and produces good-quality weldments.
called strongbachs, are heavier and more robust than It is essential that the weldment and the fixture pro-
tacking flxtures.They are used to hold the parts, maintain vide accessibility for the welding gun to make the n.eces-
accurate alignment, and resist warpage of the weldment. sary welds. It may be necessary to redesign the fixture or
The work-holding fixture is customized for each weld- weldment to allow weld location. This is why coengi-
ment. It is unique and must be reworked if the design of neering is essential.
the weldment is changed. Fixtures are normally purchased from a fi:xture
For automated or robotic arc welding, the work- builder or system company. The fixture builder or de-
holding fixture is placed on an indexing positioner. This signer should be selected based on experience of build-
provtd s operator safety and increased productivity. Each ing similar types of fixtures, Responsibility must be
end of the positloner may have two. axes of motion, such established and accepted. There must be complete un-
as hortzontal-vertlcal and/or tilt motion, which can be in- derstanding of the entire project by the fixture user and
tegrated by the controller, This allows the fixture and the the fixture producer. This is best accomplished in a
work to move so. that the welds can be made in the flat meeting of the weldment designers, the welding pro-
posltion and also maintains accessibility for the welding duction department, and the fixture designer or pro-
tor h.111e work-holdlng device on each end of an index- ducer. It is necessary to agree Qn the productivity
ing positioner need not be for the same weldment.The ro- expected from the fixture, which would include welding
bot can be programmed to weld different products on time cycle, load time, unloading time, the annual quan-
th two ends of the poslttoner.The exception to. this prac- tity required.and the production IQt size.The result is an
ttce is when rotary tables ate used for loading, moving the agreement with all concerned to obtain the desired fi:x-
work to the welding sration, and moving th weldment to. ture at a r asonable price. Written specification ar of-
die unload station; in this case the flxtur must be for the ten used.
sam weldment. It is necessary to provide information concerning
Th - time required for unloadlng a finished weld- the weldment and its weight and size. If possible, shoW
m nt, loading the next weldment's piece parts, properly the exact weldm nt or a similar w ldrnent to the fixture
locating th m, and clamping them must be tess thanthe d signer. It is necessary to. agree on the dimenstonal tol-
rc welding time for eltherw Idrnent.Thls allows the op- erances that will be permitted. Show the dtmensiens and
erator lin'l for insl,eCting and moving material. The total indicate which are critical and which are not.Thls allows
tUne' f.rarn beginrun.g to. load parts unloading th weld- to the designer to determine how- every piece part must be
m ilt is:thc f~lctO:rthat det rtnines the rQoot system's pro- located and held, bow ffi1.:l h distortion an be allowed,
-.auction rat .Indexing foout' s hang the Index position. and h w much material is a]]Qwed for finish mac!J.hUl1g·
.whellb stru t -d. by heopcra.tor. rather than by the ptO- At th sam time, it is worthwhile to revlew previous fix·
gr.ltn of tile Tapot . '- tures pro.duced by the desIgner and prQdu cr,
G~ocl-tinl\Pis 1;eqtlJre. to, obtaitllitgh,quallty welds. The welding process to be used must be specilleo, as
'--'Pbsi~etif,be'io9 opetiing relatest;othe speed of welCh Well -asthe size anq type of eacb weld, the p0sItion o!we1-d·
ing.t th' -foot ()pcnlns l~ ex; esslv ,th root P~lSSwtll tog ea b joint, tn.e. type of work motion devi e thac wUl be
.pti~il:tbrOllgh, reS1.Jhingilt the ne 'd to sewQrk the jo.int. LIS el, tbe wo 'k cJl1elop of the 9-t1ipm nt or robot that is
,;Tbe:ril~c <BaJ't;-&hQl.lkH),rcitutCle.," f;ten a third type'of . contemplated, tb.e·type ofweldiog gun:oJ,'torch\and,dJ;c
.tlx: tlr 1811$ dto ~tttah the tack welded weld.tn n to thP decj$ioll wh ther ml.lltiplc~pass welds Will be ~eqllir d.
. .POSitt .rier t, ble t llOld' it in the. proper .10 atiOll fO:1.'11 .'11'0. ve weldsvc.:sus fill t welds sh \.lIdal 0 be diScl.lSaed,
.. ·.r6boticpr graro~Itca;n~$O pe us d. tQ facilitateql-li k at~ along With the weld de~flihiaod _weld'll1 litY eX1.>ected.
- "_, - .~:,'- ..: :":, -'·~'f~-'-_ .c::,~ ~,.;. . - \ _'" . -
c--t,,'i<':'}( .2' .._). ~o <-
3£t ',~{;;
t!8~~rliR '12,
It is also desirable to indicate the target budget al- proven. This is done by making weldments with the
lowed for the fixture.Welding fixtures are expensive and mechanized equipment; the resultant weldment must
can represent up to 50% of the total cost of the automatic meet the speciftcations.
welding cell.The fixture designer and producer should be In view of this process, particularly on complex
able to provide an estimate of the fixture's cost. Speclfi- welding fixtures, complete trust must be established and
cations should be understood and agreed to by all parties. responsibility accepted. Both parties must be satisfted.As
Also, it is worthwhile to enter into a design-and-build con- the weldments become more complex, the fixture be.
tract between the parties. This would identify the fixture comes more complex, and the cost goes up accordingly.
and weldmenr and finalize the speciftcations. The prelim- Weld fixtures or work-holding devices should be designed
inary design should be reviewed and approved by the and built by people with experience. Properly used, fix-
buyer. The fixture should then be manufactured and tures will pay for themselves quickly.
QUESTIONS p
12-1. What are the advantages of automatic arc welding? 12·11. What are the popular types of robots?
12-2. Explain the man-machine relationship in arc welding. 12-12. What is a popular application for robotic spot welding?
12-3. What is an arc motion device? Name different types. 12-13. What is the robot work envelope?
12-4. What is a work motion device? Name different types. 12-14. How many body axes does a jointed robot have?
12-5. Discuss standardized arc welding machines. Name 12-15. How many wrist axes can a robot have?
different types. 12-16. Discuss coordinated motion in a robot and in a robot
12·6. What is a dedicated automatic arc welding machine? and positioner.
12·7. What product was welded on the first dedicated arc 12-17. What types of products can be welded on a robot?
welding machine? Give examples.
12·8. What is lot size? What is the difference between job 12-18. What is the disadvantage of a touch seam follower?
shop, batch, and mass production? 12-19. Explain how a through-the-arc sensor works.
12-9. What machine provides for flexible manufacturing of 12·20. What is coengtneertngr Why' is this desirable when
weldments? d signing a new product to be robot welded?
Define a robot.
OUTLINE
In the United States, the American Welding Society
'rypes ofWeldin~ Consumables
provides filler metal specifications, They are approved by
~5..2' " C?veted:Ele?t(Ode~ ANSI (the American National Standards Institute) and have
l3':'S.: 5oltd·.Electtode Wb;es become an American national standard. The American So-
"la ...4' , C-oreo lilectrode Wires ciety of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) in its "Pressure Ves-
• 13~S"',PacIiaging':~f Electto~te Wites sel and Boiler Code" issues filler metal specifications that
13 ...6 'Welding ,Fluxes. are identical to AWS specifications.ASME adds the prefix
letters SF to the specification number.
13"'7 OtherWeldillg Mated~s ,
In Canada, the Canadian Standards Association
(CSA) issues filler metal specifications that are in general
agreement with theAWS specifications. However, Canada
13..1 TYPES OF WELDING has switched to the metric system, and the famillar AWS
CONSUMABLES specifications using E60XX, E70XX, and so on, which are
related to the pounds per square inch strength levels, no
There are many types of materials used when making longer apply. The Canadians changed the ksi two digits to
,welds. These welding materials are generally categorized a three-diglc number standing for the tensile strength in
under th term flller metals, defined as the metal to be MPa (megapascal).The three-digit classtricatton number js
added In making a welded, brazed, or soldered joint, The slightly lower than the minimum megapascal strength re-
filler metals are u ed or consumed and become a part of quir ment. The CSA also shows the diameter of the core
th finished weld. The definitton has been expanded and wire and the length in milllmeters.Th anadians have is-
now in Iudes electrodes considered nonconsumable sued additional categories or classifications of covered
. such as tungsten and carbon, and fluxes for brazing, sub- electrodes. These are described in detail in the C A fiUer
mer d ar welding, and electroslag welding. The term m tal specifications shown in Table 13...2.
filler metal do s not Include electrodes us d for resist---.. In Europe, the European Committee for Standard-
anc W 1"i08, nor does it include the studs involved in ization EN) is working toward standards hannonlzs ..
stud wIding. ' . ion. The committee is providing Burop an Community
,"; rhe, Americlln, Welding Society has issued 31 speci- . GEe) standards' that will replace the Indlvtdual St.11lc41JctS
v . :fjcatiout; ,coveting fJUer:.materials (Table 13...1).This table of each of the 18 member states of the European Com-
also. shows the w Iding proc S8 fo.r whi h ach specui- munity and the European Free Trade ASSOCiation (b"FTA).
C~fjon.is intended. T,pes.e spectficaticn« are p riodicaUy n e th ~8e ate camp) ted, the British, German, French,
I.lP l~t, d. a.rid ~ two~diglt sufflxlndt atln.g the ye~ issued and other European cou'ntri s wUl discontinue publish-
l$.add.d to th sp clfi atioll number, Addltiol1al sp eifj· ing spe Uk standards for welding consumables.
c~tj9~ are. Ld,dfrdm,tiJ;net~) }jroe. ,,'.', The International Standards OrganiZatignOSO} also
" ",' Most '6f the .,tnc:h,k~rial cQ~U1tties iSSl1e fillel~ metal issues filler metal specifications. Many oftbe1ess industri"
~;pc' ttl att 11$,"" . Off lntion. of naHonal fiU 'r metal speci- allz d nations 'use speCifications of the jndustriaU~cd
,tlCtHio:qs is 110W\1 in Tabl 13-2, ' cQuntri s or ISO standards.The ISO standards are awiJable
':~~ .., "
TABLE13-1 AWS FILLER METAL SPECIFICATIONS AND WELDING PROCESSES
AWS
Specification Specification Title OAW SMAW SAW' Other
A5.I Carbon-steel covered arc welding electrodes x
A5.2 Iron and steel gas welding rods x
A5.3 Aluminum and aluminum alloy arc welding x
electrodes
A5.4 Corrosion-resisting chromium and chromium- x
nickel-steel covered welding electrodes
A5.5 Low-alloy-steel covered arc welding electrodes x
A5.6 Copper and copper alloy covered X
electrodes
A5.7 Copper and copper alloy welding rods X X PAW
A5.8 Brazing filler metal BR
A5.9 Corrosion-resisting chromium and chromium- X X X PAW
nickel bare and composite metal cored and
standard arc welding electrodes and rods
AS.IO Aluminum and aluminum alloy welding rods X X X PAW
and bare electrodes
AS.II Nickel and nickel-alloy covered welding X
electrodes
A5.I2 Tungsten arc welding electrodes X PAW
A5.13 Surfacing welding rods and electrodes x X CAW
A5.I4 Nickel and nickel alloy bare welding rods and X X X x PAW
electrodes
A5.I5 Welding rods and covered electrodes for x X CAW
welding cast iron
A5.I6 Titanium and titanium alloy bare welding rods X X PAW
and electrodes
A5.I7 Bare carbon steel electrodes and fluxes for X
submerged arc welding
A5.I8 Carbon steel filler metals for gas shielded arc X X PAW
. welding
A5.19 Magnesium alloy weldin~ rods and bare X X PAW
electrodes
A5.2Q Carbon steel electrodes for flux-cored arc FCAW
welding
A5.21 Compostte surfacing welding rods and X X X
electrodes
A5.22 Flux-cored corrosion-resisting chromium and FCAW
chromium-nickel steel electrodes
A5.23 Bare low-alloy steel electrodes and fluxes for
submerged arc welding
x
A5.24 Zirconium and zirconium alloy bare welding x x PAW
rods and electrodes
A5.25 Ccnsumables used for electroslag welding of E:S
carbon and high-strength low-alloy steels
A5.26 Ccnsurnables used for electrogas welding X
of carbon and high-strength low-alloy .(EG)
steets :
Ao,27 Copper and copper alloy gas welding-rods ·X
A5.28 Low-alloy steel filler metals for gas shielded x· x
arc welding
1\6.29 Low-aHoy-steel flux-cored welding electrodes
A6,aOConsllmable inserts
~.3I Fluxes for brazing andbraze welding
alf~ . .
GTAW Is shown. the specttlcations will also apply to 'PAWeven though. not stated.
TABLE 13-2 NATIONALSPECIFICATIONS
(INTERNATIONAL
FILLERMETALSPECIFICATIONS
ANS IFS CROSSREFERENCE
LIST)
United United
States Canada International Kingdom. Germany Japan U.S. Military
Filler Metal Type AWS CSA ISO BS DIN JIS ·US·MfL
Covered electrodes A5.1 W48.1 670 639 1913 Z3210 E-15599

Mild steel R635 +1719 Z3211 E-22200
547
Low-alloy steel A5.5 W48.3 1045 2493 1913 Z3212 E-22200/1
1719
Stainless steel A5.4 W48.2 2926 8556 Z3221 E-13080
E-22200/2A
Surfacing A5.13 8555 Z3251 E-19141
For cast iron A5.15 1163 8573 Z3252
Aluminum A5.3 1616 1732 E-15597
Copper A5.6 1733 E-13191
E-21659
Nickel A5.11 1736 E-21562
Bare, solid A5.9 1159 2901 8556 Z3321 E-19933
Stainless steel R-5031
Steel A5.17 4165 Z3311 E~18I93
A5.I8 W48.4 1453 8559 E-23765
Flux-cored steel A5.20
A5.23 W48.4 E-24403
from the welding or standardization association of each tions, which are voluntary conformance standards. It is up
country.AWS provides an "International Filler Metal Spec- to the manufacturer of the filler material to guarantee that
ification Cross Reference List;'AWS-IFS. the product conforms to a specificAWS specification and
Filler metals can be classified into four basic cate- classificatlon.AWS provides charts showing comparison
gories.Theseare: of brand names.AWS also provides "Filler Metal Procure-
ment Guidelines" A5.0J.
1. Covered electrodes
AWS also has available a CD, "The Filler Metal Data
2. Solid (bare) electrode wire or rod Manager," which lists suppliers of filler metals, compari-
3. Fabricated (tubular or cord) electrode wire son charts, and specificattons,
4. Flul':es for welcUng
The AWS specifications are written to provide spe-
c.ific chenu al composition of the material and the me-
Weld Metal Certifications
I
cbanical properties of the deposited weld metal. The For special applications. filler metals are tested and certi-
AWS specifications use similar methods and testing fied to be in conformance with a specific specification. In
. t chmques so that thee is consistency between all of some cases, filler metals to be used for ships. nuclear re-
the filler metal specifications.The m chantcal propertles actors, vessels, highway bridg s, and certaln milttary
of deposit d weld metal are determined based on a stan- pr ducts require certification. For military construction,
dardiz<:d 'W Idlngprocedure, in a sp cOOedwelding joint \ approvals are granted when the specific electrodes all in
d~taU,to ptoduc;e weld specimens for testing. Speciflca- ' .conformance with the applicable military specification.
dOli! may 3,1$0 .reqmre ,lither properties, such as tough- Tests of this type are usually witt).ess4 bra government
.:tress,'qual{ty standards,and, In some cases, sta.pdards of Inspector approved products are then placed on. a Q1,\IaIi~
pOtoslty. Most spetfica:tions include usabtltty factors fled product. list (QPL). .
, showing the weldihg posltton for whtch the el trade Approval of flll r metals' or hip <.i nstruetion is stm-
.or tillet metal is d. signed. the welding current that .iJar.Aclasstrlcatlcn society, such as the American Bur au
'~hbmd be used, 'atidmthe casco! cov red electrodes, of Shipping,! quires that one of its representatives, call¢d
.":'·the 'r.ype'ofcoaUng. 'Size an . packaging information is a .mrveyCJ1', witness tb .welditlg .ot test plates using elec-
, also' prQ"(1.ided, trodes lected at random, The surveyor also Witnesses
Tn, Ameri all Weldin l' So [ ty does not test or ap- the t sttng oftt ewcld s1' clmensiGJassit1ca.tion soci tid
ptOy¢.t'lller:··tnJ:ttlL~. Tbe .~ociety pt()vlCl s the specifica .. may bave speciat mechanical l?rOp rty rcquitementS;
these usually include low-temperature impact data. Ap- pIes of metallurgy, chemistry, and physics, tempered with
provals are granted for different filler materials based on experience.
strength and impact requirements and for welding differ- The original purpose of the coating was to shield
ent classes of steels for ships. The classification society the arc from the oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere.
publishes lists of approved electrodes and filler metals It was subsequently found that ionizing agents could be
manufactured by different companies. Retention of the added to the coating to help stabilize the arc and made
filler metals on the approved list is subject to annual tests. electrodes suitable for alternating current welding. It was
Filler metal approvals include covered electrodes, sub- found that silicates and metal oxides helped form slag,
merged arc electrode wire with flux combinations, and which would improve the weld bead shape because of
flux-cored arc welding electrodes with gas combinations. the reaction at the surface of the weld metal. The de-
Certification is handled differently from approvals. posited weld metal was further refined and its quality im-
Certification is required for nuclear work and for certain proved by the addition of deoxidizers in the coating. In
types of military work. In these cases, a specific batch of addition, alloying elements were added to improve
electrodes or heat of wire made at one time is tested in strength and provide specific weld metal deposit com-
accordance with either anAWS or MIL specification. The position. Finally, iron powder has been added to the coat-
test results must then be certified by the manufacturer ing to improve the deposition rate.
and provided to the user. A certification is used only for An electrode coating is designed to provide as many
the specific batch or lot of filler materials made at one as possible of the following desirable characteristics.
tune and covered by the test result data. In many cases, Some of these characteristics may be incompatible, and
the user must previously have approved the manufac- therefore compromises and balances must be designed
turer prior to using filler materials produced by that man- into the coating. These desirable characteristics are:
Ufacturer. This will. require an audit by the user to make
1. Specific composition of the deposited weld metal
sure that uniform quality manufacturing procedures are
maintained and that quality control procedures provide 2. Specific mechanical. properties of the deposited
for strict control and traceability of materials used in the weld metal
manufactlu'e of the filler material. After the producer has 3. Elimination of weld metal porosity
beep. approved, the certification test may still be re- 4. Elimination of weld metal cracking
qUired. Traceability of all items is necessary so that the 5. Desirable weld deposit contour
user can provide traceability of all materials used to man-
6. Desirable weld metal surface finish (i.e. smooth,
llfacture its products.
with even edges)
Filler metal specifications are of immense value to
7, Elimination of undercut adjacent to the weld
both producer and user. They allow the user to select the
Ptoper fillet material to be used to manufacture all types 8. Minimum spatter adjacent to the weld
of products. Specifications ensure the user that the de- 9. Ease of manipulation to control slag in aUpositions
POsited weld metal, when normally applied, will provide 10. Stable welding arc
the strength lev Is indi .ated by the specification and 11. Penetration control (i.e., deep or shallow)
clasSification. Specifications are of value to the producer,
12. Initial tmmedtat arc striking and restriking capa-
Since they provide standardization of testing methods
bilities
and procedures and also since they provide categories.
13. High rate of metal deposition'
alld classifications to meet th needs of most users.
14. Elimination of noxious odors and fume
15. Reduced tendon y of the coating to pick l,lp mois-
ture when in storag
13..2 COVERED ELECTRODES 16. R duced de trade overheating during use
The covered electrode is a popular type offilier metalused 17. Strong, tough, durable coating
in at.' Welding.TIle identlflcauon of electrode types, the se-
18. Easy sla,S removal
leCtion ofelectrodes for specific appf atlon .and the us-
bUttyof 0 red ele trodes was dtscusscdtas ti n6-3;
19. Ability to ship well and stor 1n<.1eflntt Jy
Th • . mpositicn of the covering on the e1~ trode
<letcl'niin . ttl u ability of the elcctrod ,th compos t-
tion of th deposited weld metal) and the spectftcatiori of, .
th et etrod ". the "omposition 'Of Qattngs 011 cover d
arc WIding cle trodes has be "0 surrounded in mystery,
(lnClltttl information has b 1) published. TIl. forn ula-
}ion ..Qf eJectrodecoatulg$ i$ complex, andwl1ileit. is not
nn exa t SCience it Is based onwell-establlshed pnnct-
The coatings of electrodes for welding mild and CORE WIRE COATING
low-alloy steels may have from six to twelve ingredients,
such as: HOT ROLLED STEEL CHEMICALS
WIRE ROD AND
MINERALS
• Cellulose: to provide a gaseous shield with a re-
ducing agent. The gas shield surrounding the arc is
produced by the disintegration of cellulose.
• Metal carbonates: to adjust the basicity of the WEIGH BINDER
slag and to provide a reducing atmosphere.
• Titanium dioxide: to help form a highly fluid but
quick-freezing slag. It will also provide ionization
for the arc.
• ferromanganese and ferrosiitcon: to help deox-
idize the molten weld metal and to supplement the
manganese content and silicon content of the de-
posited weld metal.
• Clays and gums: to provide elasticity for extrud-
ing the plastic coating material and to help provide
strength to the coating.
• Calcium fluoride: to provide shielding gas to pro-
tect the arc, adjust the basicity of the slag, and pro-
Vide fluidity and solubility of the metal. oxides.
• Mineral silicates: to provide slag and give
strength to the electrode covering.
• Alloying metals: include nickel, molybdenum,
chromium, and so on, to provide alloy content to
the deposited weld metal.
• Iron or manganese oxide: to adjust the fluidity
and properties of the slag. In small amounts, iron
oxide helps stabilize the arc.
• Iron powder: to increase the productivity by pro-
vtdlng additional metal to be deposited in the weld.
By using different amounts of these constituents, It
is "pas ible to provide an infinite variety' of electrode coat-
ings.111e binder used for most electrode coatings is
sodium ·sllicate,···· which will chemically combine and FIGURE13-1 Flowchart for manufacturing covered
harden to provtde a tough, strong eating, The design of electrodes.
th coa~ing provtdes the proper balance to give the elec-
tfOde specific 'Usability characteristics and to provide spe-
¢tlc.w f I deposit hemtstry and proper tes.In general.
the dJJ'fcrent makes of el ctrodes that meet a particular tent of about 0.10% carbon.low manganese and silicon con-
classification have similar compositions. tent, and 'the rnlnlmum amount of phosphorus and sulfur.
Ingots of this composition are produc d at the st el mill;
Manuf. cturing .....
they ar hot roll d and r duce I in size to billets. These ar
then tak 11 to a bar Jl1jJl and roll d into small-dtamet r rods
"that range in size from 1/4 Jn. 9.4 nun) to 3/8 in. (9.; mOl)
.ih diam:eter~Tbis product, which is known as botrollea wi:re
rod, Is then taken to the wire drawing mill-and drawn intO
the apl'tOpdate diameters for overed electrod s.After the
wire has I en drawn to the prop r dlame r, it is traight.
ne(:J and cut to th prop t I ngth. 'Ih lengths vary ac-
cording to the size and ,range from. 12 to 14 in.In the UnIted
Statesapd from ..00 to 500 nun in length elsewhere. .'
,rbc coating is made (>f different, cbe.rttlca}s rUle]"
minerals ob Mn '0 throughout tb world They arc in"
spected and ground to the proper mesh size.The specific
amount of each chemical is weighed and mixed together
in the dry condition. After sufficient dry mixing, the
proper amounts of liquid, binder, and water are added,
and mixing is continued in the wet stage. Mixing is com-
pleted when it reaches the proper consistency. This rna-
terial is then placed in a press, where it is formed into
large briquets of moist flux-coating material.
The briquets of coating material and the cut and
straightened lengths of core wire are brought together at
the extrusion press.The cut core wires are fed into the ex-
trUsion die by an automatic feeder. Simultaneously, the
press feeds flux into a chamber and extrudes the coating
Onto the core wire as it passes through the chamber. The
extrusion die holder must be adjusted with extreme ac-
Curacy so that the flux flows uniformly to make it con-
centric with the core wire.The coated electrode emerges
from the die of the extrusion press at a rate of approxi-
mately 10 per second.They drop onto a conveyor where
Power brushes remove a portion of the coating at the grip
end and clean the coating from the strike end. The elec-
trOdes move on the conveyor into a drying oven where
the coating solidifies and toughens.At the exit end of the
Oven, each electrode is individually printed with the AWS
classification number and then inspected and placed in
boxes and packed for shipment. The entire operation
from start to finish is continuous. Figure 13-2 shows the
electrodes during the manufacturing operation.
FIGURE.13-2 Electrodes being manufactured.
Care, Storage, and Reconditioning
of Covered Electrodes
,overed electrodes can be easily damaged. Each electrode time is gradually absorbed by the coatings of the elec-
~hoUldbe treated with care prior to its use. Rough handling trodes inside the package. Efforts to prohibit this are
rn shipment or in storage can cause a portion of the coat- made by wrapping the electrodes In.plastic liners or by
ing to crack loose from the core wire arid make the elec- using vaporproof or metal containers. These Rfovicle bet-
trOde unsuitable, Bending most electrode types will cause ter protection for the electrodes. .
the COating to br ak loose from the core wire. The elec- On 'e the ontainer Is :opened, the electrod
tr de should not be used where the core wire is exposed. should be stored in heated. ovens.showninFigure 13 ..3.
Electrodes may become unusable if they are ex- These larger type ovens arekept in a storage room or
POsed to moisture for an ext nded length of time. The electrode tssuing 31.' a. Small 01' portable ov 11.. ,sh. wn in
Coat~gs on some types of electrodes absorb moisture Figtlre 13-4, are carried by the welder to the WOr~$lt¢.
When exposed to humid atmospheres. Cellulose, rutile, These are powered by 115 VAC or by the outPllt . current
,
and acid electrodes are fa.irtyinsensitiv to moisture and of a conventional welding rna htne. hese are useful for
an tolerate quite high molstur content without th risk f1 ld welding, Nothing els . should be stored ttl, .1 ,~
of porQsity in the weld. Th Coatings of Jew-hydrogen trode ovens, especially
-
ehosecontatning lQw~hydmg
. .,
~11
.1 tfodes, parti ularly rhos of the EXX16 and EXX18 elecjrodes.Pood must not be pta e~ in electroc1e ovens
.. crt> ; Pick up nrotsture qUicklywhen~osed to a-high- tnce .t\1e11lo1sture given of~dtlrjngcQQ~:tlawQi\l.d d~ltl~ -.
l1tull.idity atmosphere. tnce these el ctrodes .are driedat age low;hydrogetl COftttngs" 'LQW·h..ydrogcn. ele·trode$
it high temperature in a low-moisture atmospher ,they must not be stored in ovens t.h~'t hc)]<lelecttoqes .~f'
are mor SCI sitive to plckup.St+1lnles steel le tv des are other lassit1cati.olls. TabJ i,3...3shows t mp~;rattll"'S' for
in this Stlm C~lt gory. . storing cl ctroc1es nOV 11S ,and for re¢(·,.~d.itiQn~nSeleC-
If ele tr d 5, 'VA illt11l0pen d cardboard contain- trodes. Spec!:tJ oYens at. • :vaHabl .for stOfing 5ubmerg cl,
efs, are left 0utdoor~. tbey will pjck '\lp moisture due to arc flux in me .$h p to' kc.p it dry. Sotlle: :cotle:t ~~ye
~e, qtlan.ge of temp 1'an~rc ana humidity from day to .std't r tluit 'nlchts for tl.'iilpg, stotitig, nlldredry111g lw~
ight. Th" moisture is absorbed by the paCking and in hydrog n 1 ctroq '8.' ..
Damp electrodes are difficult for welders to distin-
guish. It is easier to recognize the problem based on stor-
age conditions. It is also easy to recognize the problem by
reviewing x-rays of weld metal deposited by damp elec-
trodes. The weld meta] will be porous if the coatings are
damp. It is sometimes possible to shake three or four low-
hydrogen electrodes together and listen to the sound as
they rattle against each other. If the electrode coatings are
dry or contain only small amounts of moisture, a clear,
shrill metallic sound will be heard. Damp electrodes have
a hollow sound, which is quite different. Experience in
testing electrodes in this way will help to distinguish these
two different sounds. When welding with an electrode
with a damp coating, a fierce crackling or explosive sound
may be heard. If the electrode is extremely damp, con-
densed vapor may be seen while welding. If the electrode
is not completely consumed, the coating on the remaining
part of the electrode will show longitudinal cracks.
Electrodes that are only slightly damp can be
FIGURE 13-3 Large electrode storage oven. heated by shorting them against the work for a few sec-
onds just before beginning to weld. For reconditioning
electrodes, special ovens are available. These are set at
specific temperatures for specific types of electrode
coatings (Table 13-3). The baking cycle for recondition-
ing electrodes should not exceed 4 hours. The heating
rate in the oven is not critical. Electrodes can be taken
from room temperature and placed in an oven without
affecting the properties of the deposited weld metal.The
maximum temperature for any low-hydrogen electrode is
800°F (427°C). Some ingredients in the coating tend to
oxidize if the temperature is raised above this figure. The
holding time at the maximum temperature should be at
least 30 minutes. This ensures that the electrodes are up
to the oven temperature. The cooling rate is not critical'
however, reconditioned electrodes should not be taken
from the oven and allowed to cool until the oven has
come down to approximately 3000P (149°C). Electrodes
should not be reconditioned by hearing more than three
times. Going through the extra heating cycle tends to
weaken the silicate binder, and the coating will eventU-
ally b come weak and fragile and will chlp off asHy.
Electrodes should be stored in a special storeroom
with ontrolled atmosphere.The relative humidity should
be maintatned at 40% or less. This can be a complished
by eallng the room and installing a dehumidifier.
When Jow-hydrogen lectrodes are issued from the
\ controlled atmosphere storeroom, they should. be used
Within 2 hours. When this cannot b . done, iodivldtlal
Ovens should be provided for ea h weld r.They an th :xl
be left in the heat d oven until the lectro Ie is used.All
low-hydro h electrodes not used durtng a work: shift
houl I b returne l to the holding oven. For crlti 'al work,
. speclal controls are lnstitut d 0 matntatn dry electrod ·s.
Aam.gcan damage elc .trodes~Very old Ieetrodes of
most types will h:tve a furry sunac on the coating. UStlaUy
TABLE 13-3 STORAGEANDRECONDITIONING
ELECTRODES
Recommended Storage
Electrode
Classification Unopened Boxes Open Boxes Holding Oven Reconditioning
E-XXI0 Dry at room temp. Dry at room temp. Not recommended Not done
E-XXll Dry at room temp. Dry at room temp. Not recommended Not done
E-XX12 Dry at room temp. Dry at room temp. Not recommended Not done
E-XX13 Dry at room temp. Dry at room temp. Not recommended Not done
E-XX14 Dry at room temp. 150-200°F 150-200°F 250-300°F
E-XX20 Dry at room temp. 150-200°F 150-200°F 1 hour
E-XX24 Dry at room temp. 150-200°F 150-200°F
E-XX27 Dry at room temp. 150-200°F 150-200°F
E-60 or 7015 Dry at room temp. 250-450°F 150-200°F 500-600°F
E-60 or 7016 Dry at room temp. 250-450°F 150-200°F 1 hour
E-7018 Dry at room temp. 250-450°F 150-200°F
E-7028 Dry at room temp. 250-450°F 150-200°F
E-80 and 9015 Dry at room temp. 250-450°F 200-250°F 600-700°F
E-80 and 9016 Dry at room temp. 250-450°F 200-250°F 1 hour
E-80 and 9018 Dry at room temp. 250-450°F 200-250°F
E-90-12015 Dry at room temp. 250-450°F 200-250°F 650-750°F
E-90-12016 Dry at room temp. 250-450°F 200-250°F 1 hour
E-90-12018 Dry at room temp. 250-450°F 200-250°F
E-XXX-15,16, or 17 Dry at room temp. 250-450°F 150-200°F 450° F
Stainless Dry at room temp. 250-450°F 150-200°F 1 hour
White.This is from the crystallization of the sodium silicate. weight of deposited metal
% of iron powder == X 100
This surface is normally harmless for mild steel low- weight of bare core wire
hYdrogen electrodes.They should not be used for extremely
critical work. If iron powder-type electrodes are old, rust Thus if the weight of the deposit were double the wight
may form on the iron powder due to moisture absorbed in of the core wire, it would indicate a 200% deposition ef-
the coating. If th core wire is rusty; it is evident that too ficiency even though th amount of iron powder in the
much moisture may have been absorbed in the coating. coating represented only half of the total deposit. The
30% 11'Onpowder formula used in the Umted States would
produce a 100% deposition effICiency using the Euro-
Deposition Rates pean formula. the 50% iron powder electrode figured on
The different types of electrodes have different deposi- U.S. standards would produce an efflciency of approxi-
tion rates, as a result of the composition of the coating. mately 150% using the European formula,
ElectrOdes containing iron powder in th coating have
the highest deposition rates. The percentage of iron pow-
der icOnfusing when comparing electrodes produced in . Quality and Defects
Europe with those produced in the United States. In the Quality control In.manutacturlng of covered 'eIe trodes
~nited States the percentage of Iron powder in a coating statts at the point of recetvtng chemicals and minerals,
1 ill the rang of 10% to 50%.This is based on. the amount the binder and th 110troU d wive rod. The hemi als
I
o iron powder in th coating vel' us the coating eight. must meet rigid specitlca.tionS and ate ch ck d hen
This i shown in the formula: theyare received. '1be Wi! rod, which is checked Oil a
conttnuous basis, must also meet stdn.gent.peciflcudQUs,
Q; .0f'. tron powder .weight of iron pow, der
100
T(J > , , .' . X Grind sizesof chemicals andcleantlness. o_ff11iXillg con-
total weight of coating
tainersare routinely inspected, The adjusthtentof th •
The percent~g s mention d pr viou Iy are related to the truston (tie to malntam ncenmctty of. th electrodes ,is
requixern nts of the AWS spectficatlons, h EUJ:!P an che 'ked o.lt n, Ble trod s ar 'h Cked after' baJdtig ii r
Ulethod of specifying iron powd r is bas don the weight coating con cntdcity. Th surface arid stru 'rur', "0£ rhe
of depOsit d w ~ld:tll.¢taJversus theweig!lt of tho bare coating is also inspe¢teq, ande~tch IOlis che~~d by weld~-'
'are Wire consumed, or . . ing to determine thnt it \q1cets' t'i1'¢ spem
'ationS':,' '.-''¥;' "
\
A common complaint of quality of electrodes is
HOT ROLLED STEEL WIRE ROD
ftngernaiitng, which is the name given to the burning off
of an electrode faster on one side than on the other. The
welder assumes that fingernafling means a nonconcen-
trlc electrode; however, other factors can create the fin-
gernailing. Fingernailing is most common when using
direct current and is more evident with the smaller elec-
trodes, 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) and 1/6 in. (4.0 rnm), when used
at low currents. This condition can be aggravated if the
coating is not concentric with the core wire.This can be
checked by removing the coating from one side of the
core wire, measuring the core wire and covering to the
other side, removing coating on the opposite side of the
electrode, and measuring the electrode core wire and
covering on the other side. Measuring should be done
with a micrometer. Normally, electrodes are concentric
within 0.002 to 0.003 of an inch (0.05 to 0.07 mm). Often
fingernailing results from arc blow, welding current too
I. ow, incorrect electrode angle, unbalanced joint prepara-
tion, and in some cases, uneven moisture pickup in the
coating, which might be greater on one side than the
other. A quick check for flngernailing during welding is
PACKAGE
to stop welding when fingernailing is encountered and
rotate the electrode in. the holder 180°. Continue to weld
and see if flngernailtng continues on the same side of the FIGURE 13-5 Flowchart for manufacturing solid
electrode. If it does, the coating is probably off center. If electrode.
it does not but instead fingernails off the other side, arc
blow or one of the Other factors already mentioned is the
reason. Arc blow is a more frequent cause of flngernailing mild steel electrode wire is shown ill Figure 13-5. The
than off-center electrodes. When welding With lower most complex portion is the drawing operation, shown
than normal current, fingernailing will appear because partially in Figure 13-6.The drawing of steel wires and
arc force is insufflclent to overcome minor arc blow. The nonferrous wires is essentially the same; however, dif-
other factor is electrode angle, which again can be ferent amounts of reduction per drawing die, different
che ked by revolving the electrode 1800 in the holder. drawing lubricants, different heat tr atrnents, and so on,
Moisture an be che 'ked, as mentioned previously are involved.
The welder 017 welding supervisor may wish to com- The solid steel. electrode wires may not be "bare."
pare different brands of electrodes. Many electrode manu- Most suppliers provide a thin copper coating on the wire.
facturers provide 5U 11 harts; however, th most complete The copper Coating is for several purposes. It improves
chart is published by the American Welding Society fwd is the current pickup between contact tip and the elec-
knownasthe"FUl r Metals omparison hart"(AWSFMC). trode. It aids drawing and helps prevent rusting of the
wire when it is exposed to the atmosph reo
Solid steel electrode wires are avallable.without the
13..3 SOLID ELECTRODE WIRES copper coating. opper. is undesirable in the welding
, Sh01 atmosphere. and ther fore some suppll rs pr vtd
Solid metal wit, wee first us dfor oxytu 1 gas weldtng gas metal arc el ctrode wire With an organi coating
to add :fllletmetid to the JOiot.Th sse wires or rods were'" ''\ rath rrhan copp r.Non-copper-coated wtr 'isoftel~ us d
provid d ill'S :raighteQ,d lengths approximately 36 in. ior electroslag welding. Solid electrod wires are mad of
(l,OO)lprts.;tater)~olid. Wire was p~'oVidd In coils fo:t"bare various stainless steel analyses, alummum alloys, copper
"rjt~I":ai;ltomiJ,ttc1tr~elding arid later for submerged arc alloys, and other metals. Specifi attons for thes elec-
, .imGtref ctrdSJag, welding.The newest proc ~s to use soltd trod as are shown in Table 13-1.
b~r . Wit isg~s metnlll!c W ~ldiJlg, wbl h US s r latively When the wire is ut nnd st1"'dight nc(l,it is called a
. snl~n· H~n,er. r," U'o J wit' $;' welding rod, which js a form of flUer metal Ul'cc.1 for w Id-
Tb man1.).f, turc Of wit ror wel4Jng electrodes or ing or brazing that do s not cond'll t the lect1'ical \.11'-
. ·l'o4S'i~'€$$1 rithl.t!y '.the $3111e1 ept that tl'l.¢ straighten- rent. If tb wire is used in tbe ele tdcaJ. circuit, it i alled
aq.d,c'Litoi)~ratihnis ac:kt'ed fo .,~a·weldtflgl'o({.A stl'l1plf.. a welding electrode imd is defined as a component of the
il¢ I ,~(jw hart of tbHlanufu .turinA operations for soH(.f weJ<:ling it \lIt thrmlghwbl 11 urren:t is condll 'ted.
FIGURE 13-6 Wire drawing operation.
Rods are indicated by the prefix R for gas welding; rods

for brazing have the prefix RB.
TIle American Welding Society's specifications are
used for specifying bare welding rod and electrode wires.
There are also military specifications such as the MIL-E or
MIL-R types, federal specifications, and Aerospace Materi-
als Speciftcation CAMS) specifications. The particular speci-
fication involved should be used for specifying filler metals.
TIle most important aspectis the composition.The
chemistry is the composition of the electrode or rod it-
self.The specifications provide tile limits of composition
and mechanical property requirements.
TIle bare electrode wires are Identitled in several dif-
ferent ways. When the wire Is coiled on a spool, a label is
pla,ced on th spool identifying the size and type of the
electrode,Wh.en it is in coils orin drums) the label is placed
on the drum Of on a liner on the inside diameter of the coil.
For straight lengths of welding rod, two systems are
Used. For large-diameter nonferrous rods, the classiftca- .
lion Dumber is stamped in the metal.When the diameter
i too sman, tags ar stu k to each individual rod that
Shows the Jass.ift arion number, as sh wn in Figure 1~-7.
alar coding has been used but is being supplanted by
~ags,ln.aU cases the ontatnerholdtng the rods carries an
ldentification label. .
In be case of coiled electrode wire, a maximum fiGURE 13-7
and minimum ofcast and helix are specified. Normally,
th cast is greater than the liameter of the package coil.
This helps the e) trode wir fe d through cables and
guns, 'rh arc will tend to wander HS the wire cernes 11t
o th .w lding .gl.U:tt~pif hellx j too great.
'. ccasiOllally, oncoppet··i,lat d wires, the copper .
tUfty flake off in 1h "11'cd roll mechanism and reate prob-
liners and reduce current pickup in the tip and may cre- 75% to 90% of the weight, and the core material repre-
ate erratic welding operation. sents 10% to 25% of the weight of the electrode. For a cov-
Temper or strength of the wire can be checkedin a ered electrode, the steel represents 75% of the weight and
testing machine. Wife of a higher strength will feed better the flux 25%.This is shown in more detail in Table 13-4.
through guns and cables. The minimum tensile strength rec- More flux is used on covered electrodes than in a
ommended by the speciflcation is 140,000 psi (98 kg/rnrrr'). flux-cored wire to do the same job. This is because the
Feedability is a measure of the ease with which the covered electrode coating contains binders to keep the
wire can be fed through a gun and cable assembly. It de- coating intact and also contains agents to allow the coat-
pends on all the factors just mentioned. ing to be extruded.
The manufacture of the flux-cored electrode is an
extremely technical and precise operation requiring spe-
cially designed machinery. Figure 13-9 shows the Simpli-
13-4 CORED ELECTRODE WIRES fied flowchart of the manufacturing operation.
The outstanding performance of the flux-cored arc weld- Figure 13-10 shows a simplified version of the ap-
ing process is made possible by the design of the cored paratus for producing tubular cored electrodes. A thin,
electrode. This inside-outside electrode consists of a narrow, flat, low-carbon steel strip passes through form-
metal sheath surrounding a core of fluxing and alloying ing rolis, which make it into a V-shaped section. This
compounds. The compounds contained in the electrode U'shaped steel is passed through a special filling device
perform essentially the same functions as the coating on a where a measured amount of the formulated granular
covered electrode (i.e., deoxidizers, slag formers, arc sta- core material is added.The flux-filled V-shaped strip then
bilizers, aUoying elements, and may provide shielding gas). passes through closing rolls, which form it into a tube and
There are three reasons why cored wires are devel- tightly compress the core materials. This tube is then
oped to supplement solid electrode wires of the same or pulled through drawing dies which reduce its diameter
similar analysis. and further compress the core materials. Drawing tightly
seals the sheath and secures the core materials inside the
1. There is an economic advantage, Solid wires are tube, thus avoiding discontinuities of the flux. The elec-
drawn from steel billets of the specified analyses. trode mayor may not be baked during, or between, draw-
These billets are not readily available and are ex- ing operations.This depends on the type of electrode and
pensive. Also, a single billet might provide more the type of materials enclosed in the sheath.
solid electrode wtr than needed.
2, The tubular wire production method provides ver-
TABLE 13-4 SUMMARY OF FLUX-TO-STEEL RATIOS (PERCENTAGES)
satility of c rnposltion and is not limited to the
analysis of available steel billets. Flux-Cored Covered
3. Tubular electrod wires are easier for the welder to Electrode Wire Electrode
(E70T-l) (E7016)
use than solid wires of the same deposit analysis.es-
peclally for weldlng pipe in the nxed position. By area: Flux 25 55
Figure 13-8 shows cross-sectional vi ws of flux-
Steel 75 45
By weight: Flux 15 24
cored 1 ctrod s.The tubular type is the most popular.The
sheath or steel portion of th flux- ored Wire comprises Steel 85 76
FIGURE 13-.8' Cross"sectiohalviaws of various types of flux-cored electrodes.

duce high deposition efficiencies of 95% or greater. They
Metal Cored Electrodes provide high deposition rates and excellent operator ap-
Metal cored electrodes are composite tubular filler metal peal because of low spatter levels, low smoke level, and
electrodes consisting of a metal sheath and a core of var- minimum slag coverage. They normally have spray trans-
ious powdered materials producing no more than slag fer and have good mechanical properties.
islands on the face of the weld bead. These types of elec- The drawing operations produce the various sizes
trodes contain a minor amount of fluxing ingredients or of electrodes. The normal diameters are 1/8 in. (3.2 rnm),
no fluxing ingredients or gas formers. This is why exter- 7/64 in. (2.8 rnm), 3/32 in. (2.4 mm), 5/64 in. (2.0 mm),
nal gas shielding is required. Metal core electrodes pro- 1/16 in. (1.6 mrn), 0.045 in. (1.1 mm), and now 0.035 in.
(0.9 mm). The finished cored electrode is packaged as a
continuous coil, on spools, or in round drums.
FIGURE13-9 Flowchart for manufacturing tubular
electrode wire.
STRIP FILL MATERIALS
13-5 PACKAGING OF
MILD STEEL STRIP CHEMICALS AND MINERALS ELECTRODE WIRES
Filler materials are packaged in a variety of forms to meet
the user's welding equipment, storage, and handling re-
quirements. The American Welding Society has estab-
lished standards for some spool and coil sizes, but there
is no national standard for packaging of electrode wires.
The industry has established various forms of packages,
which are described. There are exceptions and additions
to this compilation, but in general, filler wires can be ob-
tained in the following basic packages: spools, small coils,
reels, drums, or payoff packs and large coils.All packages
will carry the vendor's name, product size and specifica-
tion, and the AWS safety warning label.
Spools
Spools made of plastic, formed steel wire, or composition
wood are available in a variety of sizes and carry from 1
DRAW TO SIZE to 60 lb. of electrode wire, depending on spool size and.
type of wire. In general, spools are wrapped in a thick
plastic bag to provide maximum protection from mois-
ture. Nonferrous wires are normally wrapped with pro-
tective paper. tandard 4-il1. spool dlmenslons are shown
in Pigure 13-11. The 2·1b.spools are usually level wound,
individually boxed. and used for nonferrous wire . Th
small spools are used on sp601 guns or for orbital 11 ads
doing gas-tungsten arc welding.
FIGURE13-10 Simplified manufacturing operation to

make tubular wire. FIGURE13-11 2-lb. plastic spool.
Arbor hole
diameter: 5/8~
FLUX AND
COAeMATeRIAL.~
"U'~FO"MING
ROLLS
The lO-lb. spools are wound transversely on 8-in. of the core is 16!s in., and they are 4 in. wide. Each coil is
spools (Figure 1:3-12) and normally individually wrapped. packed in a corrugated carton. The coil dimensions are
They are usually [or carbon steel or stainless steel electrode shown in Figure 13-14. The weigh t of electrode wire in
wires.Also, they are often used with portable wire feeders. coils should not vary by more than 10%.
The 33- and 45-Jb. steel reels are transversely wound
on the 12-in. reels and normally wrapped in plastic bags.
This is the most popular package.
Reels
The 60-lb spools are transversely wound on l4-in. There are two types of reels, steel reels and flat reels.The
spools (Figure 13-13) and individually wrapped. These steel reels are designed for small- , standard- , or portable-
are normally used for carbon steel, stainless steel, and size wire feeders. They are made from wire and are recy-
cored electrode wires.This is used on standard wire feed- clable with other scrap.They come in two sizes: the 33·lb.
ers. Spools, which are nonreturnable, should have one and the 45-lb. reel. They fit the standard spool hubs and
continuous length of electrode wire made from a single are shown in Figure 13-15.
lot of material. The large reels, sometimes called flat reels, are
shown in Figure 13-16. These are designed for high-
production automatic installations and contain 950 lb. of
Small Coils
electrode wire. They may require special motorized
Coils are supplied with a cardboard inner liner to avoid dereelers. These are used to relieve the load on wire
the expense of spools. They require an adaptor to hold feeder motors.They are normally paIletized and protected
them on the dispensing equipment. The smaller coils by shrink film wrapping. Reels are made of wood and are
come in 60-lb. sizes. They are transversely wound, the ID nonreturnable.
FIGURE13-12 lO-lb. fiber spool.

FIGURE13-14 60-lb. coil.
Arbor hole Width: 2-1/8'
diameter:
2-1/16' I I
Flange
diameter: 8'
Outer
diameter:
16·1/2'
center
di!!iance; Engaging hole diameter: 7/16'
1-3/4'
Spool weight (empty): 0.8 lbs.
Coilweight (empty): 4 OZ,
FIGURE 13-13 60-lb, fiber spool.

Width: 4' FIGURE13-15 Steel reel 33 & 45 lb.
,I I
Ar~or hore
diameter:
2-1/16'
Steel Reef weJRhl (empty): Ll lbs,

or helix and eliminates wire flip. Speed nonflip packages
Drums/Payoff Packs are now available that supply straight wire.
Another method of providing large quantities of elec-
trode wire is by the use of drums or payoff packs. The
drums shown in Figure 13-17 are made of heavy card- Selection of Package
board construction and will contain approximately 600 Table 13-5 is a summary of the different types and pack-
lb. of electrode wire.These are normally used for solid car- aging of electrode wires. This is not the total packaging
bon steel wire or flux-cored electrode wires. Wire is method since some suppliers will provide special sizes of
placed in the drums to ensure a snarl-free payoff of the spools, coils, and reels for specialized equipment. Consult
electrode with the drum usually rotating. Drums are pal- your supplier for the exact size of packages supplied.
letized and covered with the polystyrene shrink film to In general, electrode wire is less expensive when or-
provide protection during shipment and storage. Drums dered in larger packages. Additionally, the supply of elec-
are nonreturnable. Special dispensing equipment is avail- trode wire does not need to be changed as often. This is
able that eliminates problems related to out-of-spec cast important when multiple welding heads are a part of the
same system. This avoids frequent downtime to renew
the electrode supply. However, larger packages require
special dispensing equipment. These are different for the
FIGURE13-16 950-lb. reel. different packages. See the Section on electrode wire
,.---- Flange diameter: 30' ----, dispensing system for details. The wire supplier will nor-
Engaging mally be able to provide the types of dispensing equip-
Arbor hole hole ment required for the package supplied.
diameter: 1-5116' diameter:
7/8'
Cast and Helix of Wire
Center to center I AWS specifications require that cast and helix of wire on
distance: 2-1/2' Height: 11· 1/2'
spools or coils must be suitable for feeding in an uninter-
_j rupted manner using automatic and semiautomatic weld-
1
Runner height: 4-1/2' ing equipment. The cast of a spooled electrode wire or
filler metal wire wound on a spool is measured by reo
moving several loops or rings of wire from the spool or
Runner Inside drum. When cut from the spool and laid on a flat surface,
Width: 3-3/4' w~~t~: Length: 17'
it should form an unrestrained circle of not less than rnln-
OutSide width: 23' imum diameter shown under "cast" in Table 13-6.
The helix of coiled wire is measured with the loop
Reel weight (empty): 32.; lbs, or ring mentioned previously. The loop or ring is placed
011 a flat surface without restraint.The maximum distance
of any portion of the loop above, the flat surface must not
be greater than. the dimension shown for the helix in
FIGURE 13-17 Payoff pack. Table 13-6.The filler metal received from most manufac-
turers will meet these requirements.
13..6 WELDING FLUXES

M~U1Ytypes of fluxes are used in welding, brazing, and sol-
dering. These in lude fluxes for oxyfuel gas W lding, for
Core haight: . o r:ygen cutting of certain hard-to-cut metals, f, r lee-
32~1/4' troslag welding, and fOl' stJbmerged a1:C welding. The
American Welding oelerY provtdes a'spec;iflcation ,for·
weld metal deposit d by differ mt c():tllbina:~iol1S of steel
electrodes and proprietary £l~~es fOl" stlb01erg dare
welding. Til AWS pr vid s a ht:1lzing flux spe itlcation
that has r ecommendi 1usejul t mperature and th Iorm
of the fltlX.lll addi.tioll,_govemruen~s:r etzttlcatiorls:co, ,1'
brazing flu~es.Theman1;lf~ctt1fers ofbtaZin& fttU'proVit1.¢
Drum weight (empty): 17.s1b~. Instructions forth appU ad n s no
us . of en Ir fl ~¢s.'
~. ,'.
TABLE 13-5 PACf<AGING
OF ELECTRODE
SIZE ANDTYPE
Wire
Diameter
2-lb. 10-lb. 33-lb. 45-lb. 60-lb. 600-lb. 950-lb.
in. mm Spool Spool Spool Spool Spool or Coi I Pack Reel
.024 0.6 solid solid solid

.030 0.8 solid solid solid
.035 0.9 solid solid solid and cored solid and cored solid and cored cored cored
.045 1.2 solid solid and cored solid and cored solid and cored cored cored
.052 1.3 cored cored cored cored cored
1116 1.6 cored cored cored cored cored
TABLE 13-6 CASTANDHELIX REQUIREMENTS

FORELECTRODE
WIRES
Maximum
Cast Helix
AWS Standard Size
Classification Type of Package [in. (mm)) in. mm in. mm
All 4-in. OOO-mm) spools 0.045 (1.2) and less 4-9 100-230 1
2' 13
All All except 4-in. (lOO-mm) spools 0.030 (0.8) and less 12 min. 305 min. 1 25
0.035 (0.9) and larger 15 min. 380 min. 1 25
Fluxes for gas welding are not covered by the AWS. be removed from the weld deposit. The melted slag
Manufacturers' recommendations should be followed. should not be used for welding since the de oxidizers and
other cleansing and alloying elements in the flux are ex-
pended during melting.
Submerged Arc Flux The three types of submerged arc welding fluxes
The function of the submerged arc flux is to produce a are based on the method of manufacturing: (1) fused flux,
slag that will protect th molten metal from the atrnos- (2) agglomerated flux, and (3) bonded flux.
phere by providing a mechanical barrier. When it is The ingredients for the flux must be ground, sized,
molten, this slag should provide ionization to permit a and mixed prior to heating. In the case of fused fluxes,
stable arc. It should be fluid and of relatively low density the mixture is melted in an electric or gas-fired furnace in
so that it will float and cover the top of the weld metal. a temperature range of 2912°P (1600°C). After melting,
The melting temperature should be related to that of the the molten flux is poured into water or onto a chilled
molten weld metal, and it should have a diff rent coeffi- plate to produce a glassy material This material is then
ctent of expansion so that it can easily be removed after dried, crush d, and sized, by means of screens, and pack-
cooling. The slag should provide deoxidiz rs to help aged; it is then ready for use.
Ieanse and purify the w ld metal. It should also help reo The second method of man ifacturing fluxe is the
duce phosphorus and sulfur tllat might be pres nt in the agglomerated method. Materials are dry mixed in the
base metal. ott should not introduce hydrogen into the same way, except that a binder such as sodium or potas-
weld. Finally, th flux hould b granular and convenient slum silicate is added, after which th material is wet
to bandl • should not provide noxious fumes, and should mixed. The mixture is til n fed into a rotary kiln operat-
provide for a smooth weldsurfac . -...._'" ing at approximately 1832PF lOOOQC).Inside the kiln, by
Subm 'rg "0 arc fluxes o.nsist of mlxrures of chem- 'lneans of a tumbling process, th rnixtur forms Into
ieals andn~jneralSin'vario'us combinations to provide. small balls, apd the ingredientS rendto grow together and
,properties'just menttoned. Every grain of submerged arc become larger.When tItey are properly heated, these balls .
t'll.lX shQuld b stmilar in 'OO1PO ttio.n to the oth rs and becom very tough .Afte~ cooling, the balls ar ground in
\.milQrm itt size. In the use of submerged at flux, the gran- the same manner as alr 'ady menttoned, stz d, packaged,
ular rna 'rla 1is' pia dover the welding joint, an I the h ' at and ready for u . '
, of the ar 'at1ae~'ttto Ill-It ~\.J1d pr du' ~lmolten slag.All The third method for maJdtlg flux f.ol is th bonaed
" . of: ~b ,f1iiXpl(1;. d qve'l' the ~L docs not melt, and the method, which issin'lilar to,theagglo.roerated method, ,a·
" unq;"~ltedfJu:ic~n-be remoVi d and 17etl ed. Upon oollng, .¢pt that th tnixmre is bond. d at :t. lower temperature.Af~
tb fl:u;x that m l~s~ran fo:tms to a glasslU, slag that must t r the pellet~ are bonded, hardened, and cooled, rbey at'
action during the welding operation is extremely com-
CHEMICALS AND MINERALS plex and beyond the scope of this book.
Submerged arc flux can be described as neutral,
acidic, or basic while in the molten stage. If absolute neu-
SELECT AND WEIGH
trality cannot be obtained, it is best then for the flux to be
basic, so that it will reduce impurities in the weld metal.
The most ideal flux will be metallurgically inactive, which
means that the composition of the deposited weld metal
DRY MIX FORMULATION will be the same as the composition of the welding elec-
trode.This is not possible over the entire range of welding
electrode compositions available, and thus a loss or
buildup of certain elements may occur. The flux can be
ADO BINDER AND WET MIX
used to increase the amount of alloy added to the deposit.
Alloying elements can be added via the electrode or the
flux. In general, it is more economical to add alloying ele-
BAKE ments through the flux.This is particularly important when
doing surfacing or when welding on alloy base metals.
Sizing is established by means of controlled mesh
GRIND TO SIZE
screens set to bot.h the upper and lower limits of the size
allowed for each particle. For example, a 12-mesh screen
allows all particle sizes smaller than a certain size to fall
through the screen. At the other end would be a 200-
SCREEN mesh screen, which would keep all the particles except
the very fine particles from falling through.The resulting
flux would have a maximum size allowed through a 12-
PACKAGE
mesh and a minimum size greater than that allowed to fall
through the 200-mesh screen.Too many fines in the flux
FIGURE13-18 Flowchart for manufacturi ng tend to reduce its freezing period so that it cannot be
SUbmerged arc flux. used for high-speed or circumferential welding. Larger
sizes provide for higher-speed welding but allow arc flash
through the layer of flux. Manufacturers provide fluxes
between two limits Since these sizes are recommended
ground, sized, packaged, and ready for use. Figure 13-18 is for most welding applications.
a simplified flowchart that applies to either agglomerated Submerged arc fluxes are classified according to
or bonded fluxes. the mechanical properties of the weld metal made with
Each manufacturing method produces fluxes suit- the specific lectrode wires.Thi information is provided
able for submerged arc welding and each has certain in the section on submerged arc welding. It is based on
advantages and disadvantages. In the case of the fused theAWS specification shown for submerged arc welding.
flux, th high temperatures involved require consider- Consult the specific AWS specificattons, which are re-
ably more energy for production. In addition, many of vised pertodically
the elements used for deoxidation ar partially ex-
pended at the high heat temperature and thus must be
enriched to provld sufficient deoxidizing power for Electroslag Fluxes
Welding.Th advantage is that all the grains of the flux Electro lag fluxes at' similar to submerged arc fluxe ex-
~re uniform in composition, and in g neral the result- cept that they are normally the fused type. Electroslag flux
Ing flux is nonhygroscoptc=-that is. it will not pick \IP perf onus differ ntly during th ~ welding operation than
mOisture. submerged arc fluxes..Theel .t.ri al conducttvtty ofth
In the cas ~of the bonded and agglomerated fluxes, flux makes the electroslag welding Pf9cess.opet'dte.Th .
the temperatures are low r and therefore less energy is flux becomes molten in a pool, anel the electrcde Wire
onsumed. AdditiooaUYI the deoxldtzers are not dlsstpated melts in the heated bath, The resistance of t!lebam to the
and are th refore a 'tl e during the welding op ration. welding urrent flowing between the el··· trod . and the .
The composition of the welding fluxes 'an be var- work mafntain the bath. at th .highev temperature. The
i d to provide rang s ill the melting and s()lic1ification flux is designed to provide a batan .e b twe en COnd\lctiV~
,1~pet'dture .• viscosity, current-carrymg apa ity; arc .sta- ityand bath teJ'llperntllre for.proper e1 ctJ,.'< sl~gvel4itlg,
biJit.y;Weldjllg speedc~pacitYI shape and· app.eal'ance of . In· dditioll, the flux provides. elements i;()..p~i,fY and d '
tb w td, and eaSe f the slag r .n1ovalTJle slag metal te· o idjze ih w Jd ·tn~ta1fU1dfils prohibits ill () g n~td
nitrogen of the air from coming in contact with the
molten weld metal.The electroslag flux must have a lower
Backing Materials
density than steel so that it floats above the molten metal. Backing materials are being used more frequently for
The criteria for selecting electroslag fluxes are welding, Special tapes exist, some of which include small
based on the combination of flux and electrode wire. amounts of flux, which can be used for backing the roots
Tests must be made with standardized electrode wires of joints. There are also different composite backing ma-
and proprietary fluxes to qualify procedures. terials, for one-side welding. No specifications cover
these materials, but more information about them is pro-
vided in Section 26-3. Consumable rings, which are con-
sidered a backing material, are specified by AWSA5.30,
13-7 OTHER WELDING "Specifications for Consumable Inserts." More informa-
tion is given in Section 25-2.
MATERIALS
Other filler metals and special items are normally con-
sumed in making welds. These are the nonconsumable Submerged Arc Flux Additives
electrodes-tungsten, carbon, and other materials, in- Metal powder is sometimes added to submerged arc
cluding backing tapes, backing devices, and flux addi- flux. Additives are provided to increase productivity or
tives. Other types of material consumed in making a weld enrich the alloy composition of the deposited weld
are the consumable rings used for root pass welding and metal. In both cases, the additives are of a proprietary na-
the guide tubes in the consumable guide electroslag ture and are described by their manufacturer, indicating
welding method. Other filler materials are solders, braz- the benefit derived by using the particular additive. Since
ing alloys, and powders. no specifications cover these types of materials, the man-
ufacturer's information is used.
Nonconsumable Electrodes
There are two types of nonconsumable arc welding elec- Electroslag Guide Tubes
trodes, The carbon electrode is a nonfiller metal electrode Two types of guide tubes are in common use for the con-
used in arc welding or cutting, consisting of a carbon sumable guide method of electroslag welding. Guide
graphite rod that mayor may not be coated with copper tubes may be bare or covered. Covered tubes are coated
01' other coatings.The second is the tungsten electrode, de- with a material that has a composition similar to that of
fined as a nonflller metal electrode used in arc welding or the electroslag flux. Both types of tubes are consumed
cutting made principally of tungsten. The American Weld- and the metal part of the tube becomes a portion of the
ing Society does not provide specifications for carbon elec- deposited weld metal. The covered guide tube uses the
trodes, but there is a military specification, MIL-E-17777C, flux coating to augment the flux used in the electroslag
entitled,"Electrodes Cutting andWelding Carbon-Graphite welding process. There is no AWS specification for guide
Uncoated and Copper Coated." This spectfication provides tubes; however, they are normally seamless steel tub s of
a classification system based on three grades: plain, un- a low-carbon composition. Guide tubes are specified by
coated, and copper coated (also copper coated with lock the Inside and outside diameter.The flux covering is pro-
jotnt ends). It provides diameter information, length infor- prietary and compatible with the same manufacturer's
matron, and requirements tor size tolerances, quality assur- electroslag flux. There are 110 specifications for electro-
an I sampling, and various tests. Most manufacturers of slag fluxes.
carbon electrodes provide information indicating the type
and sIze to be used for specific requtrements.Applications
in 'Jude carbon arc weloJng, twin carb narc welding, car- Ceramic Ferrules
bon C lttinS, and ttft' c rbon ar cutting and gouging. eramlc ferrul s are used in the stud welding process.
Th AW sp clflcarton or tungst en electrodes is en. These are small, short hollow cylmders that fit over th
titled "1:\mg.stenArc Wi"lding Electrodes," These ele . end of the stud and protect the molten metal from th at->;
trpdes are.}.14edfor gas tungsten.arc welding, plasma arc mosphere during welding. Th ferrules also helpmold .
W 1dingt ana atomi 'hydrogen ar welding, This specln- the molten weld to an acceptable weld contour, Cerarnlc
'ation provides di!ferel'lt: lases ·of Iectrodes irrvartous ferrul s ar available for all Sizes 0 f'i und studs and for
.diam ten ;t.nd logths an I with two types of ftnlsh.The many squar OJ' rectangular type .Th y are available f.rom
.cl,a,ssjf{.~uonsr late to th omposiuon of the tungst -'.11, th . stud m.anufa 'turer and. ate made to .tit the stl.1qsize
wb tb.e~ i. i pur' tungsten OJ', tUt gst n with small avaUabl ,A fet'julels used. only once and is .asHy b.roken
artt urit80~'1'afe earth elemeJ: t added t impT Jve e1e~· away from the weld Since it is very britt) .Manufacturers
tio~ezyti$~i6J,}rb"tl1f9:rrnauon '.oncerning tungsten clec- of studs proVi.d th~cerami fcremes. NQ sp cUi ation
tl'odc$w~s overed itl Section 5...~. exist;fj f th seitems.
Solders molten metal is fed into a blast of water, air,or inert gas.
This blast atomizes the liquid metal, which immediately
There are many different solder compositions, and they solidifies and forms small particles. The type of liquid or
are considered filler materials. Specifications for solder gas blast has an effect on the purity, shape, and non-
are issued by the American Society for Testing and Mate- metallic content of the powder particles. The shape of
rials.Information about the different solders was summa- each individual particle also relates to the atomizing tech-
rized in Section 7-3. nique. Inert gas atomization produces the highest-quality
powder.
Brazing Filler Metals and Fluxes The individual particles are then screened by pass-
ing them through sieves of different sizes,where they are
The brazing alloys are covered by a specification issued classified according to particle size. Classifications are
by the American Welding Society shown previously. In- based on theASTMStandard Ell, which relates mesh num-
formation about the different brazing alloys was summa- bers to particle sizes. Different powder sizes are used for
rized in Section 7-2, and brazing fluxes were also different processes and applications. For thermal spraying,
described in Section 7-2. including flame spraying and plasma spraying,the powder
sizes are very small.Laser beam deposits usually use larger
Powders particle sizes,due to high heat of the laser beam.
Powders are produced in many different analyses,
Filler metals used for some thermal spraying processes, such as stainless steel powders, nickel-base powders,
for the PTAprocess, and sometimes for laser welding may cobalt-base powders, tool steel powders, and nonferrous
be in the form of fine powder. The powder is fed into the metal-base powders. The application dictates the com-
thermal spray stream, the plasma arc stream, or the laser position of the powder, and the process dictates the par-
beam and is melted and carried to the work surface, ticle size to be used. There are no specifications for
Where it is deposited. Powders are usually metal but may powder analysis;however, they follow normal specifica-
be ceramic or even plastic. These are used to provide a tions for stainless steel, tool steel, and superalloys.As'FM
specific surface (i.e., to give the part necessary wear or provides specifications for some thermal spray powders.
CorrOSion resistance). Metal powders are commonly
Used for these applications. In many cases the metal for
the desired surface is nonductile and cannot be drawn Strip Electrodes
into a wire. Strip electrodes are used for overlaying, usually stainless
The powder is produced by atomization. This steels. They come in different thicknesses and widths.
means that the metal is melted in a furnace with an air There are no specifications covering the size.The analysis
atmosphere or under gas protection or in vacuum. The is covered by the steel specifications,
QUESTIONS
13-1. What are the four basic filler metals? 13-11. How are cut: lengths of stainless steel rods ident.ified?
13-2. What is the difference between AWS and ASMEspec- 13·12. What different pa kages ate avatlab! for solid, bare
ifications for welding filler metals? electrode Wit s?
13-3. Who tests and certifies welding ftller metals? 13-13. How are cast and helix
, . , measured? .ij.'ow
do they affect
13-4. List t11 major functions of a coating on a covered welding!
electrode. 13-14. What is the function of th cor of a flux-cored lee-
13-5. What is a low-hydrogen coating? trade?
13·6. How are electrodes reconditioned after they be- 13-15. Explain the sp ciflcationsystemfor flu» OJ' d steel .
come damp? el ctrodes, .
13·7. Explain, fingernaiU.og and the reason for it. 13-16, Why-'is electrode 'wir· less e~periSive-··when i:)t;~
13-8. How are bare ~oHdsteel electrode specified? Give an
chas din lafge.rpac.K-il.ses? . ..
example. 13-1'1. What welding proc .58 S nonrJally us fJqs:?'
What is the purpose f a thin c pp r COtltitlg on a 13·18.
bare electrode Wire? 13-19·
In GMAW can argon-oxyg .1 shielding gas be substi- 13·~O.
tuted fQf CO:ashieIdin.g gas fOr welding. arbon steel?
OUTLINE
or size of the nozzle, the gas flow rate, side winds, and the
1"4...1 Shiekling Gases
purity of the shielding gases.
14-2· Puel rases forWeldlng and Cutting Shielding gases are either inert or active. Inert gases
,14""3 AttPo$phere Gases will not combine chemically with other elements. TIlere
·l4~4 .. Gas COfltalnersandAppaf:atuses
< are only six inert gases: argon, helium, neon, crypton,
xenon, and radon .All of these except argon and helium are
too rare and expensive to be used for gas shielded weld-
ing. Inert gases must be used with the gas tungsten arc
14 ..1 SHIELDING GASES welding process and are normally used for welding non-
ferrous metals with gas metal arc welding. SeeANSI/AWS
The purpose of shielding gas is to protect the arc area from A5.32 specifications for welding shielding gases.i'?
the atmosphere. The shielding gas displaces the air and Active gases are either oxidizing or reducing. Active
does not allow th atmospheric gases-nitrogen, oxygen, gases will combine with molten metal. Oxidizing gases in-
small amounts of argon, CO2• and water vapor-to come clude any gas that contains oxygen. Reducing gases are
into ontact with the molten metal, el ctrode, 01' arc. any gas that attracts oxygen. Following is a brief descrip-
AU the arc welding processes have some rnecha- tion of the different gases used for arc shielding, Pure
ntsm for shi Jding the arc area from the atmosphere. In gases and mixtures of two or three gases are employed. A
shielded metal arc welding the disintegration of the coat- better understanding of each gas will provide a basis for
ing ere res gas that protects the molten metal from th at- understanding the reasons for different gas mlxtures.
mosphere. In flux ored arc welding the disintegration of Properties of gases used are shown in Table 14-1.
the ore material, which may be supplern nted by shield- Several properties of gases hay an eff ct on weld-
ing gas, provtd s shielding from thearmosphere. In car- Ing. Most of the gases are nontoxic but are an asphyxiant,
bon at. welding th slow disintegration of the carbon meaning that a concentration of this gas will create. uf-
ele erode ere res CO2 gas, which shields th molten fo ation due to the absence of oxygen.Too much oxygen
met l, and in submerged arc welding th granular flux or too much nitrog n in the breathing atmosphere will
p uforms this function. POt~gas m ~tal arc welding and gas> " cause.damage to humans.
tungsten arc
welding, the shtelding gases mu t be sup- \ The specific gravity relates to the weight of the gas.
pIled. and d~t',ceed around the ar area. to provtdeprotec- With respect to air.The specifi ~ g~ravityof air is 1~Lignt*
uon from theatmolijJhere, The t'econda1'Y purpose of the weightgases such as helium will float away and will not,
NbJ,el1if;'lBg, . s to e$tahUs!1 th .metal tl'ans:~cr mode nod be au efficlentsfueld, Heavier gas swill displac air J11 en-
the depo ·it:ed w Jd charact ristfcs, closed areas,
. l'h¢ sni "Wing fficien '.y r lares to how well the Thermal onduCtiVity relates to th 'h 'Lt in the, arc
shi'lding glses displac th "Htm )sphcr ftom th ~rc column ~111dwh ther it will creat~a small r lars r 3.rc
atea',1'hts d pMdsQn the de~i n of ch nO:7.z1·, the dis- .'OlLtnlO. Another factor Is howfas the h at will travellfl
tfinc ·.!t'Qmthe Ii-. zzle . ~o the w . ~:k,the internal·diJl,meter
, .. .' . the ga .
TABLE 14-1 PROPERTIES
OFINERTANDACTIVE
GASES
Carbon
Property Air Argon Dioxide Helium Nitrogen Oxygen Hydrogen
International symbol Air Ar CO2 He N2 O2 H2

and cylinder
marking
Type of gas Mixture Inert Active Inert Not true Active Active
oxidizing oxidizing inert gas oxidizing reducing
Structure Monatomic Diatomic Monatomic Diatomic Diatomic Diatomic
Molecular weight 28.98 39.94 44.01 4.003 28.016 32.00 2.016
BOiling point (at 1 atm)
of -317.8 -302.6 -109a -452.1 -320.5 -297.3 -422.9
°C -194 -184 -178 -269 -196 -182 -252
Specific volume (ft2-lb) 13.4 9.67 8.76 96.71 13.8 12.1 192.0
at 70°F, 1 atm
Density (lb/ft3) at 0.0749 0.1034 0.1125 0.0103 0.0725 0.0828 0.0052
70°F and 1 atm
Specific gravity (air = 1) 1.000 1.380 1.530 0.137 0.967 1.105 0.069
Thermal conductivity 0.0140 0.0093 0.0085 0.0823 0.0146 0.0142 0.096
(Btu/hr)
Ionization potential 15.7 14.4 24.5 15.51 12.5 15.6
(electron volts)
Maximum allowable 100% Nontoxic Nontoxic Nontoxic Nontoxic, 25% Nontoxic
concentration asphyxiant 5,000 ppm asphyxiant 82% asphyxiant
aSublimes directly from a solid to a gas at -109°F (-178°C) and a pressure of 1 atm.
Note: The shipping containers of all these gases (except hydrogen) would be marked "Nonflammable Compressed Gas." The shipping containers
of hydrogen would be marked "Flammable Compressed Gas."
Ionlzatton potential establishes the ease of arc initi-

ation and arc stability. The lower the ionization potential,
the easier it is to start the arc. The higher the ionization
potential, the hotter the arc.
Gases are diatomic or monatomic. A diatomic gas
demonstrates disassociation of the molecules in the arc.
This process absorbs heat energy, followed by recombi-
nation away from the arc, which releases latent heat.
MOn.'ltomic gases do not disassociate in the arc.
The most important cbaracteristic of a shielding gas
is its pUrity. In all cases the purity must exceed 99%.This
is governed by specitt ations that are shown for each gas.
Gas Shielding Efficiency

With gas shield d arc welding processes, specifically gas FIGURE 14-1 GTAW weld surfaces.
'tllngsten arc, ga m tal ar • and flu -cored arc welding
With external gas shielding, the quality of the weld de-
pends on the efficiency of the atmospheric-prote tion J •. Insufficient ~I:ljetd:ing-gas ~lue to breezes) !ow,flow
prOVided by th s111Iding gas. Fi.gure 14-1 shows the ra.tesi~:tld/orlligl'lstand ffdistanc'e' ' ,
urface of a gas tungsten arc w ld on aluminum with 2. Ins\lffi, lent shlldi,tlg due todef ct$ Of th sbit'!lditlg
proper gas shielding and with an inefficient shield. gas ~lellvery system
ig\ire 1 -2 shows a gl s metal arc weldon carbon steel
3. Impure 51 ielding gas
With an eftki ent shield and au inefftctent sht ld.The fol-
lOWing factofsadv rsely affect the efftci ncy of the gas
Shieldin~; " .' .
have replaceable elements that must be replaced as they
become saturated.
Gases for Shielding

Argon Argon has no color, odor, or taste, and is rela-
tively plentiful compared to the other inert gases. A mil-
lion cubic feet of air contain 93,000 ft3 of argon. It is
separated from air by liquefying the air under pressure
and low temperatures; it is then allowed to evaporate by
raising the temperature. The argon boils off from the liq-
uid at a temperature of 2302.6°F (2184°C). For welding,
the purity of argon is approximately 99.99%. Argon is rel-
FIGURE14-2 GMAW weld surfaces. atively heavy, approximately 23% heavier than air. It is
used as a shielding medium for gas tungsten arc welding
and for gas metal arc welding of nonferrous metals. Argon
and doors and the use of ventilating fans for the welder's has a relatively low ionization potential.The arc voltage of
comfort. The solution is to provide small windbreaks or the gas tungsten arc in argon is lower than in helium. The
shields in the arc area. In field welding the welder can use welding arc tends to be stable in argon, and for this rea-
his body to shield the arc area from the breeze.Temporary son it is used in many shielding gas mixtures. Argon is
enclosures are often used for welding high-rise buildings nontoxic but can cause asphyxiation in confined spaces
and for pipelines. Shielding gas flow can be increased; by replacing the air.Argon is specified by Military Speci-
however, this can be expensive.The welder will immedi- fication MIL-A-1845SB.
ately notice the deterioration of weld appearance that in-
Helium Helium is the second lightest gas. It is one-
dicates poor shielding efficiency.
seventh as heavy as air. It is inert; has no color, odor, or
Gas delivery system problems affect the shielding ef-
taste; and is nontoxic. In liquid form it is the only known
ficiency. In gas metal arc welding the most prevalent prob-
substance to remain fluid at temperatures near absolute
lem is spatter buildup on the gas nozzle, which impairs
zero. Helium is obtained from natural gas,and in the Texas
gas flow.Whenusing CO2, freezing the regulator will stop
fields Itrepresents 2% of the volume. It is found in natu-
gas flow. Other problems are broken hoses or loose hose
ral gas in Canada and in Russia. Helium has the highest
connections withiu the wire feeder, the welding gun, 01' at
ionization potential of any shielding gas, and for this rea-
the gas supply cylinder. Inoperative solenoid valves, gun
son a gas tungsten arc in helium has an extremely high arc
switch S, Or control relays may also be a problem.
voltage. Because of this, arcs in an atmosphere of helium
In g!IS tungsten arc welding, spatter buildup is not a
produce a greater amount of heat. Helium's light weight
probl :01; instead, leaking hoses, racked tubing, and loose
causes it to float away from the arc zone, producing an in-
connections can be th problem. A specific problem is
efficient shield unless higher flow rates are employed. For
encountered With cable assemblies when water tubes
overhead welding, this can be helpful. It is often mixed
and gas tubes are together; water leaks can get in the gas
with other gases for gas metal ar welding. Helium is ex-
sl.lpply hos, . and reate trouble. ertain kinds of tubing
pensive for weldtng and is sometimes in scarce supply.
deterlorateln tim ~and should be repla ed. Maintenance
H UUUl is specified by Federal Speciftcation 88-tl-11688 .
..of t1'1 gass\lpply system S110\.l]Obe performed routinely
or Iftbere.isasuspicion ofl~ks. Carbon Dioxide Carbon dioxide is a compound of
The third. fa tor r lates to the purity of shielding about 27% carbon and 72% oxygen. It is made of two oxy-
gas. This 1.S l'(:trety the probl P1 sin e gas suppliers main- gen atoms joined with a singl atom of carbon. At normal
tain constant. necks on gas purfty.lf t11. C is a Btl ptcton __ atmospheric temp rature and pressure itt lodes' and
thata.cyllnder' hastrnpure gas, It should be switched and nontoxic and does not burn. It has a faintly pungent odor
a new cylh:)der u ed.If there is still a suspicion of the gas, nd a slightly acid taste. It is about 1Mtimes heavier than
al~'gas SUPJ?,llCl'can malt ';ro asuremente to determine air, and in-confined spaces itwUl displace the air. At -ele.-
th ga.s·p1.J,fjiy. In general, theput'ity problem relates to vated temp ratures it wUI disassociate into oxygen and
mojstuf¢ i,q th.~ g~.s.Thesp cifications for gM S Include carbon rnonoxlde.In tit welding are, disassociation takes
h miulrnum dew poil t t mperature, which relat s to place to the extent that 20% to 30% of the gas in the arc
moist;\.lI">in t1 e gas. it can] e mea Hr d with portabl in- ar Il. is carbon monoxide and oxygen. Thus CO2 ha xi-
,strum·. fits :tnd an tie related, to tne st~n}dard,Pew POint dJzing cha11l. teristics in th welding at .As the arbon
. is;QVl r~d ~Ote "thptfn:l.Shly it;l 11 . {oLlpW-illS section otr monoxide leaves th arc area. it quickly recotnbineswlth
, .atbolt dio;!;icl¢g{tlif:tbisls~aprObl<::m} and it call be ill oxyg n to It rin '02, Elctensive measul' ments have b~en
c:~tropiC~tr o'un1;ri 5, aQ In"lin~ fUti:' can PU ·ed. >Ph se mad ,an.d it has be n found th~t tll~ arbon monoxide
level at a distance of 7 in. (175 mm) from the welding arc
Welding with the Different Gases,
is 0.01% or 100 ppm, which is regarded as a safe limit for
carbon monoxide gas.At a distance of 12 in. from the arc, The composition of the gas shielding envelope can be a
the carbon monoxide concentration is 0.005%. A con- single or pure gas; a mixture of two gases, known as du-
centration of 5,000 ppm of carbon dioxide is considered plex mixtures; or a mixture of three gases, known as tri-
a safe level. Ventilation should be provided to keep the mix gases. Mixtures combine inert and active gases.
CO2 level below this concentration. (2) For GTAW,inert gases normally are used for hield-
Carbon dioxide can exist simultaneously as a solid, ing. Mixtures employing a small amount of an active gas
liquid, and gas at its triple point. At atmospheric pressure, are sometimes used. Mixtures of two inert gases are often
solid CO2 (dry ice) transforms directly to a gas without used, and sometimes a reducing gas is included.
paSsing through the liquid phase; that is, it sublimes. At With GTAW,the pure inert gases do not provide good
temperatures and pressures above the triple point and arc characteristics when welding steel. However, pure CO2
below 87°F in a closed cylinder, carbon dioxide liquid does provide good arc characteristics. For GMAW,argon
~nd gas exist in an equilibrium. This is normally the way with small amounts of oxygen improves the penetration
It OCcurs in high-pressure cylinders. pattern and bead contour and eliminates undercut due to
. Carbon dioxide is manufactured from flue gases, the wetting action. Argon with carbon dioxide is a popu-
swen off by burning natural gas, fuel oil, or coke. It is also lar mixture for welding steels.The triple-mix gases, usually
a by-product of the calcination operation of lime kilns, argon with CO2 and oxygen or argon with CO2 and helium,
from the manufacturing of ammonia, and from the fer- have specific advantages to be mentioned later.
m~ntation of alcohol.The CO2 gas is cleaned, purified, and It is important to select the correct gas mixture
drted. The purity of carbon dioxide gas can vary consid- when using gas tungsten arc or GTAWand for welding a
erably, depending on the process of manufacture. The fed- particular base metal. Following is a review of the gases
eral specification covers two classifications of CO2, Grade and gas mixtures and their use for arc shielding.v"
B,nonmedical, type 1,with very little moisture content for Argon.Plus Oxygen For GTAW,very small additions of
special uses, covers welding-grade CO2, The purity speci- oxygen, less than 1%, help to stiffen the arc. Oxygen is
fied for welding-grade CO2 gas is a minimum dew point
temperature of -40oP (-40°C). Table 14-2 shows the
dew point of CO2 versus the percent of moisture in the
FIGURE14-3 Dew point testing instrument.
gas.TIle standard provides a minimum dew point of -40oP
(- O°C);however, many manufacturers produce welding-
grade CO2 gas with a dew point temperature as low as
-70°F (- 57°(:). This gas has a moisture content of
0.~091 % by weight and/or 9 parts per million (ppm). Dew
po.mt can be measured using portable instruments, Too
much moisture in the gas will cause weld porosity CO2 is
Covered by Federal Specification BBC-iolA. Figure 14-3
Shows a dew point testing instrument. ,
TABLE14-2 DEW POINT VERSUS PERCENTAGE

OF MOISTURE IN CO2
Oew Point
Moisture MOist'ure
QF °C (% by weight) in CO2 (ppm)
-90 -68 0,00021 2
-80 -62 0.00043 4
-70 -57 0.00091 9
-60 -51 0.00188 19
-50 -46 0.00365 36
-40 -40 0.0066 66
-30 -34 0.0120 120
-20 -29 0.0218 218
-10 -2$ 0.,0354 354
0 -17.8 0.05'90 590·
- 10 -12.2 0.0980 980

used for DC electrode negative (DCEN) of aluminum. It is welds is not as good as desired.Adding 50% to 75% argon
also used for thin steels, including stainless steels. to nitrogen produces a higher-quality weld. Nitrogen is
With GMAW;arc transfer characteristics are strongly not used as a shielding gas in North America.
influenced by the shielding gas composition. In mixtures,
the amount of current needed to reach the transition Argon Plus Carbon Dioxide Argon plus carbon dio:x-
ide is not used for GMAW For GMAW one of the most
point diminishes as the percent of CO2 decreases. Poor
popular mixtures is 75% argon and 25% CO2, However,
bead contour and penetration pattern obtained with
outside North America the more popular mixture is 80%
pure argon are improved with the addition of oxygen.
argon and 20% CO2, It is widely used on thin steel, where
Oxygen is normally added in amounts of 1% to 2%, or 3%
deep penetration is not necessary and where bead ap-
to 5%.This provides for spray transfer. The amount of oxy-
pearance is important. It provides improved appearance
gen is limited to 5%.The weld bead profile is shown in
over 100% CO2, Spatter is reduced. It is also helpful for
Figure 14-4. The more oxidizing the shielding gas, the
out-of-position welding, on thin sheet metal, and when
more important it is to select a welding electrode that
fitup is poor.
contains sufficient deoxidizers to overcome the loss of
silicon, manganese, and aluminum. More oxygen would Carbon Dioxide One hundred percent carbon diox-
lead to the formation of porosity in the deposit. Oxygen ide shielding produces broad, deep-penetration welds.
improves the penetration pattern by broadening the Bead contour is good and there is no tendency toward un-
deep penetration finger at the center of the weld. It also dercutting. Compared to inert gases, CO2 is relatively in-
improves the bead contour and eliminates the undercut e:xpensive. The chief drawback of CO2 shielding is the
at the edges of the weld, due to better wetting action. tendency for the arc to be somewhat violent. This can
Argon Plus Helium GMAW uses argon-helium mix- lead to spatter and makes welding of thin materials diffi-
tures for welding nonferrous metals. The addition of he- cult. This is the reason for the argon-Coj mixtures. Car-
lium in percentages of 50% to 75% raises the arc voltage bon dioxide should not be used for GTAW CO2 is
and increases the heat in the arc. It is useful for welding commonly used for flux-cored arc welding.
heavy thicknesses of aluminum, magnesium, and copper, Ternary Mixtures of Gases Commonly called tri-mix
and for overhead-position welding. With the higher per- gas, shielding gases containing three gases are becoming
centages of helium, the speed and quality of AC welding more popular. Normally, the mixtures use argon with oxy-
of aluminum is improved. The 25% a1'gon-75% helium gen and CO2, and sometimes argon, CO2, and helium. In the
mixture is used for the gas tungsten hot wire variation. Iiqueflcauon of argon, the raw argon contains about 2%
The argon plus helium mixture is also used for GMAW of oxygen before final purlficatlon.The impure argon is then
nonferrous metals. mixed with CO2, which provides a trl-mix of 70% argon,
2% oxygen, and the remainder CO2.This mixture is popu-
Argon Plus Hydrogen Argon with the addition of
lar for welding steels. Another tri-rnix adds a small amount
small amounts of hydrogen increases the arc voltage and
of helium to the argon-Oj mixture.This tends to increase
increases the heat In th arc. Mixtures of argon containing
the arc voltage and provide higher deposition rates.
up to 5% hydrogen. are used for welding nick J and nickel
Various other mixturesof gases are becoming avail-
alloys ,1n<1for welding heavier sections of austenitic statn-
able that offer specific features or advantages. Gas sup'
less steels. Mixtur s of argon with LIP to 25% hydrogen are
pliers provide specific compositions and applications.
used for welding thick metals that have high heat conduc-
tivity, such as copper.lr has an advantage in high-speed au- This includes high-performance shielding gas mixtures
that provide higher deposition rates or higher travel
tomatic welding. Hydrogen additions .annor be used for
sp eds. Most of these gases are three-component mix-
welding 111lld Of Jow-alloy.sreels due to the problem of hy-
tures that contain helium. Use of these gases increases tbe
drogen pickup. Hydrogen should not be used with alu-
min im ann magt). stum, arc VOltage,and in many cases the user is expected to use
a 1 nger wire stick-out, increasing the 12R heating of the
Argon ~l\Js Nitrogen In som ,.countries pure nitrogen welding el ctrode beyond the tip.The higher voltage and
is l1S d f r .•MAW of copper, The quality of the resulting \the ext nded electrode wire increase the energy in the
\ .
ShieldIng gas rel~tedtoweld profile for DeEP.

arc and increase deposition rates. Proprietary shielding drogen that will react with oxygen to produce ,a flame
gases of this type are TIME gas, Stargon gas, and others. having a temperature above the melting point of most
The gas suppliers claim improved weld deposit proper- metals. Nonhydrocarbon fuel gases should not be used
ties. It is wise to investigate these gases thoroughly under for welding since their products of combustion are
Laboratory and production conditions. Laboratory tests toxic.
should obtain all data and compare improved deposition The fuel gas-oxygen reaction is in two steps. The
or travel speed versus the extra cost of the gas. Table 14-3 primary reaction produces carbon monoxide and hydro-
sUmmarizes the more popular shielding gas mixtures. gen plus heat:
fuel gas + O2 ~ CO + H2 + heat
14-2 FUEL GASES FOR WELDING The secondary reaction, which uses oxygen from the air,
will oxidize the carbon monoxide and hydrogen to car-
AND CUTTING bon dioxide and water vapor plus additional heat:
Oxygen and sometimes air is used with various hydro-
air +CO + H2 ~ CO2 + H20 + heat
carbon fuel gases for producing heat by means of chem-
ical combUstion. These fuel gases, usually with oxygen, This complete combustion reaction produces a large
are used for soldering, brazing, welding, oxygen cutting, amount of heat known as the gross beat Of combustion
flame spraying, flame hardening, and flame straighten- (heat of primary reaction plus heat of secondary reac-
ing. The major fuel gases are acetylene, natural gas, liquid tion).This is given in Btu per pound of fuel gas or Btu per
petroleum gases (propane and propylene), and synthetic cubic foot of fuel gas or calories.
gases Such as methylacetylene propadiene.The only fuel The properties of fuel gases are given in Table 14-4.
gases used for welding are compounds of carbon and hy- The table shows the flame temperatur s of each in oxygen
TABLE 14-3 SUMMARY OF SHIELDING GASES AND MIXTURES AND THEIR USE (NORTH AMERICA)
Shielding Gas Gas Reaction GMAW and FCAW

Pure gases
Argon, Ar Inert Nonferrous All metals
Helium, He Inert Nonferrous AI, Mg, and copper and alloys
Carbon dioxide, CO2 Oxidizing Mild and low-alloy steels, some Not used
stainless steels
'fwe-component mixtures
Argon mixtures
Argon + 20...,50%
helium Inert AI, Mg, and Cu and alloys AI. Mg, and Cu and afloys
Argon + 1-2% CO2 Oxidizing Stainless and low-alloy steels Not used
Argon + 3-5% CO2 Oxidizing Mild, low-alloy, and stainless steels Not used
Argon + 20-30% CO2 Slightly Mild and low-alloy steels, some Not used
oxidized stainless steels
Argon + 2-4% He Reducing Not used Nickel and aHoy and'
austenitic stainless steel
Helium mixtures AI and alloys, Cu and alloys AI and alloys, Cu and alloys
Helium + 25% argon Inert AI and alloys, Cu and alloys AI and alloys, eu and alloys
CO2 mixtures
CO2 + up to 20% O2 Oxidizing Mild and low-alloy steels Not used
(used in Japan)
CO2 +3-10% O2 Oxidizing Mild and low-alloy steels .Not used
(used in Europe)
Three-compo'nent mixtures
Helium mixture
Helium 7.5% Inert Stainless steel and low-alloy steels .Not used
Ar + 2.5% CO2
Argon mixtures
.CO2 + 3-10% O2 + Qxii:jizing Mild steels (used 111 Europe2
15% CO2
TABLE 14-4 PROPERTIES
OFFUELGASES(FROMREFERENCE
3)(3)
Methyl Acetylene
Property Acetylene Hydrogen Methane Propadiene Propane Proplene Natural Gas
International symbol and cylinder C2H2 H2 CH4 CH3C:CH (MPS) CH3Ha C3H6 MET
marketing (LP gas) (PRY)
Molecular weight 26.036 2.016 16.042 40.07 44.094 42.078 Similar to
methane
Specific gravity of gas (air = 1) 0.91 0.069 0.55 1.48 1.56 1.48 0.56
Specific volume of gas at 60°F 14.5 192.0 23.6 8.85 8.6 9.5 23.6
and 1 atm (ft3)
Specific gravity of liquid 0.576 0.507 0.527
Lb/gal of liquid at 60°F 4.80 4.25 4.38
Density of gas (lb/ft3) 0.0680 0.0052 0.0416 0.113 0.115 0.105 0.0424
Boiling point (at 1 atm)
of -119.2 -422.9 -258.6 -9.6 -43.8 -53.9 -161
°C -84 -252 -161 -23.1 -42.1 -47.7 -107
Flame temperature (neutral)
In oxygen of 5600 4800 5000 5300 4600 5250 4600
°C 3100 2650 2775 2925 2550 2900 2550
In air OF 4700 4000 3525 3200 3840 3150 3525
°C 2600 2200 1950 1760 2100 1730 1950
Ratio of oxygen to fuel gas required 1 to 1 0.5 to 1 1.75 to 1 2.5 to 1 3.5 to 1 4.5 to 1 2 to 1
for combustion
Ratio of air to fuel gas required for 11.9 2.38 9.52 21.83 24.30 21.83 10.04
combustion
Gross heat of combustion
Btu/lb 21,600 52,800 23,000 21,000 21,500 22,000 24,000
Btu/ft3 1,500 344 1,000 2,500 2,500 2,400 1,000
Flammable limits in air by volume (%) 2.5-81 4-75 5.3-15 2.4-11.7 2.2-9.5 2.0-10.3 5.3-14
Max. allowable concentration in TLVs Nontoxic Nontoxic Nontoxic Nontoxic Nontoxic Nontoxic Nontoxic
asphyxiant asphyxiant up to 9 1,000 PPM asphyxiant up to 25
Note; The shipping containers of these gases would all be marked "Flammable Compressed Gas."
and in air. Flame temperature in oxygen is always much water and calcium carbide. This is sometimes done at
higher than in air.The flame temperature and heat of com- plant sites in acetylene generators.Acetylene is nontoxic;
bUstion are indications of the amount of work that can be however, it is an anesthetic and, if present in sufficiently
done by the fuel gases. However, when comparing the high concentration, it is an asphyxiant in that it replaces
cost of using different gases, it is important to consider the oxygen and will produce suffocation.
~tio of fuel gas to oxygen required for combustion. This
IS necessary so that the cost of both the fuel gas and the
COstof oxygen are combined to obtain the total gas cost.

Hydrogen
These data are theoretical since in actual use a portion of Hydrogen (Hi> is the lightest gas and is present in the at-
the oxygen required for total combustion comes from the mosphere in concentrations of about 0.01% at lower alti-
air surrounding the flame. For example, the combination tudes. Hydrogen may also be present in the arc area from
of acetylene and oxygen for the primary reaction is a 1: 1 water vapor resulting from the products of combustion
tatio.The additional oxygen required for the secondary re- and also from high temperature reaction with hydrocar-
action requires 1.5 units of extra oxygen; therefore, the to- bons that might be present. Hydrogen is soluble in
tal ratio of oxygen to acetylene is 2.5 rather than 1.This is molten steel but the solubility at room temperature is
determined by working out the chemistry of both the pri- very low. As molten weld metal cools and solidifies, the
mary and secondary reactions. The primary reaction is hydrogen is rejected from the solution and becomes en-
produced in the inner cone and the secondary reaction in trapped in the solidifying weld metal. It will coUect at
the Outer envelope of the flame. grain boundaries or at discontinuities of any type where
. Another important consideration is specific grav- it will create high pressures, and cause high stresses
Ity. Hydrogen is the lightest of all gases. Propane, propy- within the weld. These pressures and stresses lead to
lene, and methylacetylene are all heavier than air. minute cracks in the weld metal that can develop into
Acetylene is slightly lighter than air. Methane and natural larger cracks. The small concentrations of hydrogen that
gas are Slightly over half the weight of air. Some of the appear on the fractured surface are known as fish eyes be-
fuel gases would tend to float away into the atmosphere cause of their characteristlc appearance. Hydrogen also
whUe others would collect in low spots, in enclosed ar- causes underbead cracking in the heat-affected zone. Hy-
eas of weldments, or in pits and bottoms of tanks. This is drogen Will, however, gradually escape from the solid
a very important safety consideration since fuel gas leak- steel over a period of time. This migration of hydrogen
age can occur. from the weld metal is accelerated if the temperature of
Another safety factor is the flammability limits in the metal is increased.
air.Acetylene will burn in air with a minimum of 2.5% to Hydrogen can be used as a fuel gas and originally
a maximum of 81%. This is the widest range of any fuel was an important commercial fuel gas. Its flammabl lim-
gas; however,. hydrogen is almost as wide. The other gases its in air range from 4% to 7S%.Whel1 hydrogen is burned
are much lower. This means that acetylene is the most in either oxygen or air, the flame temperature is lower
dangerous, since it will ignite in any percentage with air than that of acetylene, It requires less oxygen for com-
between these two limits. Table 14-4 also shows the plete combustion but does not produce sufficient gross
threshold limit values (fLV) of the different gases. heat of combustion for industrial welding.
Acetylene Methane
Acetylene (C2H0 is a compound of carbon and hydrogen. Methane (CH.) is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, flamma-
Tt is a colorless flammable gas slightly lighter than air. ble gas. It is generally considered nontoxic, and concen-
Acetylene of 100% purity is odorless, but the commercial trations of up to 9% 'an beinhaled without apparent ill
gt'tlde has a distinctive garlic odor. Acetylene burns in air effects, MethaneIs the major component of natural gas.
With an intensely hot, yellow, lumlnous, and smoky flame. Ins s parated from: natural gas and can be obtained from .
For safety r ason a etylene is never compressed above petroleum. It is normally shipp d and stor d. in high.
15 PSi (103 kPa).Acetylene cylinders ate made safe by pressur gas cylinders. It can PC shipped in liquid form in
PrOVidhlg a porous rna. s of material inside the yUnder special insulated tanl s at temperatures bc)ow its boiling
hat is saturat d with acetone. Acetylene dissolves in ace- point. It acts in the flame similar to, natural gas,
Jonc and in this mode can b compressed to 250 pSi
0.1750 kg/mm2) without danger:
A etyl ne with oxygen produces the highest flame Natural Gas
tetnpCtat\lI:of any of the fuel sa e .It also has the most
con entrated flame, but it produ s less gro s h at of
:tn.blJStionthan the liquid petroleum gases and the syn-
tneti gases. Acetylen is n1anufa.cturcp by the reaction of
to another; 1,000 Btu per cubic foot is normally accepted been suggested for its TtY. Methylacetylene-propadiene
as a minimum. Natural gas is used in oxygen flame cut- stabilized has a flame temperature in oxygen higher than
ting. Its flame temperature is relatively low and the gross propane but less than acetylene. Its gross heat of combus'
heat of combustion is also relatively low. It is less expen- tion is over 1 1/2 times that of acetylene. It is stored and
sive than other fuel gases and has become quite popular. shipped as a liquefied gas in its own vapor pressure of
It is not used for gas welding or flame hardening because about 60 psi (414 kPa) at 70°F (21.1 °C). These gases are
of its lower flame temperature. It is normally supplied via usually sold by weight and are available in cylinders and
pipeline to industrial sites and is sold by the cubic foot. It in bulk. When using these different fuel gases, different
is usually compressed at the factory. torches and tips are required.
Liquefied Petroleum Gases Selecting Fuel Gases

The liquefied petroleum (LP) gases are propane and The selection of a fuel gas should be based on the gas that
propylene (propene) and butanes. They are by-products will do the best job at the least cost. Necessary properties
of oil refineries and are flammable, colorless, noncorro- would include the flame temperature, the gross heat of
sive, and nontoxic. They have an anesthetic effect, and combustion, and the oxygen-to-fuel gas ratio for combue-
when they displace oxygen in the air, they act as asphyxi- tion.This information is shown in Table 14-4.Some of the
ants. This is an important safety factor since they weigh fuel gases can be used only for heating, for oxygen cut-
approximately 1~ to almost 2 times the weight of air. ting, or for soldering and brazing. They cannot all be used
Pure propane is odorless; however, it is given an ar- for gas welding or for flame hardening. The uses of a par-
tificial odorization, Propylene has an unpleasant odor ticular gas depend on its flame temperature, heat of com-
characteristic of refineries. The flame temperature of bustion, heat distribution in the flame, and coupling
propane is lower than that of acetylene but its gross heat distance. AIl fuel gases can be used for flame spraying;
of combustion is higher, more than l~ times that of acety- however, for spraying high-melting-temperature metals,
lene. Propane is available in pure form and as mixtures. the higher-flame-temperature fuel gases must be used. All
The mixtures contain additives such as ethylene, propy- fuel gases can be used for beating, but the type of heating
lene, or ethyl ether, which increase the flame temperature might dictate the fuel gas. For example, acetylene is a
and the heat of combustion. Additives also increase the more concentrated heat source than the other gases.
price of the gas. Propane base gases are known by such Figure 14-5 shows the flame temperatures for the com-
brand names as Acetogen, Cheml-gas.Flamex, Hy-Temp, mon fuel gases versus the oxygen-to-fuel gas ratio. This is
and Chem-O'Lene. the cubic feet of pure oxygen per cubic foot of fueJ gas.
Propylene has a higher flame temperature than The dot on each curve is the temperature of the neutral
propane but not as high as acetylene. It also has a gross flame. A neutral flame is used when welding steel. TIle
heat of combustion approximately 1!2'times that of acety- temperature of all fuel gas flames increases wh n more
lene. Propylene is also available as pure gas and with ad- oxygen is used.
ditiv .s and is given such trade names as Apachi gas, HPG,
B.T.. , and Ltquifuel ..
The liquefied petroleum gases require considerably FIGURE 14-5 Flame temperatures of fuel gases.
more oxygen for combustion than acetylene. They are 5IlOO ;noo
shipped and stored in the liquefled form in cylinders and
tanks.They n rmaHy do not have pressures exceeding the
375 ps! Q,585kPa).The liquefied petroleum vap rizes in ~C'TYL'N'
the 'YJind :'f and Is discharged as a gas. It is usually sold by
weight~To determine the cubic feet of gas, multiply by the
speCltic 'volume of the gas.
Synth tic Cas s: Methylacetylene-

Propadiene Stahilized ..
. . The '1l1P{'!t popnlar ···synthetlc 'hydrocarbon fuel gas is
.methylftc tyJencplus propadiene (all nej, orneumes
.r ' culled ttWtbyla tfl n -propadi ne stabilized (MPS gas.
It i~-~bY;"l'fOdu 't of th heml"al.industry.lt goes by s • NATURAL.
GAS
. rnl tl'fld nam 5, in h.IGljngMAPP gas and uel-gas,This gas
~~ __ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~2~
lit Ql0rles, , ,£l~tn'unabl • and sligluly .toxic. Til tentative 2 3 If Ii 8
:n:uixil1l.um' COO£Ohtrtrtibno ,1;000 p rts per lplllion has OXVG~N TO fUEl. GAS RATJO
TABLE 14-5 USES OF FUEL GASESWITH OXYGEN
Natural Gas
Used for: Acetylene LPG Propane or Methane MPS Propylene
Heating Not preferred Yes Yes Yes Yes
Torch soldering Yes (in air) Yes (in air) Yes (in air) Yes (in air) Yes (in air)
Torch brazing Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Oxygen cutting Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Flame spraying Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Gas welding of steel Yes No No Marginal No
Flame hardening Yes No No Yes No
For underwater oxygen flame cutting, acetylene cell other gases. Nitrogen, oxygen, and argon are obtained by
be used down to depths of 30 ft, but the methylacetylene- the liquefaction and distillation of air.
propadiene (MPS) gas can be used to depths of 100 ft.Spe-
cial torches are required. Selection information is
sUmmarized in Table 14-5. Oxygen
The ratios of oxygen to fuel gases have an important Oxygen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas that supports
bearing on the cost of the total operation since oxygen is life and makes combustion possible. Oxygen combines
expensive. The amount of oxygen required is difficult to with many elements to form oxides. Oxygen is active and
determine since it depends on the type of torch em- combines with most metals at room temperatures. Oxy-
ployed. A single flame port torch is used for brazing or gen combines with iron to form compounds that can re-
~elding, and a mulriflame port torch is used for flame cut- main in the weld metal as inclusions. As the molten weld
tlUg and heating. Multiport torches have a higher oxygen- metal cools, free oxygen in the arc area will combine with
to-fuel gas ratio since the inner flames are not able to carbon of the steel and form carbon monoxide. This may
obtain Oxygen from the air. Another factor is the heat be trapped in the weld metal as it solidifies. The gases col-
transfer or coupling. This is best done by practical tests. lect into pockets that cause pores 01" hollow spaces. This
The gross heat of combustion is an indication of problem is often overcome by providing deoxidizers in
how much work can be done by a given volume of fuel the filler metal, such as manganese and silicon. These ele-
gas-hence, the amounts of oxygen and fuel gas that are ments will combine with the oxygen to produce ::1.11 ox-
reqUired to do work. The measure of comparison here is ide of manganese or silicon, which will floar to the
to establish welding or cutting procedures that will in- surface of the molten steel.
clude gas use and work travel speeds. This information is The purity of high-pressure oxygen supplied in a
aVailable from torch and gas manufacturers. Then calcu- high-pressure cylinder is 99.61 by volume. The oxygen
late the time required for a specific cut or weld and com- 'used for flame cutting should have this purity. 'When the
pare the results. It is wise to confirm the calculated times purity of oxygen is reduced, the oxidation of the metal be-
by making tests under controlled conditions. In making ing cut is retarded, more oxygen is consumed, cutting
CQtting speed tests, make sure that the most efficient cut- speed is reduced, and the cut quality is reduced. It is re-
tillg tip is used for the conditions being tested. Differ- ported that a 1.% decrease in oxygen purity decrease cut-
ences in tips can be more of a determining factor than ting speed by 10% to 15%. This reduction in purity also
differenc s in gases. Rememb r, the oxygen jet does the increases the consumption of oxyge» by 2,% to 35%. To
Utting. compensate tor reduced purity, the pressure is usually ln- .
It is becoming increasingly important to determine creased, wlu 11contributes further to poorfl:mne cuts\,u"
~le availability of different fu 1 gases. As energy sources faces. Oxygen with a purity blow 97% hould not be used.
ecome more expensive, the cost-usefulness relationship Liquid oxygen is extrem ly cold, -297°F (-183 C) Q
an change, at atmosphere pres ur .Accid ntal ontact of li.qujd xy-

gen will ause severe frostbite to th eyes or skin. Pro-
tective clothing an.a safety goggle~H}tafa.ceshl ]cfmust
be worn when handling liquid 0iKYgen ..'~.
14-3 ATMOSPHEREGASES ;. . "
Combustibles ·!l.'lust be kept' awa .ftQm o:zyg' n,' .
The atmosphere that surrounds th arth provtdee the atr Many.materlals that dQ noc mmnally burn in air1 arid other '
We breathe and, upports li~ .At sea 1 vets its l'ressur is materials that al:' combustible in flJI'. may burn violenrl
apprOXimately 1 .7 psi (1 bar). Its composttioa is ap- In an atruospher high in,oxyg 'n,1\U organic m teeJals
P~OX1lllat Iy 78% oj rog 0, 21% oxyg n, +lOcI 1% argoll) and fianl.f.l1able ub ta.llceS, SU 11as oil. srea~.··r kc_rQsenc,.
W th small a!l1011nts of car bOll dioxide, hydrogen; and·
, t \ •
, wood, 'p~int, taT,a:nd ~()'al 'lu~tlrutlst be~k~pt ~~y:,fro~~~,.,,"
oxygen. An accumulation of oxygen can be hazardous, ment to pipe the gas to the welding or cutting stations.
and therefore proper ventilation is required. Oxygen The design of piping systems is complex and should be
should never be used in place of compressed air. done only by experts who are familiar with safety regula-
The Federal Specification BB-0-925A covers oxygen tions and codes. In bulk form, the gas is supplied as a liq-
for industrial use. Purity must be 99.5% oxygen or greater. uid. The capacity of a bulk system is normally between
3,000 and 1 million cubic feet (84,950 to 28,310,0001).
Nitrogen Carbon dioxide can also be obtained in bulk con-
tainers. The bulk system is only used when supplying a
Nitrogen is the largest single element in the atmosphere. It
large number of welding stations and where use will jus-
is colorless, odorless, flavorless, nontoxic, and is almost an
tify the bulk system.
inert gas. Nitrogen does not burn or support combustion.
There are four basic types of cylinders used for
In the arc, or at high temperatures, nitrogen will combine
transporting welding gases (Table 14-6). In addition,
with other gases. It is soluble in molten iron, but at room
these types of cylinders come in different sizes according
temperature the solubility is very low. During the cooling
to the gas producer. These high-pressure cylinders are
and solidification process, the nitrogen collects in pockets
commonly used for transporting and storing argon, oxy-
or precipitates out as iron nitrites. In very small amounts,
gen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and helium. This same type of
nitrites C4:m increase the strength and hardness of steel. In
cylinder is used for mixtures of these gases and mixtures
larger amounts, nitrogen can lead to porosity in the weld
of argon with CO2, The cylinder of this type is shown in
deposit. The reduction of ductility due to the presence of
Figure 14-6. These cylinders are made under very strict
iron nitrites may lead to cracking of the weld metal. 'The
manufacturing procedures and are covered by variouS
typical purity of compressed nitrogen is 99.8% by volume.
laws. In the United States, the Department of'Transporta-
The dew point is approximately -70°F (- 57°C).
tion provides the regulations. They are made of man-
Liquid nitrogen is very cold, -320°F (-196°C) at at-
ganese steel (3A) or chrome molybdenum steel (3AA),
mosphere pressure.Accidental contact of liquid nitrogen
and each must be inspected, numbered, and reinspected
will cause severe burns to the eyes or skin. Protective
at regular intervals, usually every five years.(4) Typical
clothing and safety goggles or face shields must be worn
cylinder markings are shown in Figure 14-7.
when handling liquid nitrogen. Nitrogen tends to vapor-
There are no uniform standards for cylinder sizes
ize easily, and an accumulation of nitrogen can be haz-
even though different gas companies offer standards
ardous since it does not support life. The Federal
within their own organization. There is no standard color
Specification BB-N-411C covers nitrogen of three puri-
code in the United States for the industrial gases. Some gas
ties; the minimum is 99.50% nitrogen.
producers have standardized cylinder color codes within
Nitrogen is not a true inert gas and should not be
their own organization, however. There is a standardized
used as a shielding gas for welding steel. Nitrogen is used
identification system. (5) Either the total name of the gas or
in some parts of the world for welding copper. It provides
the international symbol of the gas is required on each
an extra·blgh-tempe.ranlre arc that is useful in overcoming
cylinder. Each cylinder must carry a label showing the haz-
the high thermal condu 'tivity of copper when using the
ardous classification of the gas.(O)Thisinformation is given
gas tungsten arc process. Tungsten electrode erosion is
in the two charts showing the propertie of the gases.
V4.'!l'Y high when. using nitrogen. Mixtures of argon and ni-
The valve connections of the different gas cylinders
trogen produce higher-quality welds than nitrogen alone.
have been standardized so that regulators for the same
Nitrogen is oft nus d for purging stainless steel
gas can be readily attached to cylind rs supplied by dif-
pipe and tubing systems. It is much less expensive than ferent gas producing companies.These standards apply J;O
argon, and itkeeps the oxygen away from the root side of North America only.
til weld. Nitrogen is also us d for mamtatnlng positive Carbon dioxide (C02) welding-grade gas is avaUablc
pressures in piping system during testing and cleaning in high-pres ure steel cylinders. Cylinders containing CO~
operanons. . .
are always labeled "C02" and may be labeled "welding
grade," They are usually aluminum colored but no stan-
d. rd color code exists.
14~4 ,GAS CONTAINERS Th standard weldmg-grade carbon dioxide cyun-
r\NDAPPARATUSES
--, '. " - '''' .. " -
der (Figure 14-8) contains approximately 50 lb (22.7 kg)
or 435 ft3 (12,3171) ofcarbon.dioxrde under a pressm;e
.., shi~ldfng.gas· s and fuel gases must be transported, of 1,000 psi (0.7 kg/ram'), In the CO2 cylinder; at 70°F
·stored~~t\davailabJeat -.he. POi1:1t .of us e. The most on- (21.1°C), the carbon diOXide is in both a Ii ]1:d.dand a va-
. ni niwal' is by !)o.rrabl cylinders which are ea ity par ~ rrn. Th liquid carbon dio Jd tak s up approxi-
taken Q ttl job site. For tnstallarlons where a highvol- mately two-thirds 0 the space in the cylinder. AboV' the
."'um .otga6 is-required, til bulk ·Storag . system is us d or liq~lid the CO2 exists as ~lgas. As 1:1:\ ' gas is drawn froru t11
'tb' -'ga}){nla:tl-ufflc:tt~ted. at,hc; Site. TJ;lis requires equip ..
•;; • _ ' '~~!' '; _;,,'OJ - • ,+1 >
cyli_qdet;the 1iq\lJ.d£~rbon dioX'idevaporiz~s to replace-it.
TABLE14-6 . HIGH-PRESSURE GAS CYLINDER TYPES AND SIZES
Full Cylinder Aproximate

Pressure at 70°F Weighta (lb)
Cylinder Cylinder Cylinder Ca~acitya

Identification Type" Contents (ft ) psi kPa Full Empty
Nonflammable DOT type Argon 244 2,200 15,168 158 133

compressed gas 3A or 3AA 330 2,640 1,820 177 143
High Argon + 330 2,640 1,820 177 143
pressure oxygen
High Argon + 379 2,640 1,820 177 143
pressure carbon
dioxide
He nonflammable High Helium 213 2,200 15,168 135 133
compressed gas pressure
HYdrogen flammable High Hydrogen 191 2,015 13,892 134 133
compressed gas pressure
02 nonflammable High Oxygen 330 2,640 1,820 172 146
compressed gas pressure 244 2,200 15,168 153 133
CO2 nonflammable Medium Carbon 435 1,000 6,894 183 133
compressed gas pressure dioxide
liquid +
gas
LPG or LP gas or PRY DOT type liquid Varies by 94 648 Varies by Varies by
or MAPP B 240 under vapor gas and gas and gas and
pressure supplier supplier supplier
C2H2 flammable DOT type Acetylene 390 250 1,724 207 180
compressed gas 8 AL disolvent in
acetone
aThe cylinder capacity and weights vary by supplier.
TIle normal discharge rate of the CO2 cylinder is from The liquefied petroleum gases are transported and
about 4 to 30 ft3/b.r (2 to l4 Izrnin). However, a maximum stored in a different type of cylinder, one that Is made to
diScharge rate of.25 ft3/llf (12 ]/011.11) is normally recom- contain gas at a lower pressure. They are usually larger
mended when welding 11 tng a single cylinder. In cold since the pressure is not so high. They are fila le to DOT
Weather the discharge rate is reduced. As the CO2 vapor specification B2 0 and are similar to the high-pr ssure
pressure drops from the cylinder .pressur to discharge cylinder except that th yare usually larger in diameter.
pressure through the CO2 regulator, it absorbs heat. If flow When a gas is confined to a specific volume, the
~Ltesare too high,this absorption of heat can lead to freez- pressure exerted on the walls.of the ,cylli1dc1,'will vary in
Ing of the CO2 regulator. When this happens, the gas shield direct proportion with the. temperature. Estimating the
is interrupted and weld por sity will result. When flow volume of gas remaining in a cylinder on the basis of
tates higher than 25 Jt3Ih:r (12 l/nun) are required, normal gauge pressure is possible only within very broad limits.
practice is to manifold two CO2 cylinders in parallel or to This is especially true of the Itquefled gases ..
pla .e a heat r between the CO2 cylinder and the pressure Acetylene is transported and stor d in a very spe-
regul<ttor.As the Ilqunf carbon dioxide is used, a drop tn . , cia! type of cylinder (l'igure 14~9), TIlts type 'Of ~ylii1der
pressure will be indicated by the-pressure gauge.When the made to DOT specifi:cation8AL is used only tot acetylJ ne,
pressure ell' ps to 200 psi 0379 kI><.t), the cylinder should As m nttoned previously, it Is filled With ~lPOC01JS mate-
be r placed With a new OIl .A positive pr ssure should al- rial soaked with ac tone and the 'acetylene is dtssol d in
ways b left in the cylinder to pr 'V'. nt moisture and other the ac tone.
COnta:tninants from entering. The valve should be closed. Where users have ~ .sbieldiriggas oroX)rg rrde-
Pressure is not an accurate me~$l.U'ement Qf cylinder mandof 10,000 to20,OUO:ft ·per mOllfh:cryogenic nq~,
Contents. A partie fly us d CO2 cyhnd r should be weighed utd cyltnders can be used (FiStlr 14~10). tryogenic
to ct terntin how much CO2 it sun
contains. To do this, liquid cylinders-ar used. fOJ: argon, carbon dJoXid ) ot",
W jgh th ' cylhlder tll n subtract the t:tre weight (weight trog n, and oxygen. The advantag of the cryogen! ,
0. the ~lilldel' wh 11 empty). Tar weight is usuaU sten_,. cyHllder is that one ryOgclli .C Und 'r is <Juiv~Jent to
Iled on ttl cylindern ck. This gtyes the weight of the 15 to 24 hilh ..ptessu:re ~yUnders tl.UcJ ~hey.·oP. tat llt"
Olltents. At 70°F, there ar~ $4.7 ft3. of CO2 p r PO'J;J:AC}. lower pr¢!SSul·c'. The Cl'yoge1lic cyljnders, ~Qm&111sl!yel1ll.·l
• 1_ • . ft~.- J
REMOVABLE METAL CAP
SAFETY DEVICE
PRESSED STEEL
NECK RING
-9"0.0 51"
FIGURE14-7 Typical number markings on a high-

pressure cylinder.
FIGURE14-8 Cylinder for carbon dioxide.
weigh up to 7001b.The ryogenic Iiquid cylinders are bal'

Hlgh ..pressure gas cylinder. sicaUy insulated vacuum botties,Th gas is stored as a liq-
uid but is vaporized when it is wtthdrawn. The
withdrawal rate 'can be as high as 250 1't3!hr.The. ervjce
pre sure is approximately 200 psi. ryogenl liqnid
cylinder data are shown in. Tabl 14-7. The hose con~
nectars on cryogenic tanks are th sam for the arne gas
as (9.1' h.igh-p:ressu:re cylinders.
REMOVABLE METAL CAP
.' .
. . ·12"1.0
, .'
.. ,
,
,.
. . .
I. '. I "
'.
fl' .
, ,
..
MONOLITHIC FILLER -+--ir....'. , ..
FIGURE14-10 Cryogenic cylinder.
the factory. Different-size tanks are available to. satisfy the

needs of a particular plant.
Apparatus
Various pieces of apparatus are required to use gas from
high-pressure cylinders. These include regulators and
flowmeters or combination units. 'Ihe gas regulator was
described previously. Its function is to' reduce pressure
and provide constant gas flow. Regulators must only be
used for.the gas for which they are designed.
The flowmeter, sometimes caned a rotameter,
contains two components: the adjustable need) valve,
FIGURE 14-9 Cylinder for acetylene. which allows for accurate control of gas flow, and a
slightly tapered transparent tube that contains a float
or indicator (Pigure 14..,.15).Tbe gas enters the flowme-
For fuel gas 'use exceeding the output of a single cyliri- ter through the needle valve and then passes upward
der, the cylinders are manifolded together (FJgure 14-11), through the tapered tube. As it passes upward, the ta-
USl.laUy, flexible tubing is used to connect each cylinder to pered tube is larger and the float is suspended in the
a. manifold, which feeds the plpeltne. In this way higher stream of ga .The high r the flow rate, the high r the
rate of gas can b supplied for multiple-torch flame cutting float will rise in the calibrated tube. The tapered tube
opef'<ltions, For extremely large users of fuel gas, oxygen, or is calibrated tn either cubic feet pet hour Or lnersper
Shielding gases, large liquid {fUlksDr bulk storage tanks are minute -.It is important that the flowmeter'~s calibrated
t1Sed.'l1iese are Jilled from deJjvery trucks arrying liqu fled for gas being used. Different float weights at used for
gas s. Typ! at insulated bulk storag tank for xygetl and gases of different specifi gravities. For' extr ,roely ac- .
,8011 are ShOWl1 in Figure 14-12 for liquid oxyg n and in curate work th Iischarge hea lor th ~ restsran eo. the
Ftglu'e 14;..1 for liquid argon. The fu I ga tank. ho 1in gas sy tent b yond tl e flowmeter must be standard-
1,lbrtlt 1 -14 i n t insulated. Heaters are someumes used ized and re]a~eclto, (be' calibration of theJ.! wm~t r.'A
to Convert. the liq\lfd to' a gas prior t.o piping it through.out typical flowm tet :lttSlG:hed to a :yltndtZ'rj8 :snQwn tnf""
TABLE 14-7 CRYOGENICLIQUIDCYLINDERDATAFOR45-GALLON TYPE
Liquid Capacity" Product Weighta

Gas Capacity
Gas gal I. Ib kg (ft3)
Argon 47.6 180 480 218 4.797 at 235 psi

Carbon dioxide 47.6 180 418 190 3.545 at 350 psi
Nitrogen 47.6 180 294 133 4.952 at 235 psi
Oxygen 47.6 180 415 188 5.010 at 235 psi
aCylinder capacity and weight vary by supplier.
FIGURE 14-11 Manifolding cylinders for pipe

distribution system.
Figure 14-16. The flowmeter should be installed with

the tube absolutely vertical for accurate measurement.
Orific -type flowmetecs can al. 0 be used; however,
they are not adjustable and are installed in the line follow- FIGURE14-12 Oxygen liquid bulk storage tank.
ing the regulator to establish a specific flow rate of a
spe iii gas. TIl I) are used when adju tments are not
requited. gases. Welding procedures will provide the flow rates to
Ch 'c1~ valves are a saf ty device us d to protect be used,
welding installattonsfrom the dangers of flashback and When siphon tube CO~ cylinders are used, external
reverseflow'Ihey prohibit a flashback in the torch from heaters are required.These cylinders are equipped with a
rea hing the ,supply t.."Yllnd.rs. These er spring-loaded plasti siphoning tube extending to the bottom of the
v~llv S with rubber or n opren a. tuators. With normal. cylinder that dtscharges liquid CO2 rather than gaseous
fl W tht!. heck valve is op 'n; how v r, if pressure fram CO2, The Li uid must be vaporized by a heater. Siphon
ttl downside exceeds ;floW pressure, the heck valve will tub CO2 cylindersare not popular ill th United State,
,; rOSt1!.They aJ'ereblti\"ely tnexpenstv and hould bused \ althougbthey can be obtained by special order, They aft:
atever:y i.tlstaIbl;tion'i used In Hutope and in other parts of the world,
Th final element in the ~'Ysf!m is the hose leadillg
from the . ylinder' to the torch or to, h ontrol panel, Dif~
,as'low Rates
,. J.
fer nt types of hos ate available, including rubber: and
various plastic mat rial . E. ch type has differ at charac"
tertsttcs wl h. r spe "t topressure and the ability to mai11-
TOGUN
CALIBRATED
TAPERED TUBE CALIBRATED
IN
LITERS/MIN,
OR
CFH
ADJUSTABLE
NEEDLE VALVE
FIGURE 14-15' Diagram of gas flowmeter.
FIGURE 14-13 liquid argon bulk storage tank.
FIGURE 14-16 Gas flowmeter.
FIGURE 14-14 Liquid fuel gas bulk storage tank.
taln pUrity of the. gas in the cylinder to the arc. It is best

to ch k manufacturers' literature for this information.
Finally, such items as proportioners or mixers can
b l.)sed to mix different gases together for a parti war ap-
pUc tion .These are involved and should be 'used based on
thematlufacturerS'reconunendfitions.
QUESTIONS -
14-1. What is the most common inert gas used for shielding? 14-13. W11atis the danger of fuel gases that are heavier than
14-2. Are mixed inert gases used tor shielding? air?
14-3. What is the purpose of argon-oxygen for shielding 14-14. W11atis the most abundant gas in the atmosphere?
gas' 14-15. W11yis a higher-than-normal amount of oxygen dan-
14-4. What is the advantage of argon-COl shielding gas gerous?
on steel? 14-16. What happens in oxygen flame cutting if the oxygen
14-5. Why should active gases be used on aluminum? purity is low?
14-6. Why is the density of a shielding gas important? 14-17. Describe the different types of tanks used for trans-
What happens to CO2 in an arc? Away from the arc? porting welding gases.
14-7.
How is CO2 gas specified? How is moisture checked? 14-18. W11yare cryogenic cylinders of gas used?
14-8.
What types of gases are used for GTAW welding? 14-19. Explain the principle of operation of a flowmeter.
14-9.
Name the different fuel gases in use. 14-20. W11at is the purpose of a check valve?
14-10.
14-11. What fuel gas produces the highest flame temperature?
14-12. Does excess oxygen in the flame increase or decrease
flame temperature?
REFERENCES
1. Specifications for Welding Shielding Gases ANSI/AWS 4. "Code of Federal Regulations Support M-Compressed
A5.32/A.32M American National Standards Institute/ Gas and Compressed Air Equipment," Section 1910.166,
American Welding SOCiety. "Inspection of Compressed Gas Cylinders," Federal Reg-
2. "Recommended Practices for Shielding Gases for Weld- ister, Vol. 36, No. 105, U.S. Government Printing Office,
ing and Plasma Arc Cutting," CS.IO, American Welding Washington, D.C.
Society, Miami, Fla. 5. "Registration Program for Cylinder Owner Symbols,"
3. "Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and CGACl6.1991, Compressed Gas Association,Arlington,Va.
Physical Agents tn the Wor.kroom Environment," Ameri- 6. "American National Standard Method of Marking
can Conference of Governm ntal Industrial Hygienists, Portable Compressed Gas Containers to Identtfy the Ma-
Lansing, Mich. terial Contained," CGA C-4, Compressed GasAssodation,
Arlington, Va.
OUTLINE
standards. Table 15-1 shows the common metals and
,15-1 Properties of Metals
, , their physical properties. Each is briefly described.
15-2 Metal Specifications and Steel Classifications
15-3 Color Color relates to the quality of light reflected
Identification of Metals
from the metal.
·15-4 Heat and Welding
15-5 Welding Metallourgy· Mass Mass or density relates to mass with respect to
, 15-6 Weldability of Metals volume. One of the more common ways of describing
this property is by means of specific gravity, which is the
ratio of the mass of a given volume of a metal to the mass
of the same volume of water, at a specified temp rature,
15-1 PROPERTIES OF METALS usually 39°P (4°C).The mass of a volume of water is taken
as unity, and the metals are related to it. In conventional
:x'hen you look at a piece of metal, it may appear brown- t rms this is taken as pounds per cubic foot of the metal
Ish, it may look bright or dull, or it might appear gray; it or pounds per cubic inch. In the metric sy tern this is
has color. One of the physical properties of a metal is its taken as grams per cubic millimeter or centim ter,
color. When you lift a piece of metal, it may seem to be
heavy or light; it has mass.When youbend a thin piece of Melting Point The m lting point is extremely impor-
metal, it may break or it may bend easily because it pos- tant with regard to welding.A metal's fusibility is related
~esses ductility. If you attempt to melt the metal with a to Its melting point, the temperature when the metal
flame, it may become liquid quickly or it may not melt. hanges from a solid into a molten state. Mercury is the
Metals have different melting temperatures. only common m tal that is in its molten state at norma] .
These are some of the many different properties of room temperature. Metals having 1 w melting tempera-
metals. They are used to help des ribe and specify them. tures can be welded with lower-temperatur heat
MetaL have physical properties such as density, melting sources. 'TIle soldering and brazing processes use low-
POint, color, conductivity, and others. They also have me- temperature metals to join metals ha. ing high· r melting
chanical properties, which include strength, hardness, temp rature.
and duct.illty, and all of them can be test d. Many me-
Bolling Point The botlmg point is also an important
hanical and physical properties of metals determine
factor, The boiling point is .the temperature at wbidl the
how they are used and how they .can be welded. These
metal hanges from .the liquid state to vapor· state.:r.n ,_
proPerties determine how they will perform in service.
welding, some metals, when exposed 'to the heat of an
ar •will boiland turn to yap or.
Physicar Properties Thermal ond.llctivlty, The th . rmal con~i~lctivitr of
'rhe physi al properties of rn tals I' gi 11 in both the a. m tal Is i s abll .ty to transmrt hat thtou.ghOut.It is of
11llric system and th conventional system. In time, we vitaJ Importance in welding stnce oncql,ctal m~Y Oll.~
Will ~11use the-SI tenns,wlJi 11 are based Qn tnternati911al d'u t heat from, the wel~i.l'IG atearnucl~ 'nlQ~e: mpiWy.,".
\
TABLE 15-1 PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES
OFMETALS
Coefficient
of Linear Electrical
Melting Point Relative Expansion Specific Conductivity
Density (liquids) Boiling Point Thermal x10-Ei Heat (%)
Base Metal Specific Conductivity per Degree (callg (Copper Resistivity
or Alloy Gravity Ib/ft3 glcm3 of °C of °C (Copper = 1) OF °C per °C) == 100%) (~OJcm)
Aluminum and alloys 2.70 166 2.7 1,218 659 3,270 2,480 0.52 13.8 24.8 0.22 59.0 2.8
Brass, navy 8.60 532 8.6 1,650 900 NA NA 0.28 11.8 21.2 0.09 28.0 6.6
Bronze, aluminum (90 Cu-9 AI) 7.69 480 7.7 1,905 1,040 NA NA 0.15 16.6 29.9 0.014 12.8 13.5
Bronze, phosphor (90 Cu-10 Sn) 8.78 551 8.8 1,830 1,000 NA NA 0.12 10.2 18.4 0.09 11.0 16.0
Bronze, silicon (96 Cu-3 Si) 8.72 542 8.7 1,880 1,025 NA NA 0.10 10.0 18.0 0.09 7.0 NA
Copper (deoxidized) 8.89 556 8.9 1,981 1,081 4,700 2,600 1.00 9.8 17.6 0.095 100.0 1.7
Copper nickel (70 Cu-30 Ni) 8.81 557 8.8 2,140 1,172 NA NA 0.07 9.0 16.2 0.09 4.6 37.0
Everdur (96 Cu-3 Si-l Mn) 8.37 523 8.4 1,866 1,019 NA NA 0.09 10.0 18.0 0.095 NA NA
Gold 19.3 1,205 19.3 1,945 1,061 5,380 2,950 0.76 7.8 14.0 0.032 71.0 2.2
Inconel (72 Ni-16 Cr-8 Fe) 8.25 530 8.3 260 1,425 NA NA 0.04 6.4 11.5 0.109 1.5 98.1
Iron, cast 7.50 450 7.5 2,300 1,260 NA NA 0.12 6.0 10.8 0.119 2.9 NA
Iron wrought 7.80 485 7.8 2,750 1,510 5,500 3,000 0.16 6.7 12.1 0.115 15.0 NA
Lead 11.34 708 11.3 621 328 3,100 1,740 0.08 16.4 29.5 0.03 8.0 20.6
Magnesium 1.74 108 1.7 1,202 650 2,010 1,100 0.40 14.3 25.7 0.246 37.0 5.0
Monel (67 Ni-30 Cu) 8.47 551 8.8 2,400 1,318 NA NA 0.07 7.8 14.0 0.127 3.6 48.2
Nickel 8.8 556 8.8 2,650 1,452 5,250 3,000 0.16 7.4 13.3 0.105 23.0 7.9
Nickel silver 8.44 546 8.4 2,030 1,110 NA NA 0.09 9.0 16.2 0.09 8.3 1.6
Silver 10.45 656 10.5 1,764 962 4,010 2,210 1.07 10.6 19.1 0.056 106.0
Steel, high carbon 7.85 490 7.8 2,500 1,374 NA NA 0.17 6.7 12.1 0.118 9.5 18.0
Steel, low alloy 7.85 490 7.8 2,600 1,430 NA NA 0.12 6.7 12.1 0.118 14.5 12.0
Steel, low carbon 7.84 490 7.8 2,700 1,483 NA NA 0.17 6.7 12.1 0.118 14.5 12.0
Steel, manganese (14 Mn) 7.81 490 7.8 2,450 1,342 NA NA 0.04 6.7 12.1 0.210 NA 72.0
Steel, medium carbon 7.84 490 7.8 2,600 1,430 NA NA 0.17 6.7 12.1 0.118 15.0 15.0
Steel, stainless (austenitic) 7.9 495 7.9 2,550 1,395 NA NA 0.12 9.6 17.3 0.117 3.0 75.0
Steel, stainless (ferritic) 7.7 485 7.7 2,750 1,507 NA NA 0.17 9.5 17.1 0.334 3.0 60.0
Steel, stainless (rnartensltlc) 7.7 485 7.7 2,600 1,430 NA NA 0.17 9.5 17.1 0.118 3.0 57.0
Tantalum 16.6 1,035 16.6 5,162 2,996 7,410 5,430 0.13 3.6 6.5 0.052 13.9 12.5
Tin 7.29 455 7.3 449 232 4,100 2,270 0.15 12.8 23.0 0.125 13.5 11.0
TItanium 4.5 281 4.5 3,031 1,668 5,900 3,200 0.04 4.0 7.2 0.113 1.1 42.0
Tungsten 18.8 1,190 19.3 6,170 3,420 10,600 5,600 0.42 2.5 4.5 0.034 31.0 5.6
Zinc 7.13 442 7.1 788 419 1,660 907 0.27 22.1 39.8 0.093 30.0 5.9
Note; NA, not available.
than another. It indicates the need for preheating and Mechanical Properties
the size of heat source required. The thermal conductiv-
ity of metals is usually related to copper. Copper has the The mechanical properties of metals determine the range
highest thermal conductivity of the common metals, ex- of usefulness of the meta] and establish the service that
ceeded only by silver. Aluminum has approximately half can be expected. Mechanical properties are also used to
the thermal conductivity of copper, and steels have only help specify and identify metals.They are vital to welding
about one-tenth the conductivity of copper. Some data since the weld must provide mechanical properties in
use silver as the standard and rate the thermal conduc- the same order as the base metals being joined. The ade-
tivity with respect to silver. Thermal conductivity is quacy of a weld depends on whether or not it provides
measured in calories per square centimeter per second properties equal to or exceeding those of the metals be-
per degree Celsius. However, since we are using a rela- ing joined.
tive figure, these are not used. The most common properties of the common
metals-strength, hardness, ductility, and impact
SpeCific Heat Specific heat is a measure of the quantity resistance-are shown in Table 15-2 ..
of heat required to increase the temperature of a metal by
a specific amount. Specific heat is important in welding Strength The strength of a met.al is its ability to with-
since it is an indication of the amount of heat required to stand the action of external forces without breaking.
bring the metal to its melting point. A metal with a low Tensile strength, also called ultimate strength, is the
melting point and a relatively high specific heat may re- maximum strength developed in a metal in a tension test.
qUire as much heat to bring it to its point of fusion as a The tension test is a method for determining the behav-
metal. of a high melting point and low specific heat. Spe- ior of a metal under stretch loading.This test. provides the
cific heat is the number of calories required to raise the elastic limit, elongation, yield point, yield strength, tensile
temperature of 1gram of metal 1degree Celsius. It can be strength, and the reduction in area ..Tensile tests are nor-
Stat d as a relative specific heat related to a standard. It is mally taken at standardized room temperatures but may
UsuaUy given at a standard temperature. Table 15-1 pro- also be made at other temperatures. Figure 15-1 shows a
vides the specific heat of the different metals based on tensile testing machine in operation. Many tensile testing
the calories per gram per degrees C at 2oDe. machines are equipped to plot a curve that shows the
load or stress and the strain or movement that occurs
EXpanSion The coefficient of linear thermal expan-
during the test operation. A typical curve for mild steel is
sion is a measure of the linear increase per unit length
shown in Figure 15- 2.In the testing operation the load i.
based on the change in temperature of the metal. Expan-
increased gradually and the specimen will stretch or
ston is the increase in the dimension of a metal caused by
elongate in proportion to the tensile load. Th specimen
: eat.The expansion of a metalin a longitudinal dire tion
will elongate in direct proportion to the load during the
1 known as the linear expansion. The coefficient of lin-
elastic portion of the curve to point A. At this point, the
ear expansion is expressed as the ltnear expansion pel'
specimen will continue to elongate but without an in-
Unit length for 1 degree of temperature rise.
crease in the load. This is known as the yteki point of the
Th expansion of the metal in volume is called the
steel and is the end of the elastic portion. At any point ~lP
VOlumetricexpansion. Lin ear expansion is most commonly
to point A lf the load is eliminated, the specimen will
USed,and the data are available illboth the conventional and
come back to its original dimension. Yielding occurs
rn tric values. The coefficient of linear expansion varies
from point A to point B,and this is the area"of plasticde-
OVi r a Wide range for different metals. Alumlnum has the
formation. If the load were ellminatedat point B, the
Sf at st, expanding almost twice as much as steel for the
specimen would not go back to its Original dimension
sa~ temperature change. nus is important tor welding
bur instead would take a permanent set. B yond pOint B
:lthl"espect to. warpage, warpage control, and flxturing and
the load will have. to be increased. to stretch the spect-'
or w lding dissimilar metals together.
men further. The load will Increas to point C, whl his
'lectrical Conductivity Ele trical conductivtty is the th 'ultimate strength of the material. At point C th spec-
. capa ity of metal to onduct an electric current. A m asure im , n will br ak and th load is 110 J nge carried. The ul- .
of eleCtrical conductivity is provtded by the conductance timate tensile strength of. the material. is obtain d bjr,
Of a i11etalto the passage of electrical current. The rectpro- ,., dividiJl.g the, ultim~lte load by the cr6ss·sectionaJ'arta of
al ()~conductlvi.ty ts resistivity. Electrical resistivitY is meas- the 6figinaJ Specimn.This prov.ides tijetiltim.'ttftensil'
U "d in tJticr<x>hrrisp r cubi entimeter at a staJldatdjzed str.ength ,in pounds, p :17 squftt' inch ·pr ldl grams pet{'
t :tnp rature, no,rmally 20°C. Electrical eoud\: ctivity, how- squar mil1unet t. , ,.',
e\>; r, is usuaJly onsidered as a perc ntag ~tnd is t' lat d to ., TheyJ Id stress or i, ldpotnt i, obt~in d by (lj 'fd..
pper Ot' silvct TCm.Pl1ltur b ars an important part in .ing the 1 ad at yield 01'at poilltA by ttl rigitlall.li·l1:T!\j~
t'.his .property; As the tentl,eraturcofa metal is increasec~ pfoVid s a. fignt ~in ll01.1U~$p r ~lunre.ul'11·o.t J91ogt-lm:{'
. t °l1d,u tivity de tCR$e$.1:hlspr.opertY lspatticularJyimpor. peisquare mHlln1f!tt'1::EXti'erni!l}t':Otl, tii lnil:tnJs ~P ·110l,.:,,'
~nt to. r SlSt3tlc welding and to ele trl ~al circuits: bay I Id'l' int.T,h·y $tr >t h Q! yteld''flt 1 w. londs.rc)f
" ".
TABLE 15-2 MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES
OFMETALS
Yield Strength Tensile Strength Elongation

Base Metal % in 2 in. Hardness
or Alloy Ib/in2 MPa kglmm2 Ib/in2 MPa kg/rnrrr' (50 mm) (BHN)
Aluminum and alloys 5,000 34.5 3.5 13,000 89.6 9.1 35 23

Brass, navy 30,000 206.8 21.0 62,000 427.4 43.6 47 89
Bronze, alum. (90 Cu-9 AI) 30,000 206.8 21.0 76,000 523.9 53.4 10 125
Bronze, phosphor (90 Cu-10 Sn) 28,000 193.0 19.7 66,000 455.0 46.4 35 148
Bronze, silicon (96 Cu-3 sn 15,000 103.4 10.5 40,000 275.8 28.1 52 119
Copper (deoxidized) 10,000 68.9 7.0 33,000 227.5 23.2 40 30
Copper nickel (70 Cu-30 Ni) 20,000 137.9 14.0 55,000 379.2 38.6 45 95
Everdur (96 Cu-3 Si-1 Mn) 20,000 137.9 14.0 55,000 379.2 38.6 60 75
Gold 17,000 117.2 11.9 45 25
Inconel (72 Ni-16 Cr-8Fe) 35,000 241.3 24.6 85,000 586.0 59.7 45 150
Iron, cast 25,000 172.4 17.5 0.5 180
Iron, wrought 27,000 186.1 19.0 40,000 275.8 28.1 25 100
Lead 19,000 131.0 13.4 2,500 17.2 1.7 45 6
Magnesium 13,000 89.6 9.1 25,000 172.4 17.5 4 40
Monel (67 Ni-30 cu) 35,000 241.3 24.6 75,000 517.1 52.7 45 125
Nickel 8,500 58.6 6.0 46,000 317.1 32.3 40 85
Nickel silver 20,000 137.9 14.0 58,000 399.8 40.7 35 90
Silver 8,000 55.2 5.6 23,000 158.6 16.2 35 90
Steel, high carbon 90,000 620.5 63.2 140,000 965.2 98.4 20 201
Steel, low alloy 50,000 344.7 35.1 75,000 517.1 52.7 28 170
Steel, low carbon 36,000 248.2 25.3 60,000 413.6 42.2 35 110
Steel, manganese (14 Mn) 75,000 517.1 52.7 118,000 813.5 82.9 22 200
Steel, medium carbon 52,000 358.5 36.5 87,000 599.8 61.2 24 170
Steel, stainless (austenitic) 40,000 275.8 28.1 90,000 620.5 63.2 23 160
Steel, stainless (ferritic) 45,000 310.2 31.6 75,000 517.1 52.7 30 155
Steel, stainless (martensitic) 80,000 551.5 56.2 100,000 68.9 70.3 26 250
Tantalum 50,000 344.7 35.1 40 3,00
Tin 1,710 11.8 1.2 3,130 21.6 2.2 50 5.3
Titanium 40,000 275.8 28.1 60,000 413.6 42.2 28
Tungsten 500,000 3,447.0 351.5 15 230
Zinc 18,000 124.1 12.6 25,000 172.35 17.5 20 38
Note: Values depend on heat treatment or mechanical condition or mass of the metal.
these mt tals the yield point is determined by the change together and remeasuring the distance between the center
in longation.Two-t nths of 1% elongati n is arbitrarily punch marksThe original z In. is subtracted from the meas-
s .t as the yield poln .The yield point is
the limit upon ured length, and th difference js divided by 2 and multi-
which designs are calculated. Designs of weldments are plied by 100 to obtain the percentage of elongation.
exp cted to perform within th elastic llmlt, and the yield Ductility of welds or of metals can also be measured
point i the m asure of that limit. by the bend test. In this case.gauge lines at drawn before
tesung.measured, and measured again afte r bending.The
~uctUfty Th ductility of a III tal is the property th~t al..
differ nee divided by the origtnal Iength times 100 is the
. ~lows it to b stretohed or otherwise chang din shape with-
elongation in percentage.
outbrealdng an4 tOfetain the changed shap after tile load
the ductility Is of extreme in .rest t welding stnce
bas been removed. The ductility of a metal can be deter-
a higher ductility iudi at > a weld that would be lesS
min d frOlll the tensll ·test:TIlls i.s d n by determining th
likely to crack in service. Figure 15-3 shows typical t J'"
p rcenr of elongation, Gaug marks are made 2 in. apart
sil specimens: unbr ken, ductile, and britt! racture.
~lCr()SS~h' point wher Ira ture will o cur. Th in reas In
·gau·· ' t':'ngth related to the or.iginall. ngtb tim s ],OO.isthe Reduction ofAr a, Reduction of area is another m as'
p&·¢.t:ita~e:of elongatlori.T11jS,is {lone by making centee . tire oj ductility and Js op~ed from th~ tensHe test bY
.pil~l h n"~tlts;Z in.ilt>art ~t thered1.1 . ed section bf the test .measurins ttl original cross e tiona 1 ar a . f the sp ej-
c. UpOI~,P st1ngth COtlP n"tlgJ tty holding'thetw pie es m nand r lating it to th . , s· CtlOl) I al' a after iailur .
FIGURE15-3 Tensile specimens. Courtesy of Welding
Inspection Techo!ogy, American Welding Society.
FIGURE15-1 Tensile test machine. Courtesy of Welding

Inspection Techology, American Welding Society.
FIGURE15-4 Micro hardness testing machine.

Courtesy of Welding Inspection Techology, American Welding
Society.
point. For iron or steel the modulus of elasticity is approx-

imately 30 million psi, for aluminum It is approximately
10.3 million psi, for copper 15 million psi, and far magne-
sium 6.5 million psi.The modulus of elasticity is important
to designers and is incorporated in many design formulas.
Hardness The hardness of a metal is defined as the re-
sistance of a metal to local penetration by a harder sub-
stance. The hardness of metals is measured by forcing a
hardened steel ball or diamond into the surface of th
specimen, under a definite weight.fn a hardness testing
STRAIN OR UNIT DEFORMATION Ina hine. Figure 15-, shows a mi fa hardness t sting ma-
chine. The Brlnell is one of the mote popular types of
FIGURE15-2 Stress-strain curve.
machines for measuring hardness.'It provides a Brit1.ell
hardness number {BHN),which is in ktlograms P r square
millimeter based on the load applied to the hard. n d ban .
or a r und specimen th diameter is measured and the illktlograms and divided by the area Qftbe impression] ft
cross.-sectional area is calculated.After the test bar is bro- by the ball in square millimet rs, The e metric factors ate
ken, the diameter is measured at the smallest point.The disregarded and hardnessts tneasuredstti~l:ly asa Briu II
<:ross-sectiona}. area is again calculated. The dIfference in hardness l1umper.111el3liN is bbt~ed by iill optical mag-
area is divided by the origin~ area and multiplied by 100 nifler' that reads die diameter of the UlTpr ,s81011 and' pro- . >
to g.hre the percentage reduction of area. This figure is of du es it hardness ntlOlber. V~U'iOl.IS scales ate 'used in til
1 55 iQlportance than the elongati n but is usually l' ported Brin Uhardness testing system bas> I on th· toad. nd th .
Wn(.'1l the m hanical prop rues of a metal are gtv n. di met . ftlle·ball us\mUr 10 mlUl.lsIllg II 3tOOO-kg IOtld.·
The t nsile test spcctm 11 also provides another Figure 15~5 show: a B1'l.n U hardtl_ s~ tsting ma bin~.
property of metal kno 1'1 a~ its modu/'l1tS ojelasttcit;J, also . Therellresev~ bther 11·· ., \~tintf'.,y$":>'
aU d Young's modulus.This is tile rati of the stress to the terns. A popWil1' .ma hin. .15 th .}t,c) , :a:~l'd;n its ,.
lasti strain.It r lates 'to th slope 'of th curve to thri ld 11 stet" (Figure 1;:-6),hjc 1 utillz s ~\ d#IOlO:nd· tn,is' ,
• It"
forced into the surface of the specimen. Different loads for field work and is not considered as accurate as those
are used to provide different scales. Smaller loads are used that make impressions. Table 15-3 shows the hardness
for softer materials. The optical unit is not required since conversion numbers for these different hardness measur-
the hardness is read from a dial mounted on the machine ing systems. It is also possible to relate the approximate
that relates to the penetration. There is also the superfi- strength of a metal to its hardness as shown in the figure.
cial Rockwell hardness tester for measuring surface hard- Portable electronic units are now available for field use.
nesses of metals. Another method is by means of the
Vickers hardness machine, which reads directly as a dia- Impact Resistance Resistance of a metal to impacts
mond is pressed into the surface of the metal. Another is evaluated in terms of impact strength. A metal may
way is the Shore scleroscope, which uses a small possess satisfactory ductility under static loads but may
dropped weight that will bounce from the surface of the fail under dynamic loads or impact. Impact strength is
metal, providing a hardness measure. This device is used most often determined by the Charpy test. It is some-
times measured by the Izode test. Both types of tests use
the same type of pendulum-testing machine.The Charpy
FIGURE15-5 Brinell hardness testing machine. test specimen is a beam supported at both ends and con-
Courtesy of Welding Inspection Techology, American We/ding tains a notch in the center. The specimen is placed on
Society. supports and struck with a pendulum on the side oppo-
site the notch. The accuracy and location of the notch is
of extreme importance. There are several types of
Charpy specimens; the V-notch type is the most popular.
The specimen is standardized in metric dimensions.
Figure 15-7 shows the impact testing machine in action.
The impact strength of a metal is determined by
measuring the energy absorbed in the fracture. This is
equal to the weight of the pendulum times the height at
which the pendulum is released and the height to which
the pendulum swings after it has struck the specimen. In
conventional terms the impact strength is the foot
pounds of energy absorbed. In metric practice, impact re-
sistance is measured two ways: (1) the kilogram-meter
based on energy absorbed and (2) the kilogram-meter per
square centimeter of the area of the fractured surface or
the cross-sectional area. under the notch. Both terms are
us d, but care must be taken to determine which is ap-
propriate. The SI system m asures en rgy absorbed in
FIGURE15-6 Rockwell hardness testing machine. joules. Figure 15-8 shows V-notch Charpy impact bars
Courtesy of Welding Inspection Techology, American Welding before and after testing.
Society. Impact tests are often. made at differ nt tempera-
tures, since steels normally become more brittle or will
absorb less energy at lower temperatures. Normally,
sev n specimens are broken at ach test temperature and
the high and low values ar dis arded.The reported value
is the average of the r maining two specimens. Test tem-
peratures are -so-s
(-51 PC), -Soop (-46° , -40°F
-40 C), _·20°F (-29°C), -140
0
-25CC), -4cF
(-20°C), O°F (-15° , 1 ° (-IOCC), 32°F O°C),
\ soap (l,O°C , 68°P (20°C). AU temperatures may not b

used; however, usually five t st temperatures ar use d $0
that a-translrton urve _anb drawn. Figure 15-9 shows
a temj erature transition curve.At the point 0 fall-Off the
transition h. ages from du til to brittl .Thls is kn wn
as the transition temperatu» .The 'hang from ductile
to britO Iractur can also b s n by th • surface of th .
>
broken bars in the tig'tlre:Alloth r mea ur ofductlHty'iS

,also used: this is the degre ofla.t ralexpan ion ofth~ bat--
at the fraCtl.lfe surfac .Th gfi ater th :.degr • of chang -
TABLE15-3 HARDNESSCONVERSIONTABLE
Brinell Rockwell
C B Approximate
Diameter(rnrn) Vickers 150-kg Load 100-kg Load Tensile
3,000-kgLoad Hardness or Firth 1200 Diamond 1I16-in.-Diameter Scleroscope Strength
10-mm Ball ' No. HardnessNo. Cone Ball No. (~,OOO psi)
2.05 898 440

2.10 857 420
2.15 817 401
2.20 780 1150 70 106 384
2.25 745 1050 68 100 368
2.30 712 960 66 95 352
2.35 682 885 64 91 337
2.40 653 820 62 87 324
2.45 627 765 60 84 311
2.50 601 717 58 81 298
2.55 578 675 57 78 287
2.60 555 633 55 120 75 276
2.65 534 598 53 119 72 266
2.70 514 567 52 119 70 256
2.75 495 540 50 117 67 247
2.80 477 515 49 117 65 238
2.85 461 494 47 116 63 229
2.90 444 472 46 115 61 220
2.95 429 454 45 115 59 212
3.00 415 437 44 114 57 204
3.05 401 420 42 113 55 196
3.10 388 404 41 112 54 189
3.15 375 389 40 112 52 182
3.20 363 375 38 110 51 176
3.25 352 363 37 110 49 170
3.30 341 350 36 109 48 165
3.35 331 339 35 109 .46 160
3.40 321 327 34 108 45 155
3.45 311 316 33 108 44 150
3.50 302 305 32 107 146
3.55 293 296 31 106 142
3.60 285 287 30 105 138
3.65 277 279 29 104 134
3.70 269 270 28 104 131
3.75 262 263 26 103 128
3.80 255 256 26 102 125
3.85 248 248 24 102 122
3.90 241 241 23 100' 119
3,95 235 235 22 99 116
4.00 229 229 21 98 113
4.05 223 .' 223 20 97 ,~1l0 . y
4.10 217 217 18 ' 96 :'101

4.15 212 212 17 . . 96 104-
4.20 207 207 16 ~5 101
4.25 202 202 15 94 ·99
4.30 197 197 13 93 . ,,'9,7
4.35 192 192 12 92', -, 95', .
4;40 187. 187 10 91 . ,,',",.,.g3':;'~'
(Cr:ulti'nuedr
TABLE15-3 HARDNESS CONVERSION TABLE, (CONTINUED)
Brlnell Rockwell
C B Approximate
Diameter(rnrn) Vickers 150-kg Load 100-kg Load Tensile
3,OOO-kgLoad, Hardness or Firth 1200 Diamond 1/16-in .-Diameter Scleroscope Strength
10-mm Ball No. Hardness No. Cone Ball No. (1,000 psi)
4.45 183 183 9 90 27 91
4.50 179 179 8 89 27 89
4.55 174 174 7 88 26 87
4.60 170 170 6 87 26 85
4.65 166 166 4 86 25 83
4.70 163 163 3 85 25 82
4.75 159 159 2 84 24 80
4.80 156 156 1 83 24 78
4.85 153 153 82 23 76
4.90 149 149 81 23 75
4.95 146 146 80 22 74
5.00 143 143 79 22 72
5.05 140 140 78 21 71
5.10 137 137 77 21 70
5.15 134 134 76 21 68
5.20 131 131 74 20 66
5.25 128 128 73 20 65
5.30 126 126 72 64
5.35 124 124 71 63
5.40 121 121 70 62
5.45 118 118 69 61
5.50 116 116 68 60
5.55 114 114 67 59
5.60 112 112 66 58
.5.65 109 109 65 56
5.70 107 107 64 56
5.75 105 105 62 54
5.80 103 103 61 53
5.85 101 101 60 52
5.90 99 99 59 51
5.95 97 97 57 50
6.00 95 95 56 49
Note; Hardness conversion tables are approximate,
the more ductile the fracture.The fracture surface type is America the most popular method of specifying a metal
also r eportedft r critt at requirements. All these different is by ltsASTM numb r.ASTM stand for the American So-
'tests and test spe Irnens are standardiz d by the Amerl- ciety for Testing and Mat -ria.ls.ASTM,founded in 1898, is
c( f~ Society .fOJ:1'1 s ing and M~lt~d;ds. .......'\ . a scientific and technical organizaucn that, among other
things, produces standards on haracteristics and per-
formance of materials. It is theworld's largest source of
voluntary consensus standards. ASTM publishes over 60
.15"..2 .METAL SPECIFICATIONS volumes divldeq among 16 se tio.ns.Thr e sections ar of
AND STEEL CLASSIFICATIONS Intere t to welding per onn 1:
M'tals are identi led and spectfl d in many different • S tion I-If n and Steel Products
, ways._ Tllese m.na ~'from u:.lt.j,onaJ peci:flcatioflS, prof s- • Sectton 2-NoOferrous Metal Products
(. .'$iOn~rsoctety'p ,:fica fot1s,at d t,mdeaSsociatfoll speci~ • Section 3-M. ta.ls Te$t' Methods' ~nd Analyttcru.
. :tTci:ition!ll t6 trad names of' spe i1 metals. In North Proc ·d.ul'es
Consult the ASTM standards book for a listing of specific The ASTM standards represent a consensus view-
VOlumes related to different metal specifications. Individ- point of parties concerned with ASTM provisions: pro-
ual standards are available as separate copies. ducers, users, and general interest groups. These
Other sections of ASTM standards cover materials voluntary standards are written by committees of the
Such as concrete, insulating materials, petroleum prod- membership. The ASTM standards for metals provide the
ucts, paint, textiles, plastics, and rubber. mechanical properties of the metal and in many cases
chemical composition. Specifications for steels usually
provide compositions that refer to either the analysis of
FIGURE15-7 Impact testing machine. Courtesy of the steel in the ladle or in its final form.The specifications
Welding Inspection Techology, American Welding Society. also provide information concerning the form and size of
the products, the size tolerance of products, testing pro-
cedures, and inspection information.
The ASTM metal specifications are identified by pre-
fix letters A, indicating ferrous materials, and B, indicating
nonferrous metals. This is foUowed by a one-, two-, or
three-digit number indicating the exact specification
number, which is then followed by a two-digit number
indicating the year that the specification was formally
adopted.A suffix letterT, when used, indicates that it is a
tentative specification.
There are too many ASTM specifications to be listed
here, and it is therefore recommended that the sections
or volumes be examined for a better understanding of the
usefulness of the ASTM specifications.
Each part or volume is updated periodically and is
available from the society. Many libraries have theASTM vol-
urnes. Individual standards are available from the society.
The term steel encompasses many types of metals
made principally of iron. Steel is an alloy of iron and car-
bon, but steels most often contain other metals such as
manganese, chromium, and nickel, and nonmetals such
as carbon, silicon, phosphorus, and sulfur. It is necessary
to consider how the different steels are classified and
Identified.
FIGURE15-8 V-notch Charpy impact bars.

108.5 80
94.9 _. 70 -
54.2
40.7
27.1
13.6
•
o of -60 -50 -30 -20 -10 20 30 40 50 60 70 OF
'c -50 -45 -40 ·35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 o 5 10 15 20 ?C
TEST TEMPERATURE
FIGURE 15-9 Transition chart of impact tests.
There are so many different types and kinds of literature should be consulted for composition and ·prop-
steels that it is sometimes confusing just to be able to erties. Of course, it is necessary to determine t.he manu-
identify the steel being used. For example, there are struc- facturer. When. this is known, the identity of the steel can
tural steels, cast steels, stainless steels, too] steels, hot be determined.
rolled steel, reinforcing st el, and low-alloy high-strength A popular system for classifying steels is the Amer-
ste L Steels are sometimes given names based on their ican Iron and Steel Institute Numerical Designation of
principal alloy; such as carbon steel, chrome-manganese Standard Carbon and Alloy Steels. l)This is usually known
steel, and chrome-moly teel. Sometimes steels are Identi- as the AIS! designation system, but sometimes known as
fi d by numbers.such as --1020 steel, A36 steel,SAE 1045 the SAB system since it was originated by the Society of
steel, and type 304 steel. 10 other cases, steels may be Automotive Engineer . The groupings of steels within
identifled by letters, such as AR steels, T-! steels, RQC this numerical system are shown in Table 15- .Numbers
steels, and. NAX steels. Steels are also called by a trade are u ed to designate different chemical compositions. A
name given by thetr manufacturer. Examples of this are four-digit number series designates carbon and alloy
Mayari steel, Cor en steel.jalloy steel, and Naxtra steel. All st els according to the types and classes.Thts system bas,
the names t. nd to add to the confusion, btl they are b en expanded, and in som cases fJ:v digits are used to
clu s for flndj:ng th true i lentifi.cntion of a ste 1.- designate c rtain alloy steel .The .1a t two digits are tn-
',T11 method ofthe manufacture of the steel alsO-fn- tended to indicate tb approximate mtddl of the carbon
tersmtotne,meotiflcatlotl system. This would include, range; for example, 0.21 tndtcat s a range of 0.18% to
'a$tsteel, hdt~ or cold-ioU ,0 steels, ~ rged steels, semi- Q.25% carbon. In a ewcases, thsystem deviates from
Idl1eQsteels, and c()nt41u()tls c st steel. this rule, and some carbon rar ges r late to the ranges of
The two pe~t ways of ielentifyJni; a ste ) are by its rnangan s ;uUi.l1", pbosphorus, chromium, and other el-
I
$P' ift arion number and gt"d.d r trad 11 m and own- ements. Two letters IlC ' oft 'n used as a preflx to the nu-
1 et;In til ase of th spe It'i 'a j n,it should b onsulted m rals,'111c letter C indi 'ltes basiC op 'n tiearth arbon
,ro det ~mineomp()~itiOl1an'lpr p rtie$, and it is nee" ~te. 1, and E indicate, e1cttiC :furna: .e carbon and. alloy'
,e$~~ytO:det~rmttie liI1. spon~orlng group of thespecifi .. . teels,~l'he letter 11·r.~sometimes used asa suffix to dc*
> artoll.:WI· n a ,t~de na1l1, 1s ~is d; th manufacturer's not steels manufactured to meet h.lrdena.bility limits.
TABLE 15-4 AISI-SAE NUMERICALDESIGNATION
OFCARBONANDALLOYSTEELS
SAE Steel Specifications

Thefollowing numerical system for identifying carbon and alloy steels of various specifications has been adopted by the
Society of Automotive Engineers.
COMPARISON
AISI~SAE Steel Specifications
The ever-growing variety of chemical compositions and quality requirements of steel specifications has resulted in several
thousand different combinations of chemical elements being specified to meet individual demands of purchasers of steel
products.
The SAE developed an excellent system of nomenclature for identification of various chemical compositions that have
symbolized certain standards as to machining, heat treating, and carburizing performance. The American Iron and Steel
Institute has now gone further in this regard with a new standardization setup with similar nomenclature but with restricted
carbon ranges and combinations of other elements that have been accepted as standard by all manufacturers of bar steel in
the steel industry, because it has become apparent that steel producers must concentrate their efforts on a smaller number of
standardized grades. The Society of Automotive Engineers has, as a result, revised most of its specifications to coincide with
those set up by the American Iron and Steel Institute.
PREFIX LETTERS
No prefix for basic open-hearth alloy steel.
(B) Indicates acid Bessemer carbon steel.
(C) Indicates basic open-hearth carbon steel.
(E) Indicates electric furnace steel.
NUMBER DESIGNATIONS-
(lOXX series) Basic open-hearth and acid Bessemer carbon steel grades, nonsulfurized and nonphosphorized.
(llXX series) Basic open-hearth and acid Bessemer carbon steel grades, sulfurized but not phosphorized.
(1300 series) Manganese 1.60 to 1.90%
(23XX series) Nickel 3.50%
(25XX series) Nickel 5.0%
(31XX series) Nickel 1.25%-chromium .60%
(33XX series) Nickel 3.50%-chromium 1.60%
(40XX series) Molybdenum
(41XX series) Chromium-molybdenum
(43XX series) Nickel-chromium-molybdenum
(46XX series) Nickel 1.65%-molybdenum 0.25%
(48XX series) Nickel 3.25%-molybdenum 0.25%
(51XX series) Chromium
(52XX series) Chromium and high carbon
(6lXX series) Chromium-vanadium
(86XXseries) Chrome-nickel:...molybdenum
(87XX series) Chrome-nickel-molybdenum
(92XX series) Silicon 2.0%-chromium
(93XX series) Nickel 3.0%-chromium-molybdenum
(98XX series) Nickel-chrernl urn-molybdenum
---1006 0.06 max. 0.35 max.

0;25-0.40
0.04-0
0.040
0.-050
0.050
0.08 max.
1008 0.10 max. 0.25-0.50· 0.040 0.060
1010
-- 0.08...0.13
0.10-0.15
0,11-0.16
0.30-0.60
0.30-0.60
0.50-0.80
0.040
0.040
0.040
0.050
0.050
,0.050
1015 0.13-:0.18 0.30""0.60. '0.040 '0.050
1016 0.13-0.18 0.60-0.90 0.040 ';0,050
I'
TABLE 15-4 AISI-SAENUMERICAL
DESIGNATION
OFCARBON
ANDALLOY
STEELS,
(CONTINUED)
Carbon Steels
SAENumber C Mn P Max. S Max. AISINumber

1017 0.15-0.20 0.30-0.60 0.040 0.050 ClO17
1018 0.15-0.20 0.60-0.90 0.040 0.050 ClO18
1019 0.15-0.20 0.70-1.00 0.040 0.050 C1019
1020 0.18-0.23 0.30-0.60 0.040 0.050 Cl020
0.18-0.23 0.60-0.90 0.040 0.050 Cl02l
1022 0.18-0.23 0.70-1.00 0.040 0.050 C1022
0.20-0.25 0.30-0.60 0.040 0.050 C1023
1024 0.19-0.25 1.35-1.65 0.040 0.050 C1024
1025 0.22-0.28 0.30-0.60 0.040 0.050 C1025
0.22-0.28 0.60-0.90 0.040 0.050 Cl026
1027 0.22-0.29 1.20-1.50 0.040 0.050 C1027
0.25-0.31 0.60-0.90 0.040 0.050 C1029
1030 0.28-0.34 0.60-0.90 0.040 0.050 C1030
1033 0.30-0.36 0.79-1.00 0.040 0.050 Cl033
1034 0.32-0.38 0.50-0.80 0.040 0.050 C1034
1035 0.32-0.38 0.60-0.90 0.040 0.050 Cl035
1036 0.30-0.37 1.20-1.50 0.040 0.050 C1036
1038 0.35-0.42 0.60-0.90 0.040 0.050 C1038
0.37-0.44 0.70-1.00 0.040 0.050 C1039
1040 0.37-0.44 0.60-0.90 0.040 0.050 Cl040
1041 0.36-0.44 1.35-1.65 0.040 0.050 Cl04l
1042 0.40-0.47 0.60-0.90 0.040 0.050 C1042
1043 0.40-0.47 0.70-1.00 0.040 0.050 C1043
1045 0.43-0.50 0.60-0.90 0.040 0.050 Cl045
1046 0.43-0.50 0.70-1.00 0.040 0.050 Cl046
1050 0.48-0.55 0.60-0.90 0.040 0.050 Cl050
0.45-0.56 0.85-1.15 0.040 0.050 Cl051
1052 0.47-0.55 1.20-1.50 0.040 0.050 Cl052
0.50-0.60 0.50-0.80 0.040 0.050 CI054
1055 0.50-0.60 0.60-0.90 0.040 0.050 CI055
0.50-0.61 0.85-1.15 0.040 0.050 CI057
0.55-0.65 0.50-0.80 0.040 0.050 C1059
1060 0.55-0.65 0.60-0.90 0.040 0.050 Cl060
0.54-0.65 0.75-1.05 0.040 0.050 Cl061
1062 0.54-0.65 0.85-1.15 0.040 0.050 CI062
1064 0.60-0.70 0.50-0.80 0.040 0.050 CI064
1065 0.60-0.70 0.60-0.90 0.040 0.050 Cl065
1066 0.60-0.71 0.85-1.15 0.040 0.050 C1066
0.65-0.75 0.40-0.70 0.040 0.050 ClO69
1070 0.65-0,75 0.60-0.90 0,040 0.050 CI070
,.._ 0.65-0.76 0.7.5-1.05 0.040 0.Q50 ClO?l
0.70-0.80 0,50-'0.80 0.040 0,050 ClO74
Ni Cr ather
1320 0.18 ....
0.23 1.60-1.90 0.20-0.35 1320
1321 0.17-0.22 1.80-2.10 .0.20-0,35 ........
.' .~1$3,(1 -~,.~
;.-'
. 0.2&...0,3.· .1.60...1.90 0.40-0.35 1330
l3$5.' '0.33-0.38 1.60-1.90 0.20-0.35 ....... 1335
TABLE 15-4 AISI-SAENUMERICAL
DESIGNATION
OFCARBON
AND
ALLOY
STEELS,
(CONTINUED)
AlloySteel
AISI p S SAE
Number C Mn Max. Max. Si Ni Cr Other Number
1340 0.38-0.43 1.60-1.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 1340

2317 0.15-0.20 0.40-0.60 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 3.25-3.75 2317
2330 0.28-0.33 0.60-0.80 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 3.25-3.75 2330
2335 0.33-0.38 0.60-0.80 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 3.25-3.75
2340 0.33-0.43 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 3.25-3.75 2340
2345 0.43-0.48 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 3.25-3.75 2345
E2512 0.09-0.14 0.45-0.60 0.025 0.025 0.20-0.35 4.75-5.25 2512
2515 0.12-0.17 0.40-0.60 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 4.75-5.25 2515
E2517 0.15-0.20 0.45-0.60 0.025 0.025 0.20-0.35 4.75-5.25 2517
3115 0.13-0.18 0.40-0.60 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 1.10-1.40 0.55-0.75 3115
3120 0.17-0.22 0.60-0.80 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 1.10-1.40 0.55-0.75 3120
3130 0.28-0.33 0.60-0.80 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 1.10-1.40 0.55-0.75 3130
3135 0.33-0.38 0.60-0.80 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 1.10-1.40 0.55-0.75 3135
3140 0.38-0.43 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 1.10-1.40 0.55-0.75 3140
3141 0.38-0.43 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 1.10-1.40 0.70-0.90 3141
3145 0.43-0.48 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 1.10-1.40 0.70-0.90 3145
3150 0.48-0.53 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 1.10-1.40 0.70-0.90 3150
E3310 0.08-0.13 0.45-0.60 0.025 0.025 0.20-0.35 3.25-3.75 1.40-1.75 3310
E3316 0.14-0.19 0.45-0.60 0.025 0.025 0.20-0.35 3.25-3.75 1.40-1.75 3316
Mo
4017 0.15-0.20 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.20-0.30 4017
4023 0.20-0.25 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.20-0.30 4023
4024 0.20-0.25 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.035-0.050 0.20-0.35 0.20...,0.30 4024
4027 0.25-0.30 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.20-0.35 0.20-0.30 4027
4028 0.25-0.30 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.035-0.050 0.20-0.30 4028
4032 0.30-0.35 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.20-0.30 4032
4037 0.35-0.40 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.20-0.30 4037
4042 0.40-0.45 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.20-:0.30 4042
4047 0.45-0.50 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.20-0.30 4047
4053
4063
0.50-0.56
0.60-0.67
0.75-1.00
0.75-1.00
.
0.040
0.040
0.040
0.040
0.20-0.35
0.20-0.35
0.20-0.30
0.20-0.30
4053
4063
4068 0.65-0.70 0.75-1.00 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.20-0.30 4068
0.17-0.22 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.40-0.60 0.20-0.30 4119
0.23-0.28 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.40-0.60 0.20-0.30 4125
4130 0.28-0.33 0.40-0.60 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.80-1.10 0.15-0.25 4130
E4132 0.30-0.35 0.40-0.60 0.025 0.025 0.20-0.35 0.80 ...l.10 0.18-0.25
E4135 0.30-0.38 0.47-0.90 0.025 0.025 0.20-0.35 0.80-1.10 0.18-0.25
4137 0.35-0.40 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0,35 0.80-1.10 0·15-0.25 4137
E4137 Q.35-0.40 0.70-0.90 0.025 0.025 0.20-0.35 0.80-1.10 0.18-0.25
4140 0.$8-0.43 0.75-1.00 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.80-1.10 0,15-0.25 4140
4142 0.40-0.45 0.75-1.00 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.80-1.10 O.15~0.25
4145
4147
0.43-0.48
0;45 ....
0,75-1.00
0,50 0.75~LOO 0.040
0.040 0.040
0.040
0.'20-0.35
0.20-0.35
- 0.80.,..1.10 0.15:"'0.25
p.8o-1.10. 0.15~0,25
4145
"
4150 0.48-0.63 0.75-1.00 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.80"1,10 D,.l5~O,Z6 4150·

4317 0.15-.0.20 0.45-0.65 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 1.65".,2.00 O.4Q~O.60 0.20~0.30 4.317 .
4320 OA5-0.65 0.040 0,040 0.20-0.35 1.65...2.00 0.40-0.60 O.20~Q..30 4320
4337
4·340
0.17-0.~2
0.35-0 ..40 0.60-0.80
0.38-0.43
0.040
0.60 ...0.80 0.040
0.040
0.040
0.20-0.35
0 -,20-0.35
1,65-2.00 0.70 ...0.90 0.20-0.30
1.65,..2.00 0.70 ...0,90 0.20 ...0~30
--
4340
4608 0,06"';0.11' . 0.~5-0.4~ 0.040 0.040 '0.2·5 Max, 1:4~1.7~ .cr. 1,5.:..0.25;: 460a' c -(} <
4616 0.13-0.18 0.45-0.65 0.040 Q.040 O,20~o.a.5 1;65-2.00 . , Q.20...0.30· ~4e16J ,;' -,
(continued)
l '
TABLE 15-4 AISI-SAE NUMERICAL DESIGNATIONOF CARBON AND ALLOY STEELS, (CONTINUED)
Alloy Steel
-
AISI P S SAE
Number C Mn Max. Max. Si Ni Cr Other Number
0.15-0.20 0.45-0.65 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 1.65-2.00 0.20-0.30 4617

E4617 0.15-0.20 0.45-0.65 0.025 0.025 0.20-0.35 1.65-2.00 0.20-0.27
4620 0.17-0.22 0.45-0.65 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 1.65-2.00 0.20-0.30 4620
X4620 0.18-0.23 0.50-0.70 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 1.65-2.00 0.20-0.30 X4620
E4620 0.17-0.22 0.45-0.65 0.025 0.025 0.20-0.35 1.65-2.00 0.20-0.27
4621 0.18-0.23 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 1.65-2.00 0.20-0.30 4621
4640 0.38-0.43 0.60-0.80 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 1.65-2.00 0.20-0.30 4640
E4640 0.38-0.43 0.60-0.80 0.025 0.025 0.20-0.35 1.65-2.00 0.20-0.27
4812 0.10-0.15 0.40-0.60 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 3.25-3.75 0.20-0.30 4812
4815 0.13-0.18 0.40-0.60 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 3.25-3.75 0.20-0.30 4815
4817 0.15-0.20 0.40-0.60 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 3.25-3.75 0.20-0.30 4817
4820 0.18-0.23 0.50-0.70 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 3.25-3.75 0.20-0.30 4820
5045 0.43-0.48 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.55-0.75 5045
5046 0.43-0.50 0.75-0.100 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.20-0.35 4046
0.13-0.18 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.70-0.90 5115
5120 0.17-0.22 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.70-0.90 5120
5130 0.28-0.33 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.80-1.10 5130
5132 0.30-0.35 0.60-0.80 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.80-1.05 5132
5135 0.33-0.38 0.60-0.80 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.80-1.05 5135
5140 0.38-0.43 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.70-0.90 5140
5145 0.43-0.48 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.70-0.90 5145
5147 0.45-0.52 0.75-1.00 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.90-1.20 5147
5150 0.48-0.53 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.70-0.90 5150
5152 0.48-0.55 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.90-1.20 5152
E50100 0.95-1.10 0.25-0.45 0.025 0.025 0.20-0.35 0.40-0.60 50100
E51100 0.95-1.10 0.25-0.45 0.025 0.025 0.20-0.35 0.90-1.15 51100
E52100 0.95-1.10 0.25-0.45 0.025 0.025 0.20-0.35 0.30-1.60 52100
V
6120 0.17-0.22 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.70-0.90 0.10 Min
6145 0.43-0.48 0,70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.80-1.10 0.15 MLn
6150 0.48-0.53 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.80-1.10 0.15 Min 6150 .
6152 0.48-0.55 0.70~0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.80-1.10 0.10 Min
Mo
8615 0.13-0.18 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.40-0.70 0.50-0.60 0.15-0.25 8615
8617 0.15-0.20 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.40-0.70 0.50-0.60 0.15-0.25 8617
8620 0.18-0.23 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.40-0.70 0.50-0.60 0.15-0.25 8620
. 8622 0.20-0.25 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.40-0.70 0.50-0.60 0.15-0.25 8622
8625 0.23-0.28 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20~0.35 0.40-0.70 0.50-0.60 0.15-0.25 8625
86~7 0.25-0.30 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.40-0.70 0.50-0.60 0.15-0.25 8627
8630 0.28-0.33 0.70 ....
0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0,40-0.70 0.50-0:60 0.15-0.25 8630
8632 0.30-0;35 0.70-0.90 0,040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.40-0.70 0.50-0.60 0.15-0.25 8632
8.69.5 0.33-0.38 . 0.75-1.00 0,040 0.040- 0.20-0.35 GAO-O.70 0.50-0.60· 0,15-0.25 8635
-·.~S6$7' . 0.36-0.40 0;75-1~OO 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.40;..0;70 0.50-0,60 0.15-0,25 8637
8640" , ·0.~S-O.43 0.75':"1.00 o.oao 0.040 0.20-'0.35 0.40-0.70' O.50~0.60 0.15-0,25 8640
6641 O.3a...O,43 0.75-1,00 0.040 0,040-0.060 0.20-0,35 0.40-0.70 0.50-0.60 0.15-0.25 8641
8642 0.40-0.45 0,75-1.00 0.040 0.040 0.20-0,35 0.40-0.70 ·0.50-0.60 0.15-0.25 8642
9645. 0.43....Q.48 O.75~l.OO 0.040 0.040 0.20~Q.35 0.40-0.70 .0.50-0.60 0.15-0.25 8645
8647· . 0.45-0.50· 0.75-LOO 0,040 0.040 0.20-Q.35 0.40-0.70 0.50-0.60 0.15-0.25 8647
"8~~O QA8.-QJ53 ;0,75-"'1.00 .0..040·· 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.40-0.70. . Q. SQ..,-O,60 0.15-0.25 8650'
8653···· 0;50-0,56 0.75-1;00 0.040 O.04D 0:20..,0.35 . 0.40-0.70 0.50-0.60 0.15-0.25 8653
TABLE15-4 AISI-SAE NUMERICAL DESIGNATION OF CARBON AND ALLOY STEELS, (CONTINUED)
Alloy Steel
AISI p S SAE
NUmber Mn Max. Max. Si Ni Cr Other Number
C
8655 0.75-1.00 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.40-0.70 0.50-0.60 0.15-0.25 8655
0.50-0.60
8660 0.75-1.00 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.40-0.70 0.50-0.60 0.15-0.25 8660
0.50-0.65
8720 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.40-0.70 0.50-0.60 0.20-0.30 8720
0.18-0.23
8735 0.75-1.00 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.40-0.70 0.50-0.60 0.20-0.30 8735
0.33-0.38
8740 0.75-1.00 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.40-0.70 0.50-0.60 0.20-0.30 8740
0.38-0.43
8742 0.75-1.00 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.40-0.70 0.50-0.60 0.20-0.30
0.40-0.45
8745 0.75-1.00 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.40-0.70 0.50-0.60 0.20-0.30 8745
0.43-0.48
8747 0.45-0.50 0.75-1.00 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.40-0.70 0.50-0.60 0.20-0.30
8750 0.75-1.00 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.40-0.70 0.50-0.60 0.20-0.30 8750
0.48-0.53
0.50-0.60 0.040 0.040 1.20-1.60 0.50-0.80 9254
0.50-0.60
9255 0.70-0.95 0.040 0.040 1.80-2.20 9255
0.50-0.60
9260 0.55-0.65 0.70-1.00 0.040 0.040 1.80-2.20 9260
9261 0.55-0.65 0.75-1.00 0.040 0.040 1.80-2.20 0.10-0.25 9261
9262 0.55-0.65 0.75-1.00 0.040 0.040 1.80-2.20 0.25-0.40 9262
E9310 0.08-0.13 0.45-0.65 0.025 0.025 0.20-0.35 3.00-3.50 1.00-1.40 0.08-0.15 9310
E9315 0.13-0.18 0.45-0.65 0.025 0.025 0.20-0.35 3.00-3.50 1.00-1.40 0.08-0.15 9315
E9317 0.15-0.20 0.45-0.65 0.025 0.025 0.20-0,35 3.00-3.50 1.00-1.40 0.08-0.15 9317
9437 0.35-0.40 0.90-1.20 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.30-0.60 0.30-0.50 0.08-0.15 9437
9440 0.38-0.43 0.90-1.20 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.30-0.60 0.30-0.50 0.08-0.15 9440
9442 0.40-0.45 1.00-1.30 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.30-0.60 0.30-0.50 0.08-0.15 9442
9445 0.43-0.48 1.00-1.30 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.30-0.60 0.30-0.50 0.08-0.15 9445
9747 0.45-0.50 0.50-0.80 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.40-0.70 0.10-0.25 0.15-0.25 9747
9763 0.60-0.67 0.50-0.80 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.40-0.70 0.10-0.25 0.15-0.25 9763
9840 0.38-0.43 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.85-1.15 0.70-0.90 0.20-0.30 9840
9845 0.43-0.48 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.85-1.15 0.70-0.90 0.20-0.30 9845
9850 0.48-0.53 0.70-0.90 0.040 0.040 0.20-0.35 0.85-1.15 0.70-0.90 0.20-0.30 9850
The first two digits indicate the major alloying metals in Different branches of the U.S. federal government
the steel such as manganese, nickel-chromium, and also write specifications for metals. The Department of
Chrome-mo.lybdenum. Defense issues the MIL specifications! and the Depart-
Other organizations that specify steels include the ment or Commerce issues th QQ specifications. Other
Am. rtcan Petroleum Institute (AP!), the American.Associ- groups may also issue metal specifl anons, .
ation of Railroads (AAR), the American Bureau of Ship .. Professional societies and trade associations pro.
ping CAB ), the Steel Founders Society of America (SFSA), vide specifications for metals, For example, theAmerican
th S ciety of Automottve Engineers (SAE), which in- Petroleum Institute issues specifications covering t11 m -
tUdes the AMS speciflcatrons, and many government chanical properties and composition o.i steel for pipe.'fhe
agencies and private companies. In view of this, it is nee- American Bureai..lof Shipping provides spectfl atlons for
$~ to. learn tl e different specifying groups and obtain steel us d in shipbuilding, The Asso Iatton for.American
°Pl S of sp cifi atlons Or UteratUfe concerning the Railroads provides specifications for wrought and cast:
ste Is that ar to be welded, . steels ised by th railroad indus1iry.
The AlSI and SAE also collaborated on a system ~f Steel 'castings are identified . and speciffed. by
1dentifying the corrosion-resistant 0.1' stainless steels, In ASTM specifications and. alsQ·'by SAt, AAR,and. ABS"
~lts systen: , stainless and heat-resistant steels are classl- classes. Tiles pedfi.cations ptovi<;le for mechanl 'al; .
1: <l into. four general groups. The ar identified by a properties with various' 11 at trertl;ll~rits and chemical _
thl:,.qigit number.Th first number indicates the group cornposlttons,
a,lld th last two. nu mb rS Indtcate the type, Modificatjons Speci,fi ations tor mat rials u d in th (llr raft il'l~ ..
of types are indicated by suffix numbers, Information dllstry are clesigue(i as AMS. which stands fot AerQsl)~\,ce _
~n 'erntngthe exact spedfi-c~tiQl1s for: diffi rent steels .'Matef;lals Spedficati~l)S', a CUviSi0fi·bf th(S9c1ety: QtAut9;:
\)1111 b glVi n in e don 16-3~ moti e EngiJlc rs (SAl~} . .,
\
Most industrialized countries have national stan- necessary to know the composition of the metal being
dards that provide specifications for metals. The British welded.There are a number of ways to determine the corn-
Standards CBS) issue specifications for many different position so that a welding procedure can be developed.
types of metals, as do the German Standardization Insti- 111eability to make a rapid identification of the metal will
tute (DIN) and the Japanese Standards Association (JIS). reduce the time required to make a successful weld. If
The standardization department of Russia issues GOST time permits, it is recommended that a piece of the metal
standards. Most of these standards are available in their be taken to a laboratory for analysis. Since time is rarely
original languages from the country's standardization so- available, the following basis for identifying the metal
ciety. The International Organization of Standards (ISO) should be followed. By using this technique and with ex-
also issues specifications for metals. perience, a fairly accurate identification can be made.
For nonferrous metals, several trade associations are Eight simple tests can be performed to help identify
involved. For example, the Aluminum Association (AA) metals. They will at least provide sufficient guidance to
provides a system of designating the compositions of alu- make a successful weld even though the exact composi-
minum alloys. This system uses four-digit numbers for tion may not be learned. Six of the different tests arc
wrought aluminum alloys. The AA also provides temper summarized in Table 15-5.Thls should be supplemented
designations as suffix letters and numbers to indicate the by Tables 15-1 and 15- 2, which present physical and me-
temper condition. All of the aluminum producers in chanical properties of metals.
North America utilize the Aluminum Association alloy
numbers for identifying their different products. More in- Appearance Test
formation is given in Section 17-1.
The first test is the appearance of the part. This includes
A standard designation for copper and copper al-
features such as color and the appearance of the ma-
loys has been established by the Copper Development As-
chined as well as unmachined surfaces.The shape can be
sociation, Inc. Its system is used in North America and has
descriptive; for example, shape includes such things as
been adopted by the U.S. government, ASTM, SAE, and
cast engine blocks, automobile bumpers, reinforcing rod,
nearly all producers of copper and copper alloy products.
f-beams or angle irons, pipes, and pipe fittings. Form
It is not a specification but rather an orderly method us-
should be considered and may show how the part was
ing a three-digit number of defining and identifying cop-
made, such as a casting with its obvious surface appear-
pers and copper alloys. The system groups compositions
ance and parting mold lines, or hot-rolled wrought mate·
into families, including the coppers, the high-copper al-
rial, extruded or cold rolled with a smooth surface. Form
loys, the brasses, the bronzes, the copper-nickels, and the
and shape give definite dues. For example, pipe can be
copper-zinc aUoys.These numbers replace previous trade
cast, in which case it would be cast iron, or wrought,
names such as copper-nickel,almni.num-bronze,phosphur-
which would normally be steel. Another example is a hot-
bronze, Naval-brass, and tough pitch copper.
rolled structural shape in a steel-framed building, which
The alloys of magnesium are identified by a special
would be mild or low-alloy steel.
designation established by ASTM.Titanium, lead, tin, and
Color provides a strong clue in metal identification.
other metals are specified by ASTM specifications. Spe j.
It can distinguish many metals such as copper, bras , alu-
flcations applicable to each metal will be provided in the
mlnum, magnesium, and the precious metals. On oxidized
chapter concerning es ch metal.
metals, the oxidation can be scraped off to determine the
Numerous alloys are identified by trade names or
color of the unoxldized metal. Thls helps to identify lead,
numbers by their producer. Compositions of these alloys
magnesium, and even copper. Til oxidation on steel, or
can be obtained from th producer. The Soci ty of Auto-
ru t, is usually a clue that can be used to sepru..ate plain car-
motive 't'lgine rs( AE) also provides specifications for
bon steels from the corroston-reslsnng steels.
nonfeerous metal$.
The use of the metal part is also a clue to identify it·
Several books ar a Itllableo- ) that list different al-
Many machinery parts for agrl ultural equipment and
Joys and m rals by trade name. For tho e who n d to de-
light- and medium-duty industrial equipment are made of
t rrrune the analysis of diff rent proprietary or trade
ast iron. For heavy-duty work such as brake press .the
name alloys, the c books are of immense value.
\ castings would probably b s tel.A railroad rail obvtou Iy
can be identified by shape and this gives ail. Immediate
clue to its composition. '
15-3 IDeNTIFICATION H rdness Test
OF METALS A se ond rest that houtd be u ied j t11 hardness test.
ld Portabl Instrum nts are available thac 'an be taken to
.the work. Thts gives a hardness mditilltiol}, which helpSc
d termln the type of me al,
TABLE15-5 SUMMARYOF IDENTIFICATION
TESTSOF METALS
Flame
Magnet Chisel Fracture or Torch Spark
Base Metal or Alloy Color
Aluminum and Nonmagnetic Easily cut White Melts wo/col

Bluish-white
alloys
Brass, navy Nonmagnetic Easily cut Not used Not used
Yellow or reddish
Nonmagnetic Easily cut Not used Not used
Bronze, aluminum Reddish yellow
(90 Cu-9 AI)
Nonmagnetic Easily cut Not used Not used
Bronze, phosphur Reddish yellow
(90 Cu-10 Sn)
Bronze, silicon Nonmagnetic Easily cut Not used Not used
Reddish yellow
(96 Cu-3 Si)
Copper Red; 1 cent piece Nonmagnetic Easily cut Red Not used
(deoxidized)
Copper nickel White; 5 cent Nonmagnetic Easily cut Not used Not used
(70 Cu-30 N i) piece
EVerdu (96 Cu-3 Gold Nonmagnetic Easily cut Not used Not used
Si-1 Mn)
Gold Yellow Nonmagnetic Easily cut Not used Not used
Inconel (72 Ni-16 White Nonmagnetic Easily cut Not used Not used
Cr-8 Fe)
Iron, cast Dull gray Magnetic Not easily Brittle Melts slowly See text
chipped
Iron, wrought Light gray Magnetic Easily cut Bright gray Melt fast See text
fibers
Lead Dark gray Nonmagnetic Very soft White: crystal Melts quickly
Magnesium Silvery white Nonmagnetic Soft Not used Burns in air
Monel Light gray Slightly Tough Light gray Not used
(67 Ni-30 Cu) magnetic
Nickel White Magnetic Easily cut Almost white Not used See text
Nickel silver White Nonmagnetic Easily chipped Not used Not used
Silver White; pre-1965 Nonmagnetic Not used Not used Not used
10(t pc
Steel, high carbon Dark gray Magnetic Hard to chip Very Iight gray Shows color See text
Steel, low alloy Blue-gray Magnetic Depends on Medium gray Shows color See text
composition
Steel, low carbon Dark gray Magnetic Continuous Bright gray Shows color See text
chip
Steel, manganese Dull Nonmagnetic WorK hardens Coarse grained Shows color ' See text
(14 Mn)
Steel, medium Dark gray Magnetic Easily cut Very light gray Shows color See text
carbon
Steel, stainless Bright silvery See text Continuous Depends Melts fast See text
(austenitic) chip on type
Steel, stainless Gray Slightly Continuous Depends Melts fast See text
(ferritiC) magnetic ohip on type
Steel, stainless Bright si Ivery Slightly Depends . Sea text
(martensitic) magnetic on type
Tantalum Gray Nonmagnetic Hard to chip High
temperature
.11n Silvery' white Nonmagnetlc . Usually 'CIS Usually as ;~Meltsquickly··
plating plating
Titanium Steel gray Nonrnagm1tic Hard' Not used Not used ," See text
Tungsten Steel gray Nonmagnetic Hardest metal Srittle Highest
temperature
Zinc , Dark gray Nonmagnetic Not used Melts quickly
TABLE 15-6 ApPROXIMATE HARDNESS OF STEEL because of the hardness of the material, but they can be
BY THE FILE TEST continuous.
Brinell
File Reaction Hardness Type of Steel Fracture Test
File bites easily into metal 100 Mild steel This test is simple to use if a small piece of the metal be-
File bites into metal with 200 Medium- ing evaluated is available. The ease of breaking the part is
pressure carbon steel an indication of its ductility or lack of ductility. If the
File does not bite into metal 300 High-alloy piece bends easily without breaking, it is one of the more
except with extreme steel, high- ductile metals. If it breaks easily with little or no bending,
pressure carbon steel it is one of the brittle materials. The surface appearance
Metal can only be filed with 400 Unhardened of the fracture is also an indication. It will have the color
difficulty tool steel
of the base metal without oxidation. This will be true of
File will mark metal but 500 Hardened tool
metal is nearly as hard steel
copper, lead, and magnesium. In other cases, the coarse-
as the file and filing is ness or roughness of the broken surface is an indication
impractical of its structure. A careful study of known metals and how
Metal is harder than file 600+ they appear at the fracture will help build experience to
identify unknown specimens.
A less precise hardness test is the tile test. A summary Flame or Torch Test
of the reaction to filing and the approximate Brinell hard-
ness and the possible type of steel is given in Table 15-6. A high-temperature flame such as the oxyacetylene torch
A sharp mill rue is used. It is assumed that the part is steel, flame is used, The flame test should be used with discre-
and the file test will help identify the type of steel. Experi- tion since it is possible that it will damage the part belng
ence will help identify steel types with the file test. investigated. If at all possible it should be used on a small
piece of the metal being checked. The factors learned
from this test are the rate of melting, the appearance of
Magnetic Test the molten metal and slag, and the action of the molten
The magnetic test can be quickly performed using a small metal under the flame. All these factors provide clues
pocket magnet. With experience it is possible to judge a that can aid in making the evaluation. When. a sharp cor-
strongly magnetic material from a slightly magnetic ma- ner of a white metal part is heated, the rate of melting can
terial. The nonmagnetic materials are easily recognized. be an indication. If the material is aluminum, it will not
The strongly magnetic materials include the carbon and melt until sufficient heat has been used because of the
low-alloy steels, iron alloys, pure nickel, and rnartensitic high conductivity of aluminum. If the part is zin " the
stainless steels. A slightly magnetic reaction is obtained sharp corner will melt quickly since zinc is not a good
from Monel and high-nickel alloy and the stainless steel conductor. In the case of copper, if the sharp corner
of the 18% chrome-ass nick I type when cold worked, melts, it is normally deoxidized copper. If it does not melt
such as in a seamless tube. until much heat bas been applied, it is electrolytic cop-
The nonmagnetic mat "rials are the copper-base al- per.Also, with copper alloys, if lead Is in the composition,
loy .aluminurn-base alloys, zin -base alloys, annealed 18% itwlll boil.fndicating a lead-bearing alloy. To distinguish
J:u'ome-8% nickel stainless, the magnesiurns, and the pre- aluminum from magnesium, apply the torch to fliings.
clous metals, With expertenc it i possible to use the Magnesium will burn With ~ sparkling white flame, Steel
magnetic test to help identify the various metals. will show characteristic colors before melting.
Chis I Test Spark Test

Tt 'hip t st or . his I test should als be us d. Tb only This is a popular and reliable test for ld ntifying different
tools requtr d are a hamrn er and a old chis l.The te is f steels. The test requires th use of a high-sp ed grinding
I
to us the cold chtseland hammer on the edge or corner wheel, either fixed or portable.The grinding wheel should.
t)f the .~'ltetiaJ. oelng examined, The cas of produ ing a have a speed of at J ast 5,000 surface feet per mlnute.Ths
chip is an It'J,di atlonof th har tness of th m.efal.If th surfac feet, pcr minute equals the circumference in
hip ~s continuous, it is in ltcauve of a ductil metal, .inches multiplied. by the revolutlons p r mlnut divided
whereas if chip~ br eakapart, it ludi at A a brittle material. by 12. Spark testing sh uld be don in subdu d..Ught since
such mar daIs as ~:uminunl, mild St el, and mall {ble til- olor of the park is Important. Spark teOtiitg is not
. ,)rnn, tl1"'hip8 ate continu0tls:Tbey are ea Uy chjpped and llsed on nonferrous metals since they do nQt exhibit spark
.. mcdlip, ·'clOllOt. te,tltt t <hreak-apart.The ch1ps for gray cast ,streams o.f any s:ignifi . anc,This is one wayto separate fer-
trOll a s ·brittle th}lt they 1 eCOl;n small broke. frag- rou and non:t1n'o1.lS.metlls.For e:xample,jt can ~ IS d to
ruuts, 11. high-carbon . re'l, th chip$ are h~It'dto obtain s pamte st~llnless ste 1from high.-Ilt k 1. or copper·ni 1< 1
• Low-carbon or mild steel: long yellow carrier
line; occasional forks and lines may, end in an ar-
rowhead.
• Low-allay steel: each alloying element has an effect
on the spark appearance, and careful observation is
required.Type 4130 steel has carrier lines that often
end in forks and sharp outer points with few sprigs.
• High-carbon steel: abundant yellow carrier lines
with bright and abundant star bursts.
. • Manganese steel: bright white carrier lines with
fan-shaped bursts.
• Stainless steels: the chrome-nickel steels give off
short carrier lines, sometim s making a dotted line
. lthout buds or sprigs.
FIGURE15-10 Spark test. • Nickel: extremely short spark stream. Carrier lines
are orange. There are no forks or sprigs, .U1d the
sparks may follow the grinding wheel.
materials, such as Monel, since sparks would be produced
• Titanium: a white spark stream. Carrier lines are
only by the stainless steel. It is advisable to have specimens
uniform in size and terminate in forks and in ar-
Or samples of known steels that can be sparked immedi-
rowlike shapes at an angle from 'the carrier line.
ately before or after sparking the unknown material to
help determine the unknown composition. Spark Atlas of Steels by'Tschom'P is by far the most
Spark testing has been thoroughly studied, and data comprehensive authority on this subject, It relates to vari-
are aVailable with photographs showing the sparks that ous national standards and has numerous pictures illus-
are produced.The spark resulting from the test should be trating the spark stream produced by each type of material.
directed downward and studied. Figure 15 -1 0 shows the
sparks resulting from a spark test. The color, shape,
length, and activity of the sparks relate to characteristics
Chemical Test
of the material being tested. The spark stream has spe- Numerous chemical tests call be made in the shop for
cific items that can be identified. The straight lines are identifying some materials. Monel can be distinguished
call d carrier lines. They are usually solid and conrinu- from Inconel by one drop of nttrlc acid applied to the sur-
OUs.At the end of the carrier line they may divide into face. It will turn blue-green on Monel but will show no re-
three short lines called forks. If they divide into more action on Inconel.A few drops of a 45% phosphoric acid
lines at the end, they are called sprigs. Sprigs also occur will bubble on low-chromium stainless steels.These tests
at diff rent pla es along the carrier Hne.These are some- can become complicated and for this reason are not COy"
times called bursts, either star' or fan bursts. In some ered here. Metal identification kits, designed for portable
cases, the carrier line will enlarge slightly for a very short use, are helpful (Figure 15-11 .They electri ally remove
length, continue, and perhaps enlarge again for a short a minute amount of the test metal onto a HIte1' paper.
1 ngtti, \Vhen these heavier portions occur at th end of Reagents in the kit placed on the sample give distinct col-
the carrier line, they are caned spear points or buds. High ors identifying metallic elements. }:formate information
slll.fur cr at s these thicker spots in carrier lines and the refer toASTM booklet, STP 550.(6
spearheads. Cast irons have extr mely short streams, The use of these methods, coupled with samples f
Whereas low- arbon steels and most alloy steels have rel- known metals and with expertence.wtlteaabl . you to
atively long streams. Steels usually have white to yellow mak Identifi attons suiftclently accurate for mostweld-
cQlor sparks, whil cast iron are reddish to straw yellow. ing requlrements.
By 1 arning to id ntify the different portions of th
s~ark, and by making tests on known samples, It is pos-
SIble to acquire experience sufficient to make relauv Iy .
aCCtlrate determinations of the metal being investigated.
15..4 HEAT AND WELDING"
1'he following is a summary of som metals and the type Heat is employed inmost welding proce ses,1~he 11t~at
of spark that t produc d. sourc for weJdjns 11;l~Ybe gel' rated ill at last th fQl~·
10wtJ1gdlf~ rentway : . .
• ast iron: dull r . to straw y How color, short
spark stream, f lany small sprtgs.sh rt and repearing .. 1.
• 'Wrought t1'O"~.' rOp.g straw-colQred ~atriet' !tnes,
tl tlnU· whiter aw~yfrom tlle grinding whe .1. arder 2.
lit. S lJSLl~lUy nd in s earh ad at'rOWS 0.1' amaH forks.
FIGURE 15-11 Typicaltest kit.
3. A high-temperature flame obtained by burning a There are numerous detrimental effects of welding
fuel gas with oxygen using a torch heat. Some of the disadvantages are:
4. Mechanical sources from sliding friction, explosive 1. High residual stresses from a localized heating
impact, and ultrasonl vibrations cause differential shrinkage stresses, which may
5. Exothermic chemical reaction producing super- lead to warpage and distortion
hated llqutd metal 2. A reduction of ductllity 01" a d gree of hardening in
6. Radiation from a focused high-energy beam of the heat-affected zone may lead to cracking
electrons 3. The deterioration of the toughness properties of
i. Radlauon from a focused, high-energy; electromag- the joint, prlmarily in the 11 at-affected zone
.n tic beam of coher nr light 4. Loss of strength in the heat-affe ted zone of certain,
. Hef t t used to melt the surfa of the m tal to\~e ,work-hardened quenched and temp red mat rials
welde i sq that coale c nc •the growmg togeth r,can oc- The heat 'input-t~me-tempef'tltllre relationship. or
,cl.lr.fleatis'als'Q used to melt the filter metal added to'th til rmal cycle, of a weld cannot be prcc1sely determined
weldltlg j.otnl. b cause so many variables ar involved, However, fuMy
.'Tt ~ st c rom 11 our of h t f . 1," welding is tl1 accurate stimates can be made to pr c.cH t or explain th
. et ~'ttl arc,Ttl arc is a cnttnuously moving heat source. eff ts of heat f rom a specific welding pro e $ u a given
V: ntbough it move ,sten,ly ..State condttlcns re stab- m tal und r pra tj at condttt us. he total heat lnI It
lislwd: and tlle temp ratue di tlbution rclative· to the ml.lSt be' bal}tnced to produc tb. desiJ'ed weld. A. com-
',ll .at·~QlJrei$ relativ ly,table,The e1 effie arc has a t¢m~ plicatin.g factor occurs when ~r cold fmer rod is 'U ed to
'peratttriJffi!om.5,OOO to 20,OOOQC .. make be weld. Stufici l1t heat Oll.lst be ptovi,d, d to melt
'.
the filler rod at the proper rate and add it to the molten rises more slowly, holds at a high temperature for a fairly
pool. It is estimated that the temperature of the molten long time, and then decreases slowly. The temperature
Steel in the pool is 3,500°F (l,930°C). Extra heat is re- changes that occur during an arc welding operation are
qUired, over and above the amount needed to melt the much quicker and more abrupt than for most metallurgi-
Iiller rod and the surfaces of the base metal, to compen- cal processes. The metallurgical reactions from welding
sate for the heat conducted away from the weld. It is nec- heat do not follow the normal heat-treating relationship.
essary to control closely the amount of heat input while The temperature changes with eJectroslag welding are
making a weld joint. more similar to those encountered in foundry metallurgy.
The heat developed by a moving arc can be calcu- The increase of heat in a metal increases the atomic
lated by the following: mobility in the metal.When sufficient heat is absorbed by
a solid, it will change to a liquid. In welding, it is necessary
Ex/x60 to produce a liquid at the surface of the parts being
HE=----
S welded. The heat source is removed to allow cooling so
that solidification or coalescence occurs and a weld is
Where HE= energy in joules per linear measure of weld made. Heat moves rapidly in metal from one area to an-
(inches or millimeters) other area whenever there is a difference in tempera-
E = arc voltage in volts tures. Heat will always move from the hot area to the
I = welding current in amperes cooler area. The welding heat source creates heat at a par-
S = travel speed in lineal measure per minute ticular spot and is normally moving, at least in the arc
(in.zrnin or mm/rnin) processes. The heat is also moving so that a continually
changing relationship occurs while welding. After an arc
This energy input formula is used to calculate the has stabilized, it will approach thermal equilibrium but
heat developed in an arc and can be used in comparing never quite reach it. The rate at which the heat flows to
welding procedures or for limiting heat input when weld- the cold area depends upon the conductivity of the base
ing quenched and tempered steels. Each welding process metal. Heat also moves by means of convection.by radia-
has a different thermal cycle. Figure 15-12 shows the tion, and by absorption; however, for practical purposes
time-temperature relationship of base metal taken im- most of the welding heat flows by means of conduction.
mediately adjacent to welds made by two welding Therefore the conductivity of the metal has a largeinflu-
processes.G)The rate of heat rise, the maximum temper- ence on the heat input-output time cycle relationship.
ature, the time at high temperature, and the rate of cool- The temperature distribution around a point heat
ing of the metal are quite different for SMAW and ES source can be shown by means of charts call d tso-
Welding. Processes with the highest concentration of tberms. (8) These are lines that connect points of identical
heat cause the temperature to rise much more rapidly temperature. A typical, temperature distribution curve
and to fall much more rapidly. The curve shown for the mad during the d position of a shielded metal a1'Cweld-
shielded metal arc weld rises almost instantaneously and ing bead on thin material and on thick material is shown
the COOlingrate of the base metal is a steep slope, indi- in Figure 15-13. This is the distribution of temperature
ating quick cooling. The curve for electroslag welding around the arc with the arc at the highest temperature
isotherm.The rise of the t mperature, or the steepness of
the curve, in front of the arc is much more rapid than th
FIGURE15-12 Time-temperature relationship for fall of temperature, Ofthe slope of the curve, behind the arc.
various processes. This is due to the tnstantaneou heat transfer from, the arc
and the longer time for the heat to be removed. The ullJU·
1300
1200
ence of the thickness of the base metalfs shown by the U.
2200
IustrettcnDstng id ntl al welding onditions, t', much
2000 1.4. wider flow of h at Is created in the thinner plat> than in ,
laoo ~ th thicker plate. This is du to the mass of til thi .k 1',
e l.ECTROSLAG Ij,I
1600 ~ plate and the fact that the heat flows in thre directions
1400 ~ in Itrath r than.in two directiOll'SfqrJb tlullmaterlal" _
--~~~-<
1200 ~
1000
:>
~->
g;
Not all the heat gellcratedl?ythe heat ~Ol.lt- eJs U$cd"
in making the weld, bisis hewn by retatlng the heat jn.~,
800 ~ put, which. is calculated by the formula shown! to ~l mass,
600 ~ or volume.orm tal rn Ited.The amount.ofheaerequfr edto '
400
melt a mass {metal tsequal to tbe wei ilt of tIl Jlle~
?OQ meltedtimes the m~t:itlg r'oillt.~ l' degl'cs of te,m,p J;ttl1t'
o 2' 3',4 5 678 9{01ll213141~1H"819'202'222324 dse'fcqulred)tirti- Sth 'spt'~Ulc heatQft;he rtn::tal.lt '!Ql b
,j
TIME (MINUTES) seen that from 2{)%to 15'%,ot ttl energy aW\Habl' Sll ttl \
\
V
/
/
/
---,1'--.
/1
// I
/
/
DIRECTION DIRECTION
OF TRAVEL OF TRAVEL
v v
____ x
-x
,
1200 /
1400 1400
1600
FIGURE 15-13 Temperature distribution

around a moving arc. THIN nATE THICK PLATE
heat source is used in melting the metal.The percentage is the heat source, and how fast does it flow from the weJd
different. for different processes, procedures, base metals, area? For example, a low-current gas tungsten arc can be
and base metal geometries. For the shielded metal arc struck on a large thick copper plate, and it would be im-
welding process, 70% to 85% of the heat is used in making possible to make a weld since the temperature of the cop-
the weld nugget. For the carbon arc welding process, 50% per plate would not rise sufficiently to cause melting. Not
to 70% of the heat is used, while in submerged arc welding enough heat is produced by the tungsten arc to melt the
80% to 90% of the heat generated by the arc is used in melt- copper since the conductivity of the copper and ns mass
ing the weld metal. A major portion. of this lost heat is used cause the heat to flow away 0 rapidly. The thermal con-
to raise the temperature of the base metal adjacent to the ductivity, the ability to transmit heat throughout its mass, is
weld to near tts melting point. Other losses come from of rna [or importance when considering the rate of heatlng:
weld patter, heating the electrod and flux, and radiation Table 15-1 provides the r Jative thermal conductivity of
and convection to the surrounding air. the common metals. Numbers cannot b put into formulas
In analyzing the effects of heat on a weld, a weld to provide exact answers; however, the relationship of
joint, or a weldmenr, it ts ne essary to determine: thermal conductivity of one metal versus another provides
a lue.Por xample.steel bas only about a tenth of the mer-
1. TIle rate of heating mal conductivity of copper.With reference to the isotherm
. 2. The maximum temperature attain d diagram, the condu tivity of th metal has an effect on the
3. Ttte length of tme ac temp rrature st pn S5 of th " curve or hange of t mperature gradl nt.
Extremely st ep temp ratur gradients occur inwelding as
. .4:. The rat of qoling \
a r sult of the high temperatures of the b at sour eat d t11
- 'T1:1'S f~lCtors·ar· cUftlculno determine; howey f, a temperature f the base rn tal. Steepnesi of the rate ofJh
gbod ariaty~i,s .of the potential damaglng ef c s on the heating curve is much different for th different:processes.
wel'l C,1:'1'be approxlmat d. This' allows preca mens or l11C ms ximurn temp srature that will b - attained In
p,to 'd~lt 11nges to mi.nimiz ~the harf1:tfnl ff·, -So ' th base metal is also im,pol'tant.Th b. se m t~llat the weld
-'rile: rate of beating depemJs on a nUillb t' o.ffa 'tOl'S: Jl'l. lstb raised to Its melting temp tfttl.lre and above. HoW'
, th SiZe .a.nd itl'tC11Sit10f thC :hea1. S tlf Cl th effi j nc.."Yof mu h above is Imp ftant and depends )U the w Jdlng
;th i trtU S r of heat ((, ill ~bnse m tal, th us of hat in pro egs. Urad 'm welding does not t. quire t1.1 ba e 111 tal .
'in-Jal~triR/theweld! t~w [lass· df tn base·met31, tl e jOillt to be· t".\1 1 much abo\i'ctt'S nl it~ tcml')erattlre. Tbe '
Ig. om n:y, Q 1d rmnt onduciiviry. How mu 'h 1J at is in w l<Ung proc 'Sses that \lsextTC1l1ely high temp ratt)re
heat SOurces such as electron beam or laser beam can raise cracking or hard zones occur. Hard zones in or adjacent to
the base metal temperature so high that it will volatilize the weld usually have lower toughness and. ductility and
the metal.This is why some processes can be used for both tend to crack when thermal stresses are introduced. By re-
welding and cutting, depending on the heat input. When ducing the cooling rate these can be eliminated and qual-
welding thin sheet metal with too much heat input, the ity welds can be produced. Factors that increase the heat
material becomes too hot. It melts rapidly and falls away, input or the mass of heat, or reduce the heat losses, will
and holes are produced rather than welds.The maximum reduce the cooling rate, which will reduce the possibility
temperature reached by the base metal is related to the of these defects.
rate of heat input and to the rate of heat loss. As long as the
heat input exceeds the rate of heat loss, the base metal will
COntinue to get hotter.This relationship must continue un- 15-5 WELDING METALLURGY
til surface melting of the base metal occurs.
Another factor is the specific heat of the base metal. The science of joining metals by welding relates closely to
This is a measure of the quantity of heat required to in- the field of metallurgy. Metallurgy involves the science of
crease the temperature of the metal. It relates to the producing metals from ores, of making and compounding
amOunt of heat required to bring the metal to its melting alloys, and of the reaction of metals to many different ac-
paint. A metal having a low melting temperature but with tivities and situations. Heat treatment, steel making and
a relatively high specific heat may require as much heat processing, forging, and foundry all make 1,1Seof the sci-
to cause surface melting as a metal with a high-temperature ence of metallurgy.WelcUng metallurgy can be considered
melting point and a low specific heat.This can be seen by a special branch, since reaction times are in the order of
COmparing aluminum to steel. The specific heat of the minutes, seconds, and fractions of seconds, whereas in the
common metals is shown by Table IS-I.The temperature other branches reactions are in hours and minutes.
required at the weld area should be only slightly greater Welding metallurgy deals with the interaction of
than the melting temperature of the metal being welded. different metals and the interaction of metals with gases
This is obtained in the base metal by balancing the heat and chemicals of all types.The welding metallurgist is also.
input With the heat losses. involved with changes in physical characteristics that
TIle length of time at the maximum temperature de- happen in short periods. The solubility of gases in metals
pends upon maintaining a heat balance between heat in- and between metals and the effect of impurities are all of
PUtand heat losses.There is rarely a true heat balance in any major Importance to the welding metallurgist,
Welding situation. During the arcing period, the h at input In a general treatment of welding such as this, many
USually exceeds' the heat losses and the base metal be- metallurgical factors and practlces are found throughout
comes hotter. Many times the welder must allow work to the entire book. This chapter presents a brief coverage of
Cool When the welding pool becomes too large and un- welding metallurgy.
manageable. The current is reduced or the arc is broken, The structure of metals is complex. When .metal is
~d the heat input is reduced Of ceases.The heat losses con- in a liquid state, usually hot, it has no distinct structur or
tinue, and the pool and base metal- begin to cool. Normally orderly arrangement of atoms. The atoms move freely
the temperature of the work near the arc rises to a maxi- among themselves within the confines of the liquld:nleit
mum. As soon as the arc moves On, the temperature adja- mobility allows the Itquid metal to yield to the slightest
ceru to the weld begins to fall.The longer the base metal, pressure and to conform to. the shape of the container.
itd.jacent to the weld, remains at a high temperature, the This high degree of mobility of the atoms tsdne to. the
greater the possibility for grain growth in the weld metal heat energy involved durtng the melting proc ss.
and in the heat-affected area.Theamount of metal melted, As molten metal cools, theheatenergy of the atoms
and the heat input and heat loss, affect this relationship. . in the liquid state decreases and th~ atoms movewtrh less
The rate of ooling of the weld and adjacent metal mobility.1\.5 the temperature is further reduced and the
is th rat, of temperature change from welding tempera- metal cools, the atoms are no. longer able to. move and nre
tUt s to room temperature. The rat of cooling can be attracted togeth r into. definlt patterns, Th se pat.t rns
losely con troll d and is gov .rned by such conditions as consist of thl'e~-di.mens!o.l1alla.tti es known as .ipac« tat-
heat tt'411Sn -f, heat losses, and thermalconducuvtty of the ttces, which are ,made of irnaginaryc lin.eseo,tluectil1g
base metal. However, several factors must be consldered atoms jnsynltuetri~al· arrangerocflts;- :f.l~e~¢'.in13ginary
siiice they all be used to regul te the cooling. rate. The lines arc 'approUroate1y the -same ·distanCe from on an-
mOStImportant one is th initial temperature of the 'bas other and limi:t th movement. Metals, 111a solid tttte,p s-
metal before 'Welding.A higher pr beat or the more heat &CSS this uniform arrang m nt, whidl is ca,lled'C1?'stals..
in the Weldment. the slower it wlll cool. The S ond im- All metals and aUoys are crystaJJinc soUds m. e of atotnS .
Portant :fa' tOr is the beat input that may be giVeJl to tbe llt'ntllg d in a spcitl:c \u tfol'll'\ lW\nb:er. . '.
_: -ldnletlt after the weld is lnad .,It js usually deSirable to . .' MOi) th~' do~en~'YPes. pi space:lattl.Oas~eJ;).(js~j* !
etll.lcethe ooling late if m taU1.ltgicalproblems such a bl ;ho.wever, the majority of common, n:t tal. tan into ollly ."
Face Centered Cubic Body Centered Cubic Hexagonal Close Packed
Crystal Structure Crystal Structure Crystal Structure
FCC BCC HCP
Aluminum (All Chromium (Cr) Cadminum (Cdl

Copper (CuI Columbium (Cbl Cobolt (Co)
Gold (Aul Iron (Fel-at room temp and Magnesium (Mgl
near melting temperature
Iron (Fel-at intermediate high Molybdenum (Mo) Tin (Snl
temperature
Lead (Pbl Tantalum (Ta) Titanium (Ti)
Nickel (Nil Tungsten (WI Zinc (Znl
Platinum (Ptl Vanadium (VI Zirconium IZrl
FIGURE15-14 Crystalline structure of Silver (Agl
common metals.
three: (1) the face-centered cubic lattice, (2) the body- atomic groupings consisting or different crystalline struc-
centered cubic lattice, and (3) the hexagonal close-packed tures. These are referred to as intermetallic compounds
lattice.The metals and the form of the crystal lattice struc- and have a ccmplicated crystal structure.
ture are shown in Figure 15-14. Note that iron has both the Each grouping with its own crystalline structure is
face-centered cubic structure and the body-centered cubic referred to. as a phase in the alloy, and the alloy is called a
structure but at different temperatures, The change from multipbase alloy.The individual phases may be seen and
one type of lattice structure to another takes place in the distinguished when examined under a microscope at ell-
solid state with 110. change In specific gravity, but a small tremely high magnification.
changein volume.Thts is known as an allotropic cbang«. These different alloys, solid solutions, tntermetallic
The crystal lattices just mentioned are for pure met- compounds, and phases occur as the molten metal solidi-
als that arc composed of only on type of atom. Most met- fies. Freezing or olldfftcatton of a Iiquid metal does not
als in common use are alloys.In other words, they contain happen simultaneously throughout the entire melt. Freez-
rnor than one metal. When more than one metal is pres- ing begins at the point of lowest temperature just betow
cut, the atoms making up the crystals will change. The the Iiquids.At this point a small crystal forms, called a nU·
atoms of the m tal making up the minor portion of the al- cteus. Different nuclei may be formed almost simultane-
loy will at random replace 80m of the atoms 0.1' the m tal ously, and each is a point wh re solidiflcation starts and
making up the majority of the alloy. If the crystals are of the solidified metal grows from these points. The growth
essentially the same size, the minor meta) will be consid- of solidfflcatlon advances in an directions that are normal
ered to. be dtssolved in the major metal of the alloy. This to the Initio axis of the nuclei crystal. Thus from a cubic
'onditionis call d a substitutional solid solution. A small crystal, growth progresses ill six directions stmultanc-
amount ()f nickel ;ldded to copper will produce a sl.lbsti· otlsly. Growth is simply the adding o.n of additional crys-
tu.tio,tlal.soUd solution. If the ato.ms of th minor metal in ·tals as temperature decr ases. TIle grQwth continue and
. th alloy are much smaller than those in the majoclattice, takes on a tr like pattern With brand es and subbranch S
. they dO not replace the atoms of the major metal it the at right angles to. one another,As so.liOlficatiol1 ontlnueSI
Ii ttiee bllt.ta-cher.1o ate ~n points b tweep. r in hlt r,ven· the branche$ be Qrne tb ick¢1!and larger and fiU the space' .
·,111,8$paceSldlown as hlterstic in the lattice.This type of bctWel1 ad<lttional bran$es, which are taIled ttendrltes.
str~t t\lreis 'all. d an interstitial Solid sfJlution,Vcry small TIus ontinues until the emir mass has beCOl'.r:ls lid.The
a,mQtItUs. of arb 11 sorncttr:n s occur iJlterstitlnlly in iron. dcnd:dti ' growth of a crystal is sh W.nin ~Figure15.. 15,
Jf th mJnol' JUctfll atOJus jn the alloy anoot o.m· he rystals that grow ftom on nucl us can grOW
l,lercly' .dts$oly . ,cfther ·10 crstitially 0(' substitutionally, nly to the point where they Qrne in contact with an-
,tJ;JeYwilltbt:mthe tY1j~of 'hemica:1 ompQun.d the co!n .. oth l' crystal growing from a different :nucl_ IS. ttl.ce the
PQ~i;pqn'Qf whtcllt)rttapon.Q.s l'o:ughly to the ell mica) :JltlcleJ 0 Cllt r-mdpmly; growth of dendrites from nuclei,
ftl.tillula/t"msr ~ujts tn th f()tmat.ion 0 mixed kind 0.1 crystals arc ..at odd angles With on another and this do. S
the edge of a groove weld. The crystal is formed and
1 grows into elongated grains that produce a columnar
structure. In restricted areas in which nuclei form close
together, long grains are not possible and therefore more
equiaxed grains result.
The overall arrangement of grains, grain bound-
aries, and phases present in an alloy is called its mic-
rostructure.The microstructure is largely r sponsible for
the properties of the metal. It is affected by the composi-
tion or alloy content and by other factors such as hot or
cold working, straining, and heat treating. The micro-
structure of weld metal and adjacent metal is greatly in-
FIGURE 15-15 Dendritic growth from a nuclear
fluenced by the welding process and welding procedure,
crystal.
which influence the properties of the weld.
Anything done to the metal that will disturb or dis-
tort the lattice structure causes the metal to harden. Cold
working of a metal distorts the structure and thereby
hardens it.The presence of foreign atoms in the structure
by alloy additions distorts the structure and tends to
harden it. When atoms arc dissolved in a solid state struc-
ture and are then precipitated out, the structure is dis-
torted and thus hardened.
The grain boundaries contain lower melting point
materials since the grain boundaries are the last portion to
freeze or solidify,The strength of metals is sometimes de-
termined by the grain boundaries. Grain boundaries in-
FIGURE 15-16 Grains are formed by dendrites crease the strength of some materials at room temperature
growing together. by inhibiting the deformation of individual grains when
the material is stressed. At elevated temperatures the
atoms in the boundaries can move more easily and sllde
not permit the various crystals to merge into a single crys- past one another, titus reducing the material strength. Fine-
tal. The completely solidified metal is made up of individ- grained materials have better properties at room temper-
ual dendritiC crystals that are oriented in different planes ature. Metal structures can be characreriz d as havtng
but held together by atomic attractive forces at the inter- large grains (coarse grained) or small grains fin grained)
:ace of adjacent dendrites. When this resultant structure 01' a mixture of large and small (mixed grain size), The
IS CUt in a flat plane, the indrvidual dendritic crystals, arrangement of atoms is irregular in the grain boundarles,
Which grew until they met adjacent dendritic crystals, and there are vacancles Or missing atoms. The atom. spac- .
fOrm an irregularly shaped area, which is known as a ing may be larger than normal, and individual atoms can
If'i'Clin. The fitting together of the different grains is nor- move more easily in the grain boundaries; because of this,
mally in an irregular outline shape, and the interface be- the diffusion of elements, which is the movement of indi-
tween grains is known as grain boundaries (Figur vidual atoms through the solid structure, 0 curs more rap-
1- <I 6). Grains are also very, very small but much larger idly at grain boundaries" Odd-size atoms s gregate at the
than thc individual crystals. boundaries, and this leads to the formation of undesirable
The size of the crystals and the grains depends on the phases that reduce the properties of a material by lower- .
tate of grOwth of th crystal.The rate of crystal growth de- ing the ductility while making It susc ptible toera king.
P n is on the rate of c oling of t11 molten solidifying
1l.1et<lI.Wh,cothcl"'tltc of cooling is high, the solidification
..~rocess OCcurs more ripidlyand the crystal size and grain Phase 'lransformation
SlZe t.cnct to be smallcr.\Vhen the rate of cooling is slower, Snmemetals chan~e tbetr \rystaUQgraphi,' arrruigem,erlt
crYStalan Igratn size tend to be larger,Wlth extremely low witll 'hanges intemperature.Iron has a Cfysl'llUne body: •..
<;OOlh1g or pOSSiblywith reheating, grains that hav - crystal eot red ubk latti e strllcttJt~e from .room r-emp: rn:ttll
~e almost panllleJ wIth one another will tend to grow to- u1' to 1,,670PF (910<>(:), nn(i from hiS point to 215,5~r
B th'r imd it is possible that two ~'tains will grow into on , (1,~88Q ) it is fa,ce·c fltet'Cd cubic.:4\.bovt;!this ,P()t:llt,tQ
Grain can also grow relatively' long and nattowbe- th melting point .of 2-,800"1'1,(1,53$QC) It_iS 3gain body~ "
~au~e Of the Orientation of ~he nude.i. :rta1n. growths that, cetlteredcul)lG> ThischrulgeiIl ctyt:alJin ·s,~f'Uctllrcjs
av; pr c cd d in prirt1f\.rdy one dltection are th()~ at . !.l.nownM a pbase fran. fO'fniatiQn 01'· anr:tllf)tro),U: ..'.
transformation. Other metals undergoing allotropic now known as alpha iron, and retains this structure down
transformation at different temperatures are titanium, to room temperature.These transformation temperatures
zirconium, and cobalt. establish points on the iron-carbon diagram.
Another type of transformation occurs when the The other points and lines in the diagram show the
metal melts or solidifies. When the metal melts, the or- percentage of carbon involved in solid solution. Iron and
derly crystalline arrangement of atoms disappears and carbon form a compound known as iron carbide (Fe3C)
there is then random movement of atoms.When the metal or cementite. When iron carbide or cementite is heated
solidifies, the crystalline arrangement reestablishes itself. above 2, lOO°F (1,115 °C), it decomposes into liquid iron
The change in crystalline structure or the change from saturated with graphite. Graphite is a crystalline form of
liquid to solid is known as phase change. Pure metals melt carbon. Most metals have the ability to dissolve other el-
01' solidify at a single temperature, while alloys solidify or ements in the solid state, and solid solutions are formed.
melt over a range of temperatures with a few exceptions. Under suitable temperature and time conditions, the diS-
The phase changes can be related to alloy compo- solved elements will diffuse and homogeneity will be ob-
sition and temperature when they are in equilibrium and tained. A maximum solubility of carbon in alpha iron
shown on a diagram. Such diagrams are called phase dia- occurs at 1,340°F (727°C) and decreases with lower tem-
grams, alloy equtlibriurn diagrams, or constitution perature.This establishes a point on the diagram.A solid
diagrams. Metallurgists have developed constitution dia- solution of carbon in alpha iron or delta iron (body-
grams for almost every combination of metal alloys. (9) By centered cubic) is known as ferrite. A solid solution of
means of these diagrams, it is possible to determine the carbon in gamma iron (face-centered cubic) is known as
phases that are present and the percentage of each, based austenite. As much as 2.1% carbon can be held in solid
on the alloy composition at any specified temperature. In solution in gamma iron at a specific temperature, and this
addition, it is possible to determine what phase changes establishes a point. In fact, the iron-carbon diagram can
tend to take place with increasing or decreasing temper- be divided at this point.Those alloys of iron and carbon
ature, Most constitutional pbase diagrams describe alloy less than 2.1 % are considered steels, while those contain-
systems containing two elements. Diagrams of more than ing more than 2,1% are referred to as cast irons.Thus the
two elements are complex and difficult to interpret. line on the chart indicates whether or not the carbon is
Phase diagrams are based on equilibrium condtttons.This held in solid solution or whether it precipitates out.
means that the metal, is stable at the particular point on To better understand the iron-carbon diagram, con-
the diagram based on relatively slow heating or cooling. sider a steel with a composition of 0.25% carbon. This
In Welding, this is not true since temperature changes are would be indicated by drawing a vertical line between dle
extremely rapid and equilibrium conditions rarely occur. 0% and 0.5% carbon line. Considering this line, it will be
Even so, the constitution diagram is the best tool available seen that above approximately 2,768°F (1 ,520°C) the steel
to determine phases. would be molten.As the temperature decreases, delta iron
would start to form in the liquid. At just below 2,732°P
(1.,500°C) it would transform to austenite and molten
The Iron-Carbon Diagram metal. However, at about 2,696°F (1,480°C) all the liquid
An understanding of the iron-carbon equilibrium dia- metal would be solidified and it would be austenite. At sp-
gram shown illFigure 15 -17 wilt provide an insight of the proximately 1,500°F (815PC) the austenite commences to
behavior of steels in conn ction with welding thermal cy- break down and form a new phase at the grain boundaries.
cles and neat trearment.This diagram represents th alloy Thts new phase Isalmost pure iron or ferrite. Ferrite [Of-
of tron wttl arbon, rangmg from 0% to 5% arbon. marion would continue until a temperature of 1,340op
. PUt' iron is a r .1atively weak but ducat metal. (J ...7°C) was reach d. At this paint, the remaining austen-
Is
When carbon added in small amounts. the iron acquires ite disappears completely, transforming to a structure
a Wid l"ng otpropertles and uses and becom s the most known as pearlite plus ferrite. Pearlite is a mixture of fer-
pop liar metal, ste L As prevtously noted, iron has either 'rite and cementite, and thi tructure Wi uld be r tained
of two.crystalline structures, depending on temp ratur . down to room tcmperatur .Th microstructure of P arUte
This can be shown by the iron- arbon diagram by ,on:- is shown in Figure 15...18. Only the room-t 11lpetatufC
,idetblgpure iron pr O%.carbon.Above 2,800 F (t,540'aC) .
Q
structures can be seen and analyzed through a microscope.
·tli,£,iron IB In Uquid st~_teand there Js 1).0.. cryst~1I1inestru . " By means of aUQyaddiUonslt is possible tohave the
ture.l~ loW this temp rature, it SOlidifies and has a body- other structur sat room temp rarur . !bemi rostru tUl'~
0, ntel' dcubtc IQ.tti e .whi h is known. as delta iron. of pearlite is a lameltar structure, which is r 'httiveIy
,AS .the t mpcr,atllf is ftu'th rr lu ed below 2,5 Oll strong and dtlctUe.TI e tra:nsfottnnti n d'urjng the polillg·
t,~OOCl :f a tmn f01'tnatH;m occurs and the cryst:llline' cycle will be reV' rs d during the heating cf' 1 . In weld-
:s:tru 't'I;J;I.'t! cl1a:tl,ees t 'a fa .~ . 'entered ell icarrange.n.tent ing the risand faU of temp mtu.re Of th '" rate of change
":liii(twnits.gammdiro .·BelQwl,070oP 910"0 tb' iron ,of temp ratut is so fast that . qulHbnium doe nooc \elf·
transforms back to the body· 'cut l' "d stru 'ture, whIch is
. , .~ I ~,
Therefor:>, some of the stnlctt'~sand tem.perattlfCs .men·
.600 L..--(~:~g~)
""'
I.
....... LIQUID + DELTA IRON
J 1
I
- 2.800
1,~ ."- "'50.53% I LIQUID

0.09% ~,,1,495 t---....... I ,I
(\017% ~,723) I ~ '72,600

1,400 +-DELTA ~ co I
I
\
IRQNI
DELTA IRON +
AUSTENITE
<,
t'...
'~I
SOLIDUS 'J
~!-LlQUIDUS
I ~
LIQUID +IGRAPHITET
FoJC
I
- 2,400
1.300 1394! I ~ + AUSTENITEJ~ LIQUIDUS I
•
(2,541) i
I . LIQUID
I I .1 r-;
(CALCULATED)
I -,
iii I I ~~~% ~
1,200 j <, 2.08% 1,154 l'...\ I~ 2,200
: I I L-I---- .2~~ L~ ._-J:
AUSTENITE
(GAMMA IRON) I./~
:I"'.l
2.11%
1.148
(2.098) 4.30%
1/ /
7 .'c.;;; 2.000
1,100
-1 ,,'" LIQUID + FeJC
1,0001-- - -+
If
_._-+_-.~-j.l~~I--+_--+----.j----l-.--~-
- --.----_ 1,800
9 1 2
(1,674) b AUSTENITE + FeJC
, #
,p
900~ tr--,FERRITE +
AUSTENITE
-u
d I - 1,600 'u.:.i
*'«
t-
800
URIE TEMP.
770 r.
J'f
~~-~--~----+_--~ __-.---~--+---4---~
§
t;
~
~e,
1-7. .~(1.418)11 0.68'"
'"
738
(1,360)
~
- 1,400 e,
~ 1---- .---- ....--- --- ....
------------------~ ~
700 ~0.0218~0.77% 727 -+---+----+-~_+--__4
I I (1,341)
I-- FERRITE " ~ 1.200
(ALPjA IRON)
600~--·-4--~----+---~·--+---+----+----+----~-~
I
I -1 ,000
500 --
ALPHA IRON + FeJC
I - 800
4 00 -
300 --~ 600
2 OQ -
--t--IRON·GRAPHITE EQUILr8RI,uMi
-I-- IRON· FelC eOulLlIIRIUM
100 ~----+---~----+-----~-S-O-U+RC-E-;B-A-S4ED-O-N-.M-E-T+AL-S~H-A-NP48·~O-O-K,-81-h~--~200
, I I
EDITION, vci. 8, t'METALLOQ.RAPHY'STRUCT\,JAES,
ANDtHASE O'fGRAMS" ~AFTER J~HN CHtr~AN1.
0
Fe 0.5 1.0 1,5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 40 5.0
% CARf!ON
F1GURE 15-17 Iron-carbon equilibrium diagram. (After Metal Progress DatfJ Book, © American Society oHvletals,
1977.)
tiQl1 d here will be dlfferent, For exsrnpte.tf the cooling

rat" i-s ast f, th austenlte-to-f errtte transforrnatton wtll
be appreciably lower in temperature and rhls willalso be
trlleof;pearlite,Th p arltte wlll b mor fin ty Iammat I
Since th e tran f, rrnation temp 'rntul' is much Iower.With
xtrertlely L1.St . ooling rates ie austenite might not have
&tlffi~ nt time fO tran form cOIlJpl tely' to ferrit and
p ~Ht· and wilt provide a djf r nt ml 1'0 tru mre. In
\
the carbon content. Thus, it can be seen that the cooling
rate influences the microstructure and causes higher
hardness. This is because the crystal lattice is changed or
distorted and this in turn hardens the material.
By adding different alloys to the steel, the tendency
of austenite to transform into martensite upon cooling i11-
creases.This is the basis of hardening steels. By proper use
of different alloys, the amount of martensite produced CtU1
be changed.The rate of cooling changes depending on the
method of quenching. The more severe quench will cre-
ate more martensite, and the slower quench will create
less martensite and thus a lower hardness.The amount of
alloys and their power to create this microstructure tranS-
formation are known as hardenability.This is an advantage
for heat treatment but can be detrimental to welding since
high hardness is not desired in welds of softer materials.
The lines on the iron-carbon diagram show the dif-
ferent phases of iron-carbon alloy and indicate the rni-
crostructure of each phase. With respect to the
iron -carbon alloy, only pearlite and ferrite and pearlite
and cementite (Fe3C) are found at room temperature.
However, in other iron-alloy systems other microstrUC-
tures exist at room temperature. Ferrite is an example.
Ferrite is a solid solution of carbon in delta or alpha iron.
It has a body-centered cubic structure and occurs when
less than 0.08% carbon is dissolved in the iron. It is th
FIGURE 15-18 Pearlite microstructure. softest constituent in steel, and as the amount of ferrite
increases the steel is softer. In aUoy steels, certain alloy el·
ements may be dissolved in ferrite as a solid state solution
so that it occurs at room temperature.The microstructure
of ferrite is shown in Figure 15-20.
The microstructure of cementite (Figure 15-21) is
hard and w ar resistant, and the composition will be var-
ied when other carbide-forming alloys are present. It ap-
pears in several different ways, sometimes a a network
surr unding the grains in the region of grain boundaries
and also within the grains. It may also appear as round,
roughly globular-shaped parti .les tn steel that has been
specially heat treated.
Austenite is another important constituent. It is the
face-centered cubic lattice form and occurs in low-carbon
steels in temperatures above 1,333° F (722° C). It is not sta-
ble at room temperatur s in carbon st el; however, to.
highly alloyed ste Is and statnl 58 steels it is srabl at roolU
temperature. It has g od t nsUe strength and i$ ductll ,but
it has a strong t ndency to work-hard n and is shown In
Figure 15...22. There are other microstructures in steels;
however, the foregoing at the-most important.
Ha rdenabifity
'file h at tr
atment of, teels to in t asehardness and tlle
metallurgy f welding have roll h in .ommon. Heat treat-
ing to Increas ~ hardness 1s ~ 'omplisb d by 11 a,ting fol-
, lowed by ,rapid o()ling~Therapid ooling of metal inand
aUja nt to a weld J$ in this same ord r. An understand-
FIGURE15-21 Cementite microstructure.
then placed vertically in a. fixture, ~U1da jet of water is di-

rected upwards to the bottom end. The bar rapidly cools
to room temperature. Hardness measurements are then
made along the bar from the quench d end to th .lin-
quenched end and plotted against distance. This pro-
duces a curve with the high hardness at 'the quenched
end and dropping off to normal hardness at the un-
quenched end.This hardenability curve shows th maxi-
mum hardness, the depth of hardnes , and soon, under
standardized conditions. It isuseful in establishing heat-
treating procedures. This information also provides data
for welding since it Indicates the effectof differentaUoy-
ing elements Oj1 th hardness of th quenched steel. 1'11
microstructure of the quenched steel can also b ,.studi¢d
and related to the mlcrostructure of welds.
Grain siz and microstructure r late directly tQ
hardness and strength. As crystalsd forru they become
harder, and th growth of crystals dictat s grain stze . In
FIGURE15-20 Ferrite microstructure. h at treating, the steel is heated above t11 'crJtlcal tern-
perature, a phase change occur and t~ewgrains, will
nn-
cleate and grow.within the (lId 'grains. SInce 11CW grains of .
lug of bard ning by heat treating will make the metallur- austenite were formed within en 11;ef th former geatns,
gical changes during welding cle r r, Most steels poss 55 th steel now bRS mol' finer grains. FUle groin si~e 'Pro-
the PI' perty of hardenabiltty, whi h is defin d as the m t s both in reas d strengthandl» t Inc, s,
property that determines th d pth and dj tributton of Alloying elements are added to steel to {ll'~ ;l e j'~t
hat'dn 55 induced' byquenchtng.This property can b haroenablUty.Carbon is the most imp rtantandef~ ct,:Vt\"
. ttl. asUt d by the end 'lueneh test. In this t 8t, a fmlnd bar and stttallamountswlU 'gtatly inOl:'tt se ~laidntiss'"lp'to;
is heated to a t mpe.rature in rl1'a,ustenlte :range ~nd is
\
abo\lt 0.65%, Mang~tl 'se is the next tl OBi lmj;Oli:atlt. .
tion diagrams, which plot temperature against time in
seconds. Diagrams are available for steels of different com-
position showing the phases that occur at different tern-
peratures and times. The lines constructed from
experimental data show the process of transformation at
each temperature. Isothermal diagrams help to explain the
relationship between cooling rates and the microstruc-
ture of a specific steel composition. During cooling the
steel remains a certain period of time in each phase, and
the time period is inversely proportional to the cooling
rate. With very slow cooling rates the phase changes take
place near equilibrium values. As the cooling rate is in-
creased, time is reduced so that there is not enough time
for completion of the pearlite reaction and some austen-
ite remains below the equilibrium transformation tern-
perature, which creates hardening. The cooling rate must
be so rapid that much of the austenite transforms to
martensite rather than pearlite.These curves are of limited
use in welding but do show the types of transformation
occurring at subcritical temperatures and their effects.
Welds
When a weld is made, all the factors just mentioned oc-
cur, including the changes of temperature, the changes of
dimensions, the growth of crystals and grains, and the
phase transformation. The type of welding process dic-
tates, in general, how these will occur. In the arc welding
processes the heat cycle is of primary importance.
The previous section explained the heat input time-
temperature relationship or thermal cycle, The rate of
cooling or quench is of primary importan e and this is
controlled by the process, procedure, metal, and mass.
Th electroslag process has the slowest cooling rate,.
while the gas metal arc bas a much faster cooling rate.The
rate of change decreases as the distance from the center
of the weld increases. (Figure 15-23), It is obvious that
many different cooling rates OCC~lr and that different mi-
crostructures will result.Thl is sh wn in Ptgur 15-24,
which is a multipass groove weld.The dtfferen structures
that occur in the weld are shown, as well as the different
phases shown in the ba e m tal adjacent to the weld.
With any arc process, where metal is transf fred
a ross the arc, the metal reaches a superheat d temper-
ature much above th melting temp eratur ihown on
th tron- arbon diagram, When it is deposited in the
wid, it is molten or in th • Iiquid phas . Immediately the
weld metal starts to freeze or solIdify.The heat contained
in the molten metal is transmitted ro the base metal, and
its temperature at th w Id is raised to til molten stage,
Chrqmlnmand,molyJ denumalso tncreas hatdenability. 'Away from the weld the metal is mi$ d to a low r tern-
'I'h es . alloys ontvH)utc to oth er prop rties as well. perature. Thi. cr at s a multitud of tlm e-rernperarure
'" "Tht: tim t'(:qtlired for transformatt n f steel to be- 'UfV s based on location. As tb w 1<.1 metal fre z s, the
Sal ana.end. t any 'onstant' t ernp rature is a us (1;11 rneas- crystal form Into grains that rapidly cool until th re is
,urcoft1'Je h(!fIt·tre~"tfu1Jcqara tetistics Qftllesteel.Th1s OU1 no more liql,Jid meta], The ooHng rate Is-much f-aster
'. "b' '~hoWn by diagrtlP1s known a, f$othftf'1nal transfonna- than . urs in a a. ting or ingot and th refore, qullib.
weld is important and should be studied.The microstruc-
\/MOLTEN METAL 'c ture taken at different locations in the weld is shown in
\ MELTING POINT 2S00°F 1·600 Figure 15-25. Each microstrucrure has its particular char-
acteristics, as previously discussed. One of the important
characteristics is the hardness of the microstructure
1200 throughout the weld area. The hardness should not vary
1100 over specific limitations. Figure 15-26 shows the macro-
1000
structure of a weld metal-base meta] interface and the
AJ 1500'F 900
A, 1350'F 800
hardness at different points across this interface. Note the
700 A, higher hardness of the weld metal compared to the base
600 metal and that in the heat-affected zone the hardness is
500
400
between these two values. This rnacrograph is of a low-
carbon base meta] joined with slightly alloyed weld metal.
The area between the interface of the deposited weld
metal, and extending into the base metal far enough that any
0.25 0.5 %C phase change occurs, is known as the heat-affected zone
FUSION ZONE
(HAZ).This is shown in several of the pictures. TIle heat-
0.25% C SASE METAL PREHEATED TO 212'F IRON·CARBON DIAGRAM
affected zone, while part of the base metal.is considered to
FIGURE15-23 Temperature distribution at a weld. a
be portion of the weld joint since it influences the service
------.--------~------~------------~ life of the weld. The heat-affected zone and the admixture
zone are the most critical Inrnanywelds.Por example, when
weldmg a hardenable steel the heat-affected zone can in-
crease in hardness to all undesirable level. However, when
welding a hardened steel the heat-affected zone can
become a softened zone since the heat of the weld has an-
nealed the hardened metal. In the case of elecrroslag weld-
Ing, the heat-affected zone will contain extremely large
grains because of the long time at high temperature and the
possibility for grain growth.The hardness of the weld metal,
the base metal, and the heat-affected zone of an electroslag
weld will be relatively uniform.
When the base metal and weld metal are of com-
pletely different analysis, the Interfa e zone contains al-
loys that can be'detrimental. Figure 15-...7 shows the
interface between a low-alloy, high-strength t el and a
stainless steel weld. Note the heat-affected zon of the
FIGURE15-24 Cross section of a multipass arc weld. base metal and the minute amount of mixing of th
lighter colored stainles steel deposit With the base
metal. In thiS case, the alloy mixture produced i of such
rlum, as repr sented in the iron-carbon diagram, really a mall amount that it does not have an appl'Cciahle eff ct
does not occur. on th overall properties of th weld jotnt,
In addition to the compltcati ns created by the rapid Another problem of the weld Is.the segregation d\Jr-,
ooling, there is also thet complication of cornposltion vah- ing tile thermal cycle. Segreg~tjonrelates to the solubility of
ation .As weld metal is deposited on base. metal, some of . elements in metals, pat'Ucularly alloys, 'Ihecnmpositlon of
the base metal melts and mix s with the weld metal, pro- the first rystals that form <15 an alloy f1 ezes ts di.C11 rent .
dUCing a dilution of w leiI'll tal. Unl S8 the ornposluon of from. th composinon ofth liqllitt that freeze Ja t. Th
th depOSited filler ro, tal and th compositicn of the bas pure!' m tals have .the lugherrn lttng point or f.t'ezing
llletal are ldenti aI,there will be <l variation of composition point and there~ore fr~eze ,firSt. ·l\tletalsor elements with
of the metal at th interface. In multipass welds, the first' lower melting polllrs il£eie Iflst,hia(t4tt1on. hi'~ldmetar, .
pass wUl have a high elUuticJnfactor, th econd pa.ss less, be aUB ofthe rapidit.y pf fre 2il1g tim 1 c.t;y little diffusio1~\' "
. and the third pass p rhaps littJ or none.When welding on o curs and ther ;>isa bt J~ fhomogeneity: in tfitoral ~ IGt.
~\bas metal witll a cUffi r nt composition from tb d- Carbon., phosphortl$, sulflH~.and o.rn thnes ;l.llroigan' ar,e
POSited metfll, this vactaU n an b, ollsid 'rabl \Vrtriation it q~~e1'lttyin thesegl'egated sta~~ in ~t¢el, 11:iisan b ~d •
in. composition and the v4datioll in tIl ooling l'at~s will termined by high~i'ltagruficatIOtl SU,l(l, .(if tAem.ltrosJl'llP~
Cr<:ate variation~ in
11licrostnlC'tllre as shown in FIgure tt1:re. S~gt' gatlotl, pa,l1l¢l.J1ilr!yof "arbon) QWl b~P~lY
lS"~4. This is to ,r ason thnt' the .lUic.rotrn rut ()f th disp rs d by m .nns;df h~attreatment..'· ;' t .
Unaffected Base Metal Heat Affected
Zone
Unaffected Base Metal Heat Affected Zone Fusion Line between Weld Metal Deposit
which has not been subjected (100x) base material and (100x)
to the heat of welding. Weld Metal Deposit
(100x) (100x)
FIGURE15-25 Microstructure at different parts of a weld.
,...
ROCKWELL Oi s s &3
,...
co ~ ~ s co
B
.... m ffl ~ ~ ~ ~
(')
BRINELL co
.... ,... .... ..... ,... ~ ....
(')
b.P.H.N
...
..,
at tp
,...
,.._
co
.,... ...t?l (')
It)
.,... ....l2 ....t8
0
,..
If)
(')
.,..
If)
gration and removal. The inert gases are not soluble in
molten metal and for this reason are used jn many gas-
shielded applications,
The solubility of metals within metals is also of high
interest, particularly for dissimilar metal welding. The sol-
ubility is determined by the equilibrium diagram of the al-
loys, The greater the degree of solubility, the better the
success of welding dissimilar metal combinations,
It is impossible to provide a more thorough cover-
age of the metallurgy of steel welds in the space available.
F01; more information, see References 10 to 12.The met-
allurgy of nonferrous metals resembles, but is quite dif-
ferent from, the metallurgy of iron and steel.
15-6 WELDABILITY OF METALS

The American Welding Society defines weldability as "the
capacity of a material to be welded under the imposed
fabrication conditions into a specific, suitably designed
structure and to perform satisfactorily in the intended
service," This definition includes many qualifying state-
ments: Is the design suitable? Is the material suitable? And
what about the welding process and procedures? A more
practical definition might be the ease with which a satis-
factory weld can be made that will produce a joint equal
to the metal being welded.
It has been said that all metals are weldable, but
some are much more difficult to weld than others. In
view of this, it is vitally important that the welding
process and procedures be considered when determin-
ing the weld ability of a particular metal.
In any of these definitions it is important to know
all about the metals to be welded, the design of the welds
and the weldrnent, and the s rvice requlremenrs, includ-
ing loadings and the environment to which it will be ex-
posed. Perhaps the best definition is .tpat a weldable
material can be welded so that the joint is equal in all reo
sp cts to the base metal-in other words, a 100% W ld
FIGURE 15-27 Interface of dissimilar weld joint. joint.The base metal or metal, to be welded must b' con-
stdered from all points of view. This Includes its physical
properties, m chanica 1 properti .s, and chemical. ompo-
sitton and stru ture,
Molten metal has a r la.tively high capa ity of dis- The physical properti s are not alwa s ldenttcal In
SOlving gases in ntact with it.As the m tal cools, it has matertals ofthe arne iomposttion.Thls relates to th ,tz
I 58 capacity for dissolve 1 gases, and wh 11 going from liq- of th test sp elm 0, metho , of tc. ting, .and type of rni-
\.11<Jto oJid state th solubility of gas In rn .tal is rnu h crostructure. Th m chanical properties Call.b differ nt
. lower. The gas is rejected asthe crystals solidify, but jt may for different materials even. tho-ugh.tb y may fall within
be .trapped because of almost rnstantaneous sol1difica.
I the same speciftca.tiQU& or-class, For exa,tl.1ple~ha:n:tl1esls
tion. Entrap,ment of the gas causes ga pock ts and poros- related to structure, which is afJicted:by the:n:nal history,'
tty in the weld. Carbon mono ide, whJch is p1' em in or heat t.reatment. The direction of testing has, a 1irge et':
lUanYat and fuel gas atmo phet s, is sam ti111estrdPP d. fect Oil strengl:h Ie Chi, tOUgl'Ul S5, fllld du 'tUlly . .In addi·
flYclrogen that may be pl'esenJin th ar a.tmqsph re is tlon, c mposittol1 and mlctostru t;ure may vary.lnbe,w
aJ '0 tr pped. .ydl'Qgen, how v f,'V ill grad.uaH disperse material, the COO'lPQSiUOP.111tlY have mo:r:'U'bon onulp ,
.and escapeftom the )veld metal ocr a period of tittle .. to prowde fhe str :1,lgth ,ruled (or by tp: sp cUl~atlQltf~d'"
l'li h tempemt\'ll'es itlcreasc' t11' sp eel for hydrogen 0'4,; tb.e tru tttre will Change from ttl: .ci Itsld,e (O;tt e" 'nter·
"
based on different rates of cooling when the material was phosphorus tend to form low-melting-point films between
produced. solidifying grains of the metal. These impurities relate to
It becomes apparent that materials may not be as weld joint detail and the welding process, since they affect
uniform or consistent as we have thought. Segregation the amount of dilution. Lamellar tearing is also associated
and changes in metallurgical structure affect the proper- with base metal impurities and its through-directional
ties. Despite this, we must still produce the weld or weld- strength. When the degree of restraint increases, as it does
ment that provides the required service performance. To in thicker metals, this problem becomes more serious.
better determine weldability, it becomes necessary to Hydrogen cracking is considered cold cracking
make two assumptions: since it occurs soon after the weld is completed, usually
within 4 to 8 hours. It usually occurs in the heat-affected
1. The material to be welded is suitable for the in-
zone. It may occur while the weld is cooling down to
tended use. In other words, it will provide the
room temperature.The four main factors that affect heat-
proper and necessary properties to withstand its affected zone cracking are:
service requirements.
2. The design of the weldment is suitable for its in- 1. The thickness of the base metal and the type of weld
tended use. In considering the design for the weld- 2. The composition of the base metal
ment, we should include the design of the welds. 3. The welding process and filler metal type
4. Energy input and preheat temperatures
Based on these assumptions, it is necessary then to
study the weld joint.The desirable weld joint has uniform The effects of these four factors are interrelated.
strength, ductility, notch toughness, fatigue strength, and The thickness and composition of the base metal is es-
corrosion resistance throughout the weld and adjacent tablished by the design. The weld joint configuration, the
material. welding process, the type of filler metal, and the welding
Most welds involve the use of heat and the addition procedure can all contribute to the severity of the factors
of different metallurgical. structure from the unaffected that cause HAZ cracking. The input energy can be modi-
base metal. Welds may also include defects such as voids, fied by the welding process, welding procedure, and the
cracks, and entrapped materials. Two types of problems welding preheat temperature. These can also be changed
may occur: to reduce the cooling rate.
All of these factors determine the type of mi·
1. Problems of the weld metal deposit or heat-affected crostructure that will occur in the heat-affected zone.
zone that occur in connection with or immediately The two factors most important to weldability are hard-
following the welding operation, such as hot crack- enability and the susceptibility of the hardened structure
ing, heat-affected zone cracking, and hydrogen- to cracking. Both are increased by using a,higher carbon
induced cracking. or higher alloy content in the base metal. Certain alloy'
2. Problemsin the weld or adjacent to the weld that oc- Ing elements increase hardenability without a significant
cur any time during service of the weldrnent. These increase in the susceptibility to cracking. In this regard
can be any kind of defects that will reduce the effi- the carbon equivalent of the base metal becomes im-
ciency of the weld joint under service conditions. portant. The carbon equivalent formula(U) is shown in
Figure 15-28.
It Is our obje tive to produce a weld that will avoid
Plain carbon steels, which have a carbon equivalent
these problems. Hot cracking may result from any of the af not over 0.40%, are considered readily weldable. This
following four factors: restraint, weld shape, excessive
carbon equivalent can be increased up to 0,45%p.rovided
heat input, or material composition. It can result from any
aile factor but is much more likely if two or more factors
that the carbon does not exceed 0.22%, the phosphorus 1
does not exceed 0.06%, and the steel is not over 3/4 in.
are present.
(19.1 rom) thick.
Restratnt is always present in any weld be ause as
Usually wh. n me carbon equivalent exceeds
the w Id Solidifies it acquiJ;'cs strength but continues to
0.40%, special controls ar required. The low-hydrogen
cool and Sh.dnk,The d.·.egreeof restraint becomes crt(_cal.
type of filler metal should be employed, Higher heat in-
R straint refates to thew. Id design, theweldment design. put should be employed and preheat may. berequir d.
,and the thiCkness of:tht! materials' being joined. '
.: ' .. weld shape, is ~Isb arunctioo of weld design, weld-
ment deSign, and.weldtng procedure. We14 procedure r •
Jares to the placement of w Ids or beads in the weld, the FJGU,RE
15-~8 Carbon equivalent formula.
shape of. th beads; and the shape of the flnish d surface
of the weld, , ' .
~. " ,', ~;At1:Qt:h..er #ctor ~ tp.cHnetalcQmposittp1'). Segregation
._J~ ffnpo:rtill1.t:hOweV~r,
I . ',;.
smee iOllUlritics such as 5UJ,ful' and
When the carbon equivalent exceeds 0.60%, low-hydrogen 1. Nonhardenahle low-carbon mild steel
processes are required; preheating is required if the thick- 2. Low hardenability with low susceptibility of crack-
ness exceeds 3/4 in. (19.1 rom). ing when hardened, or low-alloy steels with a car-
Hardenability is related to the cooling rate of met- bon equivalent of not over 0.20% maximum
als.The faster cooling rate tends to produce higher hard- 3. Low hardenability with high susceptibility of crack-
nesses. The cooling rate depends on the mass of the ing when hardened, normally carbon manganese
metal, the welding process, the welding procedure, and steels with less than 0.25% carbon and not over 1%
preheat temperatures. The welding process and proce- manganese
dure influence the energy input used to make the weld. 4. High-hardenable steels with low susceptibility of
The greater the energy input, the slower the cooling rate. cracking when hardened. This includes most low-
Heat input is a function of welding current, arc voltage, carbon low-alloy high-strength steels, usually with
and travel speed. To increase the heat input, increase the carbon less than 0.15%, manganese up to 1.5%,
Welding current or reduce the travel speed. Welding cur- nickel up to 1.5%, chromium up to 0.25%, molyb-
rent relates to process and to electrode size. Heat input is denum up to 0.25%, and vanadium up to 0.20%
calculated by using the formula given previously.
5. High-hardenable steels with high susceptibility of
Thus, by increasing amperes or voltage, heat input
cracking when hardened.This would include alloy
increases but by increasing travel speed heat input de-
steels with carbon not exceeding 0.25% but with
creases.The voltage has a minor effect since it varies only
alloys.
slightly compared to the other factors. In gener-al, higher
heat input reduces cooling rate. This must be used with Several precautions should be taken with the five
caution since on quenched and tempered steels, too high classifications:
a heat input will tend to soften the heat-affected zone and
its strength level will be reduced. 1. No extraordinary pr cautions are required when
In steels of relatively low hardenabiliry it is possible welding thin-to-medium-thickness materials.
to produce an unhardened heat-affected zone by increas- 2. Low-hydrogen processes and filler materials should
ing the heat input. In higher hardenabiliry steels, the ten- be used, along with preheat for thick sectionsor in-
dency toward cracking, and the maximum hardness, will creased heat input.
be reduced by a slower cooling rate. There are limits to 3. Low-hydrogen processes are recommended but
the amount of heat input that can be used. In this case, not essential. High heat input should be used and
preheating is used to reduce cooling rates. preheat is not required except in thicker materials
There is an interplay of several va riables in regard to and should be in the range 480 to 6600P (250 to
hYdrogen cracking.These are the base metal composition 350 C).
Q
and the heat input, the preheat temperature, the rate of 4. Low-hydrogen processes are required, preheat and
COOling,and restraint. On a nonhardenable thin material interpass are suggested, higb-heat-tnpur processes
th Control of hydr gen is not Important.As carbon and are recommended, and preheat is increased as
alJoy increase, to provide gr ater hardenability, and as thickness increases.
thickness increases, the effect of hydrogen becomes of vi-
5. Low-hydrogen processes are required, preheat and
tal Importance. Q
interpass temperatures in the range 300 to 480 F
Heat-affected ZOne cracking depends on many of
(150 to 250°C) are necessary, and a postweld heat
th same factors just' rn ntioned. However, general pre- treatment is required.
auti ns should b taken with .ertaln ryp s of sre 1 to
~Void HAZ cracking. onstru tional ste Is can be R.J commended PI' heat and filler metals are dis-
grQUped into five general Classifications depending' on cussed in Chapter 16. WeldabUity is extremely complex
Whether or not th y are hard nable and the nature of the and all the weldmg factors Inrerrelare.Jt is of, vital irn-
harden d tructure.Th s must be tempered with the ef- portan e for the success of welds to onsid r all these
fects of thickness, wht h increases r straint and acids to factors.
t11 crackmg problem.Th five classes are:
.QUESTIONS
._ )." _t ! ( _I,"~ r, ! , ,1 ; ! 4- ,I' 4 i 2
15-J. What at > S0111 • of rh ' physical prop 'rti s of a metal?

15-2. What are some of til me hanl at prop rties 01 a
mefal?
"1.5-3. "What is dn rutty, and why t6 it important for welcllngt
\
15-6. How can you determine the metal composition if you 15-14. What is the major difference between welding met-
know the specification number? allurgy and casting metallurgy?
15-7. What seven tests can be made to identify a metal 15-15. What are the three most common crystal structures
piece? of metals? Explain.
15-8. What can be determined by a metal's appearance? 15-16. What is an equilibrium diagram?
15-9. Why is a magnet of value to help identify a piece of 15-17. What is the microstructure of a metal? Name some
metal? mlcrosrructures.
15-10. What is the spark test? 15-18. What is the HAZ?What causes it?
15-11. Why is it important to identify a metal before weld- 15-19. What is the carbon equivalent formula? How is it used?
ing it? 15-20. What is weldability?
15-12. What different ways is heat generated for welding?
15-13. What is the weld cooling rate and what importance is
it to welding?
REFERENCES
1. H. David and C. T. Graff, "Alloys Index," American Society 7. I. Hrivnak, The Theory of Mild Steel and Micro Alloy
for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, and The Metals Society, Steels Weldability, Bratislava, Czechoslovakia, 1969.
London, vol. 3 (1976). 8. D.Rosenthal,"TheTheory of Moving Sources of Heat and
2. E. M. Simons,A Dictionary of Alloys (London: Frederick Its Application to Metal Treatment," Transactions of the
Muller, 1969). ASME (November 1946),849.
3. R. C. Gibbons, "Wol.d.man's Engineering Alloys," 6th eel. 9. Metals Handbook, vol. 1, Properties and Selection of
American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1979. Metals, American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio.
4. W. F. Simmons and R. B. Gunia, "Compilation of Trade 10. G. E. Linnert, "Welding Metallurgy," The American Weld-
Names, Specification and Producers of Stainless Alloys ing SOCiety,Miami, Fla., 1967.
and Super Alloys," ASTM Data Series DS4,5,American So- 11. A. Phillips, ed., "Introductory Welding Metallurgy." The
ciety {or Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pa., 1969. American Welding Society, Miami, Fla., 1968.
5. G. Tschorn, Spark Atlas of Steels (translated from Ger- 12. Metals Handbook, vol. 6, Welding and Brazing, Ameri-
man) (New York: A Pergamon Press Book, Macmillan can Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio.
Company, 1963).
13. R. D. Stout, Weldabilfty OfSteels, 4th ed. (NewYork:Weld-
6. "Nondestructive Rapid Identification of Metals and Alloys log Research Council, 1987), 191.
by Spot Test," Special Technical Publication 550, American
Society for T sting and Materials, Philadelphia, Pa.
. ,
OUTLINE
cored electrode wires is also contained in the classifica-
16-1 Welding Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels tion number. Select the strength level to match or over-
16-2 Welc;UngAlloy Steels match the base metal.The composition is described by the
16-3 Welding Stainless Steels suffix letter In the filler metal classification. For the differ-
16-4 Welding Ultrahigh-Strength Steels ent electrodes the suffix is shown in Table 16-1 along
with the chemistry of the deposited metal. For low-alloy,
bare solid, or flux-cored electrodes, see the appropriate
specification.The suffix is used to match the composition
16- 1 WELDING CARBON of the base metal. Electrodes and wire are not available to
match the composition of every base metal, but an effort
AND LOW-ALLOY STEELS should be made to come as close as possibl . For GMAW
Low-carbon steels are considered to be steels with a max- use 98% argon-2% oxygen, or 75% argon-25% CO2, for
imum of 0.15% carbon. Mild steels are those that contain shielding. For PCAW use 75% argoJ1-25% CO2, or 100%
0.15% to 0.29% carbon. Low-alloy steels are those having CO2, for shielding. This allows the selection of the elec-
a maximum of 0.29% carbon and with their total metal al- trode to match not only the mechanical properties of the
loy Content not ex eeding 2%.•Different groups have ba e metal, but also to approxlmat ely match the composi-
Slightly different composition limits. tion of the base metal,
The E60XX and E70XX classes of electrodes pro- The only E80XX Or higher-strength el ctrodes that
Vide sufficient strength to produce 100% weld joints in do not have low-hydrogen coverings are the EXXlO typ
lnUd steels, The yield strength of electrodes in these electrodes, which are designed specifically for welding
lasses will overmatcl the yield strength of the mild and pipe. The deep penetrating hara teristfcs of the c llu-
lOW-alloy steel . Th 60XX class should be used for losic electrodes makethem suitabl for cross-country
Stels. having yleldstrengths below 50,000 psi (3'44.7 pipe welding, The theory and practice are that alloy steel. '
MPa) and the E70XX class should be used for welding pipe is relatively thin and is weld d with c 111.110 Ic elec-
. 'teels having a yield strength .below 60,000 psi (414 trodes at relatively high currents. In addition, ea h W Id~
MPa). Low-hydwg n ete trade hould b€ used and pre- Ing pass is v: ry thin, and th w ld m 'tal is ag "d for.a
heat is sugg st d when w lcti.ng heavier materials, or reo considerable length of time prior to putting the pipeline
Strained jcints, The electrode that provides the desired into service,Thisallaws for hy(1t:ofl n)whi, h. O;llg] r be ab-
ope.ration~l features sfrouldb selected. When welding sorbed, to escape ftomtlle metal and not adversely'affeqt
th 1 w-aUoy steels) the operational haracteristlcs of the service life. of the pipeline.
ele troces are ignored and only low-hydrogen le nrodes The r mainder of t111s SectiOn adc{r s "spe JIc
Or pro 'edut· ar used. . t)'p s of ,st 'cls and provides g\lidanc ~ in the seleotion Of
Filler metnJ ShO\11d b sele ted on the basiS of fillet tn tal for joining th m. Fot U10S t cis that ma.y not
Btl' ngth and OlllPO iWm, of th weld d posit. For 1 w~ b specifi aUymcntion d i'tis P.Q sibletol.'eJa;trJl'tn't
~oy steels this means that th~electrode class would be the helllistry of the, dcposi.tedweld m~t'.dtG.~Stf bUil~
,0 Qt' higher. The strengm level of bare BoUdand £lux:- tbe propet lectto(Jeclass.··· . ,'" '. " .
TABLE 16-1 SUFFIXES FOR lOW-ALLOY STEEL ELECTRODES
Suffix C Mn Si Ni Cr Mo Additional
Al 0.12 0.60-1.00 0.40-0.80 0.40-0.65

B1 0.05-0.12 0.90 0.60-0.80 0.40-0.65 0.40-0.65
B2 0.05-0.12 0.90 0.60-0.80 1.00-1.50 0.40-0.65
B2l 0.05 0.90 1.00 1.00-1.50 0.40-0.65
B3 0.05-0.12 0.90 1.00 2.00-2.50 0.90-1.20
B3l 0.05 0.90 1.00 2.00-2.50 0.90-1.20
B4l 0.05 0.90 1.00 1.75-2.25 0.40-0.65
B5 0.07-0.15 0.40-0.70 0.30-0.60 0.40-0.60 1.00-1.25 V-0.05
B6 0.05-0.10 1.0 0.90 0.40 4.0-6.0 0.45-0.65
B6l 0.05 1.0 0.90 0.40 4.0-6.0 0.45-0.65
B7 0.05-0.10 1.0 0.90 0.40 6.0-8.0 0.45-0.65
B7l 0.05 1.0 0.90 0.40 6.0-8.0 0.45-0.65
B8 0.05-0.10 1.0 0.90 0.40 8.0-10.5 0.85-1.20
B8l 0.05 1.0 0.90 0.40 8.0-10.5 0.85-1.20
B9 0.08-0.13 1.25 0.30 1.0 8.0-10.5 0.85-1.20 (1)
C1 0.12 1.25 0.60-0.80 2.00-2.75
C1l 0.05 1.25 0.50 2.00-2.75
C2 0.12 1.25 0.60-0.80 3.00-3.75
C2l 0.05 1.25 0.50 3.00-3.75
C3 0.12 0.40-1.25 0.80 0.80-1.10 0.15 0.35 V-0.05
C3l 0.80 0.40-1.40 0.50 0.80-1.10 0.15 0.35 V-0.05
C4 0.10 1.25 0.60-0.80 1.10-2.00
C5l 0.05 0.40-1.00 0.50 6.00-7.25
NM1 0.10 0.80-1.25 0.60 0.80-1.10 0.10 0.40-0.65 (2)
01 0.12 1.00-1:75 0.60-0.80 0.90 0.25-0.45
02 0.15 1.65-2.00 0.60-0.80 0.90 0.25-0.45
03 0.12 1.00-1.80 0.60-0.80 0.90 0.40-0.65
G 1.00 MIN 0.80 MIN 0.50 MIN 0.30 MIN 0.20 MIN (3)
M 0.10 0.60-2.25 0.60-0.80 1.25-3.80 0.15-1.50 0.20-0.55 V-0.05
Pl 0.20 1.20 0.60 1.00 0.30 0.50 V-0.10
WI 0.12 0.40-0.70 0.40-0.70 0.20-0.40 0.15-0.30 V and Cu
W2 0.12 0.50-1.30 0.35-0.80 0.40-0.80 0.45-0.70 Cu
Note (1) Various amounts of V, Cu, AL, Nb(Cb), and N
Note (2) V-O.02, CU-O.I0, & AL 0.05
Note (3) V-O.10 MIN Cu·O.20 MIN: see ANS A5.5 for details
See ANS A5.5 for exact analysis; this is a summary
Low ..Carbon (Mild) Steels higher carbon and manganese the low-hydrogen elec-
trode ar recommended, particularly in thicker sections.
Low-carbon steelsInclude those in cheAl I series C·IOOS Preheating may be required and should range from 300 to .
to 1025. Carbon ranges from 0.10% to 0.25%, man- SOO°F(149 to 260°C). Postheating 1. often speclfled to r ~
gall se rang sir rn 0.l5% to 1.5%, phosphorus is O. ·0% lieve str 'S8 and help r duce hardness that may have b 11
maxlrnum, and sulf'llJ" i 0.50% maximum. Steel' in thi caused by rapid cooling. Medlum-carb n steels ar readily
rang are most wjdely used for industrial fabri arlo and weldabl provided the pr caution are ob erved.Th y can
C(>tls;trl.lctfon.Tlles steel an b. easily w lded with \~ny be welded With all of the processes mentioned pl'eviousLf~
of the arc, gaS,~lnd reststance.wetdtng processes.
High-Carbon Steels
M· dium..Carb mSt Is High- arbon st ls tnclud rhos ill the.A1S1 eries from c-
.The 11\ sdtum- 'Moon steel tncludc those In the At 1 sed1050 to C·l095. Th
$ omposltion is similar to mediurn-
C-I0;30 tQ{).1050. rh.e -ccmposttion is similar to 1 W· , 'arbon st els, except tha.t carbon rang s from O. 0% to
" t'ubdnst els.~epttbattl1 . cUbon ranges f1'o.o\ 0.25% ., 1..03% andrp{mgat1e e r:ulgesfTQmO.'O% to 1.00 ~.Spe ial
wiso% ~lUdthmrulgallCSe from 0.60% to L6;%.WJth pre auttons must h taken wherrweldmg steels in these
classes. The low-hydrogen process or electrodes must be The E80XX or E90XX electrodes should be used with the
employed, and preheating of from 400 to 600°F (204 to Col or C-2 suffix. No electrode type will exactly provide a
316°C) is necessary, especially when heavier sections are nickel-chrome deposit the same as the base metal.
welded.A postheat treatment, either stress relieving or an-
nealing, is usually specified. High-carbon steels can be
welded with the same processes mentioned previously.
Low-Manganese Steels
Included in this group are theAlSI type 1320,1330,1335,
1340, and 1345 designations. In these steels, the carbon
LOW-Alloy High-Strength Steels ranges from 0.18% to 0.48%, manganese from 1.60% to
The low-alloy high-strength steels represent the bulk of 1.90%, and silicon from 0.20% to 0.35%. Preheat is not re-
the remaining steels in theAlSI designation system.These quired at the low range of carbon and manganese. Preheat
steels are welded with the E80XX through E120XXX class of 250 to 300°F (121 to 149°C) is desirable as the carbon
of covered welding electrodes.The suffix to the electrode approaches 0.25% and is mandatory at the higher range
classification number is used for these types of steel. of manganese. Thicker sections should be preheated to
These steels include the low-manganese steels, the low- double the previous figure.A stress relief postheat treat-
to medium-nickel steels, the low-nickel-chromium steels, ment is recommended. The E80XX or E90XX electrodes
the molybdenum steels, the chromium-molybdenum with theA-I,D-I, or 0-2 suffix should be used.
steels, the nickel-chromium-molybdenum steels, and the
other groups. Not included as an alloy steel but part of the
AlSI seri s are the sulfur steels. These are the series des-
Low-Alloy Chromium Steels
ignated by 11XX, sometimes known as free-machining Included in this group are theAlSI type'501S to 5160 and
steels. Sulfur is 0.08% to 0.33%. These steels are difficult the electric furnace steels 50100, 51100, and 52100. In
to weld, because of the high sulfur content, which has a these steels, carbon ranges from 0.12% to 1.10%, man-
tendency to produce porosity in the weld and cracking. ganese from 0.30% to 1.00%, chromium from 0.20% to
LOW-hydrogen electrodes of the minimum-strength level 1.60%, and silicon from 0.20% to 0.30%. When carbon is
should be used. Welding is tedious on these steels and at the low end of the range, these steels can be welded
their use should be avoided when welding is required. without special precautions. As the carbon increases and
as the chromium increases, high hardenabllity results, and
a preheat of as high as 750°F (399°C) will be required,
LOW-Nickel Steels particularly for heavy sections. The B sufftx should be
These include those inAlSI series 2315,2515, and 2517. used. Match the sufflx to the chromium content.
Carbon ranges from 0.12% to 0.30%, manganese from Welding procedure information Is then determined
0.40% to 0.60%, silicon from 0.20% to 0.45%, and nickel by means of the carbon equivalent formula given in
from 3.25% to 5.25%. If the carbon does not exceed Chapter 15. The carbon equivalent should b calculated
0.15%, preheat is not necessary except for extremely for the exact composition. When only a range of compost-
heavy sections. If the carbon exceeds 0.15%) preheat of non is known, use the maximum values to be on the safe
up to 500°F (260°C), depending on thickness. is required. side.When the carbon equivalent is 0;40% Of lower, the rna-
On thin material, 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) or less, preheating is un- terial is considered readily weldable. Above 0.40% special
nee ssary. Stress relieving after welding is advisable. The controls are required. In all cases, low-hydrogen processes
electrode suffix Col or C-2 would be used, depending on should be used and preheat may also be required. 'Wl1en
the level of nickel in the base material. The strength level the carbon equivalent exceeds 0..60%, preheating is re-
WOUld be matched to the base metal. In all cases, the low- qutr d if the thickn ss exceeds 3/4 in. (19.1 rom .Wh~n
hydrogen coating is used. ' , the carbon equivalent exceeds 0.90%,' preheat is .ab-.
solutely required to a relatively high temperarure on all ex-
c pt the thinnest mat rial. ntis provides the guidanc for.·
lOW ..Nickel Chrome Steels establishing welding procedures using over d elec-
Steels in thts group tnclud the ATSI 3120,3135, 3140, trod s,For aU but the simple work, the pro· dure sh ll1d
331Q,and 3316. Inthese steels, carbon ranges from 0.14% be qua,Ufi d according to one of the standard tests to d '~
to 0,,34%, mang(tuese from 0.40% to 0.90%, silicon from termine whetherttp.toduc~ the qualitYQfweld~ected. ,"'~'.
0,20% to 0.35%, nickel from 1.10% to 3.75%, and When using' the sllbmerge,r~. weJdlp$proc 59, It
hron:li\Jm from 0.55% to 0.75%. Thin sections of these is also necessaryto match ttl composition of tlie.elec-
Steels in the lower carbon ranges call be welded without trode wlththecempositton of tll bas In tal.A n l.1tral .
pr heat. A Pl1 heat of 200 to 300°F (93 to 1490 ) nee-is flux that nei~h r dejracts nor adds ¢l in nts fa the·weld
es ary for carbon In th 0.20% range; for higher carbon a' metal should be' used.In general; prell at can be redu(;~d
PI' heat of up to 600°F (316" ~ should be used.The wel<l;· fot submerged. ID'c~~1d1tlg b. 'a,use. oMhe.hifM)e.rbent lp,i:;" .
m nt must be stv SSt Jieved or annealed after welding. ptitand slow,t cooltng ratesillvol . d.lt> .ri1~lfesute tll~t;
the submerged arc deposit is low hydrogen, the flux must which a definite range or a definite minimum quantity of
be dry and the electrode and base metal must be clean. any of the following elements is specified or required
When using the gas metal arc welding process, the within the limits of the recognized field of constructional
electrode should be selected to match the base metal and alloy steels: aluminum, boron, chromium up to 3.99%,
the shielding gas should be selected to avoid excessive cobalt, columbium, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tung-
oxidation of the weld metal. Preheating with the gas metal sten, vanadium, zirconium, or any other alloying element
arc welding process should be in the same order as with added to obtain a desired alloying effect. (1)
shielded metal arc welding since the heat input is similar. Some of the steels mentioned in the preceding sec-
When using the flux-cored arc welding process, the tion fall within this range and are considered low-alloying
deposited weld metal produced by the flux-cored elec- steels. Many of the steels shown by the AlSI steel classifica-
trode should match the base metal being welded. Preheat tion system arc also in the alloy range. If the chromium con-
requirements would be similar to gas metal welding. tent exceeds 11%, it will be considered a stainless steel.
When low-alloy, high-strength steels are welded to To weld alloy steels successfully, four factors must
lower-strength grades, the electrode should be selected be considered.
to match the strength of the lower-strength steel. The
welding procedure-that is, preheat, heat input, and so 1. Always use a low-hydrogen welding procedure,
on--should be suitable for higher-strength steel. process, and filler metal.
2. Select a filler metal that matches the strength level
of the alloy steel.
Weathering Steels 3. Select a filler metal that comes close to matching
Weathering steels are low-alloy steels that can be exposed the composition of the alloy steel.
to the weather without being painted.The steel protects it- 4. Match the welding heat input requirement to the al-
self by means of a dense oxide coating (patina) that forms loy steel and its thickness, and use the proper weld-
naturally on the steel when it is exposed to the weather. ing procedure.
This tight oxide coating reduces continuing corrosion.The
corrosion resistance of weathering steels is four to six TheAWS filler metal specifications for covered elec-
trodes, (2) bare solid electrode wire, (3) and flux-cored elec-
times that of normal structural carbon steels, and two to
three times that of many of the low-alloy structural steels. trode wires? provide data to select filler metals that meet
specific strength levels and provide the desired. alloy
The weathering steels are covered by the ASTM specifica-
composition.
tions A242 and A588. These steels have a minimum yield
strength of 50,000 psi (345 MPa) with an ultimate tensile The first one, two, or three digits of the electrode
strength of 70,000 psi (482 MPa).Two of the better known classifi atlon give the minimum tensile strength of the de-
weathering reels are Corten and Mayari R. posited weld metal. This Is handled slightly differently in
the three specifications. It provides the information nee-
Th weathering steels can be welded by all the arc
es ary to select the strength level of the weld metal,
welding process s and by gas welding and resistance
which should meet or slightly overmatch the base metal.
welding. To maintain the weather resistance characteris-
tic of the steel! a spe 'tal welding procedure should b em- All three specifications provide suffix letters that
ployed, Use th E7018 class to within one layer of the top
designate the chemical composition of the deposited
of the jolnt.The top layer. should be made With an E701B- weld metal. Unfortunately, the three specifications are not
in exact agreement. In general, the suffix letters Indicate
Cl electrode sincethe 2% nickel in the weld deposit will
ause the weld metal to weather the same as the weath-
the following chemistry (see Table 16-1):
ring steel.The Col suffix weld deposit should bus d for
the top laye!:' of any multipass weld ..
Suffix Letter Chemistry
TIle sam concept can be used for gas metal arc
welding, flux- or d ( rc welding, or submerg d arc weld- A Carbon-molybdenum steel
lng. TJ ' 1 ormal le trode us ,0 for a 50,OOO·ps steel B Chromium--molybdenum steel
. WOUld. be tnployed, but this last layer would tnclua~ al- Cor NI Nlckel-steel
.toy to provide weatheJ'itlg resistance. o Manganese-rnolybden urn steel
G, I, M, and W Other low-alloy steels
,19-2 WELDING ALLOY STEELS The suffix lett rs are som times followed by a num-
. nsid .r d to b an alloy steel '1 wh n the max- ber that indicates a spe "'lite h mtcal composition range-
itj\tlJ)l~fth ~ulhre,given·for the content of alloying 1 Of
Th sufflx numbers ar a statting point for sele tlng fill r
.a
. n'lertts,~ceeds 011 luore of th . folloWing lin1its: , metals. R ,tel" to. th speCificadon for exact hemtca! 'Oin' .
:nlang'lne"c 1,-65%,S'fU on 0.60%, copp r 0.60%, or (2) ill position. This itrCormatio:n allows you t set oct the om"
position of the filler metal.The heat input requirement is being used.TheT number will indicate what shielding gas
discussed with the alloy steel information. should be used.With the submerged arc welding process,
a neutral flux should be used. The electrode wire should
be approximately the composition of the base metal.
Quenched and Tempered
The last factor is to maintain the proper heat input.
Constructional Steels The heat input depends on the material thickness, the
The quenched and tempered constructional steels were preheat employed, and the interpass temperature. For
developed in the early 1950s.These steels offer a number I-tn-tluck plate a minimum preheat of 50°F (lO°C) is nor-
of advantages, which have made them extremely popular mally used. When the thickness is increased, a preheat of
where a high strength-to-weight ratio is important. The 200°F (93°C) is recommended. Higher preheats may be
Unique properties of these steels are obtained from their required for restrained joints. The allowable heat input is
chemical composition plus a quenched and tempered based on the joules per inch of weld joint given by the
heat treatment.These steels have extremely high strength, standard formula. The maximum heat input for different
in the order of 100,000 psi (689 MPa) yield strength.com- thickness of the different grades of the ASTMASI4/ A517
bined With good weldability. In addition, they possess steels is given in Table 16-3. These may vary from grade
good ductility, good notch toughness, good fatigue to grade or by different manufacturers. Consult the steel
strength, and corrosion resistance. They can be welded manufacturer's technical data to determine the recom-
successfully with relatively conventional welding proce- mended maximum heat input limit. Exceeding these heat
dures. Mimmum preheat is used, and for most applications inputs results in a loss of strength of the weld joint. The
the weldments are used in the as-welded condition. toughness of the steel in the heat-affected zone is usually
ASTMSpecificationsA514 toA517 have been written excellent, and the hardness of the heat-affected zone is
to COverthe quenched and tempered constructional steels normally lower than the base metal or the deposited weld
produced by different steel manufacturers.The grades and zone. Producers ofT-l steet have developed a welding
compositions are shown in Table 16-2.A different grade is heat input calculator that relates the travel speed, weld-
given to each steel trade name. Several other ASTM speci- ing current, and arc volts to the heat input in kilo-joules
~cations cover these types of steels, but the welding out- per inch. This calculator provides maximum heat Inputs
lined here will apply to all when the composition is similar. for different preheat and interpass temperatures based on
. Steels of the same basic composition are also made different thicknesses of steel. As the plate thickness in-
111tocastings and forgings.These steels are water quenched creases and with lower preheat temperatures, the maxi-
by Special techniques from a temperature of 1,500 to mum heat units are unlimited.
o
1,600 p 816 to 871°C) and tempered at a temperature of The stringer bead technique is preferred.Th use of
from 1,000 to 1,11OoP (538 to 593°C).This produces a mi- a full weave reduces the travel speed and increases the
crostructure of tempered, low-temperature transformation heat input above the maximum limits. If weaving is used,
products that have an excellent combination of strength it should be restricted to two electrode .diarneters. The
and toughness. base metal should not be allowed to become ov cheated.
Shielded metal arc, gas metal arc, flux-cored arc, and When back gouging is r quired, it should be done with
SUbmerged arc welding processes can all be used. The gas the ail' carbon arc process or by grinding. The oxyacety-
tungsten arc welding process can be used but is restricted lene flame should not be used for back gouging,
to the thinner sections. The electroslag welding process .i Ofe rs in welds made all quenched and tempered
nor rconunended because the long time at high temper- constructional steels are mare serious than the same de-
atutl destroys the heat tr atm nt.It is essential to keep the fects in mild or low-carbon steels.The weld surface should
procce a low-hydrogen pr cess.This means dry electrod be smooth, with c ntours that are well blend. dtnto th
oating, dry flux! dry gas, and clean joint preparation.' pieces being joined. Each, weld should be mad sothat
WIlerl using the shield d metal arc welding pro- there is good pen trarion into the previolls wet l and no un- .
c SS, Jectrodes of the EllOI8M or E12018M classifica- dercut, Compf t penetrati it is essential to take sdvanwg
tion shotlld be used, of the full strength of the quenched and temp red steel.
With the ga m tal arc welding process the elec-
trode ShO\.lld be an AWS Class E 120C-G. whi h is a pro-
Prietary el ctrode wire d.esigned for this class orsree).
. he shield.Ing gas should be 98%argon-2% oxygen or
75% argon-25% 02' Pur carbondtoxide an also be
~lsed.Th electrode wire omposttlon should be approx-
mat Iy t11 same as the omposirion of th base metal.
, , When Welding with the flux-cored proess, use on ~
()f the AWg'llllO or E120 type wjthT"l t11J'O~lgh5 usability
1ass and with. K number· appropriate to the brand steel
-
~
t.J
TABLE 16·-2 POPULAR

QUENCHED
ANDTEMPERED
STEELS,GRADES, PERASTM A514/517
ANDCOMPOSITION
Composition (%)
ASTM Proprietary C Cu
Grade Steels (max.) Mn Si Cr Ni Mo (rnin.) Other
A NAXTRA 100 0.15-0.21 0.80-1.10 0.40-0.80 0.50-0.80 0.18-0.28 0.035-P,

0.040-S
8 T-1 Type A 0.15-0.21 0.70-1.00 0.20-0.30 0.40-0.65 0.15-0.25 0.035-P,
0.040-S,
0.01-0.03-Ti,
0.03-0.80-Va
C Jalloy S-100 0.10-0.20 1.01--1.50 0.15-0.30 0.20-0.30 0.035-P,
0.040-S
D Armco SS8 100A 0.13-0.20 0.40-0.70 0.20-0.35 0.85-1.20 0.20--0.25 0.20-0.40 0.035-P,
0.040-8,
0.04-0.10-Ti
E Armco SSS100 0.12-0.20 0.40-0.70 0.20-0.35 1.40-2.00 0.40-0.60 0.20-0.40 0.035-P,
0.040-8,
0.04-0.10-Ti
F US8 T-! 0.10-0.20 0.60-1.00 0.15-0.35 0.40-0.65 0.70-1.00 0.40-0.60 0.15-0.50 0.035-P,
0.040-S,
0.03-Va
G PX-100 0.15-0.21 0.80-1.10 0.50-0.90 0.50-0.90 0.40-0.60 0.035-P,
0.040-S
H T-l Type B 0.12-0.21 0.95-1.30 0.20-0.30 0.40-0.65 0.30-0.70 0.20-0.30 0.035-P,
0.040-S,
0.03-0.08-Va
J RQ 100A 0.12-0.21 0.45-0.70 0.20-0.35 0.50-0.65 0.035-P,
0.040-S
K CHT-100 0.10-0.20 1.10-1.50 0.15-0.30 0.45-0.65 0.035·P,
0.040-S
L Armco SSS1008 0.13-0.20 0.40-0.70 0.20-0.35 1.15-1.65 0.25-0.40 0.20-0.40 0.035-P,
0.040-S,
0.04-0.10-Ti
M RQ-IOOB 0.12-0.21 0.45-0.70 0.20-0.35 1.20-1.50 0.45-0.60 0.035-P,
0.040-8
N NAXTRA 100A
P ROC-IOO 0.12-0.20 0.45-0.70 0.20-0.35 0.85-1.20 1,20-1.50 0.45-0.60 0.035-P,
0.040-S
Note: Boron of 0.0005 to 0.005 added to each grade.
TABLE 16-3 SUGGESTED MAXIMUM HEAT I!,{PUT LIMITS High-Nickel Steels
(JOULES PER INCH)
The 9% nickel steels are quenched and tempered but are
Plate Preheat and Interpass Temperature (oF) considered separately because they are intended for dif-
Thickness
ferent types of service. The 9% nickel steels were devel-
(in.) 70 200 300 400
oped to provide high strength and extreme toughness at
fs 17,500 14,000 11,500 9,000 very low operating temperatures. The reason for devel-
t 23,700 19,200 15,800 12,300 oping the material was to provide a steel that could be
~ 47,400 35,500 31,900 25,900 used to build tanks and vessels for containing liquefied
~ 88,600 69,900 55,700 41,900 natural gas. The temperature of liquefied natural gas is
1 Any 110,000 86,000 65,600 -262°P (-160°C).The 9% nickel steel will provide good
It Any 154,000 120,000 94,000 notch toughness at temperatures down to -320oP
Note: This applies to grade F. Check suppliers of other grades for (-196°C). A low-nickel steel in the 5% range, plus 0.25%
values. molybdenum, will provide good properties at tempera-
tures as low as - 275 OF(-170°C).TIlese steels are welded
Savings would result. In addition, heat input restrictions in the heat-treated condition and do not require a post-
could be relaxed or eliminated. weld heat treatment to obtain welds that provide prop-
The steel industry has developed a new family of erties essentially equal to the base metal.
Weldable steels that overcome these problems. They are The 9% nickel steel is supplied in the heat-treated
known as HSLAsteels, microalloyed steel, and clean steel, condition. It is specified by ASTM A353 and A553. Two
and are identified by the ASTM A710 or ASTM 736 sped- types of heat treatments may be used. One is known as the
fication.(S) They have excellent notch toughness and double-normalized and tempered condition, and the other
gOod weldabiliry due to the very low carbon content, is accomplished by normalizing at + 1650°F (900°C), then
Which is 0.08% carbon maximum. Grain refinement is at- normalizing at +1450°F (790°C) followed by a tempering
tained by microalloying with 0.01 % to 0.05% columbium, at + 1050 P (570°C). In the second way the steel furnished
0
and small additions of copper (1% to 1.3%), nickel (0.7% is water quenched and tempered with water quen .hing
to 1%), chromium (0.60% to 0.90%), and molybdenum at + 1470°F (800°C) and then tempering at + 1050°F
(0.15% to 0.25%) are used to achieve high strength. Small (570°C). The toughness of this steel is obtained by the
amounts of nitrogen are used. Each manufacturer has a small amount of austenite, which is reformed during the
different composition. The chromium and molybdenum tempering treatment. This phase is stable at subzero tem-
OPtimize the precipitation of the copper. The nickel pre- peratures and contributes to the toughness of the steel.
Vents hot shortness brought on by the copper and irn- The 9% nickel steel can be flame cut using normal
Prove toughness.Alumlnum is used for deoxidizing and oxygen fuel gas equipment. The cutting sp ed is slow r
grain refining. This micro alloyed steel is extremely weld- than on rnild steel, Flame-cut: surfaces should be ground
able without expensiv preheat and heat input restric- to remove any hardened metal and the oxide surface.
tions. This is due primarily to the low carbon content, Welding is done in the fully heat-treated condition, and
which ranges from 0.0 % to 0.08% carbon. It is also less the heat-affected zone has a somewhat different mi-
sensiti e to hydrogen. These ste Is are becoming very crostructure than the base metal. Welding can be accom-
POpular. They are.available from sheet metal thicknesses plished by SMAW submerged arc welding, GMAW,and
to heavY plate. flux-cored arc welding.
The three different classes of this steel are based on When the SMAW process Is used, the high
tlttee different methods of heat treatment. Plates rolled nickel-chrome-iron electrodes are used. Thes are the
followed by 'an aging treatment constitute one class; AWS ENi.CrFe-2 type and EnjCrFe-3 type. The higher
plates rolled, normalized, and aged are covered by the sec- nickel-chrome lectrode will produce slightly higher-
ond [ass; and the third Class covers plates that are rolled, strength welds that wilt match the-base metal. A preheat,
qUenched, and aged. There ate numerous producers, each or posth at is 110t required on material 2 in. (50 mm)
'With <lifferent composition and properti s. The covered thick or less. B fore w lding t11 bas metal hould be
electrode used for w lding thi st el is the EI0018·MI or brought up to. normal room temperature of 70~F( ..1°C).
th E12018-M2. Wben makitlg V· 0 be el groove welds, the minlmum in-
For GMAW use the electrod wire matching the cludcdangTe should-be 10D. The higb·nif.:kel el~ct:t()acs,
$trength Ieveland aHoy content of the HSLA teet you are ' operate differently fronl mild' ol'staJtlles'steel eJetto' t~~;-
UStng.(6)Tlie shi lding gas can be 98% argon..,.2% O2,15% They have low penetration arid do not flow 0,1' 'Wasl1into '
arg~:)O...25 0 CO2, or CO2, For F W the same appli s. pe-' the side all of the weJd joint. The;: lectrode should be
ial eldtng pr ca.utions are not l' qui}) d.Th weld wUl pointe I to pia the d positeQm. 't"l wn r l.t Is "lesit d:,
?av trength equal to the base m t<ll and wHl hav good When llsing subme.rg d iute ,welding, the .snm:'
toughness prop rtles.~ analysi of cl Ctroc;J;e wire is tlsect With a t1Cutt1u,~welalng .
flux. For thinner materials, a room-temperature preheat For SMAW,the electrode class suffix ranging from
of 70 P (21°C) is used. When welding material 2 in. (50
0
B1 with 1/2% chrome-1/2% moly up through the B4 for
mm) and thicker, a preheat of 250 to 300°F (121 to the 2~% chrome-l/2% moly identifies the composition.
149°C) is recommended. The same temperature is used The higher levels of chromium are not specified by
for the interpass temperature. means of a suffix system. Proprietary electrodes are avail-
When using GMAW,the high-nickel-chrome elec- able for the higher chrome-moly steels.
trode, AWS type ERNiCrFe-6, is used and a shielding gas TheAWS specifications for chrome-moly bare solid
of 90% helium and 10% argon is recommended. Short- and flux-cored electrodes go up to the 2~% chrome-J'f
Circuiting transfer is used and the properties of the weld moly analysis.Above this proprietary electrodes are avail-
are essentially the same as the base metal. The pulsed able that match many compositions.
mode of GMAW is widely used for welding 9% nickel
steel. When using flux-cored arc welding, special propri- • For GTAW use argon for shielding.
etary electrode wires are used. For difficult problems, con- • For GMAW use CO2 or argon-Co , mixture for
sult the Nickel Development Institute in Toronto, Canada. shielding.
• For FCAW use CO2 or argon-Cfr, mixture for
Chromium-Molybdenum Steels shielding.
The chromium-molybdenum steels (called chrome-moly) Much of the welding on these steels is done 011
were developed for elevated-temperature service. They pipe. For pipe welding, the gas tungsten arc welding
have been used extensively in power piping, where they process is often used for making the root pass.The SMAW
operate at high pressures and temperatures between 700 process, gas metal are, or flux-cored arc welding can be
and 1,lOO°F (371 to 599°C). Popular Cr-Mo steels are used for the remainder of the weld joint. The submerged
shown in Table 16-4. arc welding process would be used for roll welding of
The major reason for using chrome-moly steels is pipe subassemblies.
that they maintain their strength at high temperatures. The chrome-moly steels are hardenable steels;
They do not creep, which means that they do not stretch therefore, it is necessary to provide a welding procedure
or deform under long periods of use at high pressures that includes preheating and postheating. Preheat tern-
and temperatures. Also, they do not become brittle after peratures range from a minimum of lOO°F (37.8°C) to as
extended periods of high-temperature service. Carbon high as 700°F (371°C). The preheat temperature is de-
steels, however, do tend to stretch at high-temperature pendent on the carbon content and the thickness of the
service and will become brittle in time. material being welded .. If the carbon content is below
The chrome-moly steels are used in the normalized 0.20% and the thickness is less than 3/8 in. (9.5 mm), the
and tempered condition and in the quenched and tern- minimum 100°F preheat can be used. However, if carbon
pered condition. The type of heat treatment dictates the is above this figure and the wall thickness is greater,
strength level of the steel.The strength levels extend from the temperature should be increased to 200 F and up to
Q
85,000 psi (586 MPa) to 135,000 psi (930 MPa).A number 4000E For the higher chrome-molys and thicker sections.
of compositions have become popular: the 1% Cr-l!2% the preheat will extend up to 700°F (371°C); however, if
Mo,l14 % Cr-l/2% Mo, the 2% Cr-l/2% Mo, the 214%cr-t % thickness is less than 3/4 in. (19 mm), the preheat can be
Mo, and the 5% Cr-1!2% Mo. reduced to half this value. Details of welding procedur S
SMAW, GTAW, and GMAW are widely used for join- for welding piping are given by the AWS"Recommended
ing the hrome-rnoly steels. Submerged ar w J.ding and Practices for Welding of Chromium-Molybdenum Steel
flux-cored arc welding are also used. It is necessary to Piping and 1Ubing."m Speciflc preheat values are given
match th weld metal deposit analysis closely with the for different types and wall thickne es of chrome-
.ompositton of the base metal. moly pipe .
TABLE16-4 COMPOSITION OF POPULAR CHROME-MOLYBDENUM STEELS
,Cr-i Mo . 0.10-0,20· 0.30-0.60 0.10 ...0.30 0.50-0.81 0.44---0.65

1 Cr1!"t Mo 0.15 max. 0.30-0.60 0.50 max. 0.80-1.25 0.44-0.65
HCr-i Mo 0.15 max. 0.30,..0.60 0.50~1.00 1.0-1.50 0.44-0.65
2 Cr-i'Mo 0.15 max. 0.30-0.60 0.50 max. 1.65-2.35 0.44-0.65
. ~~ Cr';"l .Mo . 0.16 max. 0.30-0.60 0.50 max. 1.90-2.60 0.87-1.13'
SMAWelectrodes for chrome-moly steels are always
of the low-hydrogen type. Low-hydrogen electrodes are
16-3 WELDING STAINLESS STEELS
difficult to use with open root joints; therefore, the GTAW Stainless steels or, more precisely, corrosion-resisting steels
process is used for making the root pass. Backup rings are are a family of iron-base alloys with excellent resistance to
not used for welding high-pressure, high-temperature corrosion.These steels do not rust and strongly resist attack
steam pipe. by a great many liquids, gases, and chemicals. Many of the
A postheat treatment is required when the carbon stainless steels have good low-temperature toughness and
COntent exceeds 0.20% or the wall thickness is over 1/2 in. ductility. Most stainless steels exhibit good strength prop-
(12 mnn.rhe heat-treatment temperature is from 1,150 to erties and resistance to scaling at high temperatures. All
1,300op (621 to 704°C).The lower temperatures are used stainless steels contain iron as the main element and
With the thinner material and the higher temperatures for chromium in amounts ranging from about 11% to 30%.
the heavier wall thickness. Specific recommendations are Chromium provides the basic corrosion resistance to stain-
provided in the previously mentionedAWS booklet. less steels. A thin film of chromium oxide forms on the sur-
Where different grades of chrome-moly steels are face of the metal when it is exposed to oxygen in the air.
welded together, the preheat and postheat temperatures This film acts as a barrier to further Oxidation, rust, and COf-
shOUldbe based on the higher-alloy material, but the weld- rosion. Steels that contain only chromium Of chromium
ing electrode can be based on the lower-alloy material. with small amounts of other alloys are known as straight
chrome types. There are about 15 types of straight chrome
stainless steels. The straight chrome steels are the 400 se-
Steel Castings ries of stainless steels, which are highly magnetic.
The welding of steel castings is important since they are Nickel is added to certain of the stainless steels,
often mcorporated into weldments. Steel castings may which are known as cbrome-nichel stainless steels. The
have foundry defects that are repaired by welding. Steel addition of nickel reduces thermal conductivity and
caStings are made in many different analyses, and it is nec- decreases e.lectrical conductivity. The chrome-nickel
essary to know the composition of the casting to select steels are in the 300 series of stainless steels. They have
the proper filler metal. Castings are easily identifiable austenitic microstructure and are nonmagnetic.
since they carry an imprint of the foundry where they are The chrome-nickel stainless steels contain small
made. By checking with the foundry it is possible to de- amounts of carbon. Carbon is undesirable particularly in
termine the exact analysis of the casting. the 18% chrome-8% nickel group. Carbon will combine
In general, steel castings have higher amounts of with chromium. to form chromium carbides, which do not
carbon than rolled steel. Many steel castings are heat have corrosion resistance. Chromium carbides are formed
treated to obtain desir d properties. When welding heat- when the steel is held in the temperature range of 800 to
treated castings, on of the problem areas is that the weld 1,600oP (427 to 871 °C) for prolonged periods, which can
metal deposit usually has a lower carbon content than the happen during welding with slow cooling. The chemical
casting, and the heat treatment may not produce the same reaction of carbon with chromium to form chromium
mechanical properties in the weld metal as in the casting. carbide is called carbide precipitation. Carbon can be
It is best to overmatch the analysis of the weld deposit controlled, however, by the use of stabilizing elements.
oVer th COmposition of the casting. This will tend to pro- Carbide precipitation can be reduced or prevented in two
due· a hardness level in the weld metal similar to that in ways.The first way is to keep thecarbon level at 0.03% or
the casting. less, which eliminates the formation of hromtum car-
When using gas metal are, flux-cored arc, or sub- bides. Stainless steels with low carbon in this range are
m rg d arc welding, this problem is reduced because of commonly referred to as ErC (extra low carbonjtypes.The
the higher penetration of the processes.There is more other way of preventing earbi le precipitation. is to use a
dilution of th weld metal from the base metal, and a stabilizing el ment. 'Ole most popular. stabilizers ar tita-
higher carbon deposit will result. This providesaweld nium and columbium (niobiumj.These elements will com-
metal depOsit more similar to the casting and will provide bin 'with carbon to 11rm titanium or columbium carbides,
omparabl heat-treated properties. which have corrosion resistance. Both types of statnles
h flux-cored arc welding pro ess. is e tr mely steels have equrvalent corrosion resistan .Th se typ s of
POpularfor weld repairing castings. Flux-col' d electrode rainless steels are Id ntlfted as ,LtYpe or stabiUz d typ .
~ires are now available with. w ld metal deposits match- M~ll1ganeseis added to SOlDt:: of the chrome...tlickel
tug many teel casting composition .(4) alloys. U8ually, these steels cOntain 8li~hrly }e$'S,bikel
Welding pr cedures for castings should be devel- sin til chrome-ni 'kel,,:ma.n.ga.l1e·sealloys were ,devel·
op d b sed on the casdng analysis. AU orb r factors con. oped originall to ionserv nlcl el, In the ealloy ,tl. small
c 'totng weldability roll. t be consid red in develo,ping portion of ,the.l1i kel is' l'ephlCe4 by the mangatlc 'OJgen-
~l procedure, illcluding preheat, heat input, and post- e¢Jy in a 2:1 relatiOnshtp .The 200 s riesof sta.lnl ." Ste Is.
1 at requit ments. . ,'. is tb chtOlne:--~jck I-mangfulese; rie$.r~e8 ste Wh~ie,
TABLE 16-5 GROUPS OF STAINLESS STEELS
Series Metall urgical Hardenable by

Designation Group Principal Elements Heat Treatment Magnetic
2xx Austenitic Chromium-nickel-manganese Non hardenable Nonmagnetic

3xx Austenitic Chromium-nickel steels Non hardenable" Nonmagnetic
4xx Martensitic Chromium steels Hardenable Magnetic
4xx Ferritic Chromium steels Non hardenable Magnetic
5xxb Martensitic Chromium-molybdenum steels Martensitic Magnetic
aWil1 work harden.
"Not stainless.
an austenitic microstructure and are nonmagnetic. The and are grouped according to the metallurgical structure
201 and 202 types are used as alternates for 301 and 302. with respect to welding.
Molybdenum is also included in some stainless steel
alloys. Molybdenum is added to improve the creep resis-
tance of the steel at elevated temperatures. It will also in-
Austenitic Types
crease resistance to pitting and corrosion in many The austenitic stainless steels have about 45% higher
applications. The different alloy groupings are shown in manganese, are not hardenable by heat treatment, and are
Table 16-5. nonmagnetic in the annealed condition. They may be-
Stainless steels are sometimes identified by num- come slightly magnetic when cold worked or welded.
bers that refer to the principal alloying elements, such as This helps identify this class of stainless steels. AU the
18/8 and 25/20.This identiflcation system has been sup- austenitic stainless steels are weldable with most of the
planted by the American Iron and Steel Institute system, welding processes, with the exception of type 303, which
which uses a three-digit number (fable 16-6). The first contains high sulfur, and type 303Se, which contains se-
digit Indicates the group and the last two digits indicate lenium to improve machinability
specific alloys. The AlSI numbers refer to the alloys as The austenitic stainless steels have about a 45%
chrome-nickel stainless steels and chromium stainless higher thermal coefficient of expansion, higher electrical
steels. They are, however, also identified according to resistance, and lower thermal conductivity than mild- .~
their microstructure, which can be austenitic, martensitic, carbon steels. High travel speed welding is recom-
or ferritic. The austenitic chrome-nickel-manganese mended, which will reduce heat input, reduce carbide
(200 series) and austenitic chrome-nickel (300 series) precipitation, and minimize distortion. The melting point
steels are shown in the upper portion of the table. The of austenitic stainless steel is slightly lower than mild-
martenstttc types are shown in the center part of the carbon steel. Because of lower melting temperature and
tabl and represent a portion of the 400 series; the fer- low r thermal conductivity, welding current is usually
rltlc types are shown in the lower portion of the table lower. The higher thermal expansion dictates that special
and are the remaining alloys in the 400 series. The du- precautions should be taken With regard to warpage and
plex stainless steels arc covered later. distortion. Tack welds should be twice as often as normal.
The three most popular processes for welding stain- Any of the distortion reducing techniques such as back-
less steels are shielded metal arc.gas tungsten are, and gas st P welding, skip welding, and wandering sequence
metal arc welding; however, almost all the welding should be used. On thin materials it is difficult to om-
processes can be used. pletely avoid buckling and distortion.
, Stainless 'teels at' slightly more difficult to w let
than mild carbon steels.The physical properties of stain- Ferritic Stainless Steels
less ste 1 are different from mild steel; as a r sult, it welds
The ferrttic stainless steels at not hardenabl by beat
diff: rently.These d:iffct'ellces are:
tr atrnent and ar magnetic . .All the ferritic types are
1.,,LOW er ill lting temperature =--, constder d weldabl with the majority of the welding
2. tower coe:ff'i tent of thermal conductivity '\ proc sses except for the Iree-machtmng grade of 30E
3." Hlgher' coefftctent ofthermat expansion which contains high ultur, 'The coefficient of tliCl"1llal
expanslon is low r than the au tenitic types and Is about
4.. JiigherCJe, trl al.reststan e '
th sam as mild steel.Wi ldmg processes that tend to in-
, T11 propertt ~ are not the sam for. an stain! , rease carbon pi zkup are not recommend d.Thl WOll1d
st 'ets, b~lt t1~ Yar . th ftm for thos . havingU S.tl1. mi· includ the xy.t'u 1g, s pro ess, arbon arc process, and
, 't'ostf\l ·tUf'·, In vt w of this! st~litll' "$ ste "Is of til S~lm
a gas m tal M" W Idtng with 2 shteJding gas,The ferritic
. ;~tI11JtJ!gi'al "l~l~s hIve SimIlar w ~ldj.ng charn-cteristJ s ste Is in the OQseries have tl tend ncy for grain g.rowth
TABLE 16-6 AISI STAINLESS
STEELCLASSJFICATION
SYSTEM(Courtesy of the American Iron and Steel Institute.)
Composition (%)
AISI No. Carbon Manganese Silicon Chromium Nickel Other Elements
Chromium-nickel-magnesium-austenitic, nonhardenable
201 0.15 max. 5.5/7.5 1.0 16.0/18.0 3.5/5.5 N20.25 max.
202 0.15 max. 7.5/10 1.0 17.0/19.0 4.0/6.0 N20.25 max.
Chromium-nickel-austenitic, nonhardenable
301 0.15 max. 2.0 1.0 16.0/18.0 6.0/8.0
302 0.15 max. 2.0 1.0 17.0/19.0 8.0/10.0
3028 0.15 max. 2.0 2.0/3.0 17.0/19.0 8.0/10.0
303 0.15 max. 2.0 1.0 17.0/19.0 8.0110.0 SO.15min.
303Se 0.15 max. 2.0 1.0 17.0/19.0 8.0/10.0 Se 0.15 min.
304 0.08 max. 2.0 1.0 18.0/20.0 8.0112.0
304L 0.03 max. 2.0 1.0 18.0/20.0 8.0112.0
305 0.12 max. 2.0 1.0 17.0/19.0 10.0/13.0
308 0.08 max. 2.0 1.0 19.0/21.0 10.0/12.0
309 0.20 max. 2.0 1.0 22.0/24.0 12.0/15.0
309S 0.08 max. 2.0 1.0 22.0/24.0 12.0/15.0
310 0.25 max. 2.0 1.50 24.0/26.0 19.0/22.0
310S 0.08 max. 2.0 1.50 24.0/26.0 19.0/22.0
314 0.25 max. 2.0 1.5/3.0 23.0/26.0 19.0/22.0
316 0.08 max. 2.0 1.0 16.0/18.0 10.0/14.0 Mo 2.013.0
316L 0.03 max. 2.0 1.0 16.0/18.0 10.0/14.0 Mo 2.013.0
317 0.08 max. 2.0 1.0 18.0/20.0 11.0115.0 Mo 3.0/4.0
321 0.08 max. 2.0 1.0 17.0/19.0 9.0/12.0 n 5 x C min.
347 0.08 max. 2.0 1.0 17.0/19.0 9.0/13.0 Cb + TalO x C min.
348 0.08 max. 2.0 1.0 17.0/19.0 9.0113.0 Ta 0.10 max.
Chromium-martensitic, hardenable
403 0.15 max. 1.0 0.5 11.5/13.0
410 0.15 max. 1.0 1.0 11.5/13.5
414 0.15 max. 1.0 1.0 11.5/13.5 1.25/2.5
416 0.15 max. 1.25 1.0 12.0/14.0 S 0.15 min.
416Se 0.15 max. 1.25 1.0 12.0/14.0 Se 0.15 min.
420 Over 0.15 1.0 1.0 12.0114.0
431 0.20 max. 1.0 1.0 15.0/17.0 1.2512.5
440A 0.60/0.85 1.0 1.0 16.0/18.0 Mo 0.75 max.
4408 0.75/0.95 1.0 1.0 16.0/18.0 Mo 0.75 max.
440C 0.95/1.2 1.0 1.0 16.0/18.0 Mo 0.75 max.
Chromium-ferritic, nonhardenable
405 0.08 max. 1.0 1.0 11.5/14.5 Al 1.1/0.3
430 0.12 max. 1.0 1.0 14.0/18.0
430F 0.12 max. 1.25 1.0 14.0/18.0 S 0.15 min.
4308e 0.12 max. 1.25 1.0 14.0/18.0 Sa 0,15 min,
446 0.20 max. 1.50 1.0 23.0/27.0 N 0.25 max, .
Martensitic'
501 Over 0.10 1.0 1.0 4.0/6,0
502 0,10 max. 1.0 1.0 4.0/6.0
'Chrornlmum-mOlybdenum steel, not stainless..
at el vated temperatures. Grain growth occurs at about er tbe cluctiUty, toughness, and corrosionresistal'lCe at '
1,600t!lF(871 PC) and increases rapidly at higher temper- the weld .. For heavier sections a preh at of .400PF .
atUt; s.The lower hromlum types show tendencies (204 PC) iii heneflcla], '1'0restore full orrosion reslstan e
tOWard harderUng with a resulting martensttic type and improve dllCtility Mier welding, annealing at 1,00
.Stnr(:tu:re at grdin boundadesof the weld .area.Ulis low- to l,500 Fc7,60 to 8H5QC),follQ~cd by a Water9r!"~t: .
P
, f' ' - ~ _"" -

,~ ,
quench, is recommended. Large grain size will still pre- steels are susceptible to embrittlement if used for prer
vail, however, and toughness may be impaired. Tough- longed periods at elevated temperatures.
ness can be improved only by cold working such as The physical and mechanical properties of the du-
peening the weld. If heat treating after welding is not plex stainless steels affect welding. The yield strength is
possible and service demands impact resistance, an typically about double that of type 316L, and the tensile
austenitic stainless steel filler metal should be used. Oth- properties are considerably higher .than standard
erwise, the filler metal is selected to match the base austenitic grades.The thermal conductivity of duplex stain-
metal. less is approximately half that of carbon steels, but about
25% more than most austenitic stainless steels. The coeffi-
cient of thermal expansion of the duplex stainless steel is
Martensitic Stainless Steels approximately the same as carbon steel,and about 40% lesS
The martensitic stainless steels are hardenab1e by heat than that of the austenitic stainless steels. Duplex stainless
treatment and are magnetic.The low-carbon types can be steels are magnetic. Because of these factors, duplex stain-
welded without special precautions.The types with over less steels are easier to weld than austenitic stainless steels.
0.15% carbon tend to be air hardenable and, therefore, The normal arc welding processes, shielded metal
preheat and postheat of weldments are required. A pre- arc, gas tungsten are, gas metal arc, plasma arc, and sub-
heat temperature range of 450 to 550°F (232 to 288°C) is merged arc welding can all be used. In addition, electron
recommended. Postheating should immediately follow beam and laser welding are used, as well as resistance
welding and be in the range of 1,200 to 1,400°F (649 to welding. The joint details can be the same as those em-
760°C), followed by slow cooling. ployed for austenitic stainless steels. The welding param-
If preheat and postheat are not possible, an eters would be essentially the same. Preheat should not
austenitic stainless steel filler metal should be used. Type be used and the interpass temperature should not exceed
416Se is the free-rnachmtng composition and should not 0
300 F (150° C). Heat input should be on the low side. Sur-
be welded. Welding processes that tend to increase car- face cleanliness is a must when welding duplex stainlese
bon pickup are not recommended. Increased carbon con- steels. It is necessary to eliminate any source of hydrogen
tent increases crack sensitivity in the weld area. in the welding operation. For the gas-shielded processes,
particularly on pipe, argon purge gas should be used.
The filler metals to be used for welding duplex
Duplex Stainless Steels stainless steels should approximately match or over-
A new class of stainless steels has been developed that match the base metal composition. Filler metal and elec-
combines the best properties of austenitic and ferrittc trodes are available to match each of the three grades.
stainless steels.They combine the ductility and corrosion Normally, there is no need for a postweld heat treatment.
resistance of the austenitic types and 'Strength and resis- It is essential that thorough cleaning, chemical or me-
tance to corrosion cracking of the ferrittc types. The chanical, be used after welding.
name duplex indicates that th ir characteristic micro- The selection f the filler metal alloy for welding
structure is typically 50% ferrite and 50% austenite.This is the stainless steels is ba sed on the composition of the
clone by the adjustment of the chromium and nickel con- stainless steel.The various stainless steel filler metal alloys
tents and by the addition of nitrogen or copper to stabi- (Table 16-7) are normally available as co ered electrodes
lize the austenite. Duplex stainless steels are widely used and as bare solid wires. Flux-cored electrode wires are
by the petrochemical, pulp and paper, and oil and gas in- available for welding most stainless steels.(S) .
dustries. One of the major uses is for pipe and tubing sys- Table 16-8 gives the recommended filler metal al-
tems, This is to provtd better corrosion resistance to loy for welding the various stainless steel base metals.The
sulfuric a id corrosion and better r sistance to pitting in table also shows some alternate alloys.Alternates are pro·
seawater and to provide good resistance to stress corro- vid d be ause til re are so many different stainless steel
sion cracking in th se types of nvtronments. types, but not electrodes of each type. It is possible to
There are rhre basic classes bas d on th perc nt weld several differ nt stainless base metals with the same .
hromtum: the 1.8%,22%, and 25% chromium-containing fill r metal alloy.
alloys s ASTMA789 for '11 mtcal rcqulremen s) Some For SMAW;there are three typ s of ele trode coat-
are nttrogen cPl1tainmg,. which improv s mechi ~ical ings.The lim type is indicated by the st.lffi:g15, the tjt'a·
properties andprovidee better resistan 'C to general cor-- nia type is deSignated by the sufftx 16, and the new type
rosion '~ndpitting. Some containsmall amounts of cop- is indicated by rne suffix 17.The 17 classification is a tita~
.per, whf b,. p 0010res better. '(wl'oSion resistan in nta type with . Illca replacing om, urania to provide a
:polluted seawater and improved resistance to sulfur! tru spray tl'ansf, r,The lim type (215 is used on D·CEP
a, id dit'osion, as well as 11igh me 'hartical prol crti.C .The only. 'TIl , titanla types are used withAC or DCEP.The type
dnpl(,.'X alJoys His h~ve ~ n uch low r carbon level thrm 15 produces a <';OlW weld (It1Q ~Ulbe 1.1 ed in all post-
.l'egll;la~.stay.'l.les$.st~l,om.postHol;lS.Th dupl x stainless ti J1 • The typ~ 1 pr duces w Ids that are smooth and
TABLE 16-7 STAINLESS
STEELFILLERMET.AL
ALLOYS
(FROMREFERENCE
9)
Typical Composition (%)
AWS
Class C Cr Ni Mo Mn Si 'Others
E308 0.08 19.5 10.5 2.5 0.90

E308L 0.04 19.5 10.5 2.5 0.90
E309 0.15 23.5 13.5 2.5 0.90
E309Cb 0.12 23.5 13.5 2.5 0.90 Cb + Ti - 0.85
E309Mo 0.12 23.5 13.5 2.5 2.5 0.90
E310 0.20 26.5 21.5 2.5 0.75
E310Cb 0.12 26.5 21.5 2.5 0.75 Cb + Ti - 0.85
E310Mo 0.12 26.5 21.5 2.5 2.5 0.75
E312 0.15 30.0 9.0 2.5 0.90
E316 0.08 18.5 12.5 2.5 2.5 0.90
E316L 0.04 18.5 12.5 2.5 2.5 0.90
E317 0.08 19.5 13.0 3.5 2.5 0.90
E318 0.08 18.5 12.5 2.5 2.5 0.90
E320 0.07 20.0 34.0 2.5 2.5 0.60
E330 0.25 15.5 35.0 2.5 0.90
E347 0.08 19.5 10.0 2.5 0.90
E410 0.12 12.5 0.60 1.0 0.90
E430 0.10 16.5 0.60 1.0 0.90
Note: Remainder is iron.
uniform with a profile that is flat to slightly convex and be used on thinner materials. In this case, CO2 shielding or
can. be used in all positions. The type 17 provides spray the 25% CO2 plus 75% argon mixture is used. The argon-
transfers in the flat and horizontal positions. It provides a oxygen mixture can also be used with small-diameter elec-
~mooth weld with a concave profile. Diameters up to and trode wires. With extra-low-carbon electrode wires and
tncIuding 5/32 in. can be used in all positions. The proce- CO2 shielding the amount of carbon pickup will increase
dure schedule for using the SMAW process is given in sHghtly,This should be related to the service Hfe of the
Table 16-9.The width of weaving should be limited to 2Ji weldrnent, If corrosion resistance is a major factor, the CO2
times the diameter of the electrode core wire. gas or the CO2-argon mixture should not be used.
Covered electrodes for SMAW must be stored at Stainless steel can be welded with the submerged
normal room temp raturesin dry areas. These electrodes arc welding process. In this case, the. electrode wire
are of the low-hydrogen type and are susceptible to mois- would be the same as shown In the selection guide table.
ture pickup. Once the electrode box has been opened, The submerged arc flux must be selected for stainless
the electrode$ should be kept i11 a dry box until used. If steel welding.
the electrodes are' exposed to moisture, they should be For all welding operations, the weld area should be
r Conditioned In accordance w:ith procedures that were cleaned and free from aU foreign material, oil, paint, dirt,
presented in Chapter 13. and so on. The welding arc should be as short as possible
, Th GTAW process is widely used for thinner sec- when using any of the arc processes.
tlon of stainless steel. 'Ole 2% thoriated tungsten. is rec-
ommended, f nd the electrode should be ground to a
taper. Argoll is normally used for gas shielding; however, Problem Areas
argon.-helium mtxtur s are sometimes used for auto- The mo t eli us problem when welding stainless
mati appu ations. Ta.ble 16-10' show the welding pro- steels is avoidlng carbide pr: Ipltatton, As mentloned
c dure s 'hedule for the GTAW process for stainless steel, pr Viously, this may occur when th mat rial Is held at
The GMAW process is widely used fur .thicker mate" . a hlghtempetature fQr a,long period. Elec·t,t'od s con-
~S.Th - spray tJ:'ansfer mode ts used tor flat*position, weld- tauung extra .low arbon, ludiC. ted> by .,.die: ,~ujfix1;,
lng a:tldtIlls requires the use of argonfor shielding with 2% should be .used.Most lectrodes are, stabiUied wit~
r 5% oxygen or pectal mixtures. The oxygen helps pr colurnblum or tttannrm. This also helps to nlil1i1l1l~ til
OUce bett r wetting' action on the edges of the w ld and arbide pfecjpta~i()n probl ,111, b scared Unit Iy re-
~t biliz the arc. Table 1 -11 shows the welding ptoce* quil' cl when the weldJuent wJll be, ~lbjet d' to high
nr heduI for M,A"W; The sbort<ir<:\titing ttansfir can .temperattlre Setvi~' ,
\
FILLERMETALS
FORSTAINLESS
STEELS
(USEE ORR PREFIX)
Recommended Filler Metal

AISI No, First Choice Second Choice Popular Name Remarks
Cr-Ni-Mn
201 308 308l Substitute for 301
202 308 308l Substitute for 302
301 308 308l
302 308 308l
3028 308 309 High silicon
303 Free machining, welding not recommended, 312
303Se Free machining, welding not recommended, 312
Cr-N i-austen itic
304 308 308l 18/8
304l 308l 347 18/8 Elc Extra low carbon
305 308
308 308 19/9
309 309 25/12
309S 309 low carbon
310 310 25/20
310S 310 low carbon
314 310
316 316 309Cb 18/12 Mo
316l 316l 309Cb 18/12 Elc Extra low carbon
317 317 309Cb 19/14 Mo
321 347 308l
347 347 308l 19/9 Cb Difficult to weld in heavy sections
348 347 19/9 CbLTa
Cr-martensitic
403 410
410 410 430 12 Cr
414 410
416 410 Use 410-15
416Se Free machining, welding not recommended
420 410 12 CrHC High carbon
431 430
440A High carbon, welding not recommended
440B High carbon, welding not recommended
440C High carbon, welding not recommended
cr-terrttlc
405 410 405Cb
430 430 309 l6Cr
430F Free machining, welding not recommended
430FSe Free machining, welding not recommended
446 309 310
501 502 5 Cr4 Mo Chrome-moly steel
502 502 -. 5 Cr4 Mo Chrome-moly steel
, . Another factor that affects the qUality of austenitic The ferrite content should not be too high or the weld-
Weld joints :ls 'the control of ferrite content in the' :mi· ment will have .lower than desired impact strength. For
. rOStrtl ture, Austenitic weld deposits may develop mi- low-temperature servtce th weld m tal should have the
cro ttl, ks durtng welding if £ trite Is.not contrclled.The ferrite in the range 4% to 6%.Tl e ferrite content of the
composition f thfUl r rn tal should b sele ted based weld deposlt depends on the composition of the ba8~
.nnw .deposit cout~rilng.a smallpercentage of ferrite. metal as well as the compesltton of.the deposited tlllet
TABLE 16-9 WELDING PROCEDURESCHEDL!LE FOR SMAW OF STAINLESS STEEL
Material Thickness Welding Current DCEP

Electrode
Gauge Fraction in. Diameter (in.) Flat Vertical Overhead
26 0.018 5
64 20-35 20-25 20-30
22 0.030 ..§._
64 30-45 30-40 30-40
'18 0.048 3
32 50-70 40-55 50-60
14 0.075 3
32 60-90 50-65 60-95
11 0.120 i 90-120 75-90 90-110
5
3
~ 0.188 32 120-150 90-110 120-140
1
"4 0.250 fs 150-200 100-125
metal. A special constitution diagram for stainless steel similar welds between different stainless steels. It calcu-
Weld metal has been designed by Schaeffler and modified lates FN by applying complex mathematical formulas. Dif-
by DeLong,oO) The diagram in Figure 16-1 relates the ferent programs are referenced in the Appendix.
nickel and chromium equivalents to lines that show the The stainless steels can be welded by resistance
percentage of ferrite.This diagram is useful for estimating welding and by many of the other specialty welding
the microstructure of the weld deposit and the filler processes. Stainless steels can also be soldered and brazed.
metal composition required to produce the prescribed
amount of ferrite in the deposit. The diagram shows how
the microstructure of the weld deposit is affected by the Removal of Weld Discoloration
alloying elements in the stainless steel, based on those of Stainless Steel
that act like nickel and those that act like chromium. The
It is sometimes difficult to remove heat discoloration from
nickel equivalent group includes nickel and the effect of
weld seams, especially on inside corners. It can be removed
carbon and manganese.The chromium equivalent group
by grinding, but this may be impractical or expensive. COO]-
includes chromium and the effect of molybdenum, sili-
mercial stalnless steel chemical cleaners are available and
con, and columbium. To estimate the microstructure of a
are widely used to clean stainless steel to prevent corrosion
depOSit, the nickel and the chromium equivalents are cal-
and contamination, and are used on food-processing equip-
CUlated using the following formulas:
ment, chemical-processing equipment, metal furniture,
nickel equiv. = %Nj + 30%C + 0.5%Mn tanks, and transportation equipment, Most systems use the
paste, which is painted on the surface, allowed to soak for
chrotmum equiv, ::::;%Cr + %Mo + 1.5%Si + 0.5%Cb
10 to 1.5 minutes, and then removed by using a stainless
The values obtained are marked on the coordinates steel wire brush. It is usually available from local supply
of the diagram and a po.int is located.The microstructure houses- Electro-chemical devices are also available for re-
at that point is the one predieted for a depo it of that moving discoloration. These devices use a cleaning solu-
CompOSition. It is possible to plot the composition of the tion and a low voltage wand to wipe over the affected area.
filler Wire and the composition of the base metals and
connect them with a line; a re ulting weld would be
al ng this line. By the use of the Schaeffler-Del.ong dla-
gratll, it is possibl to select a tiller metal that will avotd 16-4 WELDING ULTRAI-IIGH-
~eflite or martensite in the stainless steel weld deposlr.
I'he diagram can also be used to predict weld deposit
STRENGTH STEELS
Composition when welding dissimilar stainless steels. (11 TIl term high-strrmgtb ste,(£!lis often applied to all ste Is
Instrum.ents ate available to measure the delta ferrite on-' other than mild' low-carbon steels, The steels under dls-
t nCof austentuc stainless steel weld metal. cussion in thjs section ar those that have a yi 1 t str ngth
Numerous computet software programs based on of at least 80,000 p8i552 MPn). These are som tim 's
the Constitution dtagrams for stainless steel w ld metal alled the ult'l'ahi.gb-strertBfhsteels or super alloys.
~.re available. These can be used to 1'1' eli 't the weld de- The gio,"lpsof steels tharfall tnto this category at~;·
Po, it posiUon with differellt welding procedur . when.
1. M dium-csrbon low- noy hardenable st els
'W tcling dtf~ rent stainl ss steel '. One program assists in
the s 1 etten of electrod s for welding stainl 58 ~t el. It 2. Medium-alloy hard ~~tbl· r tool and die steels
'Us'8 the S haeftlet.DeLong diagrams to aIetllate ferrit 3. High- Boy h~l'd nabl ~st el'
P r enrage and oumber.(l'N).lt is used for ,oroplex dis. 4.·. High-nicket nia1~gtng s:t~ Is
TABLE 16--10 WELDINGPROCEDlJRfSCHEDULEFOR GTAW OF STAINLFSSSTEEL
Tungsten Nozzle
Material Thickness Electrode Filler Rod Size, Welding Travel
(or Fillet Size) Diameter Diameter Inside Shielding Current Number Speed
Diameter Gas Flow (amps of per Pass
Gauge In. mm Type of Weld in. mm in. mm (in .) (ft3/hr) DCEN) Passes (in.lmm)
-------
24 Square groove 0.040 1.0 1
iii 1.6 1
"4 10 20-50 1 26
1
18 Square groove 1
Y6 1.6 1
16 1.6 "4 10 50-80 1 22
'I
16
'
In. 0.062 1.6 Square groove 1
16 1.6 1
16 1.6 1
"4 12 65-105 1 12
1~ In, 0,062 1.6 Fillet 1
Til 1.6 1
16 1.6 1
:;- 12 75-125 1 10
'j
1" In.
,
0.093 2,4 Square groove 1
1B 1.6 3
32 2,4 1
"4 12 85-125 1 12
1~ in. 0.093 2,4 Fillet 1
16 1.6 3
32 2.4 1
'4 12 95-135 1 10
kin. 0.125 3.2 Square groove 1
T6 1.6 3
32 2.4 2.
16 15 100-135 1 12
n'in. 0.125 3.2 Fillet 1
16 1.6 :& 2.4 5
16 15 115-145 1 10
fll in. 0.188 4.8 Square groove 3
32 2.4 8
1
3.2 ft 15 150-225 1 10
fil in. 0.188 4.8 Fillet 1
1i 3.2 8
1
3.2 ~ 18 175-250 1 8
1 '
.; In. 0.25 6.4 V-groove 1
B 3,2 3
16 4.8 i 18 225-300 2 10
lin. 0.25 6.4 Fillet B
1
3.2 fli 4.8 3
8 18 225-300 2 10
~ in. 0.375 95 V-groove 3
Hi 4.8 3
16 4.8 1
2' 25 220-350 2-3 10
3 '
li In. 0.379 9.5 Fillet 3
16 4.8 3
4.8 1
2' 25 250-350 3 10
1.
2 In. 0.05 12.7 V-grcove 4.8
,
16
'4 6.4 1
2' 25 250-350 3 10
1~
~ in. 0.50 12.7 Fillet fa 4.8 1

4 6.4 1
2' 25 250-350 3 10
Notes: 1. Increase amperage when backup is used.
2, Data are for flat position, Reduce amperage 10%--20% when welding is horizontal, vertical, or overhead position.
3. For tungsten electrodes: first choice, 2% thoriated EWTh2; second choice. 1% thoriated EWTh 1.
4. Argon is used for shielding. TIle 75% helium--25% argon mixture is used for heavier thickness.
TABLE 16-11 WELDING PROCEDURE SCHEDULE FOR GMAW OF STAINLESS STEEL
, ,
Electrode Welding Power Travel

Diameter
in"
u
~- mm
Current
(A DC)
Arc Volts
EP
Wire Feed
. Speed
(in./min)
Shielding
Gat} Flow
(ft3/hr)
Number
of
Passes
Speed
per Pass
(in.lmin)
0.063 1.6 Square groove and fillet 0.035 0.9 60-100 15-18 90-190 12-15 1 15-30
0,093 2.4 Square groove and fillet 0,035 0.9 125-150 18-21 230-280 12-15 1 20-30
13
0.045 1.1 125-150 18-21 130-160 20-30
11 0.125 3.2 Square groove and fillet 0.035 0.9 130-160 19-24 250-280 12-15 1 20-25
0.045 1.1 150-225 19-24 160-260 20-30
If!.
,;:1 m,
'.
0.156 3,9 V~grooveand fillet 0.045 1.1 190-250 22-26 200-290 15-20 1 25-30
*N'OfeS:TIataare0.200fOr
in.
flat
6.4 v-groove and fillet 0.045
positIon, Rduee current 10%-20% for ether positions.
1.1 225~300 24-30 260-370 25-30 2 25-30
2. Gas sel0ctlon;Clrgon-.oxygen (1 % to 2% oxygen + argon) fot.Hat position and horizontal fillets.

argon~CO~(75%argofl-2 % CO?) fMall-poaitiCm, some carbon plckup ..
helilJm.-argon-CQ2 (90'%-7,5%-2.5%) for all~position welding.
c rbon dloxl (CO'2)where carbon pickup can bEltolerat d.
\
30
28
26
e 24 AUSTENITE
~
"
U'I
22
d
+
20
~
~" 18
+
16
~
•
I-
14
z
w
..J 12
<II:
>
:5 10
0
W
..J 8
w MARTENSITE
lot
U
Z 6
oL---~~~~--~--~~~~~---L---L __ J_ __ ~ __ ~ __ ~ __ L-~~-J __ ~ __ ~ __ -L __ ~
a 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
CHROMIUM EaUlvALENT" %Cr + %Mo + 1.6 x %Si + 0.6 x %Cb
Examplll; Point X on the di;Jgramindicate. the equivalent. When thesewere plotted ... point X. 309 ce. 310. 312. 316. 317. 318 (316 Cb). and
equivalent composition of a type 318 (316 CO) the constitution of the weld was indicated as aus- 347.
weld deposit containing 0.07 C. 1.55 Mn. 0.57 Si. tenite plus from 0 to 5% ferrite; m;Jgnetican.ly- Dashedline is the martensite/M + F boundary
18.02 Cr. 11.87 Ni. 2.16 Mo. 0.80 Cb. Each of sis of the actual $IImpierevealedan Iver. modification by Eberhard Leinhos,"Mechanische
thKe percent.get was multiplied by the "poteney ferrite content of 2%. Eigenschaften und Gefugeausblldung von mit
factor" indieated for the element in question For ultenite·pluI·ferrite structures, th~ dill- Chrom und Nickel legiertem Sehweissgut." VE8
,long the axesof the di;Jgram,in order to deter- gram predicts the pereentageferrite within 4% Deutscher Verlag fiir Grundstoffindustrie.
mine the chromium equivalent and the nickel for the following stainlesssteels: 308. 309, Leipzig. 1966.
FIGURE 16-1 Constitution diagram for stainless steel weld metal. (From Metal Progress Data Book, @American Society
for Meta/s, 1977.)
5. Martensitic stainless steels Flame-cut parts should be annealed before additional op-
6. Semi austenitic precipitation-hardenable stainless erations to reduce the hardness of the flame-cut edges.
steels Welding is usually done on these steels when they
are in the annealed or normalized condition. They are
Each of these groups will be briefly described and weld- then heat treated to obtain the desired strength. The gas
ing information will be presented. Nominal compositions tungsten arc, the gas metal arc, the shielded metal arc, and
of steels in each of these groups is shown in Table 16-12. the gas welding process are all used for welding these
steels. The composition of the filler metal is designed to
Medium-Carbon, Low-Alloy produce a weld deposit that responds to a heat treatment
Hardenable Steels in approximately the same manner as the base metal. In
order to avoid brittleness and the possibility of cracks
The best known steels in this class are th AISI 4130 and
during welding, relatively high preheat and interpass
AlSr 41 0 steels.Also in this clas s are the higher-strength temperatures are used. Preheating is on the order of
AISI 4340 steel and the AMS 6434 steel. These steels Ob~\ 600°F (316°C). Complex weldments are heat treated im-
taln their hIgh st;ren.gth by heat. treatment to a fullmarten- I
mediately after welding.
sitie microstructure, which is tempered to improve
Aircraft engine mounts, aircraft tubular frames, and
dUctility and toughness, Tempertng temperatures greatly
racing Cal' frames are made from AISI 4130 tubular sec-
affect til strength levels of'th se steels. The carbon is in
tions. These types of structures are normally not beat
the medium range and as low as possible but sufficient to
treated after welding.
gi e the required str ngth ..htl.puriti s ar k pt to an ab-
~olutenll:nimum because of bJgh·qualltymeJtin.g and reo
·'f1tlJ:ngmetho9s;Tliesestelsre avaUnbleas sheets, bars, Medium ..Alloy Hardenable Steels
and
tu11ing; Ught plat(~.The steel~ in this group can be me· The$e steels are used largely in the aircraft industry for
ch:micaJly 'cut 01' flam Cllt. However, wh n tbey are ultra-high-strengtb S~ttlctl.1l'~~l
<lppHcations. They have car-
/ , ...fla1l}~\lkt~Y
'. "i: _
Jl).t1stbe,pr~heatect to 600 F (316 C). Q Q
bon in the lbw to meclt\:lJlll~nge'atld possess good irae-
TABLE16-12 NOMINAL
COMPOSITION
OFULTRAHIGH~STRENGTH
STEELS.
Composition (wt %)
Designation C Mn Si Cr Ni Mo Other
Medium-carbon low-alloy hardenable steels

AISI4130 0.28/0.33 0.40/0.60 0.20/0.35 0.80/1.10 0.15/0.25
AISI4140 0.38/0.43 0.75/1.0 0.20/0.35 0.80/1.10 0.15/0.25
AISI4340 0.38/0.43 0.60/0.80 0.20/0.35 0.70/0.90 1.65/2.00 0.20/0.30
AMS 6434 0.3110.38 0.60/0.80 0.20/0.35 0.65/0.90 1.65/0.90 0.30/0.40 0.17/0.23V
Medium-alloy hardenable or tool and die steels
5Cr-Mo-V 0.37/0.43 0.20/0.40 0.8011.20 4.75/5.25 1.2011.40 0.4/0.6V
aircraft steel
H-11 tool steel 0.30/0.40 0.20/0.40 0.8011.20 4.75/5.50 1.25/1.75 0.30/0.50V
H-13 tool steel 0.30/0.40 0.20/0.40 0.8011.20 4.75/5.50 1.25/1.75 0.80/1.20V
High-alloy hardenable steels
HP 9-4-20 0.20 0.30 0.10 max. 0.75 9.0 0.75 O.OlS,O.OlP,
0.10V,4.50Co
HP 9-4-30 (Cr, Mo) 0.30 0.20 0.10 max. 1.00 7.5 1.00 O.OlS,O.OlP,
0:10V,4.50Co
High-nickel maraging steels
18Ni 0.03 max. 0.10 max. 0.10 max. 18.0 3.25 O.OlS,O.OlP,
8.5Co, 0.2011,
O.lOAI
8.0Co, 0.4011,
0.10AI
9.0Co, 0.6511,
O.lOAI
18Ni 0.01 max. 0.10 max. 0.10 max. 17.5 3.75 O.OlS,O.OIP,
12.5Co, 1.8011,
0.15AI
Martensitic stainless steels
AISI420 0.15 max. 1.0 max. 1.0 max. 13
AISI431 0.20 max. 1.0 max. 1.0 max. 16 2.0
12Mo-V 0.25 '0.5 0.5 12 0.5 1.0 0.3V
17-4PH 0.07 max. 1.0 max. 1.0 max. 16.5 4.0 4.0Cu, 0.3Cb
PH13-8Mo 0.05 max. 0.1 max. 0.1 max. 12.5 8.0 2.5 1.1AI
Pyromet X-15 0.03 max. 0.1 0.1 max. 15 2.9 20.0Co
Custom 455 0.05 max. 0.5 max. 0.5 max. 12 8.5 0.5 2.0Cu,0.3Cb,
LIT!
AFC 77 0.15 14.5 5.0 4.0Cu, 13.5Co,
O.5V,0.5N
Semiaustenitic ptecipitation-hardenable stainless steels
17-7PH 0.09 max. 1.0 max. 1.0 max. 17.0 7.0 l.OAI
PH15-7Mo 0.09 max. 1.0 max. 1.0 max. 15.0 7.0 2.5 1.1AI
PH14-8Mo 0.05 max. 0.1 max. 0.1 max. 15.0 8.5 2.5 1.OAI
AM 350 0.12 max. 0.90 0,5 max. 16.5 4.5 3.0 O,ION
AM 355 0.15 max. 0.95 0.5 15.5 4.5 3.0 O.09N
ture toughness at high strength levels. III addition, they names for other steels in this class.The steels area:v\lilable
are air hardened, which reduces the distortion that is en- as forging billet~,bars, sheet, strip, and plate, '...", ...
COUntered with more drastic quenching methods. Some . Another type of steel' tlf111is genetal(4~.~s;a'J:ne<t{l.11l1~··
of the steels in thts group are known as hot work die alloy quenched and tempered steel,is known as htg1!l~
Steels, and another grade has become known as yf,eld or HY 130/150, This type of steel is used tot.
5Cr...Mo_ V aircraft qutlh'ty steel./fhereare proprietary submru.:infts.a,«J,'ospa~eal?Pticatipns)·and pressure ·ve~$el$j :...
" ··c
and is normally available as plate. This steel has good times called the 9% Ni-4% Co steels. These steels also
notch toughness properties at OaFand below. These types contain small amounts of other alloys. They are normally
of steels have much lower carbon than the grades men- welded in the quenched and tempered condition by the
tioned previously. gas tungsten arc welding process. No postheat treatment
When flame cutting or welding the aircraft quality is required.The filler metal must match the analysis of the
steels, preheating is absolutely necessary since the steels base metal.
are air hardening.A preheat of 600°F (316°C) is used be-
fore flame cutting and then annealed immediately after
the flame cutting operation. This will avoid a brittle layer High-Nickel Maraging Steels
at the flame-cut edge, which is susceptible to cracking. This type of steel has a relatively high nickel content but
This type of steel should only be welded in the annealed is a low-carbon steel. It obtains its high strength from a
condition.The steel should be preheated to 600°F (316°C), special heat treatment called maraging. These steels
and this temperature must be maintained throughout the possess an extraordinary combination of ultra high-
welding operation. After welding, the work must be strength and fracture toughness and at the same time are
cooled slowly.This can be done by postheating or by fur- formable, weldable, and easy to heat treat. There are three
nace cooling. The weldment is then stress relieved at basic types: the 18% nickel, the 20% nickel, and the 25%
1,300oP (704°C) and air cooled to obtain a fully tempered nickel types. These steels are available in sheet, forging
microstructure suitable for additional operations. It is billets, bars, strip, and plate. Some are available as tubing.
usually annealed, after all welding is done, prior to final The extra-special properties of these steels are ob-
heat treatment. The filler metal should be of the same tained by heating the steel to 900°F (482°C) and allowing
composition as the base metal. The gas tungsten arc and it to cool to room temperature, During this heat treatment
gas metal arc processes are most widely used. However, all of the austenite transforms to martensite, which is of
shielded metal arc welding, plasma arc, and electron the very tough massive type. The time at the 900°F tem-
beam welding processes can be used. perature is extremely important and usually is in the range
The medium-alloy quenched and tempered high- of three hours. The steels derive their strength while ag-
yield strength steels are usually welded with the shielded ing at this temperature in the martensitic condition and
metal arc, gas metal arc, or the submerged arc welding for this reason are known as maraging steels.
process. The filler metal must provide deposited metal of These steels are supplied in the soft or annealed
a strength level equal to the base material. In all cases, a condition. They can be cold worked in this condition and
low-hydrogen or no-hydrogen process is required. For can be flame cut or plasma arc cut. Plasma arc cutting is
shielded metal arc welding the low-hydrogen electrodes preferred.These steels are usually welded by the gas tung-
of the E-13018 type are recommended. Electrodes must sten arc or the GMAW process. The shielded metal arc and
be properly stored. In the case of the other processes, pre- submerged arc process can also be used with special
cautions should be taken to make sure that the gas is dry electrode-flux combinatlons.The filler metal should have
and that the submerged arc flux is dry. By employing the the same composltton as the base metal. In addition, the
proper heat input-heatoutput procedure, yield strength filler metal must be of high purity with low carbon. Pre-
and toughness are maintained. Preheating should be at heat or po theat is not required; however, the welding
least 100PP (38°C) for thinner matertals and double that must be followed by the maraging heat treatment, which
for heavier mat rials.The heat input should be such that produces weld joints of an extremely high strength.
the adjacent base metal does not become overheated. The
heat input is sufficient to maintain the proper micro-
structure in the heat-affected zone. There may be some Martensitic Stainless Steels
softening ln me Intermtxlng zone. The properties of These steels are of the straight chromium type, essentially
w lded joints that are properly made will be in. the same theAISI 420 classiflcatton.These steels contain 12% to 14%
order as the base metal. Subsequent heat treating is U8t1"\ chromium and up to 0.35% carbon. This composition
.uUy not required o.r desired. \ comblnes corrosion resistance with high strength, Numer-
ous variations of this basic composition are available, all of
which are ill the martensitic classification.This type of steel
High· Alloy Hardenable Steels has been used for compressor and turbin blades of jet en-
Tl1esteels in this group develop high strength by stan- gines and for other applications in which moderate corro-
dard harde11ing and t mpenng heat trearm nts.Tne steels sion resistance and high strength are required.The strength
possess extf 'm~ly big~ strength in the range of 180,000 level of these steels is obtained by a quenching and tem-
'.psi }:1.~ldand: nave 'a:hi~b de ree of toughness. Thi,s Is ob- '. pering heat treatment.They can be obtained as sheet, striP,
talne(l ;with a nllnimum. carbon content usually in the mbullg, and plate.The compositions are also used for cast-
mngt ·.of 0, 20%; however, these steels contain relatively ings. These steels can be heat treated to strengths as bigh
(Jugh ainq~$,tsof nickel and c.<>balt,and they are some- 3$ 250,090 psi (175 kg/m.m~ yield)ltrength. .
These stainless steels can be flame cut by the powder They are also called precipitation-hardening (PH) steels.
cutting system normally used for flame cutting stainless The heat treatment for these steels is based on heating the
steels. TIley can also be cut with the oxyarc process. Plame annealed material to a temperature of 1,700 to 1,750°F
cutting should be done with the steel in the annealed con- (927 to 954°C) followed by a tempering or aging treat-
dition. Most grades should be preheated to 600°F (316°C) ment in the range 850 to 1, 100°F (454 to 593°C).Tbese
because they are air hardenable. TIley should be annealed steels are available as billets, sheet, tubing, and plate.
after cutting to restore softness and ductility. These materi- These steels are normally not flame cut. WeJding is
als can also be cold worked in the annealed condition, performed using the gas tungsten arc or the gas metal arc
The martensitic stainless steels can be welded in the welding process. The shielded metal arc welding process
annealed or fully hardened condition, usually without pre- is not used. The filler metal should have the same com-
heat.The GTAWand GMAW processes are normally used. position as the base metal. No preheat is required if the
The filler metal must be of the same analysis as the base parts are welded in the annealed condition. Following
metal. Following welding the weldment should be anwelding it should be annealed and then heat treated to
nealed and then heat treated to the desired strength level. develop optimum strength Jevels.
It is possible to weld the PH steels in the heat-treated
Semiaustenitic Precipitation-Hardenable condition using an arc welding process. However, there is
a loss of joint strength due to heating of the heat-affected
Stainless Steels
zone above the aging temperature. In view of this, it is not
The steels in this group are chrome-nickel steels that are possible to produce a 100% efficient joint. EXtrareinforcing
dUctile in the annealed condition but can be hardened to must be used to develop full-strength joints. These steels
high strength by proper heat treatment. In the annealed are also brazed using a wide range of filler metal alloys.
Condition the steels are austenitic and can be readily cold When welding on any of these high-strength steels,
Worked. By special heat treatment the austenite is trans- weld quality must be of the highest degree. Root fusion
formed to martensite and later a precipitant is formed in must be complete, and there should be no undercut or any
the martensite. The outstanding extra-high strength is type of stress risers. The weld metal should be free of
obtained by a combination of these two hardening porosity and any weld cracking is absolutely unacceptable.
processes. The term semiaustenittc type was given these All precautions must be taken to produce the highest weld
Steels to distinguish them from normal stainless steels. quality Arc strikes should be the basis for rejection.
QUESTIONS
What is the maximum carbon content for low-carbon 16·u. What are the advantages of quenched and tempered
steels? steels for construction equipment?
16-2. Why are the free-machining steels difficult to weld? 16-12. Why Is heat input important when welding
16·3. Can the E60XX and E70XX electrodes be used to quenched and tempered steels?
weld all carbon and mild steels? 16·13. What are the three types of stainless steel? Are any
16·4. What is the Significance of the covered electrode magnetic? Which?
class suffix letter? 16-14. Why Is the welding of austenitic stainless steel dtffer~
16-5. Why can a cellulosic electrode be used to weld ent from mild steel?
plpelines made of high-strength steels? 16.15. Are the stainless steel covered electrodes of the low-
16·6. How is the electrode class suffix lett r used to select hydrogen type? Why?
electrodes for alloy steels? 16-16. What is a.duplex stainless steel?
16·7. How are the first two COL' three) digits useful in se- 16·17. What use is made of the Schaeffle» dtagr'am?
lecting electrodes for alloy steels? 16-18. Can any of theultrahigh-strength steels be welded af..
16-8. What are weathering steels? Name two popular ter heat treatment?
brands.
16·19. What is maraglng steel? What processes at used for
16·9. Why is carbon-moly steel sele ted for high- welding?
temperature service? How i it welded?
16·20.· What is II PH sted? Can it be welde<J With SMAW?
16·10. What is the a lvantage of high-nickel steel f01" low-
temperature servtcez How is it welded?
REFERENCES
1. "Steel Products Manual," American Iron and Steel Insti- 7. "Recommended Practices for Welding of Chromium-
tute, New York. Molybdenum Steel Piping and Tubing," AWS D10.8,
2. "Specifications for Low Alloy Steel Covered Arc Welding American Welding Society, Miami, Fla.
Electrodes," AWS A5.5, American Welding Society, Miami, 8. "Specifications for Flux-Cored Corrosion-Resisting
Fla. Chromium and Chromium-Nickel Steel Electrodes,"AWS
3. "Specification for Low Alloy Steel Filler Metals for Gas A5.22, American Welding Society, Miami, Fla.
Shielded Arc Welding," AWSA5.28,American Welding So- 9. "Specifications for Corrosion-Resisting Chromium and
ciety, Miami, Fla. Chromium Nickel Steel Covered Welding Electrodes,"
4. "Specifications for Low AHoy Steel Electrodes for Flux AWSA5.4, American Welding Society, Miami, Fla.
Cored Arc Welding," AWS A5.29,American Welding Soci- 10. A. L. Schaeffler, "Constitution Diagram for Stainless Steel
ety, Miami, Fla. Weld Metal," Metal Progress Data Book, American Soci-
5. Robert Irving, "Micro Alloying the Route to Stronger, ety for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, Mid-June 1977.
Tougher Steels," Iron Age (February 16,1983). 11. C. Long and W. DeLong, "The Ferrite Content of
6. "Selecting Welding Wire for HSLA Steels," Fabricator Austenitic Stainless Steel Weld Metal," Welding Journal,
(May-June 1984). Research Supplement Guly 1973).
'-"'\ \
OUTLINE
TABLE17-1 DESIGNATION OF ALUMINUM ALLOY GROUPS
17-1 Aluminumand Aluminum Alloys
17-2 Copper and .copper~Base~J.]oys
17- 3 Magneslum-Base Alloys 99.0% minimum aluminum and over lxxx
17-4 Nickel-Base Alloys Copper 2xxx
17-; Reactive and Refractory Metal~ Manganese 3xxx
17 -6 Other Nonferrous Metals Silicon 4xxx
Magnesium 5xxx
Magnesium and silicon 6xxx
Zinc 7xxx
17-1 ALUMINUM AND Other elements Bxxx
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
The unique combination of light weight and relatively • 3XXX series. Manganese is the major alloying ele-
high strength makes aluminum the second most popular ment in this group. These alloys are non-heat-
metal that is welded. Aluminum is not difficult to join, but treatable. Manganese is limited to about 1.5%. These
aluminum welding is dlfferent from welding steels. alloys have moderate strength and are easily worked.
Many alloys of aluminum have been developed, and • 4XXX series. Silicon is the major alloying element
it is important to know which alloy is to be welded. A sys- itt this group. It can be. added in suffictent quantities
tern of four-digit numbers has been developed by the Alu- to reduce the melting paint' and is used for brazing
minum Association, Inc., and adopted by the American' allays and welding electrodes. Most of the alloys in
So iety for Testing and Materials (ASTM) to designate the this group are non-heat-treatable.
Wrought aluminum alloy types. co UNS designations are
• 5XXX series. Magnesium is the lllajor alloying ]-
also shown; this addsA9 ahead of theM number.This sys-
ernent of this group. These alloys are of medium
tenl of alloy groups (Table 17-1) is as follows:
strength. They possess good welding characteris-
• ,t...Y)(X series.These are' aluminums of 99% or .tics, good resistance to corroston, but the ~:Otrnt of
higher purity.They are used primarily in the electri- cold work should-be limited.
cal and chemical lndustries. • 6XXXseries. Alloys In this group centaln sUi on:
• 2XXX series. Copper is the principal alloy tn this and magnesium! which make them beat treatabl .
group. This group provides high strength when These alloys possess medium s~ength,arid go~d
properly heat treated. Thesealloys do not produce eorrosionresistance. '... . ... .
as good corrosion resistance and are often clad with • 7XXX series.: . ,ZinC.is the maior alloying elerll .nt ill
pure alumlnum Or special-alloy aluminum.These al- tbis group. Magnesium is also Included iI)lllmi't of
Joys are used in the aircraft indus~ry. . these' aUoys:lbgether they result in 't hetlt~trea,tahl$
alloy of high strength. This series is used for aircraft • T Thermally treated to produce stable tempers
frames. other than F, 0, or H.TheT is always followed by one
• 8XXX series. Other elements such as iron, nickel, 01' more digits as follows:
or lithium are alloying elements. • T-I Cooled from an elevated temperature shap-
ing process and naturally aged to a substantially
The composition of the wrought aluminum alloys is stable condition.
shown in Table 17-2.
• T-2 Annealed (cast products only).
Aluminum alloy casting alloys are also designated
by the AluminumAssociation. Table 17- 3 shows the nom- • T-3 Solution heat treated and then cold
inal chemical composition of casting alloys. With respect worked.
to welding, the composition is important rather than how • T-4 Solution heat treated and naturally aged to
the part was made. Castings as well as wrought forms are a substantially stable condition.
heat treated, which must be considered. Otherwise, the • T-5 Cooled from an elevated temperature shap-
welding procedures can be essentially the same. ing process and then artificially aged.
• T-6 Solution heat treated and then artificially
aged.
Temper Designation System • T-7 Solution heat treated and then stabilized.
The Aluminum Association and ASTM provide a temper • T-8 Solution heat treated and then heat treated,
designation system used for wrought and cast aluminum cold worked, and artificially aged.
alloys. It is based on the sequence of treatments to pro-
• T-9 Solution heat treated, artificially aged, and
duce various tempers. In specifying an alloy, the temper
then cold worked.
designation follows the alloy designation separated by a
dash. Basic temper designations consist of letters. Subdi- • T-IO Cooled from an elevated temperature
visions of the basic tempers, when required, are indicated shaping process, artificially aged, and then cold
by one or more digits following the letter. worked.
The basic temper designations and subdivisions are An additional digit may be used that indicates the varia-
as follows: tion and treatment that significantly alters the character-
istics of the product. For example, TX indicates stress
• F As fabricated.
relieving by some process such as stretching, compress-
• 0 Annealed, recrystallized (wrought products ing, or thermal treatment.
only); applies to the softest tempers of the wrought The temper designations are important from a
products. welding point of view since welding, which is normaUy a
• H Strain hardened (wrought products only). This thermal process, can change the characteristics of the
applies to products whose strength is increased by metal in the heat-affected zone. Care must be taken when
strain hardening with or without supplementary welding on the H,W; or T designations. Get metallurgical
treatment. The His always followed by two or more advice to determine treatment required to obtain original
digits.The ftrst digit indicates the specific combina- properties.
tion of basic operations as foUows: The different temper designations are used for dif-
• fJ~l Strain hardened only. ferent products such as sheet, plate, pipe, shapes, rod, and
e .f[*2 Stratn hardened and then partially annealed. bar. In addition, the different alloys are available incertain
types of mill products. In other words, all products are
• 1l·3 Strain hardened and then stabilized.
not available in all compositions or in all of the different
The digit following the designation H-I, H-2, and H-3 tempers.
jOd. icatesth.e final degree of strain hardcntng.Tempersbe- The heat-treatable. all.oys that contain copper or
tween 0 (annealed) and. 8 (full hard) are designated ~ zinc ate less resistant to corrosion than the non-heat-
Jll1.ffiJ;>Ct;'S 1, through 7. Numeral 2 indicates quarter hard, \ treatable alloys. To increase the corrosion resistance of
the 11tU11e11l14 indicates half hard, the numeral 6 indicates these alloys in sheet and plate, they are sometimes clad
thr e-quarters hard, and so forth. TIle numeral 91ndicates with high-purity aluminum, USually 2~% to 4% of the to-
xtra hard temper, tal thickness on each Side. These are known as (J,lcla(i
The third digit, when used, indicates a vartation of products.
the-two-dlgir H temper number,
,j·W, Sohrtton heat tr ated. This Isan unstable tern-
if
Welding Aluminum Alloys .
,.P rapplied only to HUOyS that are age hardened at Alurnlnum possesses a number of properties that make
...' room temp ratures after solutton heat treatment. welding different than welding te Is.These are:
1. Aluminum oxide surface coating This is an electrical phenomenon that actually blasts
2. High thermal conductivity away the oxide coating to produce a clean surface.This is
3. High thermal expansion coefficient one of the reasons why AC gas tungsten arc welding is so
popular for welding aluminum.
4. Low melting temperature
The oxide film will immediately start to reform.The
5. The absence of color change as temperature ap-
time of buildup is not extremely fast, but welds should be
proaches the melting point
made after aluminum is cleaned within at least 8 hours
Aluminum is an active metal and reacts with oxy- for good quality welding.
gen in the air to produce a thin hard film of aluminum ox- Aluminum conducts heat from three to five times as
ide on the surface. The melting point of aluminum oxide fast as steel, depending on the specific alloy. This means
is approximately 3,600°F (1,926°C), which is almost that more heat must be put into the aluminum even
three times the melting point of pure aluminum, 1,220°F though the melting temperature of aluminum is less than
(6600C). This aluminum oxide film, particularly as it be- half that of steel. Because of the high thermal conductiv-
comes thicker, will absorb moisture from the air. Moisture ity, preheat is often used for welding thicker sections. If
is a source of hydrogen, which is the cause of porosity in the temperature is too high or the period of time is too
aluminum welds. Hydrogen may also come from oil, long, it can be detrimental to weld joint strength in both
paint, and dirt in the weld area. In addition, it comes from heat-treated and work-hardened alloys. The preheat for
the oxide and foreign materials on the electrode or filler aluminum should not exceed 400°F (204°C), and the
Wire, as well as from the base metal. Hydrogen will enter parts should not be held at that temperature longer than
the weld pool and is soluble in molten aluminum. As the necessary. Because of the high heat conductivity, proce-
aluminum solidifies, it will retain much less hydrogen, and dures should employ higher-speed welding processes us-
the hydrogen is rejected during solidification. With a ing high heat input.
rapid cooling rate, free hydrogen is trapped in the weld The high heat conductivity of aluminum can also be
and will cause porosity; helpful, since if heat is conducted away from the weld ex-
The aluminum oxide film must be removed prior to tremely fast, the weld will solidify quickly. This, with sur-
Welding. If it is not all removed, small particles of un- face tension, helps hold the weld metal in position and
melted oxide will be entrapped in the weld and will makes all-position welding practical.
cause a reduction in ductility and lack of fusion and may The thermal expansion of aluminum is twice that of
cause weld cracking. Anodized coatings must be re- steel. In addition, aluminum welds decrease about 6% in
moved before welding. volume when solidifying from the molten state. This
The aluminum oxide can be removed by mechani- change in dimension or attempt to change dimension
cal, chemical, or electrical means. Mechanical removal in- may cause distortion and cracking.
volves scraping with a sharp tool, sandpaper, wire brush Aluminum does not exhibit color as it approaches
(stainless steel), filing, or any other mechanical method. its melting ternperature.Aluminum will show color above
Chemicall'emoval can be done in two ways. One is by use the melting point, at which time it will glow a dull reel.
of cleaning solutions, either the etching types or the When soldering or brazing aluminum with a torch, flux is
nonetching types. The nonetching types should be used used and the flux will melt as the temperature of the base
only when starting with relatively clean parts. They are metal approaches the temperature required.The flux first
Used in conjunction with other solvent cleaners. For bet- dries out and then melts as the base metal reaches the cor-
ter cleaning the etching type solutions are recommended rect working temperature, When torchwelding with oxy-
but must be used with care. When dipping is employed, acetylene or oxyhydrogen, the surfa e 'of the flux will melt
hot and cold rinsing is recommended.The etching type so- ffrst and assume a characteristic wet and shiny appear-
h,ltions are alkaline solutions.The time in the solution must ance. (This aids in knowing when welding temperatures
be controlled so that too much etching does not occur. are reached.) When welding with gas tungsten arc or gas
Chemical cleaning includes the use of welding .metal arc, color is not too important because the weld is
fluxes. Fluxes are used for gas welding, brazing, and sol- quickly completed before the adjoiningarea would melt.
dering.The coating on covered aluminum electrodes also . ' When these factors are taken into' ccnsideranoa, it
COntains fluxes for cleaning the base metal. Whenever will allow malting welded joints in aluminum with littJ
tch cleaning or flux cleaning is used, the flux and alka- or 110 more troubl than when weldlngste Is. .
line etching materials must be completely removed from With tther gasmetal arc or ga tungsten arc weld- .
. the weld area to avoid futur corrosion. Ing, the selection of filler metal is the same.The base metal
The electrical oxide removal system uses cathodic composition or allovmusrbekr own.l'abl¢~7:-~:PfoVldes·.
OOmbardment. Cathodlc ,bombardlnent occurs during the nominal composttton of the different alumitltlmfilf t
the half cycle of alternating current gas tungsten arc metals, Refer roA\VS specitlcationsJ\5.3 andA5.10 for tIe-
Welding when the electrode is positive .reverse polarity). tatls.Thes provide for oar, .olid, straightened el~ctr9de
TABLE 17--2 NOMINAl CHf:.MICAL COMPOSITION OF ALUMINUM-WROUGHT ALLOYS (COURTESY OF HiE ALUMINUM ASSOCIATION,)
Composition (%)
Others
UNS AA
Number Designation Si Mg Cr Fe
Ni Zn Ti Cu Mn Each Total (Min.)
-----,_._--_.,--------- ---------------------------------------------
1050 0.25 0.04 0,05 0,05 0,05 0,05 0.03 0.03 99.50
A91060 1060 0.25 0.35 0.05 0.05 0,03 0.05 0,03 0.03 99.60
A91100 1100 1.0 Si 1- Fe 0.05--0.20 0.05 0.10 0.05 0,15 99,00
A9J145 1145 0,55 Si + Fe 0.05 0.05 0.05 0,05 0,03 0.03 99.45
1175 0.15 Si + Fe 0.10 0.10 0,02 0,04 0.02 0.02 99,75
1200 l.0 Si + Fe 0,05 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.05 0.15 99,00
A91230 1230 0,7 Si + Fe 0.10 0.05 0.05 0.10 0,03 0.03 99.30
A91235 1235 0,65 Si + Fe 0.05 0,05 0.05 0.10 0,03 0,03 99,35
1345 0,30 0.40 0.10 0,05 0.05 0,05 0.03 0.03 99.45
]350 0.10 0.40 0.05 0.01 0.01 0.05 0,03 0.10 99.50
A92011 2011 0.40 0,7 5,0-6,0 0.30 0.05 0.15 Remainder
A92014 2014 0.50-1.2 0.7 3.9--5.0 0.40-1.2 0.20-·0.8 0.10 0.25 0.15 0.05 Remainder
A92017 2017 0.20-0.8 0.7 3,5-4.5 0.40-1.0 0.40--0.8 0.10 0.25 0.15 0.05 0.10 Remainder
A92018 2018 0.9 l.0 3.5-4.5 0.20 0.45--0.9 0.10 1.7-2.3 0.25 0,05 0.15 Remainder
A92024 2024 0.50 0.50 3.8-4,9 0.30-0.9 l.2-1.8 0.10 0.25 0.15 0.05 0.15 Remainder
A92025 2025 0.50-l.2 1.0 3.9-5.0 0.40-l.2 0.05 0.10 0.25 0,15 0,05 0.15 Remainder
2036 0.50 0.50 2.2-·3.0 0.10-0.40 0.30-0.6 0.10 0.25 0.15 0.05 0.15 Remainder
A92117 2117 0,8 0.7 2.2-3.0 0.20 0.20-0.50 0,10 0.25 0,05 0.15 Remainder
A92124 2124 0.20 0,30 3.8-4.9 0.30-0.9 1.2-1.8 0.10 0.25 0.15 0.05 0.15 Remainder
A92218 2218 0.9 1.0 3.5-4.5 0.20 l.2-1.8 0,10 l. 7-2.3 0,25 0.05 0.15 Remainder
A92219 2219 0.20 0.30 5.8-6.8 0.20-0.40 0.02 0.10 0.02-0.10 0.05 0.15 Remainder
2319 0.20 0.30 5.8-6.8 0.20-0.40 0.02 0.10 0.10-0.20 0.05 0.15 Remainder
A92618 2618 0.10-0.25 0.90-1.3 1.9-2.7 1.3-1.8 0.9-1.2 0.10 0.04-0.10 0.05 0.15 Remainder
A93003 3003 0.6 0.7 0.05-0.20 1.0-l.5 0.10 0.05 0.15 Remainder
A93004 3004 0,30 0.7 0.25 1.0-1.5 0.8-l.3 0.25 0.05 0.15 Remainder
A93005 3005 0.6 0.7 0.30 1.0-1.5 0.20-0.6 0.10 0.25 0.10 0.05 0.15 Remainder
A93105 3105 0.6 0.7 0.30 0.30-0.8 0.20-0.8 0.20 0.40 0.10 0.05 0.15 Remainder
A94032 4032 1l.0-13.5 l.0 0.50-1.3 0.10 0.8-1.3 0.10 0.50-l.3 0.25 0.05 0.15 Remainder
4043 4.5-6.0 0.8 0.30 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.05 0.15 Remainder
4045 9,0-1l.0 0.8 0.30 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.05 0.15 Remainder
4047 11.00-13.00 0.8 0.30 0.15 0.10 0.20 0.05 0.15 Remainder
4145 9.3-10.7 0.8 3.3-4.7 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.20 0.05 0.15 Remainder
4343 6.8-8.2 0.8 0.25 0.10 0.20 0.05 0.15 Remainder
4643 3.6-4.6 0.8 0.10 0,05 0.10-0.30 0.10 0.15 0.05 0.15 Remainder
A95005 5005 0.30 0.7 0.20 0.20 0.50-1.1 0.10 0.25 0.05 0.15 Remainder
A95050 5050 0.40 0.7 0.20 0.10 i.i-i.s 0.10 0.25 0.05 0.15 Remainder
A95052 0.25 0.40 0.10 2.2-2.8 0.15-0.35 0.10 0.05 0.15 Remainder
A95056 0.30 0.40 0.05-0.20 4.5-5.6 0.05-0.20 0.10 0.05 0.15 Remainder
A95083 0.40 0.40 0.40-1.0 4.0-4.9 0.05-0.25 0.25 0.15 0.05 0.15 Remainder
A95086 0.40 0.50 0.20-0.7 3.5-4.5 0.05-0.25 0.25 0.15 0.05 0.15
A95154 0.45 Si + Fe Remainder
0.10 3.1-3.9 0.15-0.35 0.20 0.20 0.05 0.15
0.40 Remainder
0.40 0.05-1.0 4.3-5.2 0.05-0.25 0.25
A95252 0.15 0.05 0.15 Remainder
0.08 0.10 0.10 2.2-2.8
A95254 0.05 0.05 0.15 Remainder
0.45 SI + Fe 0.01 3.1-3.9 0 ..15-0.35 0.20 0.05 0.05 0.15 Remainder
0.50 Sr + Fe 0.05-0.20 4.5-5.5 0.05-0.20
A95454 0.10 0.06-0.20 0.05 0.15 Remainder
0.45 0.4 0.50-1.0 2.4-3.0 0.05-0.20 0.25 0.20 0.05 0.15 Remainder
A95456 0.40 Si + Fe 0.50-1.0 4.7-5.5 0.05-0.20 0.25 0.20 0.05 0.15 Remainder
A95457 0.08 0.10 0.15-0.45 0.8-1.2 0.05 0.03 0.10 Remainder
0.40 Si + Fe 0.50-1.0 2.4-3.0 0.05-0.20 0.25 0.05-0.20 0.05 0.15 Remainder
0.40 Si + Fe 0.50-1.0 4.7-5.5 0.05-0.20 0.25 0.05-0.20
A95652 0.05 0.15 Remainder
0.40 Si + Fe 0.01 2.2-2.8 0.15-0.35 0.10 0.05 0.15 Remainder
0.45 Si + Fe 0.01 3.1-3.9 0.15-0.35
A95657 0.20 0.05-0.15 0.05 0.15 Remainder
0.08 0.10 0.03 0.6-1.0 0.05 0.02 0.05 Remainder
A96003 0.35-1.0 0.6 0.08 0.8-1.5 0.35 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.15 Remainder
A96005 0.6-0.9 0.35 0.10 0.40-0.6 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.05 0.15 Remainder
A96053 0.35 1.1-1.4 0.15-0.35 0.10 0.05 0.15 Remainder
A96061 0.40-0.8 0.7 0.15 0.8,...1.2 0.04-0.35 0.25 0.15 0.05 0.15 Remainder
A960S3 0.20-0.6 0.35 0.10 0.45-0.9 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.05 0.15 Remainder
A96066 O.9~1.8 0.50 0.6-1.1 0.8-1.4 0.40 0.25 0.20 0.05 ·0.15 Remainder
A96070 1.0-1.7 0.50 0.40-1.0 0.50-1.2 0.10 0.25 0.15 0.05 0,15 Remainder
A9GI0l 0.33-:..{).7 0,50 0.03 0.35-0.8· 0.03 0;10 0.03 0.10 Remainder
A96151 0.6-1.2 1.0 0,20 0.45-0.8 0.15-0.35 0.25 0.15 0.05 0.15 Remainder
0.40-0.8 0.50 0.10 0.7-1.1 0.10 0.25 0.10 0.05 0.15 Remainder
A96Z01 0.50-0.3 0.50 0,03 0.6-0.9 0.03 0.10 0.03 0,10 Remainder
A96253 0.50 1.0-1.5 0.15-0.35 1.6-2.4 0.05 0.15 Remainder
A96262 0.40-0.8 0.7 0.15 0.8-1.2 0.4-0.14 0.15 0.05 0.15 Remainder
0:25
A96351 0.7-1.3 0.50 0.40-0.8 0.40-0.8 0.20 0.05 0.15 Remainder
0.20.
A96463 0.20-0.6 0.15 ......
-- 0.20-0.50
'0,35
0.8
0;40
0.05
0,10
0.4>0.9
0.40--0.8 0.20 \ .......
0.05 0.15
0.05 0.15
Remainder
Remainder
0".20 2.p-3.4 0.18":0.35 6.8-8.0 0.20 0.05. 0.15
A97005 ·0.35 0.4Q 'o.io-o_7 . 1.O~L8 0.06-0,20
__ .
4,0-5.0 0:01..0.06 0.05 0,15
Remainder
Remainder'
A97008 0,10 0,10 O.~O&·; 0.7-1.4 . 0.12..;0.25 4.5 ...5.5 0.05 0.0$ 0.15 Remainder
A97011 0.15 '0,20 O.!O....Q.30 1.0-1.6 0.05 ....
0.20 4.0-5.5 0.05 0.05 0.15 Rem~inder
A9 072- 0.7 ,0.10· 0.10 0.8-1.3 0.05 0.15 Remainder
MJ1Qi5 ,0,40 2.1-2.9 5.1....
6.1 0.05 0.15 Remainder
. ~~ 0.30,
_,
__,. 3.&-4.8
6.3-7.3
0;05 0.15
0.06 0.15
Remainder
I t .,!! ~ , I
-
Remainder
..'
"• ,<''1" -. >I' ....
',' ,.. ,'
TABLE 17-3 NOMINAL

CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION
OFALUMINUM-CASTING
ALLOYS
(COURTESY
OFTHEALUMINUM
ASSOCIATION.)
Composition (%)
Others
AA Former
Number Designation Product" Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Ni Zn Sn Ti Each Total
208.0 108 S 2.5-3.5 1.2 3.5-4.5 0.50 0.10 0.35 1.0 0.25 0.50
213.0 Cl13 P 1.0-3.0 l.2 6.0-8.0 0.6 0.10 0.35 2.5 0.25 0.50
222.0 122 S&P 2.0 1.5 9.2-10.7 0.50 0.15-0.35 0.50 0.8 0.25 0.35
242.0 142 S&P 0.7 1.0 3.5-4.5 0.35 1.2-1.8 0.25 1.7-2.3 0.35 0.25 0.05 0.15
295.0 195 S 0.7--1.5 1.0 4.0-5.0 0.35 0.03 0.35 0.25 0.05 0.15
8295.0 B195 P 2.0-3.0 1.2 4.0-5.0 0.35 0.05 0.35 0.50 0.25 0.35
308.0 AI08 P 5.0-6.0 1.0 4.0-5.0 0.50 0.10 1.0 0.25 0.50
319.0 319, Allcast S&P 5.5-6.5 1.0 3.0-4.0 0.50 0.10 0.35 1.0 0.25 0.50
328.0 Red X-8 S 7.5-8.5 1.0 1.0-2.0 0.20-0.6 0.20-0.6 0.35 0.25 1.5 0.25 0.50
A332.0 A132 P 11.0-13.0 1.2 0.50-1.5 0.35 0.7-1.3 2.0-3.0 0.35 0.25 0.05
F332.0 F132 P 8.5-10.5 1.2 2.0-4.0 0.50 0.50-1.5 0.50 1.0 0.25 0.50
333.0 333 P 8.0-10.8 1.0 3.0-4.0 0.50 0.05-0.50 0.50 1.0 0.25 0.50
355.0 355 S&P 4.5-5.5 0.6 1.0-1.5 0.50 0.40-0.6 0.25 0.35 0.25 0.05 0.15
C355.0 C355 S&P 4.5-5.5 0.20 1.0-1.5 0.10 0.40-0.6 0.10 0.20 0.05 0.15
356.0 356 S&P 6.5-7.5 0.6 0.25 0.35 0.20-0.40 0.35 0.25 0.05 0.15
A356.0 A356 S&P 6.5-7.5 0.20 0.20 0.10 0.20-0.40 0.10 0.20 0.05 0.15
357.0 357 S&P 6.5-7.5 0.15 0.05 0.03 0.45-0.6 0.05 0.20 0.05 0.15
360.0 360 D 9.0-10.0 2.0 0.6 0.35 0.40-0.6 0.50 0.50 0.15 0.25
A360.0 A360 D 9.0-10.0 1.3 0.6 0.35 0.40-0.6 0.50 0.50 0.15 0.25
380.0 380 D . 7.5-9.5 2.0 3.0-4,0 0.50 0.10 — 0.50 3.0 0.35 — — 0.50
A380.0 A380 D 7.5-9.5 1.3 3.0-4.0 0.50 0.10 — 0.50 3.0 0.35 — — 0.50
A384.0 384 D 10.5-12.0 1.3 3.0-4.5 0.50 0.10 — 0.50 1.0 0.35 — — 0.50
413.0 13 D 11.0-13.0 2.0 1.0 0.35 0.10 — 0.50 0.50 0.15 — — 0.25
A413.0 A13 D 11.0-13.0 1.3 1.0 0.35 0.10 — 0.50 0.50 0.15 — — 0.25
B443.0 43 (0.15 max. cu) S&P 4.5-6.0 0.8 0.15 0.35 0.05 — — 0.35 — 0.25 0.05 0.15
C443.0 A43 D 4.5-6.0 2.0 0.6 0.35 0.10 — 0.50 0.50 0.15 — — 0.25
514.0 214 S 0,35 0.50 0.15 0.35 3.5-4.5 — — 0.15 — 0.25 0.05 0.15
A514.0 A214 P 0.30 0.40 0.10 0.30 3.5-4.5 — — 1.4-2.2 — 0.20 0.05 0.15
B514.0 B214 S 1.4-2.2 0.6 0.35 0.8 3.5-4.5 0.25 — 0.35 — 0.25 0.05 0.15
518.0 218 D 0.35 1.8 0.25 0.35 7.5-8.5 — 0.15 0.15 0.15 — — 0.25
520.0 220 S 0.25 0.30 0.25 0.15 9.5-10.6 — — 0.15 — 0.25 0.05 0.15
535.0 Almost 35 S 0.15 0.15 0.05 0.10-0.25 6.2-7.5 — — — — 0.10-0.25 0.05 0.15
705.0 60.3, Ternalloy 5 S&P 0.20 0.8 0.20 0.40-0.6 1.4-1.8 0.20-0.40 — 2.7-3.3 — 0.25 0.05 0.15
707.0 607, Ternalloy 7 S&P 0.20 0.8 0.20 0.40-0.6 1.8-2.4 0.20-0.40 — 4.0-4.5 — 0.25 0.05 0.15
A712.0 A612 S 0.15 0.50 0.35-0.65 0.05 0.6-0.8 — — 6.0-7.0 — 0.25 0.05 0.15
D712.0 D612, 40E S 0.30 0.50 0.25 0.10 0.50-0.65 0.40-0.6 — 5.0-6.5 — 0.15-0.25 0.05 0.20
713.0 613, Tenzaloy S&P 0.25 1.1 0.40-1.0 0.6 0.20-0.50 0.35 0.15 7.0-8.0 — 0.25 0.10 0.25
771.0 Precedent 71A S 0.15 0.15 0.10 0.10 0.8-1.0 0.06-0.20 — 6.5-7.5 — 0.10-0.20 0.05 0.15
850.0 750 S&P 0.7 0.7 0.7-1.3 0.10 0.10 — 0.7-1.3 —
, 5.5-7.0 0.20 — 0.30
A850.0 A750 S&P 2.0-3.0 0.7 0.7-1.3 0.10 0.10 — 0.30-0.7 — 5.5-7.0 0.20 — 0.30
B850.0 B750 S&P 0.40 0.7 1.7-2.3 0.10 0.6-0.9 - 0.9-1.5 — 5.5-7.0 0.20 — 0.30
Notes: I . Composition is percent maximum unless shown as a range. Aluminum is the remainder.
2. There may be minor elements present.
"Product; S, sand cast; P, permanent mold cast; D, die cast.
Ul
TABLE 17-4 COMPOSITION
OFALUMINUM
FILLERMETALS
Nominal Composition (%)

Type Si Fe Cu Mn M~ Cr Zn Ti AI
1100 1.0 s:+ Fe 0.05-0.20 0.05 0.10 99.0 min.
4043 4.5-6.0 0.80 0.30 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.20 Remainder
5154 0.45 Si + Fe 0.10 0.10 3.1-3.9 0.15-0.35 0.20 0.20 Remainder
5254 0.45 Si + Fe 0.05 0.01 3.1-3.9 0.15-0.35 0.20 0.05 Remainder
5652 0.45 Si + Fe 0.04 0.01 2.2-2.8 0.15-0.35 0.10 Remainder
5554 0.40 Si + Fe 0.10 0.50-1.0 2.4-3.0 0.05-0.20 0.25 0.05-0.20 Remainder
5356 0.50 Si + Fe 0.10 0.05-0.20 4.5-5.5 0.05-0.20 0.10 0.06-0.20 Remainder
5183 0.40 0.40 0.10 0.50-1.0 4.3-5.2 0.05-0.25 0.25 0.15 Remainder
5556 0.40 Si + Fe 0.10 0.50-1.0 4.7-5.5 0.04-0.35 0.25 0.05-0.20 Remainder
6061 0.40-0.80 0.70 0.15-0.40 0.15 0.80-1.2 0.04-0.35 0.25 0.15 Remainder
Note: Per AWS specification A.5ID, "Aluminum Alloy Welding Rods and Bare Electrodes."
wires, coiled wires, and covered electrodes. It may not be The gases are either argon or helium or a mixture of
necessary to make the comparison or selection of the the two.Argon is the most popular and is used at a lower
filler metal to weld the different aluminum alloys since flow rate. Helium will increase penetration but a higher
this has been standardized. Table 17-5 is a guide to the flow rate is required.
choice of filler metals for aluminum welding established When filler wire is used, either manually or auto-
by the American Welding Society and is recommended. matically, it must be clean. If the oxide is not removed
from the filler wire, it may include moisture that will pro-
duce porosity in the weld deposit.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
The GTAWprocess is used for welding the thinner sec-
tions of aluminum and aluminum alloys.Alternating cur- Gas Metal Arc Welding
rent is recommended for general-purpose work since it The gas metal welding process is applicable to heavier
provides the half-cycle of cleaning action. Table 17-6 pro- thicknesses of aluminum. It is much faster than gas tung-
vtdes welding procedure schedules for using the process sten arc welding.
on different thicknesses. AC welding, usually with high Several factors should be mentioned with respect
frequency, is widely used with manual and automatic ap- to GMAWwelding aluminum. The electrode wire must
plicatlons. Procedures should be followed closely and be clean. If porosity occurs, it is possible that it came
special attention should be given to the type of tungsten from moisture absorbed in the Oxide coating of the elec-
electrode, size of welding nozzle, gas type, and gas flow trode wire.
rates, When manual welding, the arc length should be Pure argon is normally used for gas metal arc weld-
kept short and equal to the dtameter of the electrode.The Ing of aluminum. On occasion, leaks in the gas system, in
tungsten electrode should not protrude too far beyond
the end of the nozzle.The tungsten should be kept clean,
the gun or cable assembly,will allow air to be drawn into
the argon, which will cause poroslry, Gas purge control
I
and if it does ac,;cidentallytouch the molten metal, it must and post-gas flow should be used. The angle of the gun
be redressed. .
Welding power sources designed for the gas tung-
sten arc welding process should be used since they pro-
or torch Is critical. A 30° leading travel angle is recom-
mended.The electrode Wire tip should be oversize for alu-
rninum. Table 17-8 provides welding procedure schedules
I
vi.de .for programming.. pre- and postflow of shielding gas-;-'" for gas m.etal arc welding of aluminum.
I .
pulsing, and special wave Shapes. \ The wire feeding equipment for aluminum welding
For aqtornatic. or machine welding, direct current must be in good adjustment for effiCientWirefeeding. Ny-
electrode nesntive (strajg.ht polarity) can be used. Clean- Ion liners hould be used in cable assemblies. Proper
ins must be extremely efficj~nt since there is no cathodic drlve eolls should be selected for the aluminum wire and
bombardmenr to assist. When DC electrode negative is for the size of th electrode wire. It is difficult to push ex-
used, extr meJy deep penetration and high speeds can be' trernely small diameteralumimun Wiresthrough long gun
obtatned, CleanUriess is all absolute necessity; Thble 17-7 cable assernblles. The spool, gull is used for tP-e small-
,pMvides welding 'procedure schedules for DC electrode
nf;!gat~V'e welding. '.$
diameter electrode wires.Water-co9,led guns are required'
except for low-current welding. .
l
I
TABLE 17-5 GUIDE TO THE CHOICE OF FILLER METAL FOR WELDING ALUMINUM
6005,
356.0, 6061,
A356.0, 6063,
319.0, 3$7,0, 511.0, 7004, 6101,
" ~33,O, . A357.0, 512.0, 7005, 6151,
354.0, 413tO, 513.0, 7039. 6009, 6201.
'355.0, 443.0, 514.0, 710.0. 6010,
aaiie'Me'tal ',: 'C3~5.0 A444.0 53510 712.0 6070
6351,
6951 5456 5454
1060, 1070, 1080, 1350 ER4145 ER4145 ER40438,b ER5356c,d ER5356c,d ER4043a,b ER4043b ER5356d ER4043b,d
1100,3003, Ale 3003 ER4145 ER4145 ER4043a,b ER5356c,d ER5356c,d ER40438,b ER4043b ER5356d ER4043b,d
2014,2036 ER4145e ER4145e ER4145 ER4145 ER4145
2219 ER23191l ER4145e ER4145b,c ER4043 ER4043 ER4043a,b ER40438,b ER4043b
3004, Alc 3004 ER4043b ER4043 b
ER5356f ER5356f ER4043b ER4043b,t ER5356d ER5356f
5005, 5050 ER4043b ER4043b ER5356' ER5356f ER4043b ER4043b ER5356d ER5356f
5052,5652i ER4043b ER4043f ER5356f ER5356f ER4043b ER5356c,f ER5356f ER5356'
5083 ER5356c,d ER5356d ER5183d ER5356d ER5183d ER5356d
5086 - ER5356c,d ER5356d ER5356d ER5356d ER5356d ER5356d
5154,5254' ER4043' ER5356f ER5356f ER5356f ER5356f ER5356f
5454 b
ER4043 ER4043f ER5356t ER5356f ER4043b ER5356c,f ER5356' ER555M·f
5456' ER5356c,d ER5356Cf ER5556d ER5356d ER5556d
6005,6061,6063, ER4145 ER4145b,c ER4043b,f,g ER5356' ER5356c,f ER4043,b,g ER4043b,t,g
6101,6151,6201,
6351,6951
6009,6010,6070 Eli4145 ER4145b•c " ER4043a,b,g ER4043 ER4043 ER4043""b.g
1004, 7006, 7039,
710.0, 712.0 - ER4043b ER4043b,f ER5356' ER5356d
511.0,512.0, 513.0.
514.0. 535.0 - E;RA043t .ER5356'
~'-
366;Q, A35&,O, 357.0, ER414S ER4145~!e' , E'R4043,b,h "
.-"
. A361.0, 41~LO, .44.3.0, ' '
.. A444.,O .. ..
319,0,333.0; 3154,('), ERt!H4S- R4145b,Q,h
sss.o, CS56.0
201.0,206,01224.0 ER2319·Ii
(continued)
TABLE 17-5 GUIDE TO THE CHOICE OF FILLER METAL FOR WELDING ALUMINUM, (CONTINUED)
1060
llOO 1070
5154 5052 5005 3004 2014 3003 1080
Base Metal 52541 5086 5083 5652i 5050 Ale 3004 2219 2036 Ale 3003 1350
ER5356c,cl ER5356d ER5356d ER4043b,d ER1100b,( ER4043b,d ER4145b,c ER4145 ER1100b,c ER1188b,C,h,]
1060, 1070, 1080, 1350
1100, 3003, Ale 3003 ER5356c,eJ ER5356d ER5356d ER4043b,d ER1100b,c ER4043h,d ER4145b,c ER4145 ERnco=
2014,2036 ER4145 ER4145 ER4145 e
ER4145e
2219 ER4043 ER4043 b ER4043a,b ER4043a,b ER2319a
3004, Ale 3004 ER5356f ER5356d ER5356d ER5356(,f ER5356c,f ER5356c,t
5005, 5050 ER5356t ER5356d ER5356d ER5356c,d ER5356c,f
5052, 5652i ER5356f ER5356d ER5356d ER5654c,f,1
5083 ER5356d ER5356d ER5183d
5086 ER5356d ER5356d
5154, 5254i ER5654f,i
------
Notes; 1 Service conditions such as immersion in fresh or salt water, exposure to specific chemicals, or a sustained high temperature [over 150°F (66°C)] may limit the choice of filler
metals, Filler metals ER5183, ER5356. ER5556, and ER5654 are not recommended for sustained elevated temperature service.
2 Recommendations in this table apply to GSAW processes, For oxyfuel gas welding, only ERl188, ERlIOO, ER4043, ER4047, and ER4145 filler metals are ordinarily used.
3 W~18re no filler metal is listed. the base metal combination is not recommended for welding.
aER4145 may be used for some applications.
bER4047 may be used for some applications.
cER4043 may be used for some applications.
dER5183, ER5356. or ER5556 may be used.
eER2319 may be used for some applications. It can supply high strength when the weldment is postweld solution heat treated and aged.
'ER5183, ER5356, ER5554, ER5556, and ER5654 may be used. In some cases, they provide (1) improved color match after anodizing treatment, (2) higher weld ductility, and
(3) higher weld strength. ER5554 is suitable for sustained elevated temperature service.
BER4643 will provide high strength ~ in. (12 mm) and thicker groove welds in 6XXX base alloys when postweld solution heat treated and aged.
"Filler metal with the same analysis as the base metal is sometimes used. The following wrought filler metals possess the same chemical composition limits as cast filler alloys:
ER4009 and R4009 as R-C355.0i ER4010 and R4010 as R-A356.0j and R4011 as R-A357.0.
'Base metal alloys 5254 and 5652 are used for hydrogen peroxide service. ER5654 filler metal is used for welding both alloys for service temperatures below 150°F (66°C).
iER 1100 may be used for some applications.
TABLE 17-6 WUOING PROCEDURE SCHEDULES FOR AC-GTAW OF ALUMINUM
Filler Rod Nozzle Size,

Diameter Inside Diameter Shielding Wel'ding Number Travel Speed
Gas Flow Current of per Pass
in. tnm in.. (ft3/nr) (A AC) Passes (in.!min)
t.r in. 0.046 1.2 Square groove and fillet 1\ 1.6 n 1.6 H 20 40-60 1 14~18
-ro in. 0.063 1.6 Square groove and fillet 2.4 !2 h-1
*
i in.
in. 0.094
0.125
2.4
3.2
Square
Square
groove and
groove and
fillet
fillet
~
~
i
2.4
3.2
i2
i
2.4
2.4
3.2
H
i
20
20
20
70-90
95-115
120-140
1
1
1
8-12
10-12
9-12
1\ in. 0.187 4.7 Fillet ~ 3.9 ~ 3.9 7
11l'1
1
25 160-200 1
.I- 9..,12
1\ in, 0.187 4.7 V-groove 3.9
* in.
tin.
0.250
0.250
6.4
6.4
;!let
V-groove
*
;\
~
4.8
4.8
~
'!\
Is
3.9
4.8
4.8
M
ll-1
H
25
30
30
160-180
230-250
200-220
2
2
1
10-12
8-11
8-11
i in. 0.375 9.5V-grcove ,\ 4.8 1ft 4.8 i 35 250-310 2-3 9-11
i in, 0.500 12.7V- or U~groove it 6.4 i 6.4 i 35 400-470 3-4 6
!Votes: 1. Incre£lSG amperage when backup is used.' '. . .
2. Data ar~ for all welding positions. Use low side of range for out. of position.
3. or tungsten electroces. Wst choice, pure tungsten EWPi second choice, ~irconateClEWZr. ., . . .
4. NormallYI argc,>niSlJsedM Shieldihg; however, mixtures of 10% or more helium with argon aresometirnes used for increased perretratlcn In aluminum t,ln. thick and over, The gas
flow sho\,jlrl be increased when helium Is added. A mixture of 75% HEI + 25% argon Is popular. When 100% helium is used, gas flow\ates are about twice those used for argon.
. \
TABLE 17-7 WELDINGPROCEDURE
SCHEDULESFORDC-GTAW OFALUMINUM
Tungsten
Material Thickness Electrode Filler Rod Nozzle Size,
(or Fillet Size) Diameter Diameter Inside Diameter Shielding Welding Number Travel Speed
Gas Flow Current of per Pass
Gauge in. mm Type of Weld in. mm in. mm in. (ft3/hr) (A AC) Passes (in./min)
20 0.032 0.8 Square groove and fillet 3

32 2.4 None 1
B 30 25-70 1 52
1.2 j,. 1.2 1 30 35-90 1 45
s.1 8
16 0.063 1.6 Square groove and fillet i4 1.2 i4 1.2 i 30 45-120 1 36

16 1.6 ~ 1.6 3
8' 30 90-185 1 32
1
11 6 3.2 Square groove and fi Ilet i 3.2 l 3.2 3
8' 30 120-220 1 20
11 :k 3.2 Square groove and fillet i 3.2 None 3
8' 30 180-200 1 24
1
r 6.4 Square groove and fillet k 3.2 t 3.2 1
'2 40 230-340 1 22
t 6.4 Square groove and fillet k 3.2 None 1
'2 40 220-240 1 22
! 12.7 V-groove 3
Tli 4.8 1
8' 3.2 1
'2 40 300-450 1 20
12.7 Square groove :& 3.9 None 1
'2 40 260-300 2 20
"
~
~
19.1
19.1
V-groove
Square groove
fs
fs
4.8
4.8
8
1
None
3.2 ~
1
'2
40
40
300-450
450-470
2
2
6
6
1 25.4 V-groove fs 4.8 1
8' 3.2 5
8' 40 300-450 2 6
Notes: l. Normally for automatic travel.
2. Use helium or 75% helium--25% argon.
TABLE 17-8 WELDINGPROCEDURE
SCHEDl)LES FORGMAW OF ALUMINUM
Welding Power Travel

Wire Feed .Shielding Number Speed
Current Arc Volt Speed Gas flow of .per Pass
mrn (DC)' EP <in./min) (fti/hr) Passes (in.lmin)
0.050 Square groove and fillet 0.030 0.8 50
,
12-14 268-308 30 1 17-25
0.062 1.6 Square groove and fillet 0.030 0.8 55-60 12-14 295-320 30 1 17-25
0.062 1.6 Square groove and fillet 1.2 110-125 19-21 175-185 30 1 20-27
0.093 2.4 Square 'groove and fillet 0.030 0.8 90-100 14-18 330-370 30 1 24;...36
0.125 3.2 Fillet 0.030 0.8 110-125 19-22 410-460 30 1 20-24
11 0.125 3.2 Square groove ~ 1.2 110-125 20-24 '175-190 40 1 20-24
<& in. 0.187 4.7 Square groove and fillet 14 1.2 160-195 20-24 215-225 40 1 20-25
tin. 0.250 6.4 Fillet 'i 1.2 160-195 20-24 2'15-225 40 1 20-25
i in. 0.260 6.4 V~groove 11 1.6 175-225 22-26 150-195 40 3 20-25
• in. 0.375 9.5 V-groove and fil·let 11 1.6 200-300 22-26 170-275 40 2-5 2&-30
* in. 0.500 12.7 V-groove and fillet 11 1.6 220-230 22-27 195-205 40 3-8 12-18
i in. 0.500 12.7 Doyble V..groove 6 2.4 320-340 22-29 140-150 45, 2-5 15-17
tin,
lin.
0.750
0.750:
19.0 DQuble VMgroove r. 1.6 255-275 22-27 '230-250 50 4-10 8-18
19,0 '"Double· V:.grQov~ 14 2.4 355-375 '22-29 155-160 50 4-10 14-16
lin. 1.000 25.4 O~uble V".roova 11 1.6 255-290 22-27 230-265 50 4-14 6-18
1 in. l.OOO 25.4 DQuble V..groove A '2.4 '
405-425 22-27
175-180 50 4-8 8-12
NOtes: 1,' materl~'
For iraoi/and filiet weld$, thickness also irtdfcated fillet weld site, 'Use V¥groQve'for 1\ in. and thicker, " ' . " " .
' 2. Use arson for thin andmedrum m~teri~l; U$e 50% argon and 50% helium for thick material. Increase gas flow rate 10% for overhead ~osltlon,
. 3, Inc;rea e amperage 10%,,,,20% when backup 1$used, , "
4, Oeatease WtYper .se lO%-tO%,wllen weldlngoutaf~osltIQn, ":
,~'
Both the constant-current power source with plished by most brazing methods. A high-silicon alloy
matching voltage-sensing wire feeder and the constant- filler material is used.
voltage power source with constant-speed wire feeder The electron beam welding process is also used for
are used for welding aluminum. The CV system is pre- aluminum welding, as are the plasma process and laser
ferred when welding on thin material and using small- welding. These processes have not been used to a great
diameter electrode wire. It provides better arc starting degree.
and regulation.The CC system is preferred when welding All the major aluminum companies provide welding
thick material using larger electrode wires.The CC power manuals and data for the welding of aluminum. (24) If more
source with a moderate droop of 15 to 20 V per 100 A and detail is required, contact the Aluminum Association.
with a constant-speed wire feeder provides the most sta-
ble power input and provides the highest weld quality.
The recent availability of lithium aluminum alloys
has excited the aerospace industry. These alloys are ap- 17-2 COPPER AND
proximately 10% stronger than existing alloys.This allows
the use of thinner sections for weight reduction or
COPPER-BASE ALLOYS
higher-strength parts of the same weight. The problem: Copper and copper-base alloys have specific properties
lithium is very active and the lithium aluminum alloys are that make them widely used. Their high electrical con-
difficult to weld. The variable-polarity power source de- ductivity makes them widely used in the electrical indus-
scribed in the power source section with the keyhole tries and corrosion resistance of certain alloys makes
plasma arc process is being used to weld this material in them very useful in the process industries. Copper alloys
thicknesses up to ~ in. The quality of the welds exceeds are also widely used for friction or bearing applications.
the quality of multipass gas tungsten arc welds. The VPPA More than 300 different alloys are commercially
welding process can make welds in one pass; however, to available.All of these different alloys have been used for
provide reinforcing a second pass is made. many years. The Copper Development Assoctation, Inc.,
has established an alloy designation system that is widely
accepted in North America. It is not a specification sys-
Other Welding Processes tem but rather a method of identifying and grouping dif-
The shielded metal arc welding process can be used for ferent coppers and copper alloys. This system has been
welding aluminum. The covering on the electrodes is updated so that it now fits the unified numbering system
hydroscopic and must be protected from the atmo- (UNS). It provides one unified numbering system that in-
sphere. Welds made with covered electrodes must be eludes all of the commercially available metals and alloys.
cleaned since the residue that remains on the weld will The UNS designation consists of the prefix letter C fol-
cause corrosion. Arc stability is rather poor, and there lowed by five digits without spaces (the final digits may
are a limited number of electrode types. This process is or may not be zeroes). The compositions of each UNS
not popular. number Of copper alloy number and its common name
Gas welding has been done using both oxyacety- are published by the assoctatlon.P'
lene and oxyhydrogen flames. In either case, neutral Table 17-9 shows the grouping of these copper al-
flame is required. Flux is used as well as a filler rod. The loys by common names that normally include the con-
process is not too popular because of low heat input and stituent alloys. There may be alloys within a grouping that
the need to remove flux. have a composition sufficiently different to create weld-
Blectroslag welding is used for joining pure alu- ing problems. These are the exception and the data pre-
mlnum, So far it has not been successful for welding the sented will provide starting point guidelines. There are
alummum alloys. Submerged arc welding has been used two categories, wrought materials and cast materials.The
in some countries where inert gas is not available. It is not welding information is the same whether the material is
used In North America. ' cast or rolled.
AU of the resistance welding processes are used Copper shares SOIne of the characteristics of alu-
tor welding aluminum, In the case of spot and sea~ "', minum, but it is weldable. Attention should be given to its
welding.extreme cleanliness of surface is required. Dif- \ properties that make the welding of copper and copper I
ferent types of power are .used but the process is ex- alloys different from the welding of carbon steels. Copper'
~reUl,ely effiei nt and is widely used ill the aircraft
f
alloys possess properties that require special attention
Indu s try. when welding: I
Most of the solid-state welding processes, including
friction welding, ultrasonic welding, and cold welding, 1. High thermal conductivity t
areus~4'for,ft;luminums. In addttion, the stud welding
. process Cis used' fc>r alintunllpi, AlumUlLlrh cap, also be
','joined by sold ring and braelng, Brazing can be accom-
2. HIgh thermal expansion coefficient
3. Relatively Iow melting poinr
4. Hotshort (i.e., brittle at el vated temperatures)
I
1
I
TABLE17-9 COPPER AND COPPER ALLOY DESIGNATION 5. Very fluid molten metal
Copper 6. High electrical conductivity
Number Wrought Alloys-Groups 7. Much ofits strength due to cold working
CIIXOO Oxygen-free, high-conductivity copper Copper has the highest thermal conductivity of all
(99.95 + %) commercial metals, and the comments made concerning
CllXOO Tough pitch copper (99.88 + %) thermal conductivity of aluminum apply to copper to an
C12XOO even greater degree.
C13XOO Copper has a relatively high coefficient of thermal
C19XOO High-copper alloys (96 + % copper) expansion, approximately 50% higher than carbon steel,
C2XXOO Copper-zinc alloys (brasses) but lower than aluminum. One of the problems associ-
C3XXOO Copper-zinc-lead alloys (leaded brasses) ated with copper alloys is the fact that some of them,
C4XXOO Copper-zi nc-ti n alloys (ti n brasses) such as aluminum bronze, have a coefficient of expansion
C50XOO Copper-tin alloys (phosphor bronzes) over 50% greater than that of copper. This creates prob-
C51XOO lems when making generalized statements about the dif-
C52XOO ferent copper-based alloys.
C53XOO Copper-tin-lead alloys (leaded phosphor The melting point of the different copper alloys
bronzes)
varies over a relatively wide range, but is at least 1,000oP
C54XOO
(538°C) lower than carbon steel. Some of the copper al-
C61XOO Copper-aluminum alloys (aluminum bronzes)
loys are hot short, meaning they become brittle at high
C62XOO
temperatures. This is because some of the' alloying ele-
C63XOO
ments form oxides and other compounds at the grain
C64XOO Copper-silicon alloys (silicon bronzes)
boundaries, embrittling the material.
C65XOO
Copper does not exhibit heat colors like steel, and
C66XOO Copper-zinc alloys (misc. brasses and
when it melts it is relatively fluid. Copper's high electri-
bronzes)
C67XOO
cal conductivity is a problem with the resistance welding
processes.
C68XOO
C69XOO
All copper alloys derive their strength from cold
C70XOO
working. The heat of welding will anneal the copper in
Copper-nickel alloys
C71XOO
the heat-affected area adjacent to the weld and reduce
C72XOO
the strength provided by cold working.This must be con-
C73XOO
sidered when welding high-strength joints.
Copper-nickel-zinc alloys (nickel-silvers)
C74XOO There is one other problem associated with the
C75XOO copper alloys that contain zinc. Zinc has a relatively low
C76XOO boiling temperature, and the heat of an arc will tend to va-
C77XOO porize the zinc.The arc processes must be 'used with care
C78XOO
for the alloys containing zinc.
C79XOO The grouping of the copper aUoys in Table 17-9 is
for convenience; however, certain alloys within the
grouping may be different from the others. In view of
these, it is difficult to make generalized statements that
C80XOO Copper alloys (99 + % copper) apply to all the alloys in a particular grouping. For best reo
C81XOO . High-copper alloys (beryllium copper) sults it is wise to know the exact composition of the alloy
C82XOO being welded. If it fits within a particular grouping, the
C83XOO Copper-tin-zinc + copper-tin-zlnc-lead alloys recommended filler metal can be checked by ref rring to
(red brasses and leaded red brasses)
Table 17-10, which gives the nominal composition of the
C84XOO Semired brasses and leaded semired brasses
copper alloy filler metals. The data shownhere are, for the
C85XOO Yellow brasses and leaded yellow brasses
filler metal.whether iti$ au electrode, a rod, or wire, Or for
C86XOO Manganese and leaded manganese bronze
brazing. Refer to AWS speciflcartons A5.6,A5.7, and AS.S
alloys
C87XOO for details. The composition of the filler matertal should
Ccpper-zlnc-silicon alloys (silicon bronzes
and brasses) be chosen to march.the b. se metal as closely as possible.
C9QXOO copper-tin alloys (tin bronzes) Th GMAWandGTAW processes ate the most pop-
C91XOO ular for welding copper and copper alloys"The GTAW
C92XOO Copper-tin-lead alloy (Iead-ed tin bronte) process normally uses DC electrode nesative (st1;aiS,ht:po- ..;
C93XOQ . Copper-tln-leac alloy (high~leaded tin bronze) larity), but in some cases alternating current With high
frequency is recomm nded, TAWis best fo.t welding the
Welding Non~ 1TOUS Metals -" 443,

TABLE17-10 COMPOSITION
OFCOPPER
ALLOYFILLERMETALS(FROM AWS SPECIFICATIONSAS.6, AS.7, AS.B)
Nominal Composition, (%)

AWS
Class!) Cu AI Fe Mn Ni Si Sn Pb Ti Zn Other
Cu 98 0.01 0.5 0.50 1.0 0.22 0.50

CuAI-Al Remainder 6.0-9.0 0.10 0.02 0.20 0.50
CuAI-A2 Remainder 9.0-11.0 1.5 0.10 0.02 0.02 0.50
CuAI-B Remainder 11.0-12.0 3.0-4.25 0.10 0.02 0.02 0.50
CuNi Remainder 0.40-0.75 1.00 29 0.50 0.02 0.15-1.00 0.50
CuSi . Remainder 0.01 0.5 1.5 2.8-4.0 1.5 0.02 0.50
CuSi-A 94 0.01 0.5 1.5 2.8-4.0 1.5 0.02 1.5 0.50
CuSn-A Remainder 0.01 4.0-6.0 0.02 0.50
CuSn-C Remainder 0.01 7.0-9.0 0.02 0,50
CuZn-A 57-61 0.01 0.25-1.0 0.05 Remainder 0.50
CuZn-B 56-60 0.01 0.25-1.2 0.01-0.50 0.2-0.8 0.04-0.15 0.8-1.1. 0.05 Remainder 0.50
CuZn-C 56-60 0.01 0.25-1.2 0.01-0.50 0.04-0.15 0.8-1.1 0.05 Remainder 0.50
CuZn-O 46-50 0.01 9.0-11.0 0.04-0.25 0.05 Remainder 0.50
lAWS class filler metals may have the prefix letter E, electrode; R, rod; RB, rod; RBt rod or brazing; B, brazing.
thinner gauges. It is also recommended for repairing cop- are recommended. The weld joint should be opened up
per alloy castings. sufficiently to allow root penetration.
The GMAW process is used for welding thicker ma-
terials. It is faster, has a higher deposition rate, and usually
results in less distortion. It can produce high-quality
Copper - Zinc-Lead Alloys
welds in all positions. It uses DC electrode positive, and (Leaded Brasses)
the CV power source is recommended. The leaded alloys in the C3XX group are not suitable for
welding since the lead will create excessive porosity and
promote cracking in the weld area.
Copper
There are three basic groups in the C100 series of copper
designation. The C10X is the oxygen-free type, which has
Copper-Zinc- Tin Alloys (Tin Brasses)
a copper analysis of 99.95% or higher. This high- This is the C4XX subgroup. These are the yellow brasses
conductivity copper contains no oxygen and is not sub- and are generally welded with the CuAl-A2 aluminum
jected to grain boundary migration. Adequate gas bronze filler metal. The same comments made concern-
Coverage should be employed to avoid oxygen of the air ing the copper-zinc alloys apply here.
coming into contact with the molten metal. Welds should
be made as quickly as possible since too much heat or Copper- Tin Alloys (Phosphor Bronzes)
slow welding can contribute to oxidation. The deoxidized
This C5XX series also includes the leaded phosphor
coppers are preferred because of their freedom from em-
bronzes. Except for the leaded bronzes, both the GMAW
brittlement by hydrogen. Hydrogen embrittlement occurs
and GTAW processes can be used with the normal rec-
when copper oxide is exposed to a reducing gas at high
ommendations concerning thickness. These alloys have a
temperature. The hydrogen reduces the copper oxide to
tendency to be hot short. High current density and a high
copper and water vapor. The entrapped high-temperature
travel speed should be used. Helium is recommended for
Water vapor or steam can create sufficient pressure to
shielding with GTAW The level of tin in. the filler wire
cause cracking. In common with all copper welding, pre-
should be selected to match the tin in the base metal. Pre-
heat should be used and can run from 250 to 1,000oP (121
heat should be used in the range of 300 to 4000P (150 to
to 538°C), depending on the mass involved.
200°C).When groove angles are used, wide angles should
The second subgroup is the tough pitch coppers,
be used. To reduce stresses and distortion, hot peening of
which have a copper composition of 99.88% or higher,
the weld deposit is recommended. The CuSn filler metal
and some high-copper alloys that have 96% or more cop-
should be used with the higher amount of tin to match
per. The ECu or RCu class filler metal is recommended.
the higher amount of tin. In the base metals. The leaded
The tough pitch electrolytic copper is difficult to
phosphor bronzes should not be welded.
Weld because of the presence of copper oxide within the
material. During welding the copper oxide will migrate to
the grain boundaries, which reduces ductility and tensile Copper-Aluminum Alloys
strength. Th.e gas-shielded processes are recommended (Aluminum Bronzes) .
since the welding area is more localized and the copper
oxide is less able to migrate in appreciable quantities. These are a subgroup in the C6XX class representing the
The third copper subgroup is the high-copper al- lower numbers. Both the GMAW and GTAWprocesses are
lays that may contain de oxidizers such as phosphorus, used, with GMAW used for the heavier thicknesses. Filler
The ECuSi filler wires are used with this material. The metal should be the CuAl-A2 type. Argon-helium mixtures
preheat temperatures needed to make the weld quickly are recommended. Preheat is required 'only for the heavier
apply to all three grades. thicknesses. Pull-penetration welds are recommended,
Copper-Silicon Alloys (Silicon Bronzes)

Copper-Zinc Alloys (Brasses)
This is also a subgroup of the C6XX series. Both GMAWand
Tbese are the C2XX family of copper alloys. Within this
GTAW can be used for this family of copper alloys.This al-
group ther . are many different types of brasses. These al-
loy is free ofvolatlle alloying elements and has a lower con-
loys contain zinc, and zinc vaporization can be reduced by
ductivity. Preheat is recommended for heavie! thicknesses.
decreasing preheat and by using lower welding CUrrents.
The leaded grade in this class is not suitable for weJ~g.
The various fiUer metals, copper-Silicon, copper-tin, and
all,l:rnitlWll ...bronze, can all be used.
For lighter s crions argon shielding is used. Par Copper-Nickel Alloys
thicker sections preheat should be employed at approxi- These alloys are in the low C7XX class of alloys. Both
l.llately 40001~(200°C). Helium and helium gasmixtures GMAWand GTAW processes can ,be u$e~ for the$~aUo~~\:
W Jding Nonferrous Metals

The filler metal should be the CuNi 70/30 type. Argon is
normally used, but for heavy thicknesses argon and he-
Other Welding Processes
lium mixtures can be employed. Preheating is normally Many welding processes can be used to join copper and
not used, and the interpass temperatures should not be al- copper alloys. Soldering is widely used for joining most of
lowed to rise above 150°F (65°C). the copper alloys; however, the high aluminum content
and aluminum-manganese bronzes are not readily sol-
Copper -Nickel- Zinc Alloys dered. Both corrosive and resin fluxes are used for
soldering copper. There is one precaution. Solders con-
(Nickel-Silver) taining more than 1.0% antimony or more than 0.02% ar-
These alloys are in the high C7XX class of alloys.These al- senic should not be used to solder the copper-zinc
loys are not normally arc welded and should be joined by alloys. They will produce brittle joints or have poor bond-
brazing. This is because of the relatively high amount of ing. The soldering process does not use sufficiently high
zinc included in these compositions. heat to cause annealing of the copper-base alloys.
The analysis of cast alloys similar to wrought alloys Brazing is widely used. The copper-phosphorus
would be welded the same way.The filler metal should be filler material (BCuP) and some of the silver alloy (Bag)
selected to most closely approximate the analysis of the types are used. Copper-phosphorus is much less expen-
base metal. sive but is not used for copper alloys that contain more
Table 17-11 provides recommended welding con- than 10% nickel. In addition, the copper-phosphorus al-
ditions for both GMAW and GTAW of copper alloys. This loy does not provide as high an electrical conductivity as
is a summary of the material just covered and a starting the silver alloys.
point for establishing a welding procedure. Welding pro- Several of the other arc welding processes can be
cedure schedules are provided for welding the different used. Plasma arc welding is becoming more popular for
copper alloys with both GTAWand GMAW (Tables 17-12 welding copper alloys. The same comments made con-
and 17-13). cerning GTAW apply.The submerged arc welding process
1
WELDINGCONDITIONS
GTAW
FORGMAW ANDGTAW OFCOPPERALLOYS
~ ~
.
GMAW,
I
F]ller.' Shielqing Welding Electrode Electrode Shieldin~
1
;
Metal Gas Current Type Class Gas Notes
Copper" RCu Helium, DCEN EWTh-2 ECu Argon + Preheat, higher
(Elxx) argon, or AC-HF helium temperature for
mixture thicker materials
Brasses" RCuZn-B Argon- DCEN EWTh-l Preheat, open up
(C-2xx) RCuZn-C helium AC-HF joint, do not
(Copper-zi nc) RCuZn-D mixture weld leaded
types
Tin brasses" RCuZn-A Argon- DCEN EWTh-l ECuAl-A2 Argon + Preheat, open up
(C4xx) RCuZn-C helium AC-HF helium joint, higher
mixture temperature for
thicker materials
Phosphor bronze RCuSn-A Argon- DCEN EWTh-2 ECuSn-A Argon Weld quickly, hot
(C5xx) RCuSn-C helium ECuSn-C short, do not
(copper-tin) RCuSn·D mixture weld leaded
types
Aluminum RCuAI-A2 Argon- AC-HF EWTh-l ECuAI-Al Argon Relatively easy
bronze RCuAI-B helium DCEN ECuAI-A2 to weld
(C61x,62x mixture ECuAI-B
and 63x)
(copper-
aturnmum)
Silicon bronze RCuSi;.A Argon ~N EWTh-l ECuS, Argon Relatively easy to
(C64x and weld; do not
65x) (copper- . weld leaded
aluminum) types
copper-n lekel RCuNi Argon DCEN EWTh-l ECuNi Argon Relatively easy
(C7xx) to weld
~preheat.
j
446 CHAPTER 17
TABLE17-12 WELDING PROCEDURE SCHEDULES FOR GTAW OF COPPER ALLOYS
NQzzleSfle
Inside Welding Travel
Diameter. "Shielding Current Number' Speed
Gas Flow (amps of per Pass
in. (ft3/hr) DCEN) Passes (in.!tnin)
0.063 1.6 Square groove II 1.6 II 1.6 i 20 100-150 1 10-12
0.063 1.6 Fillet ~ 1.6 w1 1.6 i 20 85-125 1 10-12
0.125 3.2 Square groove ~ 2.4 ~ 2.4 i 20 170-235 1 8-11
0.125 3.2 Fillet ~ 2.4 ~ 2.4 i 20 115-165 1 10-12
0.187 4.7 Square groove ! 3.2 it 3.2 i 35 185-255 1 8-12
0.187 4.7 Fillet 2.4 i 1 8-12
0.250
0.250
6.4
6.4
FiIIet
Single v-groove
~
1r
i
3.2
3.2
*tt 2.4
3.2
3.2
t
1
~
25
40
40
170-230
220-275
220-275
1
2
7-10
7-10
tin, 0.250 6.4 Edge
1 '
'';;In. 0.250 6..4- Double V-groove *t 3.2
3.2
t
11
3.2
3.2
t
t
25
20
160-225
180-220
1
3
7-10
8-12
i in, 0.375 9.5 Fillet ,\ 4.8 1\ 4.8 45 275-325 3 8-12
i in. 0.375 9.5 Single V·groove it 3.2 3.2 * 25 225-290 3 8~12
tin. 0.375 9.5 Double V-groove /§ 3.9 ,W
1
* 3.2 *
t 20 200-250 3 8-12
i in. 0.500 12.7 Fillet 6.4 6.4 i 45 370-500 4 8-12
tin.
i in.
0.500
O.SOO
12.7
12,7
Single V-groove
Double, V~groove
*1 3.2 *k 3.2 t 30 280-330 7
4
7...
10
7-10
:1\ 3.9 3.2 t 30 180-250
Notes; 1. Increase amperage lOO% wl'!enbackup is used. " ' .* , , ._
2,Data are for flat ppsftJon. Rectuca amperage 100/0-20% whe~ welding In horizontal, vertical,
or overhead position. '\
3. For tU"~$tel'lal1ilctrode$:tirstchQice, 1% thorlatedWi'h1f $econ~ choice, 2% thQrlated EWTh2.
4(r9f t::Q~per; U5~h~HumfOf,$hlF,tldinSl however; emtstur of 7.5% Hit"" fE%·argotllSP9pl.llar on copper and some copper alloys. Argon
i$ucall~lI~fQrPton.:~~. '. .'. " '.'. .. .' ,:. '" ,',," '.' ' ,'
6.Prehe~trt1, cOpper'2!pCY'F, itn.,300"F,i In" 500i>F; prelleatlln, ClnWup 9001)F. ' .
EL Oeoxldlz d copper and copper allOyS uS'eDC "N,aluml:Mum Pf9nZe u5,esACHF' Clod argon for shielding.
TABLE 17-13 WELDING
PROCEDURE
SCHEDULES
FORGMAW OFCOPPER
ALLOYS
Material Thickness Electrode Welding Power Travel

(or Fillet Size) Diameter Wire Feed Shielding Number Speed
Current Arc Volt Speed Gas Flow of per Pass
Gauge in. mm Type of Weld in. mm (DC) EP (in./min) (ft3/hr) Passes (in./min)
16 0.063 1.6 Deoxidized copper g\ 1.2 150-170 22-24 210-220 35 1 20-23
14 0.078 1.9 Square groove and fillet i4 1.2 180--200 22-25 240-270 40 1 20-25
12 0.109 2.8 Square groove and fillet Ii!! 1.2 200-230 23-27 270-290 40 1 20-25
l.l. 0.125 3.2 Square groove and fillet 14 1.2 210-240 23-27 280-300 40 1 20-27
1 in. 0.250 6.4 Square groove and fillet n
1
1.6 380-410 23-29 260-270 40 1 12-15
1 in. 0.250 6.4 V-groove and fi lIet w
1
1.6 300-330 23-27 190-210 40 1-3 14-17
i in. 0.375 9.2 V-groove and fi lIet 1
w 1.6 340-360 24-28 220-240 40 1 12-15
1 .
2 In. 0.500 12.7 Double V-groove f2 2.4 400-440 24-30 270-290 50 2 8-10
i in. 0.750 19.0 Double V-groove i2 2.4 420-460 24-30 290-315 50 3 7-9
1 in. 1.000 25.4 Double V-groove ~ 2.4 420-460 24-30 270-300 50 4 7-9
i in. 0.125 1.2 Silicon bronze 14 1.2 130-160 25-28 220-230 35 1 25-32
l'
4 In. 0.250 6.4 Fillet and V-groove rs 1.6 270-290 27-30 170-190 40 1-3 26-33
* in. 0.250 6.4 Fillet and v-groove w
1
1.6 450-465 25-28 220-250 50 1 30-34
tin. 0.500 12.7 Fillet and V-groove rs 1.6 335-350 27-30 180-200 50 3-5 15-20
h in. 0.125 3.2 Aluminum bronze 14 1.2 190-225 22-25 280-300 40 1 18-24
l'
4 In. 0.250 6.4 V-grooveand fi Ilet rs 1.6 275-300 23-29 170-190 50 2 16-22
i in. 0.375 9.2 V-groove and fillet rs 1.6 300-340 23-29 190-210 50 3-6 16-22
tin. 0.500 12.7 Double V-groove 1
w 1.6 320-350 23-29 200-220 50 6-8 11-15
i in. 0.625 15.9 Double v-groove 1\ 1.6 320-345 23-29 220-240 50 6-8 9-13
i in. 0.750 19.0 Double V-groove ra 1.6 340-370 23-29 220-240 50 6-8 9-12
Notes: 1. If preheating is required, a range of 500 to 900°F may be used for aluminum, bronze, and deoxidized copper and 400 to 600°F for silicon bronze.
2, Argon is normally used. If porosity is encountered, it can be eliminated by adding an equal amount of helium to the argon flow.
3, Speeds and currents for fully automatic welding are approximately 15% higher.
has been used for copper alloy welding and overlaying. ASTM B275 and the UNS designation. Magnesium, like alu-
Specialized fluxes for copper alloys must be used. minum, is produced with different tempers.These are based
The cold welding process is widely used on cop- on heat treatment and work hardening. They are listed fol-
pers; so are high-frequency welding and the electron and lowing the alloy classification and use the prefix letterT fol-
laser beam welding processes. Additional information for lowed by a number ranging from 1 to 10, the higher
the welding of copper and copper alloys can be obtained munbers indicating the higher hardness. The letter F is also
from the various bulletins published by the Copper De- used indicating as fabricated.The letter H is used to indicate
velopment Association, Inc. the heat treat condition.The strength of a weld joint is low-
ered in base metal, in the work-hardened condition, as a re-
sult of recrystallization and grain growth in the heat-affected
17-3 MAGNESIUM-BASE ALLOYS zone.This effect is minimized with gas metal arc welding be-
cause of higher welding speed.This is not a factor in the base
Magnesium is the lightest structural metal. It is approxi- metals that are welded in the soft condition.
mately two-thirds as heavy as aluminum and one-fourth as
heavy as steel. Magnesium alloys containing small amounts
of aluminum, manganese, zinc, and zirconium have
Welding Magnesium Alloys
strengths equaling that of mild steels. They can be rolled Magnesium possesses properties that make welding it dif-
into plate, shapes, and strip. Magnesium can be cast, forged, ferent than welding steel. Many of these are the same as
fabricated, and machined. As a structural metal it is used in for aluminum:
aircraft. It is used by the materials-moving industry for
1. Magnesium oxide surface coating
parts of machinery and for hand-power tools due to its
2. High thermal conductivity
strength-to-weight ratio. Magnesium can be welded by
many of the arc and resistance welding processes, as well 3. Relatively high thermal expansion coefficient
I as by the oxyfuel gas welding process, and it can be brazed.

The more popular magnesium alloys are shown in
Table 17-14. This chart shows the ASTM designations per
4. Relatively low melting temperature
5. Absence of color change as temperature approaches
the melting point
t
I TABLE 17-14
ASTM
COMPOSITION
OFMAGNESIUM
ALLOYS.FROMASTM 8275, MAGNESIUM
ALLOYS(ABRIDGED)
Nominal Co~position (%)

Alloy
Sand and permanent mold castings
AX92A 9.0 0.15 2.0 Remainder
AZ63A 6.9 0.25 3.0 Remainoer
AZ8IA 7.6 0.13 min. 0.7 Remainder
I AZ9IC
EK30A
EK41A
EZ33A
8.7 0.20 0.7
2.7
0.35
0.6
0.7
3.0
4.0
3.0
Remainder
Remainder
Remainder
Remainder
1 HK31A
HZ32A 2.1
0.7
0.7 -
3.0
3·0
Remainder
Remainder
f Die castings
AZ91A 9.0 0.20 0.6 Remainder
AZ918
ExtrUSions
AZ3I8 3.0 0.45 1.0 Remainder
AZ31C
AZ61A 6.S 0.30 1.0 Remainder
MIA l.50 Remainder.
AZ80A 8.5 0.25 0.5 Remainder
ZK60A 5.7 Remainder·
Sheet and plate
AZ31B3.0
HK3IA
0.45 LO
0.7
-
. 3.0
,
\
TABLE 17-15 COMPOSITION OF MAGNESIUM FILLER METALS PER AWS A5.19
AWS Rare
Classlficatton" Mg AI Be Mn Zn Zi Earths Cu F~ Ni Si
AZ61A Remainder 5.8-7.2 0.0002-0.0008 0.15 0.40-1.5 0.05 0.005 0.005 0.05
AZ101A Remainder 9.5 0.0002-0.0008 0.13 0.75 0.05 0.005 0.005 0.05
AZ92A Remainder 8.3-9.7 0.0002-0.0008 0.15 1.75 0.05 0.005 0.005 0.05
EZ33A Remainder 2.0-3.1 0.45-1.0 2.5-4.0
"Use suffix letter E, electrode, or R, rod.
Magnesium is a very active metal, and the rate of ox-

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
idation increases as the temperature is increased. The
melting point of magnesium is very close to that of alu- Welding procedure schedules for gas tungsten arc weld-
minum, but the melting point of the oxide is very high. ing of magnesium are given in Table 17-17. All the pre-
As a result, the oxide coating must be removed. cautions mentioned for welding aluminum should be
Magnesium has high thermal heat conductivity and observed. A short arc should be used, and the torch
a high coefficient of thermal expansion. The thermal should have a slight leading travel angle. The cold wire
conductivity is not as high as aluminum, but the coeffi- filler metal should be brought in as near to horizontal as
cient of thermal expansion is nearly the same. The ab- possible (on flat work). The filler wire is added to the
sence of color change is not too important with the arc leading edge of the weld puddle. High-frequency current
welding processes. should be used for starting the direct current arc. With al-
The welds produced between similar alloys will ternating current, high frequency should be used contin-
develop the full strength of the base metals; however, the uously. Runoff tabs are recommended for welding any
strength of the heat-affected zone will be reduced except the thinner materials. Uniform travel speed and
slightly. In all magnesium alloys the solidification range weld beads are recommended. The shielding gas is nor-
increases and the melting point and the thermal expan- mally argon. However, a mixture of 75% helium and 25%
sion decrease as the alloy content increases, Aluminum argon is used for thicker materials.For heavy thicknesses
added as an alloy up to 10% Improves weldability since 100% helium can be used; more helium is required than
it tends to refine the weld grain structure. Zinc of more argon to do the same job.
than 1% increases hot shortness, which can result in Direct current with electrode positive can be used
weld cracking. The high-zinc alloys are not recom- for machine or automatic Welding. In this case, materials
mended for arc welding because of their cracking ten- must be perfectly clean prior to welding. The welding
dencies. Magnesium containing small amounts of procedure schedule provides additional details.
thorium possesses excellent welding qualities and free-
dom from cracking. Weldments of these alloys do not re-
quire stress relieving. Gas Metal Arc Welding of Magnesium
Certain magnesium alloys are subject to stress cor- Gas metal arc welding is used for the medium to thicker
rosion. Weldments subjected to corrosive attack over a sections. Special high-speed gear ratios are required in the
period of time may crack adjacent to welds if the residual wire feeders since the magnesium electrode wire has an
stresses are not removed. For weldments intended for this extremely high melt-off rate. The normal wire feeder and
type of service, stress relieving is required. power supply used for aluminum welding will be suitable
GTAW and GMAW are recommended for joining for welding magnesium. TIle different types of arc trans-
magnesium. Gas tungsten arc is recommended for thin- fer can be obtained when welding magnesium. This is pri-
ner muterials: and gas metal ar~ is re~ommene~ for marily a matter of current level or current density and
thicket matenals; however, there 18 considerable overlap. voltage setting. The short-circutting transfer and the spray
. . rhefiUcr metal alloys used for joining magnesium transfer are recommended. Argon is usually used for gas
areshown in Table 17...15.They are based onAWS speci- metal arc welding of magnesium; however, argon - helium
fication A;.19. The composition of flller metals should mixtures can be used.In general) the spray transfer should
match the composition of the base materials: however, In be used on material 3/16 in. and thicker and the short-
many 'cases this cannot be done. In all cases the recom- circuiting arc used for thinner m tals. Table 17~18 pro-
rnendat!onsshawn itt'rable 11-16 should be used.
"C'.,'.
,vides welding procedure.schedules.
CHAPT R 17'~'
When welding, the nickel alloys can be treated
Welding Problems much in the same manner as austenitic stainless steels
Magnesium is usually delivered with an oil preservative. with a few exceptions. These exceptions are:
The oil must be removed with a solvent and the material
should be cleaned either by mechanical or chemical 1. The nickel alloys will acquire a surface oxide coat-
methods. Scraping and brushing is often used, and a stain- ing that melts at a temperature approximately
1,000° F (538° C) above the melting point of the
less steel brush should be used.
If cracking persists in magnesium welds, check the base metal.
welding technique. Craters must always be filled and 2. The nickel alloys are susceptible to embrittlement
runoff tabs should be used. Preheating in the range of 200 at welding temperatures by lead, sulfur, phospho-
to 400°F (93 to 204°C) is recommended for complex rus, and some low-temperature metals and alloys.
weldments. Stress relieving is recommended when the 3. Weld penetration is less than expected with other
weldrnent is exposed to corrosion. metals.
A weld metal flow is quite sluggish. When adjust-
Other Welding Processes ments are made for these three factors, the welding pro-
Resistance welding can be used for welding magnesium, cedures used for the nickel alloys can be the same as
including spot welding, seam welding, and flash welding. those used for stainless steel.This is because the melting
Magnesium can also be joined by brazing. In all cases, point, the coefficient of thermal expansion, and the ther-
brazing flux is required and the flux residue must be com- mal conductivity are similar to austenitic stainless steel.
pletely removed from the finished part. Soldering is not It is necessary that each of these precautions be
popular since the strength of the joint is relatively low. considered. The surface oxide should be completely re-
Magnesium can be stud welded, gas welded, and moved from the joint area by grinding, abrasive blasting,
plasma welded. Finely divided pieces of magnesium such machining, or chemical means.When chemical etches are
as shavings and filings should not be in the welding area used, they must be completely removed by rinsing prior
because they will burn. Magnesium castings or wrought to welding.The oxide, which melts at temperatures above
materials do not create a safety hazard since the possibil- the melting point of the base metal, may enter the weld
ity of fire caused by welding on these sections is remote. as a foreign material, or impurity, and will greatly reduce
The producers of magnesium provide additional data for the strength and ductility of the weld.
welding magnesium.I'? Consult the International Magne- The problem of ernbrittlement at welding tempera-
siumAssociation for additional information. tures also means that the weld surface must be absolutely
clean. Paints, marking crayons, grease, oil, machining lu-
bricants, and cutting oils may all contain the ingredients
that will cause embrittlernent. They must be completely
17-4 NICKEL..BASE ALLOYS removed from the weld area to avoid embrittlemenr:
Nickel and high-nickel alloys are commonly used when With respect to the mlnimum penetration, it is nec-
Corrosion resistance is required. They are used in the essary to increase the opening of groove anglesand to Pl"O-
chemical industry and the food industry. Nickel and vide adequate root openings when full-penetration welds
nickel alloys are also widely used as filler metals for join- are used. The bevel or groove angles should he Increased
ing dissimilar materials and cast iron. to approximately 40° over those used for carbon steel.
Nickel and nickel alloys are identified by trademark Almost all the welding processes can be 1.1 ed for
names and suffix numbers. They are also specified by welding the nickel alloys. In addition, they can be joined
ASTM andAMS numbers and by others. UNS designations by brazing and soldering. The filler. metals to bused for
Use the letter N followed by five digits. The trademark joining nickel alloys are shown in Table 17-20.Theseare
names ate popular and are: based onAWS flller-metal specifications A5 .11! AS, 14, and
AS.15 and include covered electrodes as well as bare
• Monel: a nickel-copper alloy solid wire for GMAW or for filler wire with other
• Inconel: a high nickel-chromium alloy with iron processes.The recommended filler metals for joining dtf-
• Incoloy: a ruckel-tron-chromlum alloy ti rent alloys are shown in Table 17- 21.
• Hastealloy: a ruckel-molybdenurn-iron alloy
There are other nickel alloy .The trademark names Welding Nickel Alloys
of the International Nickel Company or the Huntington The most popular processes for welding nlckel.alloys are.
Alloy Products Division will be used. The more common SMA~ GTAW,and GMAW,Wh II sht lded metal-at weld-
nickel alloys are shown in Table 17-19, which also show ing is used, th procedures are essentially thesam as
UNSuul11bers; '. .. those used for stainless ste 1 welding. '.
TABLE17-16 GUIDE TO THE CHOICE OF FILI_ER METAL FOR WELDING MAGNESIUM (FROM REFERENCE 6.)
Base
Alloy AMIOOA AZIOA AZ3IB&C AZ6IA AZ63A AZ80A AZ8IA AZ9Ie AX92A EK4IA EZ33A
AMI00A 1.AZ92A
2.AZIOI
AlIOA AZ92A 1. AZ61A
2.AZ32A
AZ31B&C AZ92A 1. AZ61A 1. AZ61A
2. AX92A 2.AZ92A
AZ61A AZ92A 1. AZ61A 1. AZ61A 1. AZ61A
2. AZ92A 2.AZ92A 2.AZ92A
AZ63A X X X X AZ92A
AZ80A AZ92A 1. AZ61A 1. AZ61A 1. AZ61A 1. AZ6IA
2.AZ92A 2.AZ92A 2.AZ92A X 2.AZ92A
AZ8IA AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A X AZ92A 1. AZ92A
2. AZIOI
AZ9IC AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A X AZ92A AZ92A 1. AZ92A
2.AllOI
AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A X AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZIOI
EK4lA AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A X AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A EZ33A
EZ33A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A X AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A EZ33A EZ33A
HK3lA AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A X AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A EZ33A EZ33A
HM21A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A X AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A EZ33A EZ33A
HM3lA AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A X AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A EZ33A EZ33A
HZ32A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A X AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A EZ33A EZ33A
KIA AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A X AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A EZ33A EZ33A
MIA AZ92A 1. AZ6lA 1. AZ6lA 1. AZ61A X 1. AZ6lA AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A
MGl 2.AZ92A 2.AZ92A 2.AZ92A 2.AZ92A
ZE41A 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 0 0 EZ33A EZ33A
ZX21A AZ92A l. AZ6lA 1. AZ61A 1. AZ6lA X 1. AZ61A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A
2.AZ92A 2.AZ92A 2.AZ92A 2.AZ92A
ZH62A X X X X X X X X X X X
ZK51A
ZK60A
ZK61A
Note: 0, no data available for welding this combination: X, welding not recommended.
. The welding procedure schedule for using gas Additional welding information is available from the
tungsten arc welding is shown in Table 17-22.The weld- Nickel Development Institute and from producers. en
ing procedure schedule for gas metal arc welding is
shown in Table 17-23. This procedure information on
these tables will provide starting points for developing 17 ..5 REACTIVE AND
the welding procedures. The submerged arc welding
process is used with proprietary fluxes manufacturedB
REFRACTORY METALS
the. nickel produ ee The reactive and refractory metals were originally used in
Nopostweldheattreat:n1.ent.is required to maintain the aerospace industry and are now being welded tor
orrestore corrosion resistance' of the nickel alloys. Heat more and more requirements, These metals share many
treatment is required for precipitating hardening alloys common welding problems and are therefore grouped
and $tress reli f may be requited to meet certain specifi- together in this section. Reactlve metals hay a strOllg
anon to
avoid stress orroslon cracking in applications affinity for oxygen and nitrogen at elevated temperatures.
~.involving
,
hydrofluoric add vapors or caustic solutions. At lower temperatures theyare higl)ly resistant ,10 ~Qrr~
. < CHAPTER 17 ..... ,..:

ZH62A
ZH5IA
MIA ZK60A
HK31A HM21A HM31A HZ32A KIA LAI41A MGI QE22A ZEIOA ZE4IA ZX21A ZK61A
EZ33A
EZ33A EZ33A
EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A
EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A
EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A
AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A 0 1. AZ6IA
2.AZ92A
EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A EZ33A 0 0 EZ33A 0 EZ33A
AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A AZ92A 0 1. AZ61A AZ92A 1. AZ61A AZ92A 1. AZ6IA
2.AZ92A 2.AZ92A 2.AZ92A
X X X X X X X X X X X EZ33A
sion. Refractory metals nave extremely high melting A summary of the physical properties of these met-
pOints.They may also exhibit some of the same charac- als is given in Table 17-24.The refractory metals all have
teristics of reactive metals. relatively high density and thermal conductlviry The re-
The reactive metals are: active metals have lower melting points, lower densities,
• ZirCOnium and, ex ept for zirconium, higher coefficients of thermal
expression,
• Titanium
The reactive metals are becoming tncteaslngly im-
• Beryllium portant because of their use tn nuclear and space tech-
The refractory metals are: nology. They are considered in th.edlffictllHQ-weld
• Tungsten category.These m tals have a high l1ffinity for oxygen and
other gases at elevated temperatures. They' C,a:JU1Qt be
• Molybdenum
welded with any process that uses fluxes or wh re heated
• 'Tantalum, metalls exposed.to tile atmosphere, Minor amountse Im-
• Columbian (niobium) purities cause these rn tals t9 become b:dttle.;
\
\
TABLE17-17 WELDINGPROCEDURE
SCHEDULEFORGTAW OF MAGNESIUM
Tungsten Nozzle Size,

Material Thickness Electrode Filler Rod Inside Welding
(or Fillet Size) Diameter Diameter Diameter Shielding Current Number Travel Speed
Gas Flow (amps of per Pass
Gauge, . in. mm Type of Weld in. mm in. mm in. (ft3/hr) DCEN) Passes (in./min)
20 0.038 0.9 Square groove 1
l.6 12 2.4 1
15 25-40 1
16 4 20
20 0.038 0.9 Fillet ra l.6 d_
32 2.4 ! 15 30-45 1 20
16 0.063 l.6 Square groove 1
l.6 12 2.4 1
15 45-60 1
16 4 20
16 0.063 l.6 Fillet 1
l.6 3
2.4 1
15 45-60 1
16 32 4 20
14 0.078 l.9 Square groove 1
l.6 3
2.4 1
15 60-75 1
16 32 4 17
14 0.078 l.9 Fillet 1
l.6 d_
2.4 1
15 60-75 1
16 32 4 17
32 2.4 a
1
3.2 fs 15 80-100 1 17
12 0.109 2.8 Fillet 3
32 2.4 1
8 3.2 5
16 15 80-100 1 17
32 2.4 1
li 3.2 5
16 25 95-115 1 17
11 0.125 3.2 Fillet 3
2.4 1
a 3.2 5
25 95-115 1
3 '
32 16 17
16 In. 0.187 4.7 V-groove 1
a 3.2 1 3.2 3
a 25 95-115
B 2 26
l'
4 In. 0.250 6.4 V-groove 1
s 3.2 3
16 4.8 ~ 25 110-130 2 24
i in. 0.375 9.5 V-groove t 3.2 3
16 4.8 1
'2 30 135-165 2 20
Notes: 1. Increase amperage when backup is used.
2. Data are for flat position. Reduce amperage 10%-20% when welding in horizontal, vertical, or overhead position.
3. Tungsten electrode: first choice, zirconated EWZr; second choice, pure tungsten EWP.
4. Select filler metal in accordance to selection chart.
5. Shielding gas is normally argon. A mixture of 75% helium + 25% argon is used for heavier thickness. For heavy thickness 100%
helium is used. Gas flow rates for helium are approximately twice those used for argon.
TABLE17-18 WELDINGPROCEDURE
SCHEDULEFORGMAW OF MAGNESIUM
. Electrode
Diameter Current Wire Feed Shielding Number Travel Speed
(amps Arc Speed Gas Flow of per Pass
Type of Weld in. mm DeEP) Volts (in.zrnin) (ft3/hr) Passes (in.lmin)
0.025 in. Square groove and fillet 0.040 1.0 26-27 13-16 180 40-60 1 24-36
0.040 in. Square groove and fillet 0.040 1.0 35-50 13-16 250-340 40-60 1 24-36
0.063 in. 1.6 Square groove and fillet 0.063 1.6 60-75 13-16 140-170 40-60 1 24-36
0.090 in. ""
~ 2.4 Square groove and fillet 0.063 1.6 95-125 13-16 210-280 40-60 1 24-36
0.125 in. i 3.2 Square groove and fillet 0.094 2.4 110-135 13-36 100-130 40-60 1 24-36
0.160 in. ~ 3.9 Square groove and fillet 0.094 2.4 135-140 13-16 130-140 40-60 1 24-36
0.190 in. ;\ 4.8 V-groove and fillet 0.094 2.4 175-205 13-16 160-190 40-60 2 24-36
0.250 in. ! 6.4 V-groove and fi Ilet 0.063 1.6 240-290 24-30 550-660 50-80 2 24-36
0.375 in. H 9.5 V-groove and fi lIet 0.094 2.4 320-350 24-30 350-385 50-80 2 24-36
0.500 in. i 12.7 V-groove and fi Ilet 0.094 2.4 350-420 24-30 385-415 50-80 2 24-36
LOO in. 1 25.4 V?grooveand fillet 0.094 2.4 350-420 24-30 385-415 50-80 4 24·-36
Not~$: 1. Values are for flat position.
. 2. For groove and fillet welds, material thickness also indicates fillet weld size. Use V-groovefor l in. and thicker.
3. Shielding gas Is argon or for heavier thicknesses use helium-argon mixtures.
4. Above 200 A and 20 V, metal transfer is spray type; below 200 A and 20 V, metal transfer is short-circuiting type.
'-.
. "-
Most of these metals have the charactensuc known \ occurs so that transition temperature is raised suffi-
as the dUGtile-brittle trart.~ition.Thisrefers to a tempera- ciently, it will make the weldrnent worthless, Gas con-
ture at whicb the metal breaks in a brittle manner rather taminatton can occur at temperatures below the melting
than in a ductile fashion.' he recrystalltzauon of the metal point of the metal.These temperatures range from 700°F
d Wing w, ldil'l~can raise the transition temperature. Con- (371°C) up to l,OO()OF (538°C).
tamin~tlon during the high-temperature period and Im- . At room temperature the reactive metals have an
purtties .an raise the transtrton temperature so that the
,
• m~tf;rial if'biittie at room. temperatures, If contamination
impervious oxide coating that resists f irther reactiOll
with air. The oxide coatings melt at temperatures consie{,.
CHAPTER 1?
,-'t,
TABLE17-19 COMPOSITION
OFNICKELS
ANDNICKELALLOYS
Alloy'D$signation UNS Number Ni C Mn Fe S Si Cu Cr A[ n Cba Others
Nickel 200 N02200 99.5b 0.08 0.18 0.2 0.005 0.18 0.13
Nickel 201 N02201 99.5b 0.01 0.18 0.2 0.005 0.18 0.13
Nickel 205 N02205 99.5b 0.08 0.18 0.10 0.004 0.08 0.08 0.03 Mg 0.05
Nickel 211 95.0b 0.10 4.75 0.38 0.008 0.08 0.13
Nickel 220 N02220 99.5b 0.04 0.10 0.05 0.004 0.03 0.05 0.03 Mg 0.05
Nickel 230 N02230 99.5b 0.05 0.08 0.05 0.004 0.02 0.05 0.003 Mg 0.06
Nickel 270 N02270 99.98 0.01 <0.001 0.003 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 Mg <0.001,
Co<O.OOl
Duranlckel alloy 301 96.5b 0.15 0.25 0.30 0.005 0.5 0.13 4.38 0.63
Permanickel alloy 300 98.5b 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.005 0.18 0.13 0.40 Mg 0.35
Monel alloy 400 N04400 66.5b 0.15 1.0 1.25 0.012 0.25 31.5
Monel alloy 401 42.5b 0.05 1.6 0.38 0.008 0.13 Sal.
b
Monel alloy 404 N04404 54.5 0.08 0.05 0.25 0.012 0.05 44.0 0.03
Monel alloy R-405 N04405 66.5b 0.15 1.0 1.25 0.043 0.25 31.5
Monel alloy K-500 N05500 66.5b 0.13 0.75 1.00 0.005 0.25 29.5 2.73 0.60
Monel alloy 502 N05502 66.5tl 0.05 0.75 1,00 0,005 0.25 28.0 3.00 0.25
Inconel aHoy 600 N06600 76.0b 0.08 0,5 8.0 0,008 0.25 0.25 15.5
lnconel alloy 601 N0660l 60.5 0.05 0.5 14.1 0.007 0.25 0.50 23.0 1.35
Inconel alloy 617 54.0 0.07 22.0 1.0 Co 12.5, Mo 9.0
I Monel' alloy 625 N06625 51.0b 0.05 0.25 2.5 0.008 0.25 21.5 0.2 0.2 3.65 MQ9.0
[ncone! alloy 671 Sal. 0.05 48.0 0.35
tnconet alloy 702 N07702 79.5b 0.05 0.50 l.0 0.005 0.35 0.25 15.5 3.25 0.63
lnconel alloy 706 N09706 41.5 0.03 0.18 40.0 0.008 0.18 0.15 16.0 0.20 1.75 2.9
lncone] alloy 71B N077IS 52.5 0.04 0.18 18.5 0.008 0.18 0.15 19.0 0.50 0.90 S.13 Mo.3.05 .
lnconel alloy 721.
lnccnel alloy 722 N07722
- 7L;Ob
75.0 b
0.04
0.04
2.25
0.50
6,5
7.0
0.005
0.005
0.08
0.35
0.10
0.25
16.0
15.5 0470
3.05
2.38
..
Inconel aHoy X-7~O 0,50 0.25 0.25 15.5 2.50 0.95
N07750. 73.0° 0.04 7.0 0.006 0;70\
..._
, 1j20 2.30 0.95
InconeJaUoy,7S1'
.'tncol'QY alloy 800
IncolQyalloy801 ';
~
NOaSOQ
NOSSOt,;' '$2.0'
)2;5fJ•
3Z,B
0.06
(',rOB'
0:05
.~O.5
0:76
0,75,. c'
7.0
~46.0
44·5~, .
0.005
o.ooa
0.008
0.25
0.50
0.50
0.25
0.38
O.Z5
16.5
21.0
20.5
0.38 0.38
1,13
--
Ineoloy.. lloy B02 ". .~2.6'. O~S5 . 0.75 ".'46:0 :0.008 0.38 21.0 0.75'
• . _. 1
!noolo)" ~lIoya04 -. 41.0· 0.015 '0.7$ 25.4 " 0.008 . 0,38 29.5 0.60
. IncoloyalloY',82? '42.0 .0.03 0.50 30.0 0.015 0.25 21.5 0.90 Mo 3.0
NI ~p~n.:,c:iillloY902 42.25 .. 0.03 . 0.49 48.5: e. .'0.02 0.50 5,33 2.68
"I<j!,"*~ .lllli;:h'=t;,ak""_ '* .~i_ _ (1:_ '!le -,~ -
·CobaltiiiclfJde¢: ....
'... , '.
P'Notforspeciitic@ti6h ;'i:>tm~cs
,,~
I;IJ
VI
TABLE 17-20 COMPOSITION
OFNICKELALLOYFILLERMETALS
AWS Class" UNS Number Trade Name NI C Mn Fe S Si Cu Cr AI Ti Cb Mo

-----.--
ERNi···3 N02061 Nickel 61 96.0 0.06 0.30 0.10 0.005 0.40 0.02 3.0
ENi~l Nickel 141 96.0 0.03 0.30 0.05 0.005 0.60 0.03 0.25 2.5
ERNiCu--7 Monel 60 65.0 0.03 3.5 0.20 0.005 1.00 27.0 2.2
ERNiCu--8 Monel 64 65.0 0.15 0.60 1.00 0.005 0.15 30.0 2.8 0.5
ERCuNi Monel 67 31.0 0.02 0.75 0.50 0.005 0.10 67.5 0.30
ENiCuAI-1 Monel 134 64.0 0.20 2.50 1.00 0.005 0.30 30.0 1.8 0.75
ECuNi Monel 187 32.0 0.02 2.00 0.60 0.01 0.15 65.0
ENiCu·-2 Monel 190 65.0 0.01 3.10 0.30 0.007 0.75 30.5 0.15 0.55
ERNiCrFe-5 N06062 Inconel 62 74.0 0.02 0.10 7.50 0.005 0.10 0.03 16.0 2.25
ERNiCrFe-7 N07069 Ineonel 69 73.0 0.04 0.55 6.50 0.007 0.30 0.05 15.2 0.70 2.5 0.85
ERNiCr·-3 N06082 Inconel 82 72.0 0.02 3.00 1.00 0.007 0.20 0.04 20.0 0.55 2.55
ERNiCrFe-6 N07092 Inconel 92 71.0 0.03 2.30 6.60 0.007 0.10 0.04 16.4 3.2
Ineonel 601 60.5 0.05 0.50 14.1 0.007 0.25 0.50 23.0 1.35
Ineonel 625 61.0 0.05 0.25 2.5 0.008 0.25 21.5 0.2 0.2 3.65 9.0
Inconel718 52.5 0.04 0.20 18.5 0.007 0.30 0.07 18.6 0.40 0.90 5.0 3.1
Inconel 112 61.0 0.05 0.3 4.0 0.010 0.40 21.5 3.6 9.0
ENiCrFe·-l N06132 Ineonel 132 73.0 0.04 0.75 8.5 0.006 0.20 0.04 15.0 2.1
ENiCrFe-3 Inconel 182 67.0 0.05 7.75 7.5 0.008 0.50 0.10 14.0 0.40 1.75
ENiCrFe-2 Ineo-weld A 70.0 0.03 2.0 9.0 0.008 0.30 0.06 15.0 2.0 1.5
Inca-weld B 70.0 0.13 2.0 9.0 0.008 0.30 0.06 15.0 2.5 2.0
N08065 Ineoloy 65 42.0 0.03 0.70 30.0 0.007 0.30 1.70 21.0 1.0 3.0
Ineoloy 135 36.0 0.05 2.00 26.0 0.008 0.40 1.80 29.0 3.75
ENi-C1 Ni-rod 95.0 1.00 0.20 3.0 0.005 0.70 0.10
ENiFe-Cl Ni-rod 55 53.0 1.50 0.30 45.0 0.005 0.50 0.10
"E, electrode; R, rod.
From AWS specifications A5.6, A5.7, A5.11, A5.14, and A5.15.
TABLE17-21 GUIDE FORSELECTINGFILLER METAL FORWELDINGNICKEL ALLOYS
Alloy
Electrode Rod
Designation Inco Name AWS-:--S pee Inco Name AWS---:-Spec
Nickel 200 141 ENi-1 61 ERNi--3

Nickel 201 141 ENi-1 61 ERNi-3
Monel alloy 400 190 ENiCu-2 60 ERNiCu-7
Monel alloy 404 190 ENiCu-2 60 ERNiCu-7
Monel alloy K-500 190a ENiCu-2 60a ERNiCu-7
Monel alloy 502 190a ENiCu-2 60a ERNiCu-7
Ineonel alloy 600 132 (182) ENiCrFe-l 62 (82) ERNiCrFe-5
Ineonel alloy 601 132 (182) ENiCrFe-1 601 (82) ERNiCrFe-5
Ineonel alloy 625 112 625
Inconel alloy 706 NA 718
Ineonel alloy 718 NA 718
Ineonel alloy 722 NA 69 ERNiCrFe-7
Inconel alloy X-750 NA 69 ERNiCrFe-7
Ineoloy alloy 800 182 (A) ENiCrFe-3 82 (625) ERNiCr-3
Ineoloy alloy 801 182 (A) ENiCrFe-3 82 (625) ERNiCr-3
Ineoloy alloy 825 135 (112) 62 (625)
Notes: 1, Electrodes are covered electrode for SMAW, Rods are solid bare for GTAW, GMAW, and SAW.
2, NA, not available; use GTAW only,
~Will not age harden.
TABLE17-22 WELDING PROCEDURESCHEDULESFORGTAW OF NICKEL ALLOYS
Tungsten Filler
No:Z~I£)Sl:Z~',
.
Weldihg
Material Thickness Electrode Rod
(or Flllet Site) Diameter, Diam~ter Inside Ourrent N\Jrnber'
Diamater (amps,,: ' of
"
Gauge in. mm Type of Weld in. mm In. mm In., 'DCeN) , Ptlsses
24 0.024 0.6 Square groove and fillet ;\ 1.6 None i 15 8-10 1 8

16 0.063 1.6 Square groove and fillet ~ 2.4 ;\ 1.6 i 18 25-45 1 8
i in. t
~ In.
0.125
0.25
3.2
6.4
Square groove and fillet
V-groove and fillet
i
i
3.2
3.2 ** 2.4
3.2
Notes: 1. Tungsten used; first choice, 2% thorlated EWTh2i second choice, 1% thorlated EWTh1. *
25
30
125-175
125-175
1
2
11
8
2. Adequate gas shielding is a must not only for the arc but also for heated metal. Backing gas is recommended at all times, A trailing
gas shield is also recommended. Argon is preferred, but for higher heat input on thicker material use argon-helium mixture.
3. Data are for flat position. Reduce amperage 10%-20% when welding is horizontal, vertical, or overhead position,
WELDING PROCEDURESCHEDULESFORGMAW OF NICKEL ALLOYS
ra In. 0.062 1.6 Square groove and fillet 14 1.2 200-250

tin. 0.125 3.2 Square groove and .flltet ~ . 1.6 ~90-340
lin. 0.250 6.4 Double V-groove and fillet 11 1.5
TABLE 17-24 PHYSICAL PROPERTIESOF THE REFRACTORYAND REACTIVE METALS
Melting Point Density Thermal Thermal

Crystal Conductivity Expansion'
f;:lement ' structure of °C Ib/ft3 gr/cc (cal/cm2/sec/o C) (jJ in.lin./o F)
Tungsten BCC 6,170 3,410 1,190 19.3 0.397 2.55

Tantalum BCC 5,425 2,996 1,035 16.6 0.130 3.6
Molybdenum BCC 4,730 2,610 650 9.0 0.34 2.7
Columbium BCC 4,474 2,567 524 8.4 0.125 4.06
Zirconium HCP 3,366 1,796 402 6.4 3.2
Beryllium HCP 2,332 1,377 114 1.8 0.35 6.4
Titanium HCP 3,035 1,668 281 4.5 4.67
erably higher than the melting point of the base metal. til all active gases are removed.A typical dry box welding
The oxidized coating may enter molten weld metal and chamber is shown in Figure 17-1.Welding is done in the
create discontinuities that reduce the strength and duc- pure inert atmosphere. The filler metal compositions
tility of the weld. Of the three reactive metals, titanium is should be the same as the base metal. The base metal in
the most popular and is routinely welded with special the heat-affected zone becomes embrittled by grain
precautions. growth and recrystallization as a result of the welding
All the refractory metals incur internal contamina- temperatures. Recrystallization raises the transition tem-
tion or surface erosion when exposed to the air at ele- perature so that molybdenum welds tend to be brittle.
vated temperatures. Molybdenum has an extremely high Molybdenum is highly notch sensitive; craters and notch
rate of oxidation at high temperatures above 1,500oP effects such as undercutting must be avoided. Molybde-
(816°C). Tungsten is much the same. Tantalum and num can also be welded with the resistance welding
columbium form pentoxides that are not volatile below processes and by diffusion welding.
25°F (23.9°C), but these provide little protection because Tungsten is welded in the same manner as molyb-
they are nonadherent. Molybdenum and tungsten both denum and has the same problems, only mote intensely
become embrittled when a minute amount of oxygen or so. It has greater susceptibility to cracking because the
nitrogen is absorbed. Columbium and tantalum can with- ductile-to-brittle transition temperatures are higher. The
stand larger amounts of oxygen and nitrogen. preparation of tungsten for welding Is more difficult. The
Titanium can Withstand much more oxygen Of ni- GTAW process is used with direct current electrode 'neg-
trogen before becoming embrlttled, however, small ative. Welding should be done slowly to avoid cracking.
amounts of hydrogen will cause embrittlement. Zirco- Preheating may assist in reducing cracking but must be
nium can withstand about as much oxygen but much less done in the inert gas atmosphere.
nitrogen or hydrogen. Beryllium is similar to zirconium in Commercially pure tantalum is soft and ductile and
this regard. does not seem to have a ductile-brittle transition. Several
alloys of tantalum are commercially available. Even
though the material is easier to weld, it should be well
Welding Refractory Metals cleaned and for best results should b welded in the inert
These metals must be perfectly clean prior to welding, gas chamber. The gas tungsten arc welding process is rec-
and they must be welded in such a manner that air does ommended. Some tantalum products are produced by
not come into contact with tile heated matertal. Cleaning powder metallurgy technology, and this may result in
is usually done with chemicals.A water rinse is necessary porosity in the weld. The arc cast product does not have
to remove all traces of chemicals from the stlrf3.E_c.After porosity Filler wire is normally not used when welding
t~epflrts.a~·e.cleaned,!they must ,be ~i'ote:ted fron1't_co:s;· tantalum, and for best results direct current electrode
l,dilttQU,1, his tS best done by stonngtn.an tnert gas ctiam· negative is used. High frequency should be .used for initio
'qt ina
bet vacuum ,chflmber. ating the at . Helium is recommended for welding tanta-
Molybdenum ls welded by the gas tungsten arc lum to provide for maximum p . netratlon since joints are
~elding process and the electron beam process, TIle gas designed to avoid using fill r metal. ,
'in tal ~l,rcprocess can b, used, but sufficient thickness of Several different alloys of columbrum (nioblum) are
UlQlybd,num is fateJy q.vaUable to justify this proces . It available. Some are ductile an 1 other brittle since the
";'h~~ hce.n weldcd.byo.t!lerarc processes, but resultsare transtnon temperarurc ts near room temperature.The gas
',not $at!sfacto:ry.weld1ijg WJ.th th¢' gas shielding processes tungsten arc welding process Isusedfor pure columbium
i .accompltshed in;~n Inert gas chamb r 01' dry box.Thi.s , and for the lower strength com.m rchll alloys. In certain
~' ,chnt}lber C~!lbe '-vac,uarea, and plJrged with inert gas 'Un· ::tlloysthe weldmgcal'l be done. outside an inert gas chatll~
CI'-'IAPTER 17
ing is extremely important; chemical cleaning is preferred
over mechanical cleaning. Both GTAW and GMAW are
used for joining zirconium.The inert gas chamber should
be employed to maintain an efficient gas shield. Argon or
argon-helium mixtures are used.The zircalloys are alloys
of zirconium, which contain small amounts of tin, iron,
and chromium.These alloys can be welded in the open in
much the same manner as titanium. Electron beam and re-
sistance welding have been used for joining zirconium.
The secret to the successful welding of titanium is
cleanliness, Small amounts of contamination can render a
titanium weld completely brittle. Contamination from
grease, oils, paint, fingerprints, 01' dirt can have the same
effect. If the material is cleaned thoroughly before weld-
ing and well protected during weleling, there is little dif-
flculty in the welding of titanium.
GTAW and GMAW can be used for welding tita-
(a)
nium ..Special procedures must be employed that include
the use of large gas nozzles and trailing shields to shield
the face of the weld from air. Backing bars that provide in-
ert gas to shield the back of the welds from air are used.
Not only the molten weld metal, but the material heated
above 1,OOO°F by the weld must be adequately shielded
to prevent embrittlement.
When using GTAW,a thortated tungsten electrode
should be used.The electrode size should be the smallest
diameter that will carry the welding current. The elec-
trode should be ground to a polnt.The electrode may ex-
tend lJi times its diameter beyond the end of the nozzle.
Welding is done with direct current electrode negative
(straight polarity).
Selection of the filler metal will depend on the tita-
nium alloys being joined. When welding .pure titanium,
pure titanium should be used. When welding a titanium
alloy, the next lower Strength alloy should be employed
(b)
as ~ filler wire. Due to the dllutlon that will take place ~dur-
FIGURE17-1 (a) Welding in a dry box; (b) Inflatable Ing welding, the weld deposit Will pick up. tho required
purge chamber. strength. The same constderarlons are true when GMAW
is used.
Argon Is normally used with the gas-shielded
bel', but special precautions should be taken to provide process. For thicker metal use helium ·01' a ~tu:re of ar-
extremely good inert gas shielding coverage. In certain of gon andhelium.The purtty of welding. grade gases is nor-
the alloys preheating is recommended to provide for a mally satisfactory; however, .tests carr be made before
crack-free weld. Electron beam welding is used, and welding. A Simple test is to make a bead on a piec of.
columbltun can be resistance welded. clean titanium scrap Clod nonce its color. The bead
should be shiny. t\llY disc()lortltion of the .surface i:nd~~
cates a contamination.
Reactive Metals Extra gas shielding provtdes protection for· the
Beryllium has been welded with the gas tung ten arc heated solid metal next 1:0 the weld metal.1'his shielding
'Welding process and with the gas metal arc welding is provided by special trailing gas nozzles (Ftg1.1re1'':'2)
process. It is also. joined by brazing. Beryllium should not 01' by chill bars laid jUlIilediately next to the weld,13ac~tlp
be welded Without expert technical assistance. Beryllium gas shielding· should be provtded to protect th¢ \.lnder~:..
is a toxic metal.and extra special precautions. should be .sideQf the weld joint. ProtecUo-n..of :the.babk ~d~~of: tlu;: .'.
. Pto'Vtded:for proper veatilanon and handling. joint can also be p.1'oVided by placitlS
€i'lUibar~rtill.ntimat~' '
Zirconium and ztrconium-tinalloys are ductile met- contact with the ba~king strips. If the colita ,t is close.
al~ and can be prepared by conventional pr cesses. ctean- enough, backlij) sbielding gas 1SJ,ot .requi1;edi FotcritJ .
., "-.' j ,." ':-.. '-o~ c. ,,,-. >.-';' :._. ""~',' ~ '- ;-1.'1 _'-:.; i~:-~'
not be used, the grinding should be done slowly to avoid
overheating the surface of the titanium.
Table 17- 25 gives procedure schedules for welding
titanium. Joint types that are satisfactory for stainless steel
should be used. Consult the International Titanium Asso-
ciation regarding difficult welding problems (address in
Appendix).
17-6 OTHER NONFERROUS

METALS
This section covers the welding of the low-melting-point
metals, lead and zinc, and the precious metals, silver, gold,
and platinum. Lead has one of the lowest melting temper-
atures. It melts at 621°F (328°C) and boils at 3,092°F
(l,700°C).It is very soft and very ductile.When freshly cut
(a) its surface has a bright silvery luster that almost immedi-
ately oxidizes to a dull gray. It is available in sheet form and
is used as a liner for tanks because of its corrosion resis-
tance.particularly to sulfuric acid.It is also available in pipe.
Lead is normally joined by the oxyacetylene or oxy-
fuel gas torch, which for this reason has erroneously been
called lead burning. Lead can also be welded with the gas
tungsten arc welding process. Since lead is usually in thin
sheets, the square butt and lap joints are the most com-
monly used. The surface of the lead at the welding area
should be cleaned. Filler metal can be obtained by shear-
ing strips of the base metal.
Sufficient heat is obtained to melt the surface of the
base metal and the filler rod when used. When using gas
tungsten arc a long arc is recommended to reduce the ac-
tual heat in the joint. A few difficulties can be encoun-
tered when welding lead. Its popularity and use is
declining, and for this reason the joining of lead is of mi-
nor importance. Proper ventilation is required.
Zinc is very similar to lead except that it is not as
heavy. Zinc is widely used as a coating on steel, which is
called galvanized steel. Zinc also has a tough oxide coat-
ing that must be removed prior to welding.The major use
of zinc where welding is involved is as high-zinc die cast-
(b) ings. Die castings of this type are commonly used for au-
tomotive grills and for decorative trim. For decorative
FIGURE'17-2 (a) Trailing shield on welding torch; trim and grills, the zinc may be chromium plated. It is Im-
(0) Visible, nozzle with improved gas shielding.~ portant to distinguish zinc die castings from aluminum
'\ and magnesium alloy' castings. Zinc has a weight in the
same order as steel. In additton.zinc has a Ught gray ap-
a.pplications use all inert gas welding chamber. These can pearance that is rather easy to identify~
etch 17 be flexible, .rigid, or vacuum purge chambers. The oxyacetylene or oxyfuel gas torch method is
To guarantee that embrtttlernent of the weld will used to weld zinc alloys, particularly the die castings. The
1')0 ·OCCUt, proper cleaning steps mustbe taken. Solvents technique is essentially the same as for lead. The filler
. 5!ontajniJig, cbloritle should not be used, Recommended metal for matching zinc .die castings is difficult to obtain
: solvents would be trhltcoholor acetone.Titanium can be and for this reason it may be necessary to manufacture it.
. grol..Jt1d.withdi.$ks of alummumoxlde or silicon carbide. One way is to melt down the bodies of carburetors and
;'"Wct fleindi uS jS .pref~t:red
.-.,' . . --- .,. -.
,
!h.owcver, if WI t .grlndtng
.
can~ pour into it, groove.
formed when an angle iron' is pos!-
'
CHAeTER 17
TABLE 17-25 WELDING PROCEDURE SCHEDULES FOR GTAW OF TITANIUM
Tungsten Filler
Nozzle Size, Welding
Material Thickness Electrode Rod
Inside Shielding Current Number Travel Speed
(or Fillet Size) Diameter Diameter
Diameter Gas Flow (amps of per Pass
Gauge in. mm Type of Weld in. r:nm in. mm in. (ft3/hr) DCEN) Passes (in.zmin)
24 0.024 0.6 Square groove and fi Ilet ,\ 1.6 None i 18 20-35 1 6

16 0.063 1.6 Square groove and fillet ,\ 1.6 None i 18 85-140 1 6
i2 in. 0.093 1.6 Square groove and fi Ilet ~ 2.4 ,\ 1.6 5
8 25 170-215 1 8
1\ in. 0.125 3.2 Square groove and fillet ~ 2.4 ,\ 1.6 i 25 190-235 1 8
fa in. 0.188 4.8 Square groove and fillet 3
32 2.4 1
8 3.2 5
6" 25 220-280 2 8
! in. 0.25 6.4 V-groove and fillet i 3.2 i 3.2 i 30 275-320 2 8
i in. 0.375 9.5 V-groove and fi lIet i 3.2 i 3.2 i 35 300-350 2 6
! in. 0.50 12.7 V-groove and fi lIet i 3.2 3\ 3.9 i 40 325-425 3 6
Notes: 1. Tungsten used; first choice, 2% thoriated EWTh2; second choice, 1% thoriated EWTh 1.
2. Use filler metal one or two grades lower in strength than the base metal.
3. Adequate gas shielding is a must not only for the arc but also heated metal. Backing gas is recommended at all times. A trailing gas
shield is also recommended. Argon is preferred for higher heat input; on thicker material use argon-helium mixture.
4. Without backup or chill bar, decrease current 20%
tioned with the point down. These alloys contain ap- gen and nitrogen. Filler metal normally used for brazing
proximately 10% aluminum, 1% to 2.l2% copper, a trace of can be used. Silver is used for jewelry and tableware, but
magnesium, and the remainder zinc. also for industrial applications where tanks are lined with
For welding die castings the joint must be prepared sheet silver for the chemical industry.
With an extra wide root angle approaching 90°. The part The oxyacetylene or oxyfuel gas torch has been
should be positioned and braced in position. If the part is widely used for welding silver. Silver is also. dad to other
chrome plated, the plating should be removed adjacent metals for chemical vessels.The gas tungsten arc welding
to the welding area.The surfaces to. be welded should be process can also be used for welding silver, and in this
cleaned by wire brushing, sanding, and filing. In addition, case direct current electrode negative is employed. The
the filler metal should be cleaned by sanding. A small torch or tungsten must be sufficiently small to match the
torch should be used with only sufficient heat to. melt the welding job, Procedure data for welding pure copper can
Surface and the filler rod. The filler rod is handled in the be used to. establish starting points for a silver welding
same manner as with lead welding. procedure. Silver is also brazed and soldered.
The GTAW process can also be used for welding Gold is one of the most expensive metals; therefore,
Zinc die-casting alloys. When using the gas tungsten parts to be welded are unusually thin or of a small Intrt-
torch, a small tungsten diameter and low current should cate shape. Gold can be soldered or brazed, and it may be
be employed, Sufficient heat should be maintained to. cold or pressure welded. It is normally welded with the
melt the surface of the work being welded. The filler rod oxyfuel gas process using the small torch.
is moved in and out of the molten pool, normally on the Platinum is used in the chemical industry and in the
leading edge. If the part is unusually shaped, it may be glass industry for making filaments for fiberglass ,Welding
necessary to. back it up to maintain the shape of the part. is often required and is normally accomplished by the
Proper ventilation is required. oxyacetylene oroxytuel gas and the gas tungsten arc
welding process. The other precious metals of the plat.
inum group can be welded in the same manner. All tb
Welding the Precious Metals precious metals can be resistance welded! In .spite of
Silver is welded in much the same manner as copper their high conductivlry The plasma arc welding process
Since it has a high conductivity and a low affinity foroxy- can also be used.
QUESTIONS " .-
1'7·1. ~plaio the aluminum designation system of alloys '17·3. Whata~ the two most pop-ula:rproo~s~for::wel(.llng
and tempers. .. alumin1J1'll?Whete15 eachused! . .',. '
17·2. What propernes of aluminum make it different from l74. Of all of tlie f'acto:rs invelv d in welding alumbi\.urt,
welding steel? E~plain. ' whtch one is the most imp rt'lnt? '.
17-5. What are the properties of copper and its alloys that 17-13. What welding processes are used to join titanium in
make welding difficult? the open'
17-6. What is the effect of zinc in copper alloys on welding? 17-14. What is the most important factor to consider when
17-7. What problem does magnesium oxide present when welding titanium?
welding magnesium? 17-15. What precautions must be taken when welding lead?
17-8. Welding nickel and high-nickel alloys is similar to 17-16. What filler metal is used for lead?Where is it obtained?
welding what other metals? 17-17. Can zinc die castings be welded? How?
17-9. Why should the bevel or groove angles be increased 17-18. What precautions must be taken when welding zinc?
for nickel alloys? 17-19. Silver is welded in much the same way as what other
17-10. What welding process is most widely used for weld- metal?
ing nickel alloys? 17-20. What processes are commonly used to join gold?
17-11. What are the reactive metals? Why are they difficult
to weld?
17-12. What precautions should be taken when welding
beryllium or its alloys?
REFERENCES
1. "Aluminum Standards and Data," the Aluminum Associa- 5. "Standards Handbook Wrought Copper and Copper Al-
tion, New York. loy Mill Products, Part 2: Alloy Data," Copper Develop-
2. "Welding Kaiser Aluminum," Kaiser Aluminum and ment Association. New York.
Chemical Sales, Oakland, Calif. 6. "Joining Magnesium," The Dow Metal Products Com-
3. "Welding Alcoa Aluminum," Aluminum Company of pany, Midland, Mich.
America, Pittsburgh, Pa. 7. "Joining Huntington Alloys," The International Nickel
4. "Welding Aluminum," Reynolds Metals Company, Rich- Company, Huntington, W.Va.
mond.Va.
-, />;. -.~---
"~,_ ,t,
j.
CHAPTER .17
OUTLINE Gray cast iron is used in the automotive industry for
18-1· Cast Iron and Other Irons engine blocks and heads, automatic transmission hous-
1&-2 Tool Steels ings, differential housings, water pump housings, brake
18~3 Reinforcing Bars drums, and engine pistons. There are exceptions but the
·18-4 C-oated Steels exceptions are usually aluminum, which is readily identi-
fiable from cast iron.
18-5 Other Metals
There are also alloy cast trons that contain small
18-6 Clad Metals amounts of chromium, nickel, molybdenum, copper, or
18-1 Dissimilar Metals other elements added to provide specific properties.
These usually provide higher-strength cast irons. One of
the major uses for the higher-strength irons is casting au-
tomotive crankshafts. These are sometimes called semi-
18-1 CAST IRON steel or bear proprietary names.
Another alloy iron Is the austenitic cast iron,
AND OTHER IRONS which is modified by additions of nickel and other ele-
The term cast iron is a rather broad description of many ments to reduce the transformation temperature so that
types of irons that are castings but may have different the structure is austenitic at room or normal tempera-
properties and serve different purposes. In general, a cast tures.Austenltic cast irons have a high degree of corro-
iron is an alloy of iron, carbon, and silicon in which more sion resistance. .
carbon is present than can be retained in solid solution in Another type of cast iron is known as umtte cast
austenite at the Eutectic temperature. The amount of car- iron, in which almost all the carbon is in the combined
bon is usually more than I. 7% and less than 4.5%.There are form. TI1is provides a cast ·iron with higher hardness,
many types of cast iron. The most widely used types of cast which is used for abrasion resistance.
iron are known as gray and ductile iron. Their combined Malleable cast iron is made by giving white cast
tonnage production exceeds that of any other cast metal. iron a special annealing heat treatment to hang the
Gray iron has a variety of compositions but it is usu- structure of the carbon In the Iron, By so doing, the struc-
ally such that the matrix structure is primarily pearlite ture ischanged topearlitic or ferritic, which increases its
With many graphite flakes dispersed throughout. These dtlctiIity
graphite flakes provide the characteristic "gray" appear. Two other classes of ast iron are more ductile than
ance of the fracture.The graphite flakes promote machin- gray .cast iron. These M~ known as nodular iron and
ability, which is one of the primary advantages of gray ductile cast imn.These are made by the addition of mag-
cast iron. Another advantage is the ability to cast material nesium or aluminum, which will ither tie ~p the carbon
~lltocomplex sbapes.with relatively thin walls. Gmy cast ill a combined 'state' 'Orwill gtye the free, Ct:ltbOlla. spheri~' (: '
tron is the least expensive metal formaking many parts ... cal or nodular shape rltther than the 'rtoril1atf1aK~ sh~pe
Gray cast iron, also. has good resistance to wear and has a in gray cast iron. This structure provides it greater d g~e'
damping ffeet for vibration. of duc,tility or malleabtltw of the casttng,
I·
Cast irons are used in many industries, and they are expansion and contraction, which sets up tensile
popular because of their ease of casting, the ease of ma- stresses during the contraction period. For this reason,
chining, and the relative low cost.They are widely used in gray cast iron is difficult to weld without special precau-
agricultural equipment, for bases, brackets, covers; on ma- tions. The cast irons that stabilize the graphite in the
chine tools; and for pipe fittings and cast iron pipe. Cast round spheroid shape, such as malleable iron, ductile
iron is not used in structural work except for compres- iron, and nodular iron, can be welded successfully. For
sion members. best results, these types of cast irons should be welded
Cast irons, particularly gray cast irons, are covered in the annealed condition.
by ASTM specification A48, which establishes seven Welding is used to repair casting defects in new
classes based on the tensile strength of the material. iron castings, to repair castings that have broken in ser-
These range from 20,000 psi (14.5 kg/mrrr') tensile and vice, and to join castings to each other or to steel parts in
150 Brinell hardness number to 40,000 psi (28.5 kg/mnr') manufacturing operations. Table 18-1 shows the welding
and 250 Brinell hardness number. The cast irons above processes that can be used for welding cast, malleable,
40,000 psi (28.5 kg/mrrr') tensile strength are considered and nodular irons. The selection of the welding process
high-strength irons and are more expensive and more dif- and the welding filler metals depends on the type of weld
ficult to machine. Cast iron is twice as strong in com- properties desired and the expected service life.The filler
pression than in tension. Other ASTM specifications are metal will have an effect on the color match of the weld
used to describe other classes of cast iron, but these are compared to the base material. The color match can be a
primarily with respect to the end use of the material. determining factor in the salvage or repair of castings,
where a difference of color would not be acceptable.
No matter which welding process is selected, cer-
Welding the Cast Irons tain preparatory steps should be made. It is important to
Gray cast iron. has a low ductility. Possibly a maximum of determine the exact type of cast iron to be welded. If ex-
2% ductility will be obtained in the extreme low carbon act information is not known, it is best to assume that it
range. The low ductility is due to the presence of the is gray cast iron with little or no ductility. This would err
graphite flakes, which act as discontinuities. In most on the side of safety so that a successful repair weld
welding processes the heating and cooling cycle creates would be obtained.
TABLE 18-1 WELDING PROCESSES AND FILLER METALS FOR CAST IRON
.wel~1ng Process and Filler Metal Color Machinable

.Flller Metal Type. Specs Filler Metal Typea Match Dsposlt
MAW (stick)
Cast iron E-CI Cast iron Good Yes
Copper-ti nb ECuSn A and C Copper-5% or 8% tin No Yes
Copper-aluminum" ECuAI-A2 Copper-lO% aluminum No Yes
Mild steel E-St Mild steel Fair No
Nickel ENi-CI Hign-nickel alloy No Yes
Nlckel-Iron ENiFe-CI 50% nickel plus iron No Yes
Nickel-copper ENiCu-A and B 55% or 65% Ni + 40% or 30% No Yes
Oxyfuel gas
Cast iron RCI & A and 8 Cast iron, with minor alloys Good Yes
Copper-Zinc'' RCuZn Band C 58% copper-zinc. No Yes
BrazingC
Copper-zinc RBCuZn A & 0 --",,\copper-Zinc and copper-zinc-nickel No Yes
J~MAW (MIG)
Mild steel E60S-3 Mild steel Fair No
Copp~r base? ECuZn-C Silicon bronze No Yes
N lckel-copper ENiCu-B High-nickel alloy No Yes
FCAW
, 'Mild,steei E70T-7 Mild steel Fair No
" Niokel
' ..
type No spec 50% nickel plus iron No Yes
·aSl1e ilSlle~'lfication for~fllldjng Electrodesand.Rodsfor Cast Iron." AWSA5.1S
bWogldbe considereda bra$$weld, . ,
CHeat SOurce, ~!1Yfor bra~ingi,~I.so carbon-arc, twin carbon arc, gas tungsten arc, or plasma arc.
4,64 CHAPTER ·18

In general it is not recommended to weld-repair gray trodes, covered copper-base alloy electrodes, covered
iron castings that are subjected to repeated heating and nickel-base alloy electrodes, and mild steel-covered elec-
cooling in normal service. At least it should not be used trodes. There are reasons for using each of the different
when heating and cooling vary over a range of tempera- types: the machinability of the deposit, the color match of
tures exceeding 400°F (204°C). The reason is that unless the deposit, the strength of the deposit, and the ductility
cast iron is used as the filler material, the weld metal and of the final weld.
base metal may have different coefficients of expansion When arc welding with cast iron electrodes (BCI),
and contraction. This will contribute to internal stresses preheat to between 250 and 800 P (121 and 425°C), de-
0
that gray cast iron cannot withstand. Repair of these types pending on the size and complexity of the casting and the
of castings can be made, but the reliability and service life need to machine the deposit and adjacent areas. The
of such repairs cannot be predicted with accuracy. higher the degree of heating, the easier it will be to ma-
chine the weld deposit. In general, it Is best to use small
electrodes and a relatively low current setting.A medium
Preparation for Welding arc length should be used, and if at all possible welding
In preparing the casting for welding, it is necessary to re- should be done in the flat position. Wandering or skip
move all surface contaminants to completely clean the welding procedures should be used, and peening will
casting in the area of the weld. This means removing help reduce stresses and will minimize distortion. Slow
paint, grease, oil, and other foreign material from the weld cooling after welding is recommended. These electrodes
Zone. It is desirable to heat the weld area for a short time provide an excellent color match on gray iron. The
to remove entrapped gas from the weld zone of the base strength of the weld will equal the strength of the base
metal. Additionally, the skin or high-silicon surface should metal.
be removed adjacent to the weld area on both the face There are two types of copper-base electrodes, the
and root side. copper-tin alloy (ECuSn-A and C) and the copper-
Where grooves are involved, a V-groove from a 60° aluminum (ECuAI-A2) types.The copper-zinc alloys can-
to 90° included angle should be used. Complete penetra- not be used for arc welding electrodes because of the low
tion welds should always be used since a crack or defect boiling temperature of zinc. Zinc will volatilize in the arc
not removed completely may quickly reappear under and will cause weld metal porosity The copper tin elec-
service conditions. trodes will produce a bronze weld with good ductility'The
Preheating is desirable for welding. It can be re- ECuSn·A has a lower amount of tin. It is more of a general-
duced when using extremely ductile filler metal. Preheat- purpose electrode. The ECuSn-C provides a stronger de-
ing will reduce the thermal gradient between the weld posit with higher hardness. The copper-aluminum alloy
and the remainder of the cast iron. Preheat temperatures electrode (BCuA1-A2) provides much stronger welds and
should be related to the welding process, the filler metal is used on the higher-strength alloy cast irons.
type, the mass, and the complexity of the casting. When the copper-base electrodes are used, a pre-
Preheating can be done by any normal method. heat of250 to 400°F (121 to 204°C) is recommended, and
Torch heating is normally used for relatively small cast- small electrodes and low current should be used, The
ings weighing 30 Jb (13.6 kg) or less. Larger parts may be welding technique should be to direct the arc against the
f\Jrnace preheated, and in Some cases temporary furnaces deposited metal or puddle to avoid penetration and mix-
are built around the part rather than taking the part to a ing the base metal with the weld metal. Slow cooling is
furnace. Preheating should be general since it helps to im- recommended after welding.The copper-base Iectrodes
prove the ductility of the material and will spread shrink- do not provide a color match.
age stresses over a large area to avoid critical stresses at Three types of nickel electrodes are used forwelc;l~
anyone point. It tends to help soften the area adjacent to Ing cast iron. The ENiFe-Cl contains approximately 50%
the weld and assists in degassing the casting. This in turn nickel with iron, the ENiCl contains about 85% nickel, and
reduces the possibility of porosity of the deposited weld the ENiCu type contains nickel and, copper. The ENiFeCl
.metal and also increases welding speed. electrode is Ids expensive and provides results approxl-
Slow cooling or postheating improves the machin- mately equal to the high-nickel electrode: These elec-,
ability of the heat-affected zone in the cast iron adjacent trodescan be used without preheat; however, heating'to
·tQ the weld. The postcoohng shouldbe as slow as possi- 100°F (38°C) is recommend d. TI1C$e electrodes Cat). be
ble. Often this is done by covering the casting with insu- used inall positions; however, the (lat position' is recom-
lating materials to keep the air or breezes from it. mended. The welding slag should be removed between
. passes.The nickel and nickel-tron depoc its areextr mely
duottle and will not be ·ome· brittle witb the carbon .
Arc Welding c
The
pie1}up. hardness of the heaNtftect~d foneoan·be :~>
'r4e shielded metal arc welding process can be used. Four mmtmlzed by reducing penetration i~ro the cast lrol't ..
types of filler metals may be used:' cast iron-covered elee- base metal.The techntqu mentioned previo\lsly~that lsI
Welding Spe ialand Dissimilar Metals

playing the arc on the puddle rather than on the base arc, the gas tungsten arc, and the plasma arc can all be
metal-will help minimize dilution. Slow cooling and, if used as sources of heat.Two brazing filler metal alloys are
necessary, postheating will improve machinability of the normally used, both copper-zinc alloys; see Table 18-1
heat-affected zone.The nickel-base electrodes do not pro- for specification for the brazing alloys.
vide a close color match. Braze welding can also be used to join cast iron. In
The copper-nickel type comes in two grades: the braze welding the filler metal is not drawn into the joint
ENiCu-A with 55% nickel and 40% copper and the ENiCu- by capillary attraction. This is sometimes called bronze
B with 65% nickel and 30% copper. Either of these elec- we/ding. The filler material having liquidus above 850°F
trodes can be used in the same manner as the nickel or (454°C) should be used. Braze welding will not provide a
nickel-iron electrode with about the same technique and color match.
results. The deposits of these electrodes do not provide a Braze welding can also be accomplished by the
color match. shielded metal arc and the gas metal arc welding pro-
Mild steel electrodes (E St) or other low H2 mild cesses. High-temperature preheating is not usually re-
steel are not recommended for welding cast iron if the de- quired for braze welding unless the part is extremely heavy
posit is to be machined.The mild steel deposit will pick up or complex in geometry. The bronze weld metal deposit
sufficient carbon to make a high-carbon deposit that is dif- has extremely high ductility, which compensates for the
ficult to machine. AdditionaUy, the mild steel deposit will lack of ductility of the cast iron.The reason for not requir-
have a reduced level of ductility as a result of increased ing high-temperature preheat is the desire to avoid inter-
carbon content.This type of electrode should be used only mix of base metal with the filler metal.The heat of the arc
for small repairs. Small electrodes at low current are rec- is sufficient to bring the surface of the cast iron up to atern-
ommended to minimize dilution and to avoid the concen- perature at which the copper-base filler metal alloy will
tration of shrinkage stresses. Short welds employing a make a bond to the cast iron. Since there is little or no in-
wandering sequence should be used, and the weld should termixing of the materials, the zone adjacent to the weld in
be peened as quickly as possible after welding. The mild the base metal is not appreciably hardened. The weld and
steel electrode deposit provides a fair color match. adjacent area are machinable after the weld is completed.
In general, a 200° F (93 ° C) preheat is sufficient for most
applications.The cooling rate is not extremely critical, and
Oxyfuel Gas Welding a stress relief heat treatment is not usually required. This
The oxyfuel gas process is often used for welding cast type of welding is commonly used for repair welding of au-
iron. The flame should be neutral to slightly reducing. tomotive parts, agricultural implement parts, and even au-
Flux should be used. Two types of filler metals are avail- tomotive engine blocks and heads. It can be used only
able: the cast iron rods (RCI and A and B) and the copper when the absence of color match is not objectionable.
zinc rods Ol.CuZn-B and C).
Welds made with the proper cast iron electrode will
be as strong as the base metal. The RCI classification is Gas Metal Arc Welding
used for ordinary gray cast tron. The RCI-A has small The gas metal arc welding process can be used for mak-
amounts of alloy and is used for the high-strength alloy ing welds between malleable iron and carbon steels. Sev-
cast irons, and the RCI·B is used for welding malleable and eral types of electrode Wires can be used, including:
nodular cast iron. Good color match is provided by all
these welding rods, The optimum welding procedure • Mild steel (E70S-3) using 100% CO~, 75% argon +
should be used with regard to joint preparation, preheat, 25% CO2 for shielding
and postheat, • Nickel-copper (ENiCu-B) using 100% argon tor
The copper-zinc rods produce bronze welds.There shielding
are two classifications; R uZn-.B, which is a mangan se • Silicon bronze (ECuZn-C) using 50% argon + 50%
bronze, and RCuZn·C, which is a Iow-funung bn nze.Th helium for shielding
broil~e.·de.posited has relatively high ductility but ~l not • Nickel-copper-iron (ER Ni-CI) USing argon for
provide a color match. .. \ shielding ,
..
In all cases, small-diameter electrode Wire should
Brazing and Braze Welding be used at low current.With the mild steel electrode wire
nrazLttg is u ed for [oinlng cast iron to cast iron and steels. the argon ...C02 shielding-gas mixture is used to minimize
tn,thesc cas 5, the joint d Sign must b selected for braz- penetration. In the case of the mckel-base filler metal and
infJ so tbatJ~apill. t~~raction causes the filler metal
to tlow the copper-base filler metal, the filler metal deposited is
.between. Closely fi.ttit)g parts.' ne torch method is nor- extremely ductile. The-rnlld steel provides a fair color
·n ..aUy used; how' vel', any of th~ -orher heating methods match. A higher preheat is usually required to reduce
can be us d. 111 ~'ldition,Jhe carbon arc, the twin carbon restdual stresses and era ~ilfg tendencies .
. 1
'466 .' CHAPTER 16

, .;
Other welding processes can also be used for cast
Flux-Cored Arc Welding iron. Thermite welding has been used for repairing cer-
This process can be used for welding cast irons.The more tain types of cast iron machine tool parts. The procedure
successful application has been using a nickel-base flux- is identical to that used for welding steel except that a
cored wire, which produces a weld metal deposit very special thermite mixture is required. Flash welding can
similar to the 50% nickel deposit provided by the also be used for welding cast iron. See "Guide for Welding
ENiFeCI covered electrode. This electrode wire is nor- Iron Castings"AWS D11.2.
mally operated with CO2 shielding gas, but when lower
mechanical properties are not objectionable, it can be op-
erated without external shielding gas. The minimum pre-
heat temperatures can be used. The technique should
18-2 TOOL STEELS
minimize penetration into the cast iron base metal. Steels used for making tools, punches, and dies are per-
Postheating is normally not required. A color match is not haps the hardest, strongest, and toughest steels used in in-
Obtained. dustry. It is obvious that tools used for working steels
Flux-cored, self-shielding electrode wires (E60T-7), must be stronger and harder than the steels they cut or
operating with electrode negative (straight polarity), form.The metallurgical characteristics or compositions of
have also been used for certain cast iron to mild steel ap- tool steels are extremely complex and beyond the scope
plications. In this case, a minimum penetration-type weld of this book. Tools and dies wear and are damaged, but
is obtained and by the proper technique penetration they can be repaired and returned to service. In addition,
should be kept to a minimum. It is not recommended for certain tools and dies can be fabricated by welding. Re-
deposits that must be machined or use ENCFeT-3-CI. pairing damaged tools and dies and the fabrication by
Table 18-1 provides a summary ofwelcling processes welding of dies will save money.
for joining cast iron. For manufacturing operations it is Hundreds of different makes and types of tool steels
highly recommended that a welding procedure be devel- are available.and each has a specific composition and end
Oped utilizing the process selected and that service-t-ype use. The Society of Automotive Engineers, in cooperation
tests be made prior to using the process on a particular with the American Iron and Steel Institute, has estab-
product. Ingeneral, those cast irons having maximum duc- lished a classification system that relates to the use of the
tility are those that can be most successfully welded.Thus material and its composition or type of heat treatment
malleable iron, nodular iron, and ductile iron can be welded (Table 18-2). In general, tool steels are basically medium-
for many applications.The most successful welds would be to high-carbon steels with specific elements in different
those that provide an extremely ductile weld deposit. amounts to provide special characteristics.The carbon in
TABLE 18-2
- ABRIDGED CHART OF TOOL STEEL TYPES
AISt·SAE
Type
WI Water hardening 0.60
W2 0.60 0.25
S1 0.50 1.50 2.50
S5 Shock resisting 0.55 0.40 0.80 Mn
2.00 Si
S7 0.50 3.25 1.40
01 Oit hardening 0.90 0.50 0.50
06 1.45 0.25 . 1.00 Si
A2 Cold work 1.00 5.00 1.00
A4 Medium-alloy air hardening 1.00 1.00 1.00 ' 2.00 MI'l
D2 Cold work, high carbon, high chromium 1.50 12.00 1.00
Ml Cold work 0.80 4.00 1.00 1.50 8.00
M2 Molybdenum 0.85 4.00 2.00 6.00. 5.00
MIO 0.90 4.00 2.00 8.00
Hll Hot work 0.35 5.00 0.40 1.50
H12 Chromium 0.35 5.00 0.40 1.50 1.50
H13 0.35 5.00 1.00 ; 1.50
P20 Pie-casting mold \ , 0.35 1.25 0.40
. Welding Spedal and DIssii:nll~r'MetaJ,s

the tool steel is provided to help harden the steel for cut- IV steels are used to make dies that work under heavy
ting and wear resistance. Other elements are added to pressure and that produce a flow of metal or other mate-
provide greater toughness or strength. rial compressing it into the desired form. This includes
The addition of alloys produces different effects. crimping dies, embossing dies, heading dies, extrusion
Chromium produces deeper hardness penetration in heat dies, and staking dies. It is important to understand and
treatment and contributes wear resistance and tough- have sufficient information concerning the composition
ness. Cobalt is used in high-speed steels and increases the of the tool or die, the type of heat treatment it has re-
red hardness so that they can be used at higher operating ceived, and the type of work it performs.
temperatures. Manganese in small amounts is used to aid As far as welding is concerned, four basic types of
in making steel sound, and further additions help steel to die steels are weld repairable: water-hardening dies, oil-
harden deeper and more quickly in heat treatment. It also hardening dies, air-hardening dies, and hot work tools.
helps to lower the quenching temperature necessary to High-speed tools can also be repaired. In tool and die
harden steels. Larger amounts of manganese in the range welding it is not always necessary for the filler metal used
1.20% to 1.60% allow steels to be oil quenched rather to provide a deposited weld metal that exactly matches
than water quenched. Molybdenum increases the hard- the analysis of the tool steel being welded. It is necessary,
ness penetration in heat treatment and reduces quench- however, that the weld metal deposited match the heat
ing temperatures. It also helps increase red hardness and treatment of the tool or die steel as closely as possible.
wear resistance. Nickel adds toughness and wear resis- Thus, selection of the proper electrode is based on
tance to steel and is used in conjunction with hardening matching the heat treatment of the tool or die steel.
elements. Tungsten added to the steel increases its wear No specifications cover the composition of tool and
resistance and provides red hardness characteristics: Ap- die welding electrodes. However, all manufacturers of
proximately 1. 5% increases wear resistance, and about 4% these electrodes provide information concerning each,
in combination with high carbon will greatly increase showing the type of tool or die steels for which it is de-
wear resistance. Tungsten in large quantities with signed. They also provide the properties of the weld
chromium provides red hardness.Vanadium in small quan- metal that is deposited. Welding filler metal is not avail-
tities increases the toughening effect and reduces grain able to match the composition of each and every tool
size. Vanadium in amounts over 1% produces extreme steel composition or to match the specific heat treatment
wear resistance especially to high-speed steels. Smaller of each tool or die steel. However, tool anddie electrodes
amounts of vanadium in conjunction with chromium and are available that match the different categories of tool
tungsten aid in Increasing red hardness properties. and die steels. Assistance can be obtained from the cata-
The tool steels are designed for special purposes logs of electrodes for tool and die welding or by consult-
that are dependent on composition. Certain tool steels ing with representatives of the companies that
are made for producing die blocks; some are made for manufacture them. If the identification of the electrodes
producing molds, others are made for hot working, and is lost, it is possible to use the spark test in matching the
still others for high-speed cutting applications. The other electrode to the tool steel. A comparison Is made of the
way for classifying tool steels is according to the type of sparks from the tool or die steel to be welded and. com-
quench required to harden the steel. The most severe pared with the spark pattern of the welding electrode.
quench is the water quench (water-hardening steels). A The matching spark patterns will be the guide 01' basis for
less severe quench is the oil quench obtained by cooling selection of the electrode.
in oil paths (oil-hardening steelsj.The least drastic quench Successful tool and die welding depends on the se-
is cooling in air (air-hardening steels). lection or development of a welding procedure and weld-
Tool steels cart also be classifted according to the ing sequence. It is beyond the scope of this chapter to
work that is to be done by the tool. This is based on class outline specific welding procedures to be employed for
numbers, Class 1 steels are used to make tools that work each classification of tool steel using each type of tool
by a shearing or cutting action, such as cutoff dies, shear- and die welding filler metal. Normally, manufacturers of
ing dies. blank.1ng dies, and trimming dies. Classlf'~elS filler metal will provide speciflc procedure sheets per-
are used to make tools that produce the desired shape of taining to the different products they offer. These should
the part by causing the material being worked.either bot be carefully followed. .
or cold, to flow under pressure. This includes drawing In general, weld deposits of tool and die electrodes
dles, forlntng dies,repuclng dies, and forging dies. This are sufficiently hard in the as-welded condition, If the
class also Includes plastic molds and die cast molding welded tools or dies lend themselves to grinding, treat-
In
dies. The class steels are used to make tools that act on ment other than tempering is not required. However, if ma-
~elilatedal beitlS W9i'l<:ed by partlallyor wholly reform- . chining is requlred.the weld deposits should be annealed
cb:ang
fng· itWitl;lol.Tt ,S··the actual dimensions. This in- and heat tJ;cated after machining.The hardness of the weld
Iudes bendmg c!jes,.folding dles.and twisting dies, Class , deposit will vary in accordance with the following:
l'
i
, CHAP
• Preheat temperature, if used One of the major problems is proper preparation of
• Welding technique and sequence the part for repair welding. When makinglarge repairs to
worn cutting edges or surfaces, the damaged area should
• Mixture or dilution of the weld metal with base
be ground sufficiently under size to allow a uniform
metal
depth of finished deposit of at least 1/8 in. (3.2 mm). In
• Rate of cooling, which depends on the mass of the some cases very small weld deposits are made using the
tool being welded gas tungsten arc welding process to build up a worn or
• Tempering temperature of the welded tool or die damaged edge or corner. It is important to provide a uni-
after welding formly thick weld deposit that will be refinished to the
original dimensions. This ensures a more uniform hard-
Uniform hardness of the as-welded deposit is ob-
ness throughout the deposit. For inlay deposit or other
tained if the temperature of the tool or die is maintained
overlay work a thickness of 3/16 in. (4.8 mm) is required.
constant during the welding operation. The temperature
When preheating the part to be repaired, observe
of the tool being welded should never exceed the maxi-
the "draw temperature range" of the base metal.The pre-
mum of the draw range temperature for the particular
heat temperature should slightly exceed the minimum of
class of tool steel being welded. The manufacturer's rec-
the draw range, and the interpass temperature should
ommendation should be followed with respect to those
never exceed the maximum of the draw range of the par-
temperatures.
ticular tool steel. Exceeding the maximum draw range will
The welding procedure for repair welding of tools
reduce the hardness of the tool by softening it. Table 18-3
and dies should consist of at least the following factors:
provides recommended preheat temperatures to be em-
• Identification of the tool steel being welded ployed on the popular types of tool steels.
Most of tbe tool and die SMAWwelding electrodes
• Selection of the filler metal to match the same class
are used with DC electrode positive or with alternating
of material or heat treatment
current. The recommended currents for each different
• Establishing the correct joint detail for the repair size should be provided with the electrode manufac-
and preparing the joint turer's technical data. For malting tool and die welds, a
• Preheating the workpiece slow travel is recommended to maintain an even deposit
• Making the weld deposit in accordance with manu- and to ensure uniform weld penetration.The work should
facturer's recommendations be positioned for flat-position welding except that it is
• Postheating to temper the deposit or the repaired recommended that welding be done with the work posi-
0
part tioned for slightly uphill travel, on the order of 5 to 15 •
TABLE18-3 PREHEAT AND INTERPASS TEMPERATURES WHEN WELDING TOOL STEELS
AISI ..SAE
Type Preheat
WI 250/450 250/450 300/650

W2 250/450 250/450 300/650
S1 300/500 300/500 300/500
S5 300/500 300/500 500 min.
S7 300/500 300/500 425/400
01 300/400 300/400 300/450
06 300/400 300/400 300/450
A2 300/500 300/500 350/400
A4 300/500 300/500 350/400
D2 700/900 700/900 92'5{900
Ml 950/1,100 .960/1,100 1,00011,050
M2 95011,100 950/1,100 1,000/1,050
,
MIO 950/1,100 950/1,100 95011,050
H1l 900/1,200 90011,200 l,OOO/l,150
H12 900/1,200 900/1,200 1,000/1.150
' - . 1- - .
Hl3 90011,200 900/1,2QO l.QOO/1,150

P20 4001800 4007800 1,000
. I
,
\
\
This causes the deposit to build up evenly and helps keep considered. The size of the SMAW welding electrode de-
the slag free of the weld pool. Uniform motion without pends on the amount of welding to be done and the type
weaving is recommended. When welding on tool cutting of preparation. Dilution of the base metal must be con-
edges, position the work so that the deposit will flow or sidered. A preheat in the range of 200 to 400°F is recorn-
roll over the cutting edge. mended.The larger the unit, the higher the preheat.The
Peening should be done immediately on all weld de- welding procedure should be similar to that used when
posits. Peening should be controlled and used to provide making repairs to similar tools. After welding the com-
sufficient mechanical work to help improve the properties posite tool should be tempered, and the tempering tem-
of the deposit and help refine the metallurgical structure. perature should be that recommended by the filler metal
It will also assist in relieving shrinkage stresses and possi- manufacturer and should not exceed the one specified
bly assist in correcting distortion. Peening can be done for the base material.
manually, or small air power hammers can be used. The Experience with tool and die welding is very help-
welding technique should avoid craters. In all cases, craters ful and helps avoid the possibility of failures. The proce-
should be filled by reversing the direction of travel and dure development, including identification of material,
pausing slightly. This will ensure a more uniform deposit. selection of filler metal, and welding techniques, should
When welding deeply damaged cutting edges that follow the tool steel manufacturer's data and the welding
require multiple passes, it is necessary to start at the bot- filler metal manufacturer's information.
tom and gradually fill up damaged areas. The current for
the first or second beads can be higher than used on the
final bead. It is important to peen the weld metal while hot
to help eliminate shrinkage, warpage, and possibly cracks.
18-3 REINFORCING BARS
The random or wandering welding technique should be Concrete reinforcing bars, or as they are more technically
used when welding circular parts, such as on the inner known, deformed steel reinforcing bars, are used in re-
edge of a die.Warpage or distortion can be reduced by pre- inforced concrete construction. TI1is includes buildings,
heating, which expands the part, and peening during the bridges, highways, locks, dams, docks, and piers.The prin-
contraction period, which will reduce stresses. On parts cipal applications of reinforcing bars include reinforce-
such as a long shear blade where welding is done all on ment of columns, girders, beams, slabs, and pavements, as
one side, it is recommended that the parts be reverse wen as precast and prestressed concrete structures. Con-
formed.This will help keep the part straight during weld- crete is strong in compression and shear but is weak in
ing. It is recommended to weld only short lengths of 2 to tension. By using deformed steel reinforcing bars embed-
3 in. and then to peen to reduce stresses and warpage. ded in the concrete, tensile stresses can be accommo-
After the repair welds are completed, the part dated; thus, reinforced concrete provides compression
should be allowed to cool to room temperature. It is then strength of concrete and tensile strength of steel.The con-
tempered by reheating to the recommended temperature, crete and steel must work together.This is accomplished
as specified by the type of tool steel being welded or by by a bond between the bar and the concrete, which is
the welding fiUer metal manufacturer's technical data.The achieved by means of deformations that are rolled into
draw temperature would always be used. For small or the bars.These deformations keep the bars from slipping
light-duty work parts, the draw temperature should be on through the concrete.
the minimum side of the draw range. On larger or heavy- Concrete reinforcing bars come ill different sizes.
duty parts, the draw temperature should be the maximum. There are 11 standard sizes, known as reinforcing bar No.
The fabrication of composite trim and blanking dies 3 through No. 11, No. 14, and No. 18. The numbers as-
is becoming popular. The tool can be completely fabri- signed to bars are based on the number of 1/8 in. in-
cated using a low-alloy steel base and then building up cluded in the nominal diameter. The nominal diameter of
the cutting edge with tool steel welding filler metal hav- a deformed reinforcement bar is equivalent to the dtam -
ing the desired characteristics. Following norma! wear, ter of a plain steel bar having the same weight per foot as .
t~e cutting edge can be., rewelded With the too \steel the deformed bar. Lengths up to 60 ft. are available.
welding electrode appropriate to the apptication.The There are three ASTM$pecifications for reinforcing
base steel for the composite tool, or die, must possessthe bars:A615, plain billet steel bars;A616, rail steel reinforc-
required mechanlcal properties for the specific appllca- ing bars; and 1\,617, axle steel reinforcement bars. Infer-
tim'). Normally, low-alloy steels ate suitable; however, if the mation concerning these different specifi ations rs
tool operates at elevated temperature , an alloyed steel shown in. Figure 18- i.:
must be qsed.Any heat treatment the tool n eds must be All of the reinforcing bars produced in the United
. pt()Vided prior 'to welding. The welding filler metal States are identified by markings rolled tnto the Par. These
. :"should b~ selected to provide a deposit With the charac- ' markings Will show the code for the manufacturer o.f tlie
tertstice. suited for the type of work the tool wil1 do. Re- steel bar.The different code letters have been Identified by
to :
.slstJll),ce heat, abrasion, and shock should aU be the oncrete Reinforcing St el Insuntte, This is then fol-
. f _.. ,
47,0' CHAPTER 18
Strength Composition (1)
Size
ASTM Speci fication Grades Grade Designation
Identification Tensile Yield
Specification Identification Produced Bar Number Carbon Manganese
min psi min psi
40 Blank 70,000 40,000 -- --

#3 thru #11
A-615
N 60 60 and #14 and 90,000 60,000 -- --
(New billet steel) #18
75 75 100,000 75,000 - - --
50 Blank 80,000 50,000

A-616
(Made from A·l)
X 60
40
60
Blank
#3 thru #11
90,000
70,000
60,000
40,000
0.55-0.82 0.60-1.00
0.40-0.59 0.60-0.90
A-617
(Made from A·21) A 60 60
#3 thru #11
90,000 60,000
Note: See specific ASTM specification for additional information-

(1) composition based on A·l and A·21
FIGURE18-1 Summary of information for reinforcing bars,
lowed by the letter identifying the specific steel mill where most commonly used are shielded metal arc, gas met"}
the bar was produced, based on standard designations. The arc, flux-cored arc, and thermite welding. There are no
next symbol indicates the bar size by the bar number, The chemistry requirements for the three ASTM specifica-
next symbol indicates the type of steel as follows: N indi- tions, but the reinforcing bars of specification A616 rail
cates new billet steel, A indicates axle steel, and the third steel are produced from used railroad rails that were orig-
symbol, which is a cross section of a railroad rail, indicates inally made to specification A 1. Old railroad rails are sal-
that the bar was rerolled from used railroad rails. vaged, heated, and cut into three parts, the flange, the
The next identification symbol is a number indicat- web, and the head. The heads are then rolled into the de-
ing the grade of steel. If there is no number, it normally formed reinforcing bars. ASTM specification.Al has chem-
means that it is the minimum grade within the specifica- ical requirements for steel rails, and they contain
tion. Grades are also identified by a single or double con- relatively high amounts of carbon and manganese.
tinuous longitudinal line through at least five spaces The reinforcing bars made to specificationA617 are
Offset from the center of the bar, A single line indicates made from salvaged carbon steel axles used for railroad
the middle-strength grade, and a double line indicates the cars.These axles when originally produced were made to
highest-strength grade. It is important to determine the specification A21. In this ASTM specification the carbon
type of steel and the grade since this will be valuable in- and manganese are relatively high. These ar both con-
formation in establishing the welding procedure. sidered in the hard-to-weld category of steels. The bars
The specifications do not include chemical require- produced toA615 have only a maximum for phosphorus
ments for the different classes; however, when bars are content; however, based on the strength level of steels,
Purchased from the mill, the mill will provide a chemical the alJoy content should not be too high. For quality weld-
analysis report of the bars, if requested. The grade number ing it is best to assume that they, too, are in the hard-to-
is the indication of the strength of the bars, and the num- weld category, If at aU possible, the analysis of the
bers indicate the yield point in thousand pounds per reinforcing bars should be determined from mill reports.
square inch minimum. All bar sizes are not made in all If this is not possible, the bars could be analyzed for exact
grades, and only the specificationA615 provides the large composition. In lieu of this, it is recommended that. the
No. 14 and No. 18 size bars. bars be considered to have a carbon equivalent of 0.75,
It is necessary to splice concrete retnforclng bars in thus in the hard-to-weld ategory.
all but the most simple concrete structures. In the past, The American Welding Society has provid :odH. 81 ec-
SPliCing was clone by overlapptng the bars from 20 to 40 tftcation entitled "ReinforCing Steel Structural \Xl, Idi.t'lg
diameters, wiring them together, and relying on the sur- Code:' D1.4. This code provides a table of carbon eqtl1va·
roun.ding COncrete to transmit the load from one bar to lents that relates to the bar s.~e and, thC11presents reo-
the other.This method is wasteful of the steel and is some- ornmended preheat and interpass temp ramres. '111e
tilUes Impractical, Welding is now used for spli .Ing con- standard formula for tile determination of carbon equlva-
crete reinforcing bars.I hree welding processes are used lent Is used.The six carbon qulvalents can be cal ulated
for tl e majority of welding splices; however, several of o111yif the analysis of the reinforcing bar is known, .
the -ethel' processes can b used. A mechanical splice Si111' TIle code alsoprovides JQint designJnfonl'lath:m iot . -
Hat to wetditl.g uses medium-strength metal cast(metaIJic . malting .direct buttsplice8~ indirect buttspUces, aJld lal' -,
grout) around the ends of the bars enclosed within a steel splices (Figute18-2).Abutt splice is a directend~f.Q-end
s~ceve havtng Internal grooves. The welding processes splice of bars with their axes apprONimat lyin line "lll.d of
Y'J Iding Sp
,
.~ ',.. :.t;,
45° TO 60°
DIRECT BUTT SPLICE-CAN USE VARIOUS WELD JOINTS
LAP SPLICE-SINGLE OR DOUBLE WELD
INDIRECT BUTT SPLICE-USE ANGLE OR BAR
INDIRECT LAP SPLICE-AVOID EXCESSIVE ECCENTRICITY
FIGURE 18-2 Types of reinforcing bar splices.
approximately the same size.A split pipe is often used for 'Ihis code provides filler metal selection informa-
bacldng.An indirect butt splice is one ill which an inter- tion based on the grade number of the steel. When using
medlary pi ce such as a steel plate or rolled angle is used the shielded metal arc welding process, grade 40, theAWS
with each reinforcing bar weld d directly to the same '&7018, is recommended, for grade 50 the AWS E-8018 is
piece. The lap welded splice is made by overla~ng the recommended, for grade 60 and the low-alloy A706 the
'!W? h,ers alongside each other and Wi l~ling toge.ther. Qirect AWSE·9018 electrode is recommended, and f01' the grade
~plices- Can bemade between bars of different sizes bylPl'O- 75 the AWS E-I0018 electrode is-recommended. If the
xxis
-
,viding a tl"J.llsition-type conflguration to aid str S8flow. For XX18 is not available, the can be used. In the case
butt "plices when the bars are in the horizontal position, of gas metal arc welding, the E-70S electrode would be
th single groove weld is most often used with a 45 to 60° used; for flux-cored arc welding.the E70T type would be
in.clu,ded ang.le. Double-groove welds can be made in the used when welding grade 40 bars. If these processes are
I~trger bars. Wben the bars are to be welded with the axis, used, the filler metal .must meet the same' mechanlcal
vertical, a singli;01',double bevel groove weld is used with properties 'as the equivalent shielded metal arc welding
the ,flat side or horilQ}ltal side on: the lower bar. On occa- electrode mentioned.
SiOl1,·the reinforcing bar may need to be welded to other The code pr Vicks minimum preheat and inner-
, Sited memb 1"5and a vari~ty of weld joints call be us d. pass temperatures based .oa the carbon equivalent, of tbe
. ,
-,
"
,
CHAPTER 18
> ~~ - ,
Manufacturers of many items such as truck bodies, buses,
and automobiles are increasingly concerned with corro-
sion, particularly when chemicals are used on roads for
ice control. Galvanized metal is also used in many appli-
ances, such as washing machines and dryers, and in many
industrial products, such as air conditioning housings and
processing tanks. Other uses for galvanized products are
for high-tension electrical transmission towers, highway
sign standards, and protective items.
There are two methods of galvanizing steel. One is
by coating sheet metal and the other is by hot dipping the
individual item. The coated sheet metal is produced by
the continuous hot dip process. The continuous hot-dip
or zinc-coated sheet comes in different classes based on
the thickness of the zinc coating. The coating varies from
1 to 1.75 oz of zinc per square foot of the surface, based
on coating both sides of the sheet. One-side-coated steel
is also available. Hot-dipped individual parts have coat-
ings exceeding the thickness mentioned previously.Weld-
ing of zinc-coated steel can be done with specific
FIGURE18-3 Joining bars with GMAW. precautions.When galvanized steel is arc welded, the heat
of the welding arc vaporizes the zinc coating in the weld
area. The zinc volatilizes and leaves the base metal adja-
reinforcing bars. It also relates to the size of the bar. It is cent to the weld. The extent to which the coating is dis-
important to determine the composition of the bar so turbed depends on the heat input of the arc and the heat
that the carbon equivalent can be determined. This es- loss from the base metal. The disturbed area is greater
tablishes the heat requirement, which ranges from 50°F with the slower welding speed processes.
(lO°C) up through 500°F (260°C) based on the size of the When galvanized sheet is resistance welded, the
bar and the carbon equivalent. In the case of large bars welding heat causes less disturbance of the zinc oaring
and if the carbon equivalent is not known, the 500l'F pre- than the arc processes. The resistance to corrosion, or
heat would be recommended. Consult the code for 'fur- rather the protection by the zinc, is not disturbed since
ther information. the zinc forced from the spot weld will solidify adjacent
The code further requires that joint welding proce- to the spot weld and protect the weld nugget, Resistance
dUres should be established based on the welding process, welding of galvanized steel is more of a problem becaus
filler metal type and size, and welding technique, which in- of the zinc pickup of the welding tips and tools.
votves position and joint detail. Welders must be qualified.
A direct butt splice or indirect butt splice specimen is
used. The test bars are tested in tension. Figure 18~3 shows
Weld Quality
a retnfor ing bar being welded using the gas metal arc TIle zinc in the gaseous state may become entrapped in the
Welding process. molten weld metal as it solidifies. If this occurs, there will
The gas metal arc and flux-cored arc welding be porosity in the weld metal, and if sufficientzinc is avail-
processes will make the weld in approximately one-half able, it will cause large voids in thesurface of the depo~it.
the time required for shielded metal arc.Welding is highly The presence of the zinc in stressed welds can cause crack-
recommended as the way to splice reinforcing bars. The ing, and it may also cause delayed cracking due to stress
Welded splices will exceed tb strength of lapp d and corrosion, To eliminate this, the weld joint must be de-
",ired splices. It will also exceed a strength level of the signed to allow the zinc vapor to.escape completely from
ca~t metal splices, which are sufflcieatly strong to with- the joint. Ftxturing' and backing Straps should' be arranged
Stand the strength level of the reinforced concrete com- to. allow for the zinc to escape completely Other wa~ to
POSite structure. ' avoid zinc entrapment in weld metal Isto u estlfficient
hat input when making the weld, It is also important to
secure omplete and full penetration of the jOit1t.'Ole b t ,
pr aution.is to remove the zinc from. the, weld at:' a,. ,
18 ..4 COATED STEELS Whf;n welding on galvani~ed St~.eI ot' ~nrco~l.ted'
The Coated' steel that will be discussed in detail; is galva- steel, particularly' thosewitb~oatblg$tb;at .11J'Qdul;!~ 1l~~~ .
nized or Zinc-coated sheet steel. Galv-anized, steel is Ious fumes, positive ventilation must be; provided. PoSi-
Widely used and is becoming [ncreasingly Important, tive ventilatiori involves the us e of a. suction ~l'ose at th .
Welding Spe 'f I and Oi~similar i\1et<ils ;

'. .
weld area.When using the gas metal arc or the flux-cored rates of speed can be attained. Normally in this situation
arc process, suction-type gun nozzles should be used. the filler rod is the 60% copper-40% zinc alloy, type
Welding on zinc or other coated steels should never be RBCuZn-A. By directing the arc on the filler rod, it melts
done in confined areas. and sufficient heat is produced in the base metal for fu-
For corrosion resistance of the weld it is advisable sion without destroying the zinc coating. This process is
to use a corrosion-resistant weld metal, such as a copper- used in the sheet metal industry.
zinc alloy or a stainless steel. In any case, when arc weld-
ing is used the area adjacent to the weld will lose the pro-
tective zinc coating, which must be replaced. Torch Brazing
The oxyacetylene torch is used for brazing galvanized
steel.The technique is similar to the carbon arc.The flame
Arc Welding is directed toward the filler rod, which melts and then fills
The electrode selection should be based on the thick- the weld joint. A generous quantity of brazing flux is used
ness of metal and the position that will be used when to help reduce the zinc loss adjacent to the weld.
welding galvanized steeJ.The EXX12 or 13 will be used
for welding thinner material; the EXX10 or 11 will be
used for welding galvanized pipe and for welding hot- Repairing the Zinc Coating
dipped galvanized parts of heavier thickness. The low- The area adjacent to the weld may lose zinc because of the
hydrogen electrodes can also be used on heavier high temperature of the arc. To produce a corrosion-
thickness.The welding technique should use slow travel resistant joint, the zinc must be replaced.There are several
speed to permit degassing of the molten metal.The elec- ways of replacing the zinc. One is by the use of zinc base
trode should point forward to force the zinc vapor sticks sometimes called zinc sticks or galvanized sticks
ahead of the arc. The quality of welds will be equal to sold under different proprietary names. These sticks are
those of bare metal, assuming the weldability of the steel wiped on the heated bare metal.With practice a good coat-
is equal. ing can be placed that will blend with the original zinc
The GMAW process is widely used for joining gal- coating. This coating may be thicker than the original coat-
vanized steel. For the thinner gauges the fine-wire, shorting.Another way of replacing the depleted zinc coating is
Circuiting method is recommended. In this case, the by flame spraying using a zinc spray filler material. This is
technique would be similar to that used for bare metal. a faster method and is used if there is sufficient zinc coat-
The shielding gas can be 100% CO2 or the 75% argon and ing to be replaced.The coating should be 2 to 2Ji times as
25% CO2 mixture. The selection is dependent on the ma- thick as the original coating for corrosion protection.
terial thickness and position of welding. For certain ap-
plications, the argon-oxygen mixture is used.The amount
of spatter produced when welding galvanized steel is Other Coated Metals
slightly greater than when welding bare steel.The gun tip One other coated metal that is often welded is known as
and nozzle should be cleaned more often. However, a tern jJlate.This is sheet steel hot dipped with a coating of
stainless steel or bronze type can be employed. This pro- a lead-tin alloy.The tern alloy is specified in thicknesses
duces a weld deposit that resists corrosion. based on the weight of tern coating per square foot of
The flux-cored arc welding process can be used for sheet metal. This ranges from 0.35 to 1.45 oz per square
galvanized steel. It is recommended for the heavy gauges foot of sheet metal based on both sides being coated. Tern
and on hot-dipp d galvanized parts. The highly deoxt- plate is often used for making gasoline tanks for automo-
dized type of welding electrode should be used. biles. It is welded most often by the resistance welding
The GTAWprocess is not popular because it causes process. If it is arc welded or oxyacetylene welded, the
a larger area of zinc adjacent to the weJd to be destroyed, tern plating is destroyed adjacent to the weld and it must
In additi< 11, the volatilized zinc will contaminate.......... the be replaced. This can be done similar to soldering. Alu-
tungsten electrode and require frequent redl'essihs:\ To mini zed steel is also widely used in the automobile ill-
Oyercome~thl$,extlfl high gas flow rates are used, which dustry, particularly for exhaust mufflers. In this case, a
canbe expensive. If a filler rod Is used, it should be of et- high-sillcon-aluminurn alloy is coated on both Sides of
therthe highly deoxidized steel type or bronze. In this the sheet steel by the .hot dip method. There ate two
.ase th arc is played on. the filler rod and zinc coutami- common weights of,coating: the regular is 0.40 oz/ft2 and
nanon of the tungsten ele trode is reduced. the light-weight coartng is 0.25 oz/ft2 based on coating
The carbon sec welding process can be u ed for both sides of the sheet steel. If an arc or gas weld is made
wekJi,t)g galv~ized steel. Both the single carbon torch on aluminum-coated steel, the aluminum coating is de-
and· tWitl. carbon torch ail bused. When thesmgle car- 'stroyed. It is relatively difficQl~ to. replace the aluminum
boo. is used, the arc is played on the filler rod and high coating; therefore, painting is most often used.
CHAP' ER 18
75% argon-25% CO2 mixture should be used. When the
18-5 OTHER METALS flux-cored arc welding process is used, self-shielding
This section includes special steels not covered previously. electrodes are preferred. During cold weather applica-
These metals are abrasion-resisting steel, free-machining tions, it is recommended that the abrasion-resistant steel
steel, manganese steel, silicon steel, and wrought iron. be brought up to lOO°F (38°C) temperature prior to
welding.
Abrasion-Resisting Steel
Abrasion-resisting CAR)steel is carbon steel usually with
Free-Machining Steels
a high-carbon analysis, used as liners in material-moving The termfree machining is normally associated with steel
systems and for construction equipment, where severe and brass. Free machining is the property that makes ma-
abrasion and sharp hard materials are encountered. chining easy because small cutting chips are formed. This
Abrasion-resisting steels are often used to line dump characteristic is given to steel by sulfur and in some cases
truck bodies for quarry service and for lining conveyors, by lead. It is given to brass by lead. Sulfur and lead are not
Chutes, and bins. The abrasion-resisting steel is not used considered alloying elements. In general, they are consid-
for structural strength purposes, but only to provide lin- ered impurities in the steel and are purposely added to
ing materials for wear resistance. Steel companies make give free-machining properties.They are difficult to weld.
different proprietary alloys that all have similar proper- Free-machining steels are usually specifled for parts
ties and, in general, similar compositions. Most AR steels that require a considerable amount of machine tool work.
are high-carbon steel in the range 0.80% to 0.90% carbon; The addition of the sulfur makes the steel easier to turn,
however, some are low carbon with multiple alloying el- drill, and mill even though the hardness is the same as a
ements.These steels are strong and have a hardness up to steel of the same composition without the sulfur.
40 Rockwell. C or 375 BHN. Abrasion-resisting bars or The sulfur content of free-machintng steels will
plates are welded to the structures and, when worn out, range from 0.07% to 0.12% to as high as 0.24% to 0.33%.
are removed by oxygen cutting or air carbon arc and new The amount of sulfur is specified in theAISI specifications
plates installed by welding. for carbon steels. Sulfur is not added to any of the alloy
Low-hydrogen welding processes are required. Lo- steels. Leaded grades comparable to 12L14 and llU8 are
cal preheat of 400°F C204°C) is advisable to avoid under- available. Unless the correct welding procedure is used,
bead cracking of the base metal or cracking of the weld. the weld deposits on free-machining steel will be porous,
In some cases this can be avoided by using a preheat weld may crack, and will not provide properties exp ct d.
bead on the carbon steel structure and filling in between The welding procedure for free-machining steels is
the bead and the abrasion-resisting steel with a second the same as for carbon steels of the same analysis. These
bead in the groove provided. The first bead tends to lo- steels usually run from 0.010% carbon to as high as 1.0%
cally preheat the abrasion-resisting steel to avoid crack- carbon. They may also contain manganese ranging from
ing, and the second bead is made having an oversized 0.30% to as high as 1.65%. In the case of shielded metal
throat (see Figure 18-4). Intermittent welds are made arc welding.use a low-hydrogen electrode of the EXXX18
Since continuous or full-length welds are usually not re- classification. In the case of gas m tal arc or flux-cored
quired. Efforts should be made to avoid deep weld pene- arc welding, the same type of filler metal is spe ifled as is
tration into the abrasion-resisting steel so as not to pick normally used. Submerged arc and gas tungsten welding
up too much carbon in the weld metal. If too much caris not used on free-machinlng ste Is.
bon is picked up, the weld bead may crack. The welding procedure should minimize dilution of
When using shielded metal arc welding, the EXX16 base metal with the filler metal. Efforts should be made to
01' EXX18 electrodes are used. When using gas metal arc reduce penerration so as to melt less sulfur or lead.
welding, low penetrating-type shielding gases such as the Free-machining steel can, be successfully welded
and limited quality welds made; however, th procedures
are slower. For this reason, free-machining steel should
not be specified for weldments.
FIGURE 18-4 . Preheat bead technique.
Manganese 'Steel .
Manganese steel is sometimes alled .austenttic man-
ganese steet because of its metallurgtcal structun .It 1. also.
:r.•.•
called H-adfte14 manganese ~tfletafter it&juventor. It is. an '>
extremely tough,nanina'gnetic alloy. 'It l'ul~an'·extrem\elY <'
high tensrlestrength, a high percentageof ductility, ao(,{"" .

excellent wear resistance when work hardened. It also has low-alloy steels.The 18-8% chrome-nickel types are popu-
a high resistance to impact and is difficult to machine. lar; however, in some cases when welding to alloy steels the
Hadfield manganese steel is widely used as castings 29-9% type is used. These electrodes are more expensive
but is also available as rolled plate. Manganese steel is than the manganese steel electrode and are not popular.
popular for impact wear resistance. It is used for railroad When welding manganese steel with manganese
frogs, for steel mill coupling housings, pinions, spindles, type electrodes, the welds should be made with relatively
and for dipper lips of power shovels operating in quar- low current, and they should be peened with an air ham-
ries. It is also used for power shovel track pads, drive tum- mer as quickly as possible.This helps spread or deform the
blers, and dipper racks and pinions. deposited weld metal and avoids triaxial shrinkage
The composition of austenitic manganese is 12% to stresses, which can cause cracking. The base metal should
14% manganese and 1% to 1.4% carbon. The composition be kept cool. Small parts must be cooled frequently or
of cast manganese steel would be 12% manganese and partially submerged in water. The manganese steel elec-
1.2% carbon. Nickel is often added to the composition of trodes are available as covered electrodes and as bare elec-
the rolled manganese steel. trodes. Bare electrodes are not popular.The electrodes are
A special heat treatment is required to provide the operated with the electrode positive on direct current.
superior properties of manganese steel. This involves Preheating is never employed when welding manganese
heating to 1,850° F (1,0080 C) followed by quenching in steels, and should the part become heated to over 500°F
water. In view of this heat treatment and the material (260°C), it must be reheat-treated to retain its toughness.
toughness, special attention must be given to welding
and to any reheating of manganese steel.
Silicon Steel
Manganese steel can be welded to itself, and defects
can be weld repaired in manganese castings. Manganese Silicon steels, or, as they are sometimes called, electrical
steel can also be welded to carbon and alloy steels, and steels, are steels that contain from 0.5% to almost 5% silicon
weld surfacing deposits can be made on manganese steels. but with low carbon and low sulfur and phosphorus. Sili-
Manganese steel can be prepared for welding by con steel is provided as sheet or strip.The silicon steels are
flame cutting; however, every effort should be made to designed to have lower hysteresis and eddy current losses
keep the base metal as cool as possible. If the mass of the than plain steel when used in magnetic circuits. Their mag-
part to be cut is sufficiently large, it is doubtful if enough netic properties make silicon steels useful in direct-current
heat will build up in the part to cause embrittlement. fields for most applications. Silicon steel stampings are
However, if the part is small, it is recommended that it be used in the laminations of electric motor armatures, rotors,
frequently cooled in water, or, if possible, partially sub- and generators. They are widely used in transformers for
merged in water during the flame cutting operation. For the electrical power industry and for transformers, chokes,
removal of cracks, the air carbon arc can be used. The and other components ill the electronics industry.
base metal must be kept cool. Cracks should be com- Welding is important to SUiCOll steels since many of
pletely removed to sound metal prior to rewelding. the laminations are assembled in packs that are welded
Grinding can be employed to smooth the surfaces. together. Figure 18-5 shows an example of welding a
Two types of manganese steel electrodes are avail- stack of laminations.Welds are made on the edge of each
able. Both are similar in analysis to the base metal but sheet to hold the stack together. Welding is done instead
have added elements that maintain the toughness of the of punching holes and riveting the laminations to reduce
weld deposit without quenching.The EFeMn·A electrode
is known as the nickel-manganese electrode and con-
tains from 3% to 5% nickel in addltton to 12% to 14% man- FIGURE 18-5 Welded laminations stack of silicon
ganese.th carbon is lower, ranging from 0.50% to 0.90%. steel.
The weld deposits of this electrode on large manganese
castings will r sult in a tough deposit due to t1 e rapid
cooling of the, weld metal,
': ,The other electrode used is a mclybdernr -
manganc$¢ steel type EFeMn·n. This electrode contains
0;6% to 1.4% molybdenum instead of the nicl el.This elec-
trode is less often used for repairweknng of manganese
st 1 or for joining rnanganes steel itself 0.1' to carbon
steel. The nickel-manganese ste 1is more often used as a
'PUildtlp deposit tomaintatn the.chasactertsttcs of man-
e gaxiese.stecl when I;'Urtl cing is required.
-. ' Stalnless ~t el electrodes 'can also be used for weld-
ing manganese steels and fQl' weldIng them to. carbon and
CHAprE~ 18
manufacturing costs. Almost aU the arc welding pro- Clad or composites can be made by several differ-
cesses are used. The more popular processes are gas ent welding manufacturing methods. The most widely
meta] arc using CO2 for gas shielding and gas tungsten arc used process is roll welding, which employs heat and roll
and plasma arc. When the consumable electrode pro- pressure to weld the clad to the backing steel. Explosive
cesses are used, the stampings are usually indented to al- welding is also used, and weld surfacing or overlay is an-
low for deposition of filler metal. For gas tungsten arc and other method of producing a composite material.
plasma arc the filler metals are not used and the edges are Clad steels can have as the cladding material
fused.The size of the weld bead should be kept minimum chromium steel in the range 12% to 15%, stainless steels
so that eddy currents are not conducted between lami- primarily of the 18-8% and 25-12% analysis, nickel-base
nations in the electrical stack. alloys such as Monel and Inconel, copper-nickel, and cop-
One precaution that should be taken in welding sil- per. The backing material is usually high-quality steel of
icon steel laminations is to make sure that the laminations theASTMA285,A212,or similar grade.The tensile strength
are tightly pressed together and that the oil used for proof clad material depends on the tensile strength of its
tection and in manufacturing is at a minimum. Oil can components and their ratio to its thickness.The clad thick-
cause porosity in the welds, which might be detrimental ness is uniform throughout the cross section, and the
to the lamination assembly. weld between the two metals is continuous throughout.
A different procedure is used for oxygen cutting of
clad steel. All of the clad metals mentioned can be oxygen
Wrought Iron name cut with the exception of the copper-clad com-
Wrought iron is a ferrous material made of highly refined posite material. The normal limit of clad plate cutting is
iron with slag minutely and uniformly distributed when the clad material does not exceed 30% of the total
throughout.The slag is a form of stringers that are in a lon- thickness. However, a higher percentage of cladding may
gitudinal arrangement in the finished product. Wrought be cut in thicknesses of 1/2 in. (12 mm) and over. The oxy-
iron has been used for structural applications and for gen pressure is lower when cutting clad steel; however,
Pipe. It provides good corrosion resistance and has been larger cutting tips are used. The quality of the cut is simi-
used for piping systems such as hot water coils for radi- lar to the quality of the cut of carbon steel. When name
ant heating and brine coils and for cooling ice rinks. It is cutting clad material, the cladding material must be on
also used for certain architectural applications. the underside so that the flame will first cut: the carbon
Many applications of so-called "wrought iron" are steel. The addition of iron powder to the flame will assist,
actually made of mild low-carbon steeL Very little the cutting op ration. Schedules of flame cutting are pro-
Wrought iron is manufactured today; however, welding is vided by clad steel producers as well as flame cutting
SOmetimes required for repair or modifications of exist- equipment producers. For oxygen flame cutting copper
ing systems. Wrought iron should be treated exactly the and copper-nickel clad steels, the copper clad surface
same as low-carbon mild steel, and the same welding must be removed and the backing steel cut in the same
processes, procedures, and flller metals should be em- fashion as bare carbon steel. Copper and brass clad plate
ployed. For welding small wrought iron pipe, the oxy- can be cut using iron powder cutting. Clad steels can be
acetylene process should be used. fabricated by bending and rolling, sheartng, punching, and
machining in the same manner as the equivalent carbon
steels. Clad materials can be preheated and given stress re-
lief heat treatment In the same manner as carbon steels.
18-6 CLAD METALS However, stress-relieving temperatures should be verified
Most clad metals have a cladding metal such as stainless by consulting with the manufacturer of the clad material.
steel, nickel and nickel alloys, or copper and copper alloys
Welded to a backing material of either carbon or alloy
st~el.The two metals are welded together at a mill in a roll Welding Clad Steels
1.lI1derheat and pressure. The dad composite plates are Clad materials can be successfully welded bY\lSil1g spe- .
USually speclfted. in a thickness of the cladding, which cial joint details and following special welding proce-
ranges from 5% to 20% of the total composite 'thickness. dures. Since the clad material is used to provide specia!
, The advantage of composite material is to provide the properties.tt is important that the weld joint retain these
b 11 fits of an expensive material that can provide cerro- sameproperties. It is also important that the structural
SiOll resistance and oth r benefits with the strength of the strength-of the joint be obtained with the qtlaUty welds
baCking metal, Clad metals were developed in the eady of thebacktng metal.
1930s,andoue of the fi,rstu_ed was.nickel bonded to car- The normal proced\:Jre for making a butt~ Joint, in
bon steel.'rIle omposites are used in the construction of - clad plate is ro weld thebacklngorst'f!el:si<lefltst With a
tank cars, heat exchangers, tal1k~,processing vessels, and welding pro edure suitable for the, tin e matrialbeJng,
Storage equipment. welded. Then the clad side. is weld d With the s\.iltable
, ,
, ' '
'Welding Specie I and Dissimilar :t'vfet Is'

procedure for the material being joined.This sequence is ness and position required. Shielded metal arc welding is
preferable to avoid the possibility of producing hard brit- probably used more often; however, submerged arc weld-
tle deposits, which might occur if carbon steel weld metal ing is used for fabricating large thick vessels, and the gas
is deposited on the clad material. Different joint prepara- metal arc welding process is used for medium thick-
tions can be used to avoid the possible pickup of carbon nesses. The flux-cored arc welding process is used for the
steel in the clad alloy weld.Any weld joint made on clad steel side, and gas tungsten arc welding is sometimes used
material should be a full-penetration joint, When design- for the thinner materials, particularly the clad side. It is Im-
ing the joint details, it is wise to make the root of the weld portant to select a process that will avoid penetrating
the clad side of the composite plate. This may not always from one material into the other. The welding procedure
be possible; however, it is more economical since most of should be designed so that the clad side is joined using the
the weld metal can be of the less expensive carbon steel appropriate process and filler metal to be used with the
rather than the expensive alloy clad metal. This is shown clad metal and the backing side should be welded with
in Figure 18-6 as the preferred type of joint. If the mate- the appropriate process and filler metal recommended for
rial is of sufficient thickness that a double-groove weld is the backing metal. Exceptions will be covered later. For
required, it is recommended that the smaller groove side code work, the welding procedure must be qualified in ac-
be the clad side. For material 3/16 in. (4.8 mm) or thinner, cordance with the specification requirements.
a square groove joint detail should be used. The backing side or steel side would be welded first.
The selection of the welding process or processes The depth of the penetration of the root pass must be
used would be based on welding tbe material in tbe thick- closely controlled. It is desirable to produce a root pass
that will penetrate through the root of the backing metal
weld joint into the root face area, yet not come in contact
with the clad metal. If penetration is excessive and the root
FIGURE 18-6 Weld joint design for clad plate.
bead melts into the clad material because of poor fitup or
any other reason, the deposit will be brittle. If this occurs,
the weld will have to be removed and remade. However, if
the penetration of the backing steel root bead is insuffi-
cient, the amount of back gouging will be excessive, and
larger amounts of the clad material weld metal will be re-
quired.The steel side of the joint should be welded at least
halfway prior to making any of the weld on the clad side.
If warpage is not a factor, the steel side weld can be com-
PREFERRED DESIGN WELD BACKING
PLATE WITH STEEL pleted before welding is started on the clad side.
The clad side of the joint is prepared by gouging to
sound metal or into the root pass made from the backing
steel side. This can be done by air carbon arc gouging
plasma or by gouging chipping. The gouging should be
sufficient to penetrate into the root pass so that full pen-
WELD CLAD WITH ALLOY NON PREFERRED DESIGN etration of the joint will result. This will d termine the
deptb of the gouging operation. It is also a measure of the
\,
depth of penetration of the foot pass. Grinding is not rec-
ommended since it tends to wander from the root of the
joint and may also cover up an unfused root by smearing
the metal. If the depth of gouging is excessive, weld
passes made with the steel electrode may be required to
avoid using an excessive amount of clad metal electrode.
On thin materials the gas tungsten arc welding
process may be used; on thicker materials shtelded metal
arc 0,1' gas metal arc may be used.The filler metal must be se-
lected to be compatible with the clad metal analysis. There
is always the likelihood of diluting the dad metal deposit by
too much penetration into the steel backing metal. Special
techruque should be used to minimize penetration into the
steel backing material/nus is done bydireetingthe areoa
NON'PREFERRED
the molten po 1Instead of on the base metal.WIlen weld-
OESIGN .ing opper or copper-nickel clad steels, a high-nlckel elec-
trode is recommended for the first pass (ECuNi or ENi-l).
The remaining passes of the joint in the clad metal should
be welded so that the copper or copper-nickel electrode
DESIGN WELD STEEL WITH
matches the composition of the clad metal. ALLOY
When the clad metal is stainless steel, the initial
pass, which might fuse into the carbon steel backing,
should be of a richer analysis of alloying elements than
necessary to match the stainless cladding.This same prin-
CHIP CLAD 51 DE TO FINAL
ciple is used when the clad material is Inconel or Monel. SOUND METAL AND WELD WELD
The remaining portion of the clad side weld should be
made with the electrode compatible with or having the
same analysis as the clad metal.The procedure should be
deSigned so that the final weld layer will have the same DESIGN WELD STEEL
WITH ALLOY
composition as the clad metal.
On heavier thicknesses, where the weld of the
backing steel is made from both sides, it is important to
aVoid allowing the steel weld metal to come in contact or
to fuse with the clad metal. This will cause a contamina- CHIP CLAD SIDE TO SOUND
METAL AND WELD WITH ALLOY
tion of the deposit, which may result in a brittle weld.
When welding thinner gauge clad plate and inside FIGURE18-7 Alloy weld from both sides.
clad pipe, it may be more economical to make the com-
plete weld using the alloy weld metal compatible with
the clad metal instead of using two types of filler metal.
The alloy filler metal must be compatible with the steel
backing metal. The expense of the welding filler metal
may be higher, but the total weld joint may be less ex-
pensive because of the more straightforward procedure. ALLOY WELD METAL TO MATCH CLAD
Joint preparation may also be less extensive USing this

FIGURE18-8 Alloy weld from clad side.
procedure. For medium thickness, the joint preparation is
a Single V or bevel without a large mot face.The root face
is obtained by grinding the feather edge to provide a
small root face. If possible, the face of the weld will be the When the submerged arc welding process is used
steel or backing side of the joint.The backing side 01' steel for the steel side of the dad plate, caution must be ex-
ide is welded first using the small-diameter electrode for ercised to avoid penetrating into the clad metal. This
the root pass to ensure complete penetration. The re- same caution applies to automatic flux-cord arc weld-
lllninder of the weld is made on the steel Side.The weld ing or gas metal arc welding. A larger root face is re-
is completed by chipping the back sid or clad Side of the quired, and fitup must be very accurate to control root
jOint and making a final pass from that side (Figure 18-7). bead penetration.
If the composite is a pipe or if it must be welded The submerged arc process can also be us d on the
from one side, the buttering technique hould be used.In clad side when welding stainless alloys, However, caution
this case the filler metal must provide an analysis equal to must be exercised to minimize dilution of a high-alloy ma-
the clad metal and be compatible with the backing-steel. terial with the carbon steel backing metal; The proper
Weld passes are made on the edge of the composite to fill r metal and flux must be us d. To minimize admlxrur
butt r the clad and backing metal. Tile buttering pass of the final pass, it is recommended that the clad side b
tl1ust be smoothed to the design dtmensions prior to welded with at least two pass sso that dilution would be,
fitup.The same electrode can be used to make the joint. minimized in the ftnal.pass.Whenmaktng Tjomts, orner
\Vhenthe Joint is welded from the clad side, the joints, or lap joints, special precautions must be taken to
prOcedtU'e is the same. The flller metal deposit must have the weld metal in proper relationship to the dad ~n4
tha.tch the clad metal put be compatible with the backing the backing material (FigUj'e 18-9).
Inctal (Figure 18-8 .The same basic joint procedure can Special quality control pre autions must be estab-
b -used for flat, vertical, horizontal, or overhead weld lished when welding lad metals so that undercut, in-
jOints. complete penetration, and la k of fusion are not aUowed.
When welding heavy, thick composite plate, the U~ In additiorr, special inspection techniques must be jnc;ot·:
..~l'OOve weld [otnt design is recommended instead of the porated to dete~t cracks orotber defects in-tile .W61d
V-graov .to minimize the amount of weld metal. iolnts.
rates are to be joined, the welding process with a high heat
input that will make the weld quickly has an advantage.
The difference between the metals on the electro-
chemical scale is an indication of their susceptibility to
corrosion at the intermetallic zone, If they are far apart on
the scale, corrosion can be a serious problem,
In certain situations, the only way to make a suc-
ALLOY WELD cessful joint is to use a transition material between the
two dissimilar metals.An example of this is the attempt to
weld copper to steel.The two metals are not mutually sol-
~ uble, but nickel is soluble with both of them. Therefore,
ALLOY
by using nickel as an intermediary metal, the joint can be
WELD
ALLOY made.Two methods are used: (1) use a piece of nickel, or
WELD
(2) deposit several layers of nickel alloy on the steel (i.e.,
butter or surface the steel with a nickel weld metal de-
\}lI ~ posit).The nickel or nickel deposit can be welded to the
STEEL WELD copper alloy using a nickel tiller metal. Such a joint will
FIGURE 18-9 T- and lap joints. provide satisfactory properties and will be successful.
Another method of joining dissimilar metals is the
use of a composite insert between the two metals at the
weld joint. The composite insert consists of a transition
18-7 DISSIMILAR METALS joint between dissimilar metals made by a welding
process that does not involve heating. Following is a brief
In many applications weldments are made from metals of description of some of the welding processes that can be
different compositions. A successful weld between dis- used for making composite inserts.
similar metals is one that is as strong as the weaker of the Explosion welding is used to join many so-called in-
two metals being joined. It must possess sufficient tensile compatible metals. In explosion welding the joint prop-
strength and ductility so that the joint will not fail. Such erties will be equal to those of the weaker of the two base
joints can be accomplished in a variety of different met- materials. Since minimum heat is introduced there is mi-
als and by many of the welding processes.The problem of nor melting, and no thermal compounds are formed. The
making welds between dissimilar metals relates to the characteristic sine wave pattern of the interface greatly
transition zone between the metals and the Inrermetallic increases the interface area. Composites containing a
compounds formed in this transition zone. For the fusion transition joint are commercially available between alu-
welding processes it is important to investigate the phase minum and steel, aluminum and stainless steel, aluminum
diagram of the two metals involved. If there is mutual sol- and copper, and other materials.
ubiltty of the two metals, the dissimilar joints can be made Cold welding is used for making dissimilar metal
successfully. If there is little or no solubility between the transition joints. This process does not use heat and thus
two m tals to be joined, the weld joint will not be sue- avoids the heat-affected zone and the Intermetalllc fusion
cessful.Theintermetallic compounds that are formed be. alloy. Little or no mixing of the base metals takes place. It
tween the disslmllar metals must be investigated to is commonly used to join aluminum to copper.
determine their crack sensitivity, ductility, and suscepti- Ultrasonic welding is used for welding dissimilar
bility to corrosion. The microstructure of this intermetal- metals since very little heat is developed at the weld joint.
lie ompound is extremely important. In some cases, it Is Ultrasonic welding can be used only for thin materials or
necessary to use a third metal that is soluble with each small parts.
metal-to produce a succes ful joint. Friction welding is used for joining disslmllar met-
Anothee factor is the coeffi 'jent of thermalexR,,:tn- als and for making composite transition inserts. Various '
sion 0fbotb materials. If these are widely different, inter- dissimilar combinations have been welded, Includlng
nal stresses are set tLP in the tntermetallic zone during any steel to copper-base alloys, steel to aluminum, and stain-
temperarurechange of the weldment. If the intermetalltc less steel to nickel-base alloys. In friction welding only a
zone is extremely brrttle, servf e failure may soon occur. small amount of the base metal is heated and that which
, .The differeil in 01 ltlng temperatures of the two is melt d is thrown from the joint; therefore, the inter-
m.etals t,h.a,tare to be join ed roll t also be considered.This is metallic material is kept to the minimum. The heat-
0fpl~l.ttta.to/.itlterstwhell a welding process using heat is in- affected zone is also minimal.
be
." vc)lved~UlCe one PJetal w: I mdlten long before the other "Ihe hlgh-frequency zresfstance process is also
when sllbject d to the same h at source; When metals of widely used for dissimilar metal welding. Here the heat is
, .diff~l'nt melnng temperatures and thermal expan ion concentrated on the surface of the parts being joined and
480 CJ'iAPTER·18.
pressure applied is sufficient to make welds of many dis- table summarizes the requirement to join aluminum to
similar materials. It can be used for joining copper to steel different metals, copper and copper alloys to different
at high speeds. metals, nickel alloys to different metals, stainless steel to
Diffusion welding is widely used for aerospace ap- carbon steels, and the welding together of various types
plications of dissimilar metals welding. Percussion welding of steels. All these combinations can be successfully
is also used but this process is restricted to wires or small welded using the correctprocedures.
parts.The laser beam welding process has also been used.
The electron beam and laser welding has had wide Welding Aluminum to Different Metals
application for joining dissimilar metals. They use high-
density energy and fast welding speed. This seems to There is a wide difference between the melting tempera-
overcome the difference of thermal conductivity when ture of aluminum, approximately 1,200°F (649°C), and of
welding metals together having wide variation of thermal steel, approximately 2,800oP (1 ,538°C). The aluminum
conductivity. In addition, the weld zone is extremely smaU will melt and flow away well before the steel has melted.
and filler metal is not introduced. Since there is such a TIle aluminum iron phase diagram shows that a number
small amount of intermetallic compound formed, they of- of complex brittle intermetallics are formed. It is found
fer an advantage for many dissimilar combinations. that iron-aluminum alloys containing more than 12%
The flash butt welding process will make high- iron have little or no ductility.There is wide difference in
quality welds between copper and aluminum. With the coefficient of linear expansion, in thermal conductiv-
proper controls all or most of the molten metal is forced ity,and in specific heats of aluminum and steel. This will
out of the joint and the weld is complete as a solid-state introduce thermal stresses of considerable magnitude.
process. Flash butt welds are made in rods, wires, bars, The most successful method is to use an aluminum-
and tubes. steel transition insert with each metal welded to its own
base metal using any of the three arc welding processes.
The other way is to coat the steel surface with a
Arc Welding Dissimilar Metals metal compatible with aluminum. A coating of zinc on
The three popular arc welding processes are most often steel can be used and the aluminum welded to it by the
utilized: shielded metal arc, gas tungsten arc, and gas gas tungsten arc welding process. A high-silicon-
metal arc welding. The popular combinations of dissimi- aluminum filler wire should be used. Direct the arc to-
lar metals thatare joined are shown in Table 18-4. The ward the aluminum; pulsing will assist the welder.
TABLE 18-4 POPULAR DISSIMILAR METAL COMBINATIONS
Aluminum to mild and low-alloy steel Use a transition insert of these metals or coat the surface of
the steel with GTAW
Aluminum to stainless steel Use a transition insert of these metals or coat the surface of
the SS with GTAW
Aluminum to copper Use a transition insert of these metals
COpper to mild and low-alloy steel ECu RCu ECu
Copper to stainless steel ECuAI-A2 RCuAI-A2 ECuAI-A2
Brass to mild and low-etloy steel ECuAI-A2 RCuAI-A2 ECuAI-A2
Aluminum bronze to low-alloy steel ECuAl ....A2 RCuAI-A2 ECuAl-A2
Inconel to mild and low-alloy steel ENiCrFe-3 RNiCrFe-3 ENiCrFe-3
Inconel to austenitic stainless steel ENiCrFe-3 RNiCrFe-3 ENiCrFQ,-.3
> .
Inconel to ferritic stainless steel ENiCrFe-3 RNiCrFe-3 ENiCrFe ...S

Monel to mild and low-alloy'steel ENiCu-2 RNiCu-2 ENiCu-2'
Mon~1 to austenitic stainless steel ENiCu-2 RNiCu-2 ,. ENiCu-2
Monel to ferritic stainless steel ENiCu-2 , RNiCu-2 Ef\jiCu-2
Ferritic stainless steel to mild and low-alloy steel ENICrFe...,3 RNiCrFe-3 ENiCrFe-3
~ 30~ E 309-XX , E 309 .. "
, Austenitic stainless steel to mild and low-alloy steel ENiCrFe-3 RNiCrFe-3 ,';E,NtGiFe~S
Alloy steel to, mild and low-alloy steet E7018 E705-X E70S~X
Q and T steel to mild and low-alloy .stee I E7018 '; E70S-X E70~.,.X
Welding Special and Di$similatMetals

For welding aluminum to stainless steel, transition deposited will tend to pick up alloys from both parts of
inserts are available. It is also possible to use the coating the joint. The effect of this dilution can be controlled by
technique. A coating for the stainless steel is pure alu- buttering or overlaying the surface of one of the metals be-
minum coating, which can be applied by dipping clean ing joined and by selecting the correct electrode or filler
stainless steel into molten aluminum. Another way to ob- material.The weld Joint between a slightly ferritic stainless
tain a compatible coating is by tinning the stainless steel steel and a mild or low-alloy steel would be hard and brit-
with a high-silicon aluminum alloy. The aluminum surface tle if made with a slightly ferritic stainless steel electrode.
can then be gas tungsten arc-welded to the aluminum. However, if a fully austenitic stainless steel electrode or
The arc should be directed toward the aluminum; pulsing filler rod is used, the amount of ferrite in the weld metal
will assist the welder. The welding of aluminum to cop- would be reduced to a tolerable level. The electrode or
pel" is accomplished by using a copper-aluminum transi- filler wires normally used would be an E310 electrode or
tion insert piece. filler rod corresponding to the 310 composition. The sta-
bilized stainless steel electrodes and filler wires should be
used. The best selection would be an ENiCr-l, which is a
Welding Copper to Various Metals 15% chromium-high-nlckel composition.This analysis has
Copper and copper-base alloys can be welded to mild an austenitic composition, and the weld deposit can toler-
and low-alloy steels and to stainless steels. For thinner ate considerable dilution before becoming crack sensitive.
sections, the gas tungsten arc welding process can be Austenite stainless steel has a coefficient of thermal
used with a high-copper-alloy filler rod. The pulsed mode expansion about twice that of mild or low-alloy steel. Dur-
makes it easier to obtain a good-quality weld. The arc ing the cooling cycle of the weld, the stainless steel side
should be directed to the copper section to minimize will tend, to contract more than the mild steel or low-
pickup of iron. In the heavier thicknesses, first overlay or alloy steel side. This difference in contraction will set up I
butter the steel with the same filler metal and then weld stresses in the weld joint. If the weld joint is subjected to
the overlaid surface to the copper. It is important to avoid repetitive thermal cycles, the resulting stress cycling f
excessive penetration into the steel portion of the joint
since iron pickup in copper alloys creates a brittle mate-
could cause premature failure similar to fatigue fracture.
The use of stainless steel for buttering will not solve this
I
rial, The copper must be preheated. situation. The buttering technique is not recommended J
Another method is to overlay the copper with a for those situations in which repetitive thermal cycles are
nickel-base electrode.A second layer is recommended on involved. The best solution is to use a high-nickel elec-
thicker materials. When making the overlay welds on trode such as the ENiCr-l or the ENiCrFe-2 electrodes or
thick copper, the copper should be preheated to 1,000°F the ERNiCrFe-5 or ERNiCr-3 filler wires.The relatively low
(538°C). The overlay or buttered surface of the copper Iron content of these alloys allows minimum iron in the
part should be smoothed to provide a uniform joint weld, which reduces cracking. High-nickel deposits have
preparation. Effort should be made to minimize dilution a thermal expansion coefflclent similar to that of the low- {
of the copper with the nickel electrode. Copper can also alloy steel. Thus the thermal stress will be set up ill the
be joined to stainless steel, and brass can be joined to mild weld metal and stainless steel rather than the mild or low- 1
and low-alloy steels. alloy steel. Both the weld metal and the stainless steel
have good ductility and can absorb the stress cycles with- j
Welding Nickel-Base Alloys to Steels out premature failure. When using the stainless steel or
the high-nickel overlay, the joint design must be altered to
Nickel-base alloys such as Monel and Inconel can be sue- provide space for the buttering layer.
cessfully welded to low-alloy steel by using the Monel
filler material and any of the arc welding processes. In the
case of Inconel to mild or low-alloy steel, the Inconel- Welding Steel to Different Steels
base electrode would be used.The same situation. applies Steels that have similar metallurgical structures are nor-
also to the welding of Inconel or Monel to shti~ess mally welded with electrodes matching the composition
~ee~,\ of the lower-strength material Thts applies not only to
various grades or strength levels of carbon and low-alloy
Weldi'ng Stainless Steels steels but also to various grades of stainless steels. For ex-
am.pIe, a 316 stainless steel should be welded to a 304
to Various Metals stainless steel with a 308 composftion filler metal. The
Most stainless steels can be su cessfully welded to mild 308 would slightly overmatch the 304 composition.
and low·~lQY steels, onsideration.must be given to the et'· Another example· would be the Welding of a
·'1)' CtSofdillltion. of the.wcld metal with th two base met- .quenched arid tempered steel to a low-alloy higl1.s~rength
al a.rtdthe different coeffi tents of thermal expansion of I steel. The electrode normally used for joining the low-
t,t~)]~ss teel and mild or IQw-alloy steels.The weld metal alloy high-strength steel to itself should be used for weld-
..,,48~ C~t'APTER 18
. ,
_.; ~
ing it to the quenched and tempered steel.The heat input Second, they relate to the difference in thermal expansion
requirements of the quenched and tempered steel should and contraction and the recommended use of ductile
be followed and in all cases a low-hydrogen deposit is re- weld metals to help absorb these stresses. The buttering
quired. Another example is the welding of a Iow- technique is most often used. Other techniques involve
chrome-moly steel to a plain carbon mild steel. In this the plating or coating of one of the base materials with a
case, the standard E7018 electrode or filler metal de- material compatible to both metals and then making the
signed for the carbon or low-alloy steel would be used. weld. Bimetallic, composite transition inserts, which can
be welded to each type of base metal, are used for certain
combinations. Information about joining less common
Conclusions metals can be found in the Welding Research BuUetin,"The
When welding dissimilar metals it is important to consider Fabrication of Dissimilar Metal]oints Containing Reactive
the problem areas.These relate to the solubility of the met- and Refractory Metals," No. 210, October 1975.
als with one another and the formation of brittle aUoys.
QUESTIONS
18-1. What property of cast iron makes it difficult to 18-12. How can the galvanized coating be repaired along"
weld? Why? side the weld?
18-2. Why is a full-penetration weld necessary for repairing 18-13. What welding technique should be used when weld-
cast iron? ing free-machining steel?
18-3. Identify the four types of covered electrodes for cast 18-14. Why shouldn't preheat be used when welding Had-
iron welding. What is the advantage of each? field manganese steel?
18-4. Why is preheat usually specified for welding cast iron? 18-15. When welding dad metals, which side should have
18·5. Tool and die welding is very complex. What are the the V-groove? Why?
important factors? 18-16. Which side should b welded first, uie clad side or
18-6. How are deformed reinforcing bars identjfjed?Why is the steel side?
this important? 18-17. When making a Tjoint of clad metal, should alloy or
18-7. Describe the different types of splices of reinforcing steel electrode be used?
bars. 18-18. Wllat rnak s welding different types of m tal to-
18-8. Low-hydrogen electrodes are required, What else Is gether more difficult? Why?
r quired for successfullywelding rebars? 18-19. What is a transition piece? Where is It placed in the
18-9. What safety precaution should be taken when weld- joint?
ing galvanized steel? 18-20. Wllat welding processes are used to produce tnlASj·
18·10. Why is the galvanized coating damaged adjacent to tion pieces?
the weld?
.1S-11. Why is GTAW not recommended for welding galva-
nized steel? How can the difficulty be reduced?
Welding SpecJal,
and .Dissimilar
....
Metal '. ~,.,
OUTLINE
7. The capital investment for producing weldments is
lower than that for producing castings. Environ-
mental controls are more easily adapted to the
welding shop than to the foundry. "
8. Weldments can be more pleasing to the eye than
castings. They are cleaner in their lines and usually J
smoother and more easily prepared for final use. 'I
To join two members by bolting or riveting requires

holes in the parts to accommodate the bolts or rivets.
These holes reduce the cross-sectional area of the mem-
bers to be joined by up to 1O%.The joint may also require
the use of one or two gusset plates, thus increasing the I
weight of material required and the cost. This expense
19-1 ADVANTAGE OF can be eliminated by the use of a Weld. The greatest t
WELDED CONSTRUCTION economy of a welded design will be obtained if the cross-
sectional area of the entire structural member is reducedj
l
A weldment Is an assembly whose component parts are ,
by the amount of the bolt holes. This is accompHshedi
joined by welding. A weldment can range from a huge
when the entire cross section of a member of a welded
structure such as all all-welded ship, the world's tallest
design is used to carry the load. The amount of material
structure, the Sears Tower, or an all-welded long-span
required is reduced (Figure 19~1) as well as its cost. This
bridge, to It relatively small item such as a bicycle frame
or a, coffeepot. We1dments offer many advantages over
same design concept applies tojointng plates used to
build a ship or a container. In view of this material sav-
other de lgn concepts.
ings, ships and storage tanks are no longer riveted.
1. A weldment is lighter in weight than cast~ me- Pipes joined by welding offer major economies. The
chruti~ally fastened structures; it requires 'l~ss wall thickness of a pipe should be heavy enough to carry ,.
; .material. the required .Ioad: However, if the pipe is joined by screw
2. 'The weldment design can readily be modifled to threads, a heavier wall thickness is used to allow for cut-1
meet.changing product requirements. tlng away a portion of the' thickness for the' threads
3.'The production time fora weldment is less than (Figure 19-i).A thinn r pipe wall thickness is used for
that of other manufacturing methods, the entire welded pipe system. Thts reduces the amount
of metal required and the cost. The Instd surface of the
4. The weldment will be more accurate than a casting welded joint is smoother. Large-diameter pipes are 110'
''" Wltb,resl'ect tod , ~nsionaltolerances.
longer connected using screw threads and pipe fittings.
5. Weldme.nts are more easily machined than castings. Converting castings' to weldments allows the de-
6.Weldments are tight and leakproof and will not shift. signer to reduce weight bY: reducing metal thickness.
, ;.{-
RIVETED SPLICE IN WIDE FLANGE MEMBER
FIGURE 19-3 Welded and cast truck brake shoe.
WELDED SPLICE IN WIDE FLANGE MEMBER

tify the blanking dies of the web plates and for automat-
FIGURE 19-1 Comparison of welded and riveted ing the welding operation.
structura I joi nts. Additional advantages of weldments include the
fact that welding is the lowest-cost joining method, joins
all commercial metals, and can be used anywhere. It pro-
vides design flexibility; that is, the correct metals can be
used where required.
Limitations of weldments include the fact that some
welding depends on the human factor and welding often
requires internal inspection. These limitations can be
overcome by good controls and supervision and nonde-
structive evaluation.
19..2 WELDMENT, DESIGN

FACTORS
Designers of :W Idrnents must have knowledge of the
various welding pro esses and welds and w Idlng joint
FIGURE 19-2 Pipe joints welded and threaded. designs. They need to know howmaterials are prepared
for welding and how welds are made. This is compll-
cared by the many types of designers who use welding,
WelClingis a design concept that all ws freedom and f1 x- For example, thecivil engineer d signs bridges and sim-
ibility not possible with cast construction. Heavy plates ilar Structures; the structural engineer designs high-rise
qUl be used where strength Is required and thin ones buildings and factories: th mechanical engineer d signs
Where possible.The uniformthtckness rule and mintmum pressure vessels, piping systems.and niachmecy.eompo-
thickness required for foundry practice are not necessary nents; the chemical engineer designs vessels, process
for·weldments. Additionally, high-strength materials can. components, and piping .sYstems; th marine architect
be used in specific areas. designs ShiJ s and boats; and the electrical, engin r de- ,
Th weldment usually offers advantages over a cast- signs electrical generating and ete tdcal machtaery '
ing for the sam function.(1) Pigure 19 ...3 shows a welded Each of these design si;eci~ll&ts must know the details of
and cast truck brake shoe, The weight of the rough cast- weldment desisn.ln additiotl,many .othet·prQductst)lfl't,
in.g is 23tb (10.5 kg), wltile'the weldment weighs 13 lb at' deslgned'requii'e .knowledge '()f'we,ldin~('Ibe' pl:h
(5.8 kg),The extra material and machine work penalizes mary objective of all designers is to de' ign the part to
the casting design. Quantity production is requir d tojus-
, '
fulfill its deSign
<-
fun.ction" but al so .to design a w lam nt
T ..
that is an efficient, cost-effective part that fulfills the de- F F
sign requirements.
Shear loading
The economical solution to a design requirement
will be accomplished if the designer takes into consider-
ation the following points:
Tension loading
1. The total service requirements
2. The types of loadings and methods of accurately
calculating stresses
3. The allowable working stresses
F
4. The mechanical and physical properties of materi-
F
als employed F
5. The capabilities of the welding processes and the

weld deposit properties
F
6. Joint types and weld design
Compression loading:
7. Fabrication methods avaiJable long member
8. The cost of welding using the variety of processes

available Compression loading
9. Clear communication of design

10. Quality specifications and inspection techniques
F
The intelligently designed weldment will always be F
less expensive than the mechanically assembled parts or
castings designed for the same function. If this is not true, F
~1~::=:=i(
it is an indication that the weldment design is poor or Torsion loading
that other factors are involved. The best design involves r---- 1
ingenuity, but the resultant welded designs are worth this F/2 F/2
effort. Bending loading
The designer is expected to design a product that

will function properly under the service conditions en-
countered.The designer must be completely aware of the FIGURE19-4 Five basic types of loads.
properties of the material involved and how they must be
treated in fabricating and welding. The design, the mate-
rials, and the production procedures are interrelated and structures and how they are calculated. Special design
must all be considered when making a design. Codes or procedures provide this information. It is necessary to
specifications must also be considered when they are in- consider both static and dynamic loads, including impact
volved.Weldrnent design is a particularly difficult process and fatigue. The term loads Is identified by referring to
stnce weldments cover such a wide variety of parts with Figure 19-4, the five basic types of loads. A weldment is
such a wide variety of service requirements. In addition, a monolithic structure, and therefore any load imposed
the economic factors must be considered. The first cost anywhere on the weldment will be transmitted through-
of the weldment filay not always be the determining fac- out the weldment,
tor since maintenance and repair costs over the service The allowable working stress, sometimes called
life may be more important than the initial costs. Weight allowable unit stress, is the maximum stress level that: Is
reductior is desirable, especially for moving structures, allow d anywhere within a weldment, Stress is calculated
trice this can provide tor increased payloads andie~ en. using standard engineering principles based on the typ
ergy requtrement, , \ of product or structure being designed. The-mechanical
__ 'Thetotal service requirements must be known. It is and physical properties of materials are also importan t,
abl;ioluteIy essenttal that the design meet aU these require- The designer has the responsibility to select rnatcrlals to
m'en~s:1'his can include dynamic loading, fatigue loading, meet the design requiretuertts. This includes matertals
()f tmpa 't loading, the service temperature (whether hot with the correct properties to withstand loads but also to
or oJd)J ani the thermal temperature changes in the ser- Withstand corroston, abrasion, and other factors.
~ice.AJ)other r.tcto:r;- iseorrosion resistance under normal The capabilities of welding processes and of the
andeXtertde~use artdresjs~ance to abrasion of all types. weld deposit must be known. In general, most weldmcnrs
i ~'" A major :ptoblem is the type of loading and meth- .are designed to be manufactured by the use of an arc
ods of accurately ca~culat~ngstresses. It is beyond the welding process. It is normal practice to assume that the
, sc(u~e of.tllis book to develop how loads are imposed on~," w Id [otnt of a :fnll1)enetrati00Weld will equal or exceed
",I
, , !'
tJ86 CHAP ER 1.9

TRANSVERSE to provide clear communication for parts preparation for
SHEAR
welding and for continuing operations.
Quality specifications and inspection techniques
must be designated. The designer must indicate any par-
ticular joints where high quality must be assured by
means of nondestructive testing. Welding symbols can be
combined with nondestructive examination symbols for
this purpose. The designer must also have the knowledge
of the materials being used and if they need further heat
LONGITUDINAL treatment following the welding operation. This can in-
LOAD
SHEAR clude stress relieving, normalizing, or heat treatments of
various types required to provide the properties required.
FIGURE19-5 Stresses in a fillet weld. One of the most important functions of the de-
signer is to design for dynamic 01' low-temperature or im-
pact loadings. The designer must also indicate the life of
the properties of the base material employed. Codes and the product based on service requirements, As far as
Specifications may apply and provide specific factors that welding is concerned, the most important factor is the
rnusr be used. use of full-penetration welds versus partial-penetration
Joint types and weld designs must be established. It welds. For static loading, partial-penetration welds are
is essential that they be specified to carry the loads. Load- ample. However, for other types of loading it is important
ings greatly influence the type of weld joint that should to design for full-penetration welds based on possible
be employed, specifically full-penetration welds versus stress concentrations in the design.
partial-penetration welds. It is common practice to as- At least four types of stress concentrations must be
sume that the weld is stressed evenly over its entire area. avoided. There are structural notches in the overall total de-
This is not always true. Fillet welds are the most widely sign of the weldment (see the ship failure report described
Used welds, and they usuaUy fail through the throat. in Section 24-1). Some weld joint stress concentrations are
Stresses in a fillet weld can be longitudinal or transverse designed Into the joint, such as partial penetration welds
shear, as shown in Figure 19-5. Unfused sections of the or two fillet welds with an unfused area in a Tjoint. Work-
lotnr are stress risers. manship stress concentration notches include incomplete
The designer must understand the cost factors penetration welds where it was designed for full penetra-
When welding with different processes. This relates to the tion, sharp comers of fillets, undercut, and so on. Finally,we
method of application and thus the labor cost. The more note one of less significance: stress concentrations at met-
mechanized the process, the less labor is involved. How- allurgical notches when materials of different properties
ever, this depends on the quantity of production and the are brought together. .
Capital investment allowed for automation. Different
processes also have different productivity factors. The
most productive process that is practical for the part Stress Concentrations
should be employed. When considering the design of a weldment, special em-
Fabrication facilities in the factory have all influ- phasis must be placed on stress concentrations-that ts,
ence on design. Most parts for many weldments are flame the distribution of stress at notches or dis ontinuities.
Cut or blanked from hot-rolled steel plate. They are some- When the parts of a weldrnent are welded together, th y
times then bent or rolled to designrequtrements.The de- act as a monolithic structure.This means that stresse s are
Signer must know about the faciliti s that are available, spread throughout the entire structure when tran mttttng
Whether the wor.k must be done hot or cold, and so on. a force from one point to aneth r within the structur .
lear communication of designs is essential. It is One a. piece is welded into the weldment, it be omes a
absolutely necessary that the designer provide complete part of the weldment and will carry a portion of the load,
draWings and procedures for manufacturing a product. Tensile stresses are normally thought to be uttifQrmly dis- .
-The most' common method for welding design Informa- tributed throughout the entire cross secttcnbfa member,
tlon interchange is by the use of welding symbols. Weld This is usually a safe assumptl n for Simple statically
sY1nbols also indicate th edge preparation of parts en- loaded structures. However; complex: structures exposed
tering the weldment. This involves bevels of different to dynamic JO~ldinglrepetiti e loading, and lmpa tio~dlt1g
tYpes. The type of equipment used 'to provide [otnt prepa- wUI not have a uniform stress partern across'the ross s 'c-
tations is important and must be known by the designer Han of the structure.The effect of the. tlOUU,l1tfotlllity$
and ommunrcated tctttesbop. There should be suffi- tnorei1l1pol'tant~lnfatigu -and cOld;weaih t s~~ce,>,".'.
cient information so that Hell part will be prepared Onder some. set ice -requtrements ~'tej'tl~l Io;tclS
Propedy before going into the weldment, Standardi.zed may flu .tuate on may be applied repetru ely t~10\lStln'ls
data abd supplementary information are often required of runes, Most metals ~hlpi:t a'lower'\lltilnat~:Stfenith" .~' ~
- - _- '< ,.. ;. • • - ~ ~ ••
under the application of repetitive loads, and it is normal and there is a concentration of stresses. The cross section
practice to reduce the working unit stress when cyclic changes drastically at the point where the deckhouse is
or repeated loading is applied. This involves the fatigue welded to the deck. It might be argued that the deckhousc
life of the metal and depends on the stress cycle im- is not expected to carry any of the load or stress. It will,
posecl.The types of stress cycle refer to whether there is since it is welded and becomes integral to the other parts
a complete reversal of stress from tension to compres- of the hull. The intersection of members, reentrant angles,
sion or whether it is a loading from a minimum to a max- abrupt reinforcing structures, and square holes are all ex-
imum amount of either tension or compression. Most amples of notches in the design of weldments.
codes specify an allowable fatigue stress. Notches also occur in welds.v? Any weld joint de-
Suddenly applied loads are called impact loads, and sign that provides partial penetration includes a notch. A
the suddenness of the application of the load is a matter of design notch in a weld joint would be the incomplete fu-
the degree of impact.The effect of impact is to immediately sion area at the center or root of a weld. Fillet welds used
increase the internal stress in the weldment.These internal for lap joints are notch prone. See Figure 19-7 for exam-
stresses may be localized and cause problems. The design ples of stress concentration when the joint is loaded in
calculations are made on the basis of equivalent static load tension. T-joints made with two fillet welds include a
conditions. It is normal practice to allow for the effect of notch. The worst notch is the single fillet welded T-joint.
impact-producing stresses by the use of factors based on Figure 19-8 shows these T-we1d joint details and how dif-
static loading. The factor is an across-the-board cut in the ferent designs contain notches. This figure shows three
alJowable unit stress of the total structure or weldment. joint designs, the stress paths, and a comparison of their
A stress concentration is a point within the struc- relative static tensile strength, resistance to fatigue, and
ture at which the stresses wiJl be more concentrated than impact strength. The static strength is determined by
throughout the remaining cross-sectional area of the the area of the weld, the other factors by tests. Butt
weldrnent, Stresses at a notch, for example, can be two to joints are less notch prone because of their geometry.
four times as great as the uniform stresses throughout the Full-penetration welds produce highly efficient butt
remaining portion of the structure. For weldments loaded joints. However, partial-penetration welds contain notches
dynamically, repetitively, or by impact, it can create a point at the center of the weld or at the outer surface. Four ex-
of premature failure. A simple example of stress concen- amples are shown in Figure 19-9. It is easy to determine
tration based on the presence of a notch is shown in whether a notch is designed into the joint by drawing a
Figure 19-6. On the left, the bar stressed in tension will cross section of the weld joint indicating the paths that
have uniform stress throughout its cross section. The bar the lines of stress must follow. Notches can also occur in
on the right has a sharp notch in the edge, and the stresses weld joints when the section changes abruptly. Figure
will be concentrated at the root of the notch; even though 19-10 shows butt joints between a thick and a thin mem-
the stresses were distributed uniformly at the ends of the ber. There are several ways to provide a smooth stress
bar, they cannot be transmitted through the notch. The flow through the weld. It is also possible to make two
bar with the notch will have service life considerably less stress concentration points. The left joint would create
than that of the bar not containing the notch. two points of stress concentration, one at the toe of the
A design notch is designed into it weldment as an fillet and one at the unfused root.The right joint would be
abrupt change of se tton.A practical example is a square a better solution and would provide a relatively smooth
hatch opening in the deck of a ship.The cross section at the stress flow. The joint on the bottom would also provide a
j
point where the batch opening occurs changes abruptly relatively smooth stress flow and would be less expensive
since less weld metal is required.
I
Workmanship notches can be troublesome and dif-
FIGURE 1'9-6 Bar with and without notch. ficult to control.These OCC1.1r when the welds are not full-
f F . penetration welds, even though they are designed to be.
The root opening may have been eliminated by all accu-
mulation of tolerances, or back gouging and back welding
FIGURE 19 ....7 Single fillet lap weld in tension.
. 1 .
Tee Joint
with grooYe
and/or fillet
welds
Stress
pattem
Static tensil.
lf~/~1 rl~1
strength 100% 80% 30'1t.
Rnistance to
fatigue 40'1t. 25% 10'1t.
Imptct strength 85% 75% 10'1t.
FIGURE 19-8 T-joints: stress pattern.
Butt joint
with groove
welds
SUess
pattern
Static tensile
strength
100% 85% 70% 60%
Resistance to
100% 35% 15% 10%
fatigue
Impact strength 100% 80% 65% 40%
FIGURE 19-9 Butt joint: stress pattern.
lllay have been omitted,A fillet weld at the p(HntQf.join~..

Ing a thin section to a thlck section n'lay not be £tIn size "
and will create", notch.
The fourth type of notch is in the mi1)ority and ere-
ates the least trouble.Th se ate metallurgioal notches that
.may becaused by joining metals of diffetent, yield
strengths or bi welding on harden~ble,steelsandcreatil1S,
extremely hard spots'ln welds. Abruptctiange in strength .
FIGURE 19-.10 Thick..to-thin butt joint. along a crosssection can have the effect of a notch even
thQugh there is no abrupt change in geometrY. (
• • _ " •. ~ ;r_ '. ' .~ - •••.•• ~ ~ • ", ':'. . •• - _"', • ,'; -:--,
1>.
, ,
In the design and construction of weldments sub- curacy. The weldment will maintain correct alignment
jected to dynamic loads and low-temperature service, and dimensional accuracy throughout its service Iife.This
every effort must be taken to provide a smooth flow of type of design and construction should be used for all
stress lines throughout the weldment. This becomes welded machine parts unless they must be disassembled.
more important when high-strength materials are used.
Fatigue of Welded Structures 19-3 WELDING POSITIONS

Fatigue failures in engineered structures usually occur at AND WELD ACCESSIBILITY
connections where a change of section or shape occurs.
Most welds made in the field must be made in the posi-
They typically initiate at discontinuities or stress risers as-
tion in which they are found. Other weldments are too
sociated with joints. They are the result of design or
large to be moved and the welds must be made in the po-
workmanship errors. Major design errors can be cor-
sition they are found. This involves welding on the ceil-
rected by experienced designers or by fatigue element
ing, on the corner, or on the floor-in other words, in the
analysis. Welding design errors may not be as evident. For
position in which the part will be used.These welding po-
example, fatigue cracks may initiate at the toe of fillet
sitions must be accurately described. AWS has defined
welds or from a partial-penetration joint, These factors
the four basic welding positions as follows:
were discussed in the last section and should be cor-
rected. Faulty workmanship is another source of discon- 1. Flat welding position: the welding position used
tinuities that may initiate failure. These include lack of to weld from the upper side of the joint at a point
penetration or lack of fusion, porosity or slag inclusions, where the weld axis is approximately horizontal and
or poor weld geometry, especiaUy in fiUets if the weld the weld face lies in an approximately horizontal
joint is oriented perpendicular to the cyclic stresses. plane
Close visual inspection and nondestructive examination 2. Horizontal welding position, fillet weld: the
will. help alleviate the problem.Another factor is residual welding position in which the weld is on the upper
stresses that are balanced in the weJdment.Weldments al- side of an approximately hortzontal surface and
most always contain residual stresses.P' against an approximately vertical surface
.Fatigue failure is divided into initiation, propaga- 3. Horizontal welding position, groove weld: the
tion, and terminal fracture.Total fatigue life is governed welding position in which the weld face lies in an
by the applied loads, geometry of the part, and the joint approximately vertical plane and the weld axis at
design. It also Includes workmanship faults, environ- the point of welding is approximately horizontal
ment, and the fracture characteristics of the material.The
4. Overhead welding position: the welding position
magnitude of tensile residual stresses should be con-
in which welding is performed from the underside
trolled, esp clally in thick, highly constrained weld-
of the joint
merits made of low fracture toughness material. To
greatly redu .e stresses, one solution is stress relief heat
5. Vertical welding position: the welding position
in which the weld axis, at the point of welding, is
treatment, which is recommended, ifpossible.for critical
components. approximately vertical and the weld face lies in all
approximately vertical plane
Several foreign definitions differ from those of the
Rigid-Frame Structures AWS but are commonly used.The British and others use
Rigid·frame construction, also called continuous con- the term downhand to describe the flat position. They
struction, is a design system incorporating plastic analy- also use the term horizontal vertical to describe welds
sts. Tbis type of design and construction is spectncally betwe n two plates, one approximately in thehorizontal
suit d to. welded construction. The members are ..welded plane and one in the vertical plane, when the axis of the
lit ctly.together rather than through connection Pl,tes, weld is approximately horizontal. The positions are iden-
gus~ets, or fJ)ler plates.TIle nlateri~ in a I'igiQ. or conunu- titled further in Figure 19-11, which shows welding posi-
" OJi~~ w(~Jdedfra.meis used mor cfLl Iently because the tions for fiUet and groove welds. Here F represents fillets;
, bClldip,g moments arc, distributed better. This type of con- 1, flat; 2, horizontal; 3, vertical; and 4, overhead, The same
. fitruct!Qu provtdes the maximum d gree of end restraint, numbers apply to groove welds, which are designated
.RiSk! .fr'iltll design allows Jarge $aving,s of steel since it with the letter G. Pip weld joints are a special case and
eliJ:llili tes Ute connecting plates and.gussets.It requires a are identified in Figure 19..,].~.'fhey are normally groove
JhorQpgb, atlaly.sisat}d $otlld be done only by designers welds and they are.indicated by the letter G. Position ·.1G
jvell qi:iiilt~edto perfQf;A') this type of work. " 'is roll welding With the a ds of pipe horizontal, but with
: . .,' In machine members t1 e dgiq, connection con- ,the welding done in tl e flat position with the pipe rotat-
'.';~epts Dr plt S.ti~ analysi.s ptovlde greater <llmensional acing under the arc, Posttlon 2G' is known as !:Jorizonta1
'} . .r
FLAT WELDING HORIZONTAL WELDING VERTICAL WELDING OVERHEAD WELDING
POSITION POSITION POSITION POSITION
1F 2F 3F 4F
C/)
9
LU
it
I-
LU
..J
..J
u:
I
I,
I
AXIS OF WELD /»-; AXIS OF WELD AXIS OF WELD

HORIZONTAL HORIZONTAL HORIZONTAL
FLAT WELDING HORIZONTAL WELDING VERTICAL WELDING OVERHEAD WELDING

POSITION POSITION POSITION POSITION
1G 2G 3G 4G
PLATES AND AXIS OF PLATES VERTICAL PLATES VERTICAL PLATES AND AXIS Of
WELD HORIZONTAL AND AXIS OF AND AXIS OF WELD HORIZONTAL
WELD HORIZONTAL WELD VERTICAL
FIGURE19-11 Welding positions for fi llet and groove welds.
welding; the axis of the pipe is in the vertical position is the same for fillet and groove Welds. However, the ro-
With the axis of the weld in the horizontal position.There tation of the face of the horizontal, vertical, and overhead
is no 3G or 4G position on pipe welding. Position 5G is groove welds are different. The design of a joint is nor-
known as the multiple position. The axis of the pipe is mally changed whenever the welding position or type of
horizontal, but the pipe is not turned or rolled during the backing is changed. In general, narrower included angles
welding operation. Position 6G for pipe has the axis of the are used for other than flat-positiort groove welds, We1as
Pipe at 450 and the pipe is not turned while welding. For made ill the hortzontal position usually have a flat face on
qllaUfication work a 6G restricted position is often used. the bottom member and a beveled face on the upper
Restricted accessibility is provided by a restriction ring member. When backing strips ar ' used, the root opening
placed near the weld. It is called 6GR.The axis of the pipe is usually wider. Specific jotne details for different ~hick.
may vary 1150 for the 1G, 2G, and 5G test positions,' but nesses and positions are shown In the nextsecuon,
only] 5° for the 6G position. Square and rectangular tub- The welding ,POSitiOn must always be accuratety de-
ing is accommodated in the 2G and 5G test positions. scribed. It Is an important variable in any weldiltg proce-
The officialAWS diagrams for welding positions are dure.Jt is especlally.tmportant with respectto tt'ftinlng
precise.They use the angle of the axis of the weld,which and qualifying wetder~ arid must always be .given COnsid.
is a line through the length of the weld perpendtcularto eration when se!e.ctPlg a welding Rl·O. ess.lh~·'posl:(ion"c .:
the Cross section at its center of gravity. Figure f9-13 must.be consid "tcd in. the deSign, ol'ajoint;A,goQde~~ni~'
Shows the fillet weld and the limits of the various posi- pIe. of this is the desigh of weld joints, to spllce eolumns ..
liOns. It is necessary to consider th incllnatiou of the in steel frame buildings. It is normal practice to have tll
aXis of th weld as well as th rotation of the face of the bottom stde ofthe joint flat with tb~ bevel on the tlPp r
fi.llet weld, piece, When ba king-strips. arC;;\lSea1 the toot QP~ing 1~
. .Figure 19-14 s,hows tIle groove weld positioqs in . usually w1(i.1j: !Wotne,f. i.tilPW·tat:l;tftl~tot ~1:baia¢signf$S
tl\e same manner.Theinclinattcn of the axis of the groove must consider is, the aces$ibility frir'nlaldng VI ld. ' the
1\·l1dfillet weld is th same as far as
Iimits are concerned. The weld jointmus; be ace 881h1 W the,. welder, fa other,
For th flat positio.n the ~()tation of the face of the weld words,it tlUltSt b pos~i!:)I.e.to make tbeweldtFmpreJ:2 ...1~ :
. ' 1
. '. _' -, .- - ~'. _,_. ,- #-,-~.:-,~..'- -, '-,' - '-. _?:. '>~'';'_'c-!' _-,""! .
- ~.
........
--1-
_- 1S·
L
FLAT WELDING POSITION

PIPE ROLLED
1GPOSITION
~.
--1-16·
t
~
--- MULTIPLE WELDING POSITION
HORIZONTAL WELDING POSITION
2G POSITION
5GPOSITION
MUI.TIPLE WELDING POSITION MULTIPLE WELDING POSITION

eGPOSITION WITH RESTRICTION RING
eGR POSITION
FIGURE 19-12 Welding positions for pipe welds.
TABULATION OF POSITIONS
OF F!!,LETWEI.QS
POSITION DIAGRAM INCL.INATION ROTATION

REFERENCE OF AXIS OF FACE·
FLAT A Cf TO 16" 150' TO 210·
125· TO 1SO"
HORIZONTAL. 8 Cf TO 16·
21Qt TO 236·
.
OO'TO 126·
OVERHEAD C Cf TO 80'
ns" TO 381)"
0 1~ TO 80· 125· TO ~36·
. VERTICAl,
E 800 TO eo" 06 TO 380·
r----'
TABULATION OF POSITIONS
OF GROOVE WELDS
DIAGRAM INCLINATION ROTATION

POSITION
REFERENCE OF AXIS OF FACE
FLAT A O· TO 15· 150· T0210·
80° TO 150°
HORIZONTAL B 0° TO 15·
210° TO 280°
0° TO 80°
OVERHEAD C 0° TO 80°
i-' 2800 TO 360--;;'
D 15° TO 80· BO· TO 280·

VERTICAL
E BO° TO 90° 0° TO 360°
I
J
J
_-- ,
I
I
J
jl.1'IE :.,./
I'll jI.\.. PI:- - _-
_-
~Of\\~O __ - __
--- --- -----

FIGURE19-14 Welding positions for groove welds.
as additional parts are assembled in the weldment. It Is ad-

vantageous if the weldment can be designed so that all
weld joints are accessible for welding after the weldment
has been completely assembled. Missed welds of this type
can lead to premature failures of the weldment.
It is also important to consider the back welding that
may be required for a particular joint. In some cases back
SMALL OIAMETER PIPE
gouging and welding is required for a fully penetrating
high-quality joint. Accessibility must be available to th
back side of the joint.When the back side of the weld is not
accessible, the designer: must consider one-side welding.
This techniqu ls used when the weld must be made com-
pletely from one side of the joint. An example of a one-side
weld Is a weld on small-diameter pipe. It is impossible to
get to the back sid of the joint; therefore, the joint must b
BOX COLUMN
made completely from the. outside of the pip . 111,atis
usually done with an open root. A one-side weldusually
STRUCTURAL OETAIL
requires some type of backing. This is covered more com-
FIGURE19-15 Inaccessible welds (impossible to pletely in Section 26-3. Brie iy, th re ar different types of
make). backing and techniques for making complete pen tratton
welds from one side, Consumable tnsertsar in ornmon
'use for pipe weldtng.Bacldng.straps that become part'of"
the joints are common, FIllXes"flu;"C03ted tape, arid flux;..
shows several examples of inaccessible welds. Welds can- filled bars are all us d, and water-cool .d copper bars are
llOt be made on the inside of small-diameter pipe or In- widely 'used In automatic applications.
sid box columns. Welds shown in the structural detail Another Issue that designers must consider !s th:
throllgh a hannel would be impossible to make as practical problem of weld <;Ustortion,.Di:tortion can 0 _.
. shoWl). rfhere are other examples of inaccessible welds cur in any weldment and
can, ct'e~iea-pl'obJ.1.1'1 sin'e 'mov-:
that can be made on paper but not In the shop. iU.g parts may close up .root opentngs fmcl j()~llts.-'n~e
The sequence of assembly f a weldment has an cf- welders must b careful to avoid ul1'ft.lsc<lvoots in j iJ1tS.
. feet on a ce sibilizy.The welding area an be covered up This is puttlculady tro tble '9m~wbel1 ,the design .requb·s
- . " "': '. .~~,.,. ~ .
-;. ~-' ..;_ .
," ',;' -
full-penetration welds. To understand this problem com-
pletely, it is advantageous if designers have some shop ex-
perience. Bracing of the weldrnent and distortion
correction have their place. However, it is sometimes pos-
sible to reduce distortion by means of double welds or B BUTT
welds made on opposite sides of the centerline of the

joint or weldment, to minimize angular distortion. Weld
sizes also affect distortion and it is advisable to use the
smallest welds possible. This subject is covered more
completely elsewhere in this book.
C CORNER
19-4 DESIGN OF WELD

JOINTS AND WELDS
Welds are made at the junction of all of the pieces that
make up the weldment. The junction of parts is called a
joint, defined as the junction of members or edges of
members that are to be joined or have been joined. Parts
being joined to produce a weldment may be hot-rolled
plates, structural shapes, pipe, castings, or forgings. The L LAP
placement of these members creates the Joints. Five ba-

sic joints are used for bringing two members together for
E
welding. Definitions of the terms used to describe these
JOINT
joints are similar to those used by various crafts. Figure
19-16 shows the relationship between the two mem-
bers as well as the location of the joint between them.
They are defined as follows: E EDGE
A. Butt joint: a joint between two members aligned FIGURE19-16 Five basic joint types.
approximately in the same plane
B. Corner joint: a joint between two members located
approximately at right angles to each other in the sectional shape. The fillet is regarded as being on
form of an L the joint and is defined as a weld of approximately
C. Tfotnt: a [oint between two members located ap- triangular cross section joining two surfaces ap-
proximately at right angles to ach other in the proximately at right angles to each other. Details of
form of a T the fillet weld are shown in Figure 19-18.Variatlons
D. Lap joint: a joint between two overlapping mem- of the ftllet are shown in Figure 19-19.
bers 10 ate d in parallel 2. Groove weld. This is the second most popular
E. Bdge joint: a joint between the edges of two or weld. It is defined as a weld made in the groove be-
more parallel or nearly parallel members. tween two members to be joined. The groove weld
is regarded as being in the joint. The 11baste groove
When more than two members are brought together, weld designs an be used as single or double welds.
the jolru is a combination of one ofthe five basic' olnts.The The details of the groove weld are shown in Figure
most popular joint is the cross OJ: cruciform joint, a JOi~be- 19-20,Oifferent types of groove welds are shown ill
tween three members at right angles to each other in,the Figure 19- 21.
format a ross.It is actually-a double-T joint. 3. .Back backing weld. Tbis Is a special weld
Or
made on the back side or root side of a ,previOl.1S
W Id Types weld. The root of the original weld is gouged,
. chipped; or ground to sound metal before the ba k~
TIlerc re eight separate and dlsttnct welds, shown in Ing weld is made. This improves the quality of the
, Fig'll!' ~9-17Isgmeofwhich have varlattons, In addition, weld jOint by ensurtng complete p netratlon, It, b1
~ol(ls taJib¢'coJ;nbtp d. ,'" "
o itself, cannot: make ~\joint,
, 1.' Pillet w ~id. This is the most commonly used weld. 4. Plug- or slot welds. Ttl se at made using pre-
" The ,fillet ,veld is so named because. of Its cross- pared holes.Th y arc. consldered together s.inCe
. . . . .
FILLET
Most popular of all welds
(may be Single or double)
GROOVE
SeC?nd most poputar=rnay
Eleven
be Single or double-has
types
many variations
BACK OR BACKING WELD

Bead type back or backing
welds of single groove welds
PLUG OR SLOT WELD (1 ) BASE METAL: Metal to be welded.

Used with prepared holes LY (2) BONO LINE: The junction of the weld metal and the
basemetal.
SPOT OR PROJECTION WELD (3) DEPTH OF FUSION: The distance that fusion extends into
Used without prepared holes the basemetal.
Use arc or resistance
U
(4) FACE OF WELD: The exposed surface of a weld on the
side from which the welding was done.
SEAM WELD
Continuous-use arc or (51 LEG OF A FILLET WELD: The distance from the root of the joint
resistance to the toe of the fillet weld.
(6) ROOT OF WELD: The point or points, 11$ shown in cross-

section, at which the bottom of the
STUD WELD weld intersects the base metal surface
SpeCial application Q9 or surfaces.
Welding process Stud
(7) THROAT OF FILLET WELD: The shortest distance from the root of
the fillet weld to it$ face.
SURFACING WELD (8) TOE OF A WELD: The junction between the face of a weld
SUrface built up by welding -ocr and the base metal.
FIGURE19-18 Fillet weld.

FIGURE19-17 Eight basic welds.
the welding symbol to specify them is the same.

The important difference is the type of prepared
hole in one of the members being joined. If the
hole is round, it is a plug weld; if it is elongated, it
is a lot weld.
S. Spot or projecuon weld. This is shown by the
same weld symbol.These welds can be applied by
different welding processes, which change the ac-
tual weld: For example, when the resistance weld-
ing pro ess is used, the weld is at the interface of
the members being joined. If the electron beam, NORMAL FI LLeT A UNEOUAI.. L6G FILLET B
laser,or arc welding process is used, the weld melts
througb. one member into the second member;
6.. Seam weld. This weld ill cross section looks sim-
ilar to a spot weld. The weld geometry is influenced
by the welding process employed. With resistance
W leling, th weld is at the interface between
memb rs bein~ joined. With the electron beam,
lase):; or nrc wetdlag process, the weld melts
through the one mernb~r to join it to the second
III 'Q1bcr.There are no prepared holes in irher the
SPOt or the seam weld. \
2 7. Stud weld. This is a special type of a weld pro-
duced by a stud welding process, used for joining a
metal stud or similar part to a workpiece.
8. Surfacing weld. This weld is composed of one or
more stringer or weave beads deposited on base
metal as an unbroken surface. It is not used to
make a joint. It is used to build up surface dimen-
sions, to provide metals of different properties, or
to provide protection of the base metal from a hos-
tile environment.
(1) BEVEL ANGLE: The angle formed between the prepared edge of
a member and a plane perpendicular to the surface
of the member. Weld Joints
(21 GROOVE ANGLE: The total included angle of the groove between To produce weldments it is necessary to combine the
parts to be joined by a groove weld. joint with the weld to produce weld joints for joining the
(3) GROOVE FACE: The surface of a member included in the groove. separate members. Each weld cannot always be com-
(4) ROOT FACE: That portion of the groove face adjacent to the
bined with each joint to make a weld joint. Figure 19-22
root of the joint. shows the welds applicable to the basic joints. Since fillet
(5) ROOT OPENING: The separation between the members to be joined welds and groove welds can be combined, they have
at the root of the joint. more possibilities and their use is more complex.
FIGURE 19-20 Groove weld.
Weld Joint Design
The purpose of the weld joint is to transfer the loads and
stresses between the members and throughout the weld-
SQUARE ment. The type of loading and service of the weldment
have a great bearing on the joint design that should be se-
y SINGLE-V lected. All weld joints are either full- or partial-penetration
joints. A full-penetration weld joint has weld metal
throughout the entire cross section of the weld joint. A
x DOUBLE-V
partial-penetration joint is designed to have an unfused
area; that is, the welcJ does not penetrate the joint com-
SINGLE·BEVEL pletely. The rating of the joint is based on the percentage
of weld metal to the total joint. If the weld metal pene-
trated a quarter of the way from both sides, it would leave
K DOUBLE-BEVEL
half of the joint unfused, A 50% partial-penetration joint
would have w ld metal halfway through the [oint. Weld-
ments subjected to static loading need only sufficient
SINGLE-U
weJd metal to transfer the static loads.When joints are sub-
jected to dynamic loading, reversing loads, impact loads,
or cold-temperature service, the weld joint must be more
DOUBLE·U efficient.
The strength of the weld jolnt depends on the size
of the weld and the strength of th weld metal, When us-
SINGLE·J ing mild and low-alloy ste Is, the strength of the weld
metal is normally stronger than that of the materials be-
ing jolned.The yield strength of normal structural steel is
a minimum of 36,000 pst(2 8 MPa).The yield strength for
OOUal.E~J
a normal E60XX type of electrode deposit is about 50,000
psi. (345 MPa); thus the weld metal is stronger than rhe
base metal. When this joint is pulled in t .nston, it will ~d·
FLARE·V .
(MAY at: DOUBLE) way' break outside the weld since the base metal wiU
FLARE·Br:VEL yield t1t;St, because weld nletalstrength overmatches the
(MAY-BE DOUelE) bas metal yield strength. Weld reinforcement should be
kept to a minimum sine it is not required, it is wasteful,
and i.t may act as a stress rlser,
THE FIVE BASIC JOINTS
WELD A B C D E
Symbol
Butt Corner Tee Lap Edge
Fillet --v- Special Yes Yes Yes Special
Square-groove II Yes Yes Yes - Yes
V-groove """7\: Yes Yes Yes - Yes
Bevel-groove 1\ Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
U-groove 7:::- Yes Yes - - Yes
J-groove r\ Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Flare V-groove 7\ Yes Yes - - -

Flare-bevel-groove 1\ Yes Yes Yes Yes -
Backing weld -c::r- Combin. Combin. Combin. - -
Plug or slot
-
-0- - - Yes Yes -
Spot or projection U - - Special Yes -
Seam ~ - Special Special Yes -
FIGURE19-22 Welds appl icable to the basic joints.
In welding high-alloy steel, heat-treated steels, or

Other high-strength metals, this situation does not apply. { SQUARE EDGE SHAPE
Many materials obtain their strength by heat treatment.

The weld metal does not have this same heat treatment;
SINGLE-BEVEL EDGE SHAPE
therefore, it might have lower strength properties. The ~ ~
Weldingoperation might nullify the heat treatment of the
base metal, causing it to revert to a lower strength adja-
cent to the weld.when welding high-alloy or heat-treated
{ ) DOUBLE-BEVEL EDGE SHAPE
nlaterials, the filler metal must be properly matched to

the base metal. SINGLE-J EDGE SHAPE
~ ~
At least three factors must be considered in de-
Signing a.weld joint. They have an influence on the eco-
nomIcs of the weldment design as well as on the
strength of the weld joint and the ability of the welder
{ > DOUBLE-J EQGE SHAPE
to make it. The designer must first consider the strength

req\urements and the penetration requirements rdtc- 1.:,} ======:::' 0 FLANGED EDGE SHAPE
tated by loading and service. The joint should be made
in the most economical way.The weld joint should be FIGURE 19-23 Edge shapes.
designed so that its cross-sectional area is the minimum
POssible.The cross-sectional area ·is a measure of the
amOUnt or weight of weld metal needed to make the
JOint.The welding process, the base metal, and its thick- cutting is the t\lOst pop1.11arrnethoq of ptepanttion and-is
ness dictate, and the welding position indicates, the used for mostmaterHdabove th sheet ttletaJ thicknesses.
jOint deSign, which dictates the type of preparation It ca n be used for cutting squareedges and for bevels.The
tOols to be used. root face or square edge, the bevel=-both top and bot.
The edge preparation required to produce the par- tom=-can all be accomplished with one passage ora torch
tiCUlar weld joint design is an economic factor. Weld jotnts ass mbly, especinDy for srratght-llne cuts. Tbe Ula~infl1g,
are normally prepared ei the.r byshearing. thermal cutting, . method of prepalfttiOrii$ more expensjv~.HDwe,~~'11Qfi
or maChining.Shearmg is the most economtcal way to cut ulally it jS used .for] and U edge ·pl'epamtfon. It ls'.popular."'
metals;howev'er, there are Iimitati ns to thickness, and the for preparing weld joints 011 circular: parts. The edge
sheare<t,edgeis a square-cut edge without bevels.Thermal shapes for most JOints are showa illFlgtu::e J9-~3. : .
'. . ' ~,
,~, -'
four times. This is illustrated in Figure 19-25, which
Fillet Welds
shows the relationship of strength that is the throat-
The fillet weld is the most popular of all welds because versus-cross-sectional area or weight of a fillet weld. For
normally no preparation is requirecl.The fillet weld might example, a 3/8-in. (20-mm) fillet is twice as strong as a
be the least expensive, even though it may require more 3/16-in. (10-mm) fillet; however, the 3/8-in. (20-mm) fillet
filler metal than a groove weld but the preparation cost requires four times as much weld metal.
would be less. It can be used for lap,T, and corner joints With aT-joint,plates being joined may not always be
without preparation. On corner joints the double fillet at 90 with each other. These are known as skewed
0
can actually produce a full-penetration weld joint.The use Tjoints. The angle of approach can range from a mini-
of the fillet for making the basic joints is shown in Figure mum of 60° to a maximum of 135 The required leg size
0
•
19-24. Fillet welds are also used in conjunction with for the fillet weld in a skewed joint is normally based on
groove welds, particularly for corner and 'l-jcints. The fil- a layout of the joint and measurement of the effective
let weld is expected to have equal-length legs, and thus throat of the weld.The size would be related to the throat
the face of the fillet is on a 45 angle.A fillet can be de-
0
dimension required.
signed to have a longer base than height, in which case it In design work the fillet size is sometimes governed
is specified by the two leg lengths (see Figure 19-19). On by the thickness of the metals joined. In some siruations the
the 45 or normal type of fillet, the strength of the fillet is
0
based on the shortest or throat dimension, which is 0.707

times the leg length. In North America, fillet welds are
FIGURE 19-25 Fillet weld size versus strength.
specified by the leg length; in many European countries,
they are specified by the throat dimension. For fillets hav-
ing unequal legs, the throat length must be calculated and
is the shortest distance between the root of the fillet and
the theoretical face of the fillet. In calculating the
strength of fillet welds, the reinforcement Is ignored. The
root penetration is ignored unless a deep penetrating
process Is used. If semi- or fully automatic application is
used, the extra penetration allows the size of the fillet to
be reduced, yet provides equal strength. Such reductions
can be used only when strict welding procedures are en-
forced. Figure 19-24 shows details about the throat of a
fillet.
The strength of the fillet weld is determined by its
failure area, which is the throat dimension. Doubling the
size (leg length) of a fillet will double its strength, since it
doubles the throat dimension. However, doubling the fil-
let size will increas its cross-sectional area and weight
FIGURE19-24 Fillet welds to make the five basic joints.
THE FIVE BASIC JOINT DESIGNS

FILLET
WELDS aUTT (9) CORNER (C) TEE (T) LAP (L) EDGE (E)
A B C o E
SINGLE Not
Appljcable
F
F
Not
Applicable
minimum size of the fillet must be based on practical rea- Several names given to groove weld designs are not
sons rather than on the theoretical need of the design. In- standard with AWS.These names,X-, K-,andY~groove, used
termittent fillets are sometimes used when the size is mostly in Europe, are descriptive.The letters describe the
minimal, based on code or for practical reasons,rather than weld in cross section.The X-weld is a double-V weld with-
because of strength requirements. Many intermittent welds out a root face, the K-weld is a double-bevel weld, and the
are based on a pitch and length such that the weld metal is Y-weld is a single V with a relatively large root face.
reduced in half. TIle minimum length of each intermittent JOint preparation cost is a factor in deciding which
Weld is normally Vi in. (38 nun). Large intermittent fillets groove type to use. Preparation requires shearing, bend-
are not recommended because of the volume-throat di- ing, thermal cutting, or machining. Shearing is used if the
mension relationship mentioned previously. For example, metal is relatively thin, but square groove preparation is
a 3/8-in. (20-nun) fillet 6 in. (150 nun) long on a 12-in. (300- also used on thick materials for the electroslag process
mm) pitch (center to center of intermittent welds) could and other narrow-groove processes.When the thickness is
be reduced to a continuous 3/16-in. (1O-mm) fillet and the greater,preparation requires thermal cutting or flame cut-
strength would be the same, but the amount of weld metal ting. The flare-V joints can be made with thin material
Would be only one-half as much.The minimum length of a flanged by a brake press. These joints are also used when
fillet should be at least four times its size. round sections are welded.An example is the welding of
The butt, corner, T, and lap joints can all be made reinforcing bat's together. The bevel- and V-groove welds
With fillet welds, as shown in Figure 19-24. Single fillet are normally used for medium-to-thicker materials and
Welds are extremely vulnerable to cracking if the root of thermal cutting is required. The choice between single-
the weld is subjected to tension loading. Notice the F ar- and double-groove welds is shown in Figure 19-27. The
rOWhead, which stands for force. The simple remedy for double-groove design uses less weld metal, but the single-
Such joints is to make double fillets, which prohibit the groove design is less expensive to prepare. In the V-groove
tenSile load from being applied to the root of the fillet. and bevel-groove a root face mayor may not be involved.
The corner joint, a very popular joint, can be The normal practice is to have a small root face, which
Welded with fillets. Figure 19-26 shows variations of the helps provide dimensional control of tile parts during
corner joint design and the use of the double fillet. This preparation operations. The J-groove design requires
can be handy in allowing for accumulated tolerances, J-type preparation on one of the parts, whether a single or
which make exact fitup of the joint difficult. a double J is used. In the case of the U-groove, both mem-
bers must have the special curved shape, which involves
either machining or special gouging and cutting.The other
Groove Welds groove designs are also easier to make 011 circular parts.
There are seven basic groove welds: the square.V bevel, V, TIle root face is used primarily to ensure dimen-
], flare V, and flare bevel, shown in Figure 19- 27. They can sional control of the parts during the parts preparation op-
all be used as single or double welds. They can be used to eration. When large plates are flame cut to feather edges,
make butt, corner, or T'[oints. The dimensions shown are either V or bevel joint preparations.It is difftcnlt to hold di-
COmmonly used for arc welding processes. Some dimen- mensions if a root face is not involved.The root fa e should
Sions are changed to meet the requirements for the various be kept to a minimum where full joint penetration is re-
processes. Three of them-the square-groove, the flare-V quired. When a partial penetration joint is required, the
and the flare-bevel-groove weld-can be made without ex- root face can be larger but rarely over 50% of the thickness
tra,preparation of the joint detail.The square groove is sim- of the part being beveled.In weldments for which stiffness
plest, since it requires onJy a square edge. The flare-V and and weight are the primary criteria, and if a dynamic load
flare-beVel welds are normally used for thinner materials in is not involved, large root faces will save it considerable
which a bent section joins another section. It may involve amount of weld metal and make the joint less exp nstve,
a round member.The bevel- and the j-groove welds require Two other factors must be considered with respect .
preparation on only one of the members of the joint. The to the V~and bey f-groovewelde.They must be onsidered
remaining two, the V-groove and the If-groove welds, re- together since th y affect the welder's ability to make or
q'uire preparation of both members of the jolm, place a weld bead at the toot of the joint. These are the in-
eluded angle and the root opening. In full-penetranon ..
welds-ie is absolutely necessarythat the welderJ:iavesuffi~
FIGURE 19-26 Fillet welds used for corner jolnts.
cient room and accessibility to plac; the weld at me root
of the joint. If the root opening is too tight or Uthe included
angle-Is too narrow, it.wiU be itnpo$sible. for the welding
electrode to d posit th weld m tal at til root of the jOint.
as shown in Figtlre 19 ...28.The SJ;lclaller-4iametei e1ecttoQe
used by GM4W'orFCAW will better re~cb the root,o~the c
weld.It is obvious that one or the other nl'U$t. b Widened,: ..

GROOVE WELDS
WELD
GROOVE
TYPES SINGLE SYMBOL DOUBLE SYMBOL
r-, r~'
SQUARE ~I , I f..- ~
0" TO ). "
,.-rr CDI '~,., r-0"TO i,,,
NOTE:
JOINT
DETAIL DOES
,+
1+1 8
L-J UP TO 1.." '-~J UP TO ~" NOT CHANGE
16 8
@ S
16
"TO 5"
I @
a~
~ PLATE '\6()0/'
V
BACKING
- L... _~.
'~
__ oJ
I
O"TO ,,,
il
'7\
q~O"T~r' 1"T01~"PLATE
2 4
'*
r--~@ N5°MIN.
BEVEL
Ja~ -r.. ___ ~
;\-" TO~" PLATE
/LJ_
0" TO
BACKIN~
I"
/l\ D~O"Tol'
L
-
-~
'<:
1"
iI
18
)."T01"PLATE
2
'*
9 'r-t
20°
2
) ~'''R.'01
,----J
!"T03"PLATE
r--- 200
t i-
8
I '7) ~~"R.~~"
2" PLATE AND UP
i-- N°
o
I
'*
J I! ~"l_tJL~"R. {
/""f) :8 TI'\
} '1"j_~'''R
2 •
I ,+
~__LJ L..---I
1" TO 3" PLATE 11"

2 PLATE
. AND. UP
2
FLARE
V
Wo- GB 0C ~
OR W #-
FLARE
BeVEL
~o- [r 'TC 8°-~ rtf
FIGURE19-27 Seven basic types of groove welds.
to allow the root weld to be made. The illustration shows shown by the designs discussed. Fin~lly,for certain metals
what is a ompltshed by increasing the included angle, but and for certain applications, special joint .details are used.
th best solution is accomplished by increasing the root For example, for aluminum pipe a broad single ..U prepara-
opentng. There 'are opnmum included angles and 1'0 t tion is used so that the root is similar to thinner members
openings fot SMAW and for gas metal and flux-coredarc that can t;'eadily be fused together when making the root
we:ldthg.The designs are based on producing a completely pass. Inheavy~wall pipe, compound angles ate often used
· penettatedl,'oot pass. The sample joint designs referenced when the joints are preparedhymachtnlng. Figure 19..29
· use theBe optimum or standardlzed dunenstons.They vary shows the relationship of cross-sectlonal area for single .
111'·tbe dUD tent processes. EflCh WI Jding proce s section and double welds and when the root opening is increased.
, contains design irif'ormationreJating to toe process. This requires more weld metal but wlU ensure a complete
'.. The J~fWd D-groove welds have be n fairly well stan- penetration weld, Finally, With groove welds on corner
.da;rdited inde.$ign,This tllca,nstha.t the radius at the 'root and r·Joints,flllets are used forfeihfbrcement and to avoid
· tlocl the lltchicledangle haveSPeen optlmized.and these are shaw changes of direction and stress concentrations.
ELECTRODE
SINGLE VEE GROOVE
R.O. -l f.- T/4

WITH AND WITHOUT
ROOT OPENING
SINGLE VEe IN 2T
45° + R.O.
FIGURE 19-28 Groove weld root opening-included
angle relationship.
The reinforcement on a groove weld is not a design

FOUR TIMES AS MUCH
factor since the designer prefers a small reinforcement. It WELD METAL
should be considered a workmanship factor since the
welder often adds to the reinforcement to the point
where it becomes excessive. Different codes specify the
maximum reinforcement allowable. Often, the maximum
reinforcement is removed by grinding after inspection.
This is time consuming, expensive, and should be avoided,
but is not the problem. The reentrant angle where the re-
DOUBLE VEE IN 2T
inforcement meets the original surface is the problem.
This is shown in Figure 19-30. If this angle is sharp, as
shown 011 the left, it is a stress riser and can. contribute to
fatigue cracks. It should be a very large angle, as shown on
the right, or as smooth a surface as possible where the
Weld meers and blends Into the original base metal.
The joint designs can sometimes be a problemin FIGURE19-29 Summary of groove weld design
the weldmell.t if tolerances are allowed to accumulate, In dimensions.
the shop situation, root openings are sometimes used to
aCCommodate tolerances of parts. If the part is made
largel' than it should be, the root opening will disappear
and the ability of the welder to make a full-penetration
Weld is reduced. It is necessary to trim the part to its de-
Signed dimension or to remake the part so that the weld .
jOint geometry is according to the design. If the parts are
too srnan, the root openings will be excessively large and
~"tra w ld metal is required to mal e the weld joint. This
1SClq:>ensive and sometimes 1.tis mol' conomtcal to re-
.tnake a piece than to fill In a Iarger-than-designed weld
.. grooVe. FIGURE19";'30' Re~ntrant angle ofwelo .
In some cases tolerances can be accepted in a cor- may increase the reinforcement of a groove weld to en-
ner joint. A comer joint can be closed, half open, or fully sure quality.This is not required and increases cost.
open, as shown in Figure 19- 31, or designs in between.The Just as important, overwelding increases distortion
weld at the corner must accomplish the strength require- of the weldment and may require extensive rework. Every
ments and must vary with fill-up.This requires the shop to effort should be made to produce welds at the size that
obtain engineering approval for the joint design used. they are designed.
An example of weld and weld joint selection is pro-
Overwelding Overwelding is an all too-common prob- vided by the design for closing the end of a small circular
lem in many shops. The designer and the welder must tank. Figure 19-32 shows a variety of designs. The sim-
have confidence in each other. Neither should increase plest from the point of view of piece-part preparation is
the size of a weld to compensate for assumed deficiencies to use a flat plate, shown by details A,B, and C.What weld-
of the other. Oversize welds are expensive, especially filing procedure to use then becomes the question. Both B
lets. Figure 19-25 shows the size versus strength of the fil- and C use the square-groove weld, but this is difficult to
let; the amount of weld metal is four times as much when accomplish because fitup must be perfect if penetration
the size is doubled. Just slightly oversized fillets increase is expected to be uniform, or a backing ring must be used,
the weld metal 30% to 70%. This is expensive. Welders which increases cost. Also, a fixture must be used to hold
the end plate in place prior to welding.Additionally, in de-
tail B the weld is made in the horizontal position, which
FIGURE19-31 Corner joi nts. is more difficult. In detail C, a fillet can be used, which re-
quires less precise fitup.Also, both ends can be welded si-
multaneously, which increases productivity. The formed
head is a better solution. Of course, the formed head is
more expensive than the fIat plate; however, a fixture is
not required to hold it in place, assuming that parts are to
CLOSED HALF OPEN FULL OPEN size-friction should hold it in place. Details D and G re-
FIGURE19-32 End closure of small tank.
A 13 C
SQUARE·GROOVE SQUARE·GROOVE FILLET
"
"
II
II
"
II
D E F G H
LAP·FILLET MELT·THRU SQUARE BUTT LAP-FILLET SQUARE·GROOVE
I J
JOGGLe END OAP JOGpLE TANK WALL
qutre fillet welds, and both ends can be welded simulta- hole into the other member. Plug welds are round and
neously. Detail E can be used with thinner material, and a slot welds are elongated. The holes arc filled when mak-
laser beam could be used for welding. For thinner mate- ing the plug or slot welds. In early design; plug welds
rial GMAW would be used for a melt-through weld. Detail were transitional from riveted structures to welded struc-
F has the same problem as detail A, and detail H has the tures but are no longer popular. Standard dimensions
same problem as detail B. Backing rings should be have been established for plug or slot welds and are
avoided.They add to the cost and may increase corrosion shown in Figure 19-34.The strength of these welds is ob-
problems, depending on the contents of the tank.The jog- tained by calculating the area of the plug hole or slot hole
gled end design has many advantages but requires special where it interfaces the other member.
tooling, which might affect the cost adversely. The weld-
ing procedure is the easiest. This type of analysis can be
applied to the selection of all joint designs. FIGURE 19-34 Plug and slot weld designs.
SLOT WELDS
PLUG WELDS
Other Weld Designs
Corner joints.Tjotnts, and lap joints can be made with plug
and slot welds. Seam welds and spot welds can be made
With resistance welding processes as well as with arc
welding processes. In this chapter we are interested in the
weld joints designed for the arc welding processes. Seam T
. welds and spot welds are made by melting through the top -r- WIDTH OF SLOT 0 SAME
AS DIAM.OF PLUG, WELD
member of the joint into other members when using arc T + 5/16" MIN.
D;
processes. Sometimes called burn-through welds, these [ 2·1/4 T MAX.
are restricted to thin materials and are largely dependent u.
o
on the depth of penetration of the process involved. They 21/)
01/)
-UJ
are quite popular for the CO2 welding process, which has T t-a;:
ut-
deep penetrating qualities. The joint strength is based on 2MIN. UJI/)
ex:
the area of the weld at the interface between the two s
-OVER
111embers.The way these and the other weld types are ap- 5/8"
8" MAX.
plied to the five basic joint types is shown in Figure 19-33.
MIN. TRAVERSE
Plug and slot welds have holes prepared in one SPACING
member so that the welding can be done through the f t
FIGURE 19-33 Other types of welds related to the five basic joints.
THE FIVE BASIC JOINT TYPES

OTHER BUTI(A) CORNER (8) TEE (C) LAP (0) EDGE(t)
WELD SYMBOL
TYPES
PLUG OR NOT NOT

SLOT WELD APPLICABLE APPLICABLE
SPOT OR NOT
PROJECTION.
NOT
APPLICABLE APPLICABLE
(ARC OR I9ESISTANCE)
SEAM WELD
NOT NOT
(ARC OR R~SISTANCE) APPLICABLE.
APPLICABLE
BACK OR NOT NOT,

.BACKrNG WELD APPI-ICABLE Aji;lpL,ICAalE
,,
Surfacing welds are normally welds made on a sur- system is not interchangeable.P' A similar system is pre-
face to provide special properties or dimensions of that sented by the American Institute of Steel Construcnon.Y'
surface. They are commonly used to build up areas for This weld joint identification system presents a series of
remachining, to provide corrosion-resistant surfaces, or to weld joint details. In this identification system, the joint
provide abrasion-resistant or hard surfaces for wear. Sur- type is first. The types of joints are listed alphabetically;
facing welds can be made using most of the arc processes thus the butt joints (B) come first, followed by corner
and with strip electrode to provide wider beads.They do joints (C), and so on. Combination joints are also included,
not involve making joints. since the weld detail can be the same for more than one
Flange joints are used primarily for lighter-gauge type of joint.
metals, usually called sheet metals. Flanging of parts at An important factor is the material thickness and
welds is common practice to improve stiffness, reduce penetration requirements. There are three categories.
distortion, and provide an area for welding. The only With L, which indicates limited thickness, a maximum
preparation involved is shearing and bending. A flare nominal thickness is shown for each joint and must be ad-
groove weld is used with flanged preparation. hered to. U, which indicates unlimited thickness, would
The last of the weld types is the back or backing be used for materials thicker than the L category. In P,
weld, which is used for improving the properties of the which indicates partial penetration, a sufficiently large
root of single-groove welds.To perform a back or backing root face is used to avoid complete penetration. Caution
weld, the back slde of the weld must be accessible. It is must be exercised when using partial-penetration joints
used to ensure that root fusion is complete and that po- in wh.ich dynamic loading and cold-temperature service
tential stress risers are eliminated. Gouging, chipping, or are involved.
grinding is performed before the backing weld is made.
Weld Joint Details 19-5 INFLUENCE OF

Weld joint details have been standardized by the AWS
"Structural Welding Code-Steel.,,(4)The weld joint details
SPECIFICATIONS ON DESIGN
are indexed by a code system, shown in Figure 19-35, All codes and specificatioris that apply to weldments in-
which identifies the type of joint, the material thickness clude design information. In some cases detailed infor-
limitation, the welding process, the welding position, mation is presented that must be followed to meet the
joint penetration requirement, and the type of weld. Stm- code or specification. These include overall general de-
ilar weld designs are then expanded alphabetically to sign guidelines, minimum thicknesses of particular mate-
provide variations. These designs can be used as a rials, and minimum weld sizes. Different specifications
standardized system for a specific company.This system is have been mentioned throughout this book; however, the
similar to that of "Welded Joint Design," MIL-STD-002213 most complete listing of codes and specifications and the
(SHIPS), but sufficiently different so that the numbering products they cover are given in Section 22-2. Please re-
FIGURE19-35 Weld joint identification system.

x x x
TYPE OF JOINT
e Butt Joint
c Corner Joint
T T Joint
ac Butt or Corner Joint
CT Corner or T Joint
BCT Butt. Corner. or T Joint
MATERIA/" THICKNESS-COMPLETE JOINT PENETRATION ,...-_-1

L Limited Thickness-Complete Joint Penetration
U Unllmltlld Thickness-Complete Jai.Qt Penetrotion
p
TYPEOr:WEI.D - .
P~rtlal ,Joint Penetration ~.
. ..l...
\ -l
1. Square QrOOve
2. Sin91eN GroovlI
3. Doublll-V GrOOve
4. S!ngle Bevel arOQVa
6. Ooubl!! Bevel Groove
!S, Slngle·U Groove
7. Oouble·U GrQovII
8. Slngl«t·J Gro!;)">'11
9. DoublG-J Groove
10. Flllt!! Groove
j
fer to this section for the type of products involved. This as follows (the design size might be larger in some
provides the particular code or specification name and cases):
the organization that issues it.
The designer is responsible for obtaining and study-
ing the correct edition of the specifications covering the Thickness of Thinner Minimum Fillet
Plate (in.) Weld Size (In.)
product being designed. The code rules and conditions
rnusr apply. Information in this chapter cannot be a sub- Up to t incl.
stitute for a specification. Ho ~ incl.
ito H incl.
,
2'
H to 2 incl. 1
2'
Twenty Welding Joint Design Guidelines 2t to 4 incl. ~
Many products are not covered by codes or specifica-
tions.When designers are not governed by a specific code
8. Intermittent fillet welds. Intermittent fillet
or specification, the following welding joint design guide-
welds should only be used for strength when the
lines may be used for mild and low-alloy steel fabrication.
smallest fillet sizes, as given in 7 above, are too
1. Designed strength. Each weld joint shall be de- large for continuous welds. Exceptions are metal-
Signed to meet the strength requirements for the in- lurgical or warpage reasons. Intermittent welds
tended application. Consideration should be given should be used whenever possible on sheet metal
to stress concentrations due to abrupt changes in and structural parts when stiffness is their prime
section, especially when impact, fatigue loads, or purpose.
low-temperature service is involved.The weld metal 9. Length of intermittent fillet welds. For material
should equal the strength of the metal being 1/8" (3 mrn) thick and greater, the minimum length
welded. of intermittent fillet welds should be 8 times their
2. Standardized joints. Use the standard welding nominal size, but not Jess than 2 in. (50 rnm). The
joints shown by the AWS Structural Code. These maximum length should be 16 times their nominal
have been designed to require the least amount of size, but not more than 6 in. (150 mrn)."
weld metal. The design of additional joints not cov- 10. Pttcb of intermittent fillet welds. For material
ered should be designed on the same basis. 1/8" in. (3 mm) thick and greater, the maximum cen-
3. Complete penetration joints. Highest efficien- ter to center dimension shall not exceed 24 times
cies for all types of loadings result from joints de- the thickness of the thinner plate, but in no case
Signed for full penetration. Joints requiring the should the dear spacing between intermlttent ,tII-
highest efficiency must specify CP in the tail of the lets be greater than 12 in. (300 mm).'?
weld symbol. 11. Reduce welds. Eliminate a weld joint by making
4. Iotntpreparation time. Weld joints should require simple bends wherever possible.
the least amount of edge preparation with respect to 12. Butt jotnts. For butt joints of unequal thickness,
the welding time required to fill the joint. It is gener- smooth the transition by removing metal rather
ally less expensive to bevel and weld thinner plates than by adding weld meta].
from one side; however, for thicker plate, it is less 13. Double-T .10 in ts. Avoid double-T or cruciform
time-consuming to bevel and weld from both sides. joints whenever possible. Such joints have maxi-
5. J- and Ugrooue preparation. J- and D-grooves mum locked-up str sses and are suspect due to pos-
shall be used only on parts that are readily prepared sible laminar tearing.
, '
by, machining. Machining is more expensive than 1.4. Corner joints, For corner
joints when bevels
flame cutting. ' are used, prepar the thinnet member wh never
6. Reduce ouenoetaing, Overwelding increases possible .
. welding costs and causes extra distortlon.Iotnts de- 15. Plug and slot welds. Plug or slot we Ids, or fiUet
Signed for 100% efficiency may be subjected to all .weldsin holes 01.' slots, should not be used in highly
types .or Ioadlngs: however, when stiffness is the srressedmembers unless absolute! nec-essa,ry.'I1ley
principal requirement, joints with efficiencies, as should be used where subjected pr:incipaijyW'
low as 50% may be satisfactory. ,shearing stresses or where needed to prevent bu <k~
7. Fillet weld size. The designed size mlght be .UJ'.\g of lapped parts, ' ' ,
smaller than shown, but tor general appearance and 16. Oro oe weldpreparation~ Wb n ver posstble.re-
for fabrlcatmg reasoas.the minlmum fillet weld size quire only one member of a joint to have ..'be,,"cl
to be used on a given thickness of plate fOl'T~joint&is ;,prepal'atiOll.·
17. Weldtngposition. Weldments should be designed The lap joint used for riveting is also excess metal that can
so that the position in which the welds are made be eliminated with the welding operation. This applies
should have the following order of preference: not only to structural work but also to tanks and vessels
a. Fillet welds, flat, horizontal fillet, horizontal, ver- of all types. Weight can be reduced. This reduces the ini-
tical, overhead tial cost of the we1dment because less metal is involved.
h. Groove welds, flat, vertical, horizontal, overhead This also reduces other charges, such as shipping charges
18. Enclosed welding. Whenever welding is required
of the finished product. Reducing the weight allows for
more payload in many types of structures.
in enclosed areas or pockets, the enclosed area
A cost problem that plagues users of cast parts is
must contain sufficient openings for access and
ventilation for the welder. the detection of internal defects in the casting after it has
been partially or completely machined. Sometimes weld-
19. Accessibility. All joints should be located so that
ing can salvage these castings; many times they must be
the welder will have sufficient room to weld, gouge, scrapped with the consequent loss of the time spent ma-
peen, and dean slag.There should be no obstruc-
chining them prior to finding the defect. Another impor-
tions to prevent the welder from seeing to the root
tant cost factor is that weldments frequently simplify and
of the joint.
streamline the production flow of manufactured parts.
20. Weld symbols. All weld joints should be specified Many companies acquire their castings from outside
by weld symbols. Symbols should be conspicuously sources.A long time is usually required to place the order
placed on all drawings and should refer to views and get the casting produced. This cycle time can be re-
that show the most joint detail, which is normally duced by having an in-plant welding department. In com-
the profile view. paring the cost of a foundry and cost of a welding shop
and metal-preparation shop, studies show that the capital
investment to produce the same quantity of product is
19-6 DESIGN CONVERSION much lower for the weldment. The direct labor required
TO WELDMENTS to produce the same part in the foundry is usually higher.
Many structures made of castings are so large that the
The redesign from other manufacturing methods to weld- castings must be connected together. This requires ma-
ments is betng done for many different reasons. These chined surfaces and bolt holes for fitted bolts. This extra
reasons can be classified into the following categories: machining can run up the cost of the final product.
Many foundries do not want short-run jobs. Many
• Economics or reduced cost
foundries also do not have their own pattern shops and
• Quality improvement this adds more cycJe time whenever changes are involved
• Appearance improvement or patterns need to be repaired. Pattern damage and dam-
• Design or product improvement age to core boxes are relatively common for large cast-
• Easier to machine ings, and these items are expensive to maintain and repair.
• Reduced production cycle time Many foundries are discontinuing business due to the air
pollution problems associated with older iron foundries.
• Environmental and other reasons
The quality of castings is another reason why com-
An investigation into these reasons for redesign soon panies are changing to weldrnents. Many designs are ex-
shows the basic facts that are involved. By taking each of tremely difflcult to cast from the foundry'S point of view,
these reasons and investigating them, we are able to es- and these usually contribute to high casting costs. This
tablish the following factors that should a stst in making difficulty creates a high scrappage rate and consequently
a decision to redesign the present part or structure to a higher prices.
weldrnent. The economic or cost reduction reasons con- Mechanical fasteners often contribute to other
sist of at least the following. problems such as leaks of threaded screw joints in piping
On of the primary ost reduction reasons is the systems. In large structures in which castings land struc-
. ability to make the product lighter. This occurs sin ce tural members are bolted Or riveted together, the joints
the metal thickness of castings is often thicker than the become loose and start to flex. In rune the rivets shear, the
, $tresses t~quire but is needed to assist metal flow in the \ holes elongate, and the working stresses cause the parts
molckP'Arts with excessive thickness du to the metal cast- . to fail.The service problems of composite structures are
ing flow requirements are wasteful and would be reduced the reason why they are being changed to weldments,
.Inthe weldment, E trern Jy g ncrous radtuses are pro. D sign improvement is another reason for redesign.
v:l,dedat it1:rl'se tin.g planes to ( sslst in metal flow during Th,is can be not only for more reltabiliry and reduced cost,
the c.astingprocess.Manys~u·fa ies arc mad extra thick to but also for several other rea ons. One of the most. im-
·allow tor ma:~hitlhlgj andth,e :t1lachiningallowance may be portant.tsthe deslge freedom that welding provides the
OV'e,rsiz~to allow for potertliaLwarpage and pattern shifts. designer, Changes in the ultimate product are relatively
. CHAPTER 19
easy to make if the product is designed of weldments. De- since they have simpler designs and are easier to pro-
sign changes are more often required in low-volume produce. Scrappage rates and machining time are reduced.
duction equipment than in mass-produced items. On An important factor has to do with maintenance or
some types of machinery, the production volume is low rebuilding of equipment. In repair work parts must often
and pattern costs are absorbed by only a limited number be replaced. If they are castings that are no longer available
of pieces and thus become an excessive cost. or require excessive procurement time, it is wise to re-
Another reason for changing is to design the prod- design the part as a weldment.The weldment can be made
uct to reduce space requirements. Weldments can be de- immediately and machined so that the equipment can be
Signed to be more compact than castings. This is returned to service more quickly. In preparing welded
particularly important in the transportation industry. An- steel versus cast iron pans, the ease of weld repair of the
other design improvement is the ability for composite steel is much greater than the repair by welding of cast iron
weldment construction. Composite construction is a parts. Another reason to use welded steel is the fact that
weldment produced by joining steel castings, hot-rolled cast iron parts may without warning suddenly fail in a brit-
plate, rolled shapes, stamped items, forged, and formed tle manner.This rarely occurs with welded steel structures.
pieces. Composite construction can also involve the A cost-savings reason for redesign is the reduced cy-
welding together of parts of different types of steel. The cle time required by the weldment versus other methods
type of metal may be placed at a specific spot to provide of manufacture. It is extremely important in the mainte-
the necessary strength, corrosion resistance, and abrasion nance of equipment and machinery. An effective way for
restsrance, whereas a casting or forging must be com- a company to reduce costs is to reduce the cycle time
pletely of the same material. Design improvement can from start to finish of the manufactured product. With an
. also be made with regard to deflection resistance or stiff- in-house welding shop and parts preparation depart-
ness and vibration control. In general, since the modulus ment, this is obtainable. Reduced cycle time is also im-
of elasticity of steel is at least double that of cast iron, the portant for companies supplying spare parts for existing
weight of items of similar stiffness can be reduced. machinery. Most often when a spare part is ordered, the
Improved appearance is a reason for redesign. This user is experiencing an emergency and needs assistance
is similar to design improvement but can be considered to return to production as quickly as possible. If the ex-
as styling, which is becoming increasingly important for tra time required by the foundry is included, the time to
industrial machinery. Weldments have cleaner, crisper supply the spare part becomes excessive and the user
lines than castings. Figure 19-36 illustrates this point. It may decide to fabricate the part.
shows the top and bottom view of a cast food machinery These are valid reasons for changing to weldments
base and the part redesigned as a weldment. The weld- from other types of construction. If you make an analysis
rnent used square mechanical tubing and thin plate. The of some of the castings or riveted or other mechanically
cost was reduced and cycle time reduced.A casting gives fastened products in your plant, you might find that some
an appearance of an old-fashioned design and detracts of these reasons apply and that you can reap some of the
from its appeal to the buyer. Weldments eliminate the economic advantages by making the change,
cracks and crevices in riveted and bolted construction
and eliminate the problem of rivets and rivet heads. The
SUrface of hot-rolled steel is vastly superior to that of cast Redesign to a Weldment
steel or cast iron and allows reduced finishing costs. Cold- There are three basic methods for converting from the
rolled steel is as easy to plate with a minimum amount of existing design to a weldment: (1) direct copy redesign,
finishing and polishing. It is sometimes dtfficult to get a (2) redesign from the existing part! and (3) n rw design
cast sunace free enough of porosity to meet sanitation based on loads and stresses. The optimum economic.ad-
Standards. The welds, when made With semiautomatic or vantage is obtained when the part is designed from the
automatic equipment, have a smooth appearance and a beginning as a weldment based on the Ioads and stresses
surface that Call be painted with little or no finishing, .applied to it.The second best method, from an conomic
Another reason for the change to a weldment has to point of view, would be the redesign based on the exist-
do With manufa turing or machining requirements. Ma- ing part, The quickest method, but the least economical,
Chining a large casting requites large machine toolsthat is to copy the existing part as the n~w weldment.The Iat-
are extremely expensive. In many cases small castings can tel' two. meihods wiU bedlsoussed briefly.
be incorporated into composite design weldments, The
slllall castings can be premachined on small machine
tOOls.'fly proper ftxturing and ustng balanced p r ocedures, Direct Copy
the parts can be incorporated tnto weldments with mini- Direct copy redesign is done quiCkly, uS\.H11Jy wb n tin1e is .
mum warpage, wpich wUl ellmlnate much of the rna" not available fora compl .te' snldy. Storage t~s, vC$sel,
chitling requiring large machine tools.The use of small and su:n!lat Itemscai1 bevery.easily t~desigQ.eq'as~, direct, ..
Castings eliminates much of the foundry quality problems copy of an existing strU.ctute.The lap joints fot' the riveted:
-.
FIGURE :19;.,.36 Cast and welded food machinery ba~top, and bottom views .
.: Jsign are ltmtnated and.butt joints ate substituted. TIle thickness. If the thickness can be safely reduced, it should
full.str t1g h ()f the metal should be used, A weld joint with be done by compensating for the areas used for the rivet
,fnUl) 11 tration should b used.The direct 0PY redesign nol s. This Call be don by determining the Vi rtical p r-
'Will, produce H- strongertank as well as a leakproof tank. It oentage of the area tbtongh the metal and rivet holes com-
'_ \will be8tli.).ng~-nnle$ the thklmes~of t11 metal-is teo Pll~ed to the area through the metal alollc.,Thedvetbole~
. -all -cQ,iM analysis hoti1~f'Pc mad before 'reductng metal can, reduce this area by as rnuchas 25%.Ooe~half of this , per-
.
centage can be used to reduce the thickness of the plate. If part, the section thicknesses can be reduced by one-half
the plates become too thin, corrosion or pitting may be the and still produce a weldment stronger than the replaced
Controlling factor. Before reducing the plate thickness, a cast iron part. This is because the strength of the steel is
thorough analysis should be made by a qualified designer. at least twice as great as the strength of the cast iron.The
Piping work can also be redesigned by the direct stiffness of the steel part will be as stiff as the cast iron
COpymethod.This is simply a matter of eliminating screw- part even though the section thicknesses are reduced by
threaded joints and substituting welded joints or welding one-half. Stiffness is related to deflection, and the deflec-
fittings. If the same size and wall thickness of pipe are tion formulas involve the modulus of elasticity of the ma-
Used, the welded design will have a higher safety factor terial. If all other factors are equal, the deflection of the
than the screw-threaded design.This is because of the rna- steel part would be only one-half the deflection of the
telial cut away when making the threads on the pipe. The cast iron part. There is sometimes the question of vibra-
pipe wall thickness or schedule should not be reduced to tion of a steel weldment versus a cast iron part.The damp-
the thickness at the thinnest point, which is at the root of ing capacity of steel and cast iron are about the same. In
the threads.This could shorten the life of the piping system steel plate construction, the design should be such that
as a result of corrosion or erosion. If wall thickness is re- the natural frequencies that might occur are outside of
duced, it should be done by a qualified designer after re- the operating range. This is a complex problem and
vieWing the entire design.A conservative way would be to should be placed in the hands of an experienced designer.
reduce wall thickness by one schedule rather than at- In the case of redesigning steel castings to steel
tempting to provide a wall thickness equal to the thick- weldments, the dimensions of the sections should be left
ness at the root of the thread. In any event, a leakproof the same. It is difficult to determine when sections of the
system will result, which will be superior to the threaded steel casting are heavier than they need to be unless the
system. design history for the casting is known. Sine this is nor-
In structural work the direct copy conversion can mally not known, it is wise to make the sections of the
be used for certain types of structures. Riveted roof same thickness. The welds that are taking the full load
trusses, for example, can be changed to a welded roof truss should be designed for complete penetration.Various gus-
merely by eliminating the rivets in certain of the members sets and large radiuses can often be eliminated or reduced
and replacing them with plug welds. The number of holes without affecting the service capabilities of the weldment.
required would be cut in half. However, the section sizes Aluminum sand castings are also redesigned as weld-
Would remain the same and gusset plates, spacers, and so ments.The ratio of strength of steel versus strength of alu-
on, would still be required. Another way for the direct minum should be considered. However, there are many
copy method would be to eliminate all holes and use fillet different strength levels of aluminum; therefore, it is im-
Welds at the toes and heels of angles to join the members possible to provide ratios unless tests are performed.Alu-
to gusset plates rather than using plug welds. The equiva- minum castings can often be replaced by steel stamplngs
lent length of weld to provide the same strength as rivets of fairlythin parts.An example of this type of redesign is
is shown in Table 19-1.The direct copy method can be shown in Figure 19- 37.This is almost a direct copy of the
Used for many other similar type structures.
Castings can be redesigned as weldments using the
direct copy method. To make these conversions intelli-
gently it I necessary to consider the metal from which FIGURE 19-37 Redesign aluminum casting to steel
the casting is made. In the case of redesigning a cast iron stampings.
TABLE 19-1 LENGTH OF FILLET WELD (AWS E70XX

ELECTRODE) TO REPLACE RIVETS (ASTM A502-1 RIVETS)
(~ROM REFERENCE 5.)
t 2,950 1 i i
i 4,600 U 1 !
f
t 6,630 2 Ii 1
I 9,020 2t Ii Ii
1 11,7'80· 3i 21 H
Ir,
casting, although several dimensions are changed. The Computers are used for other activities within the manu-
weJdment made of the stampingsis about the same weight facturing operation, such as programming, tools, auto-
as the aluminum casting, but is much less expensive. matic shape-cutting machines, automatic welding
machines, and welding robots. The computer has re-
placed the drafting board for making drawings used in the
Analysis of the Part
shop to manufacture weldments. Drawings are still made
The redesign by analysis of the existing part to determine in the usual fashion-that is, front, side, and top views
its strength is more economically advantageous than the with joint details-but on the computer screen. The re-
direct copy technique. In this case efforts are made to an- sultant drawing is printed by the computer printer or, in
alyze the part that is being redesigned without actually the case of a large drawing, is made by electronic plotters.
analyzing the loads and stresses that are imposed on it. In In many cases, the computer-generated information is fed
this type of redesign it is usually possible to reduce the into the controller of manufacturing process tools being
size of members or thickness of sections appreciably to used. These CAD and CAM systems greatly reduce the
reduce the total weight of the weldment.An example of time required in the shop and greatly reduce-and in
the redesign by part analysis would be the redesign of a some cases eliminate-the amount of paper involved.
structural member such as a roof truss. In a roof truss cer- Computer-aided design does not alter the responsi-
tain members are subjected to tensile loading, and other bility of the engineer. It is still necessary to establish the
members are subjected to compressive or possibly col- functions of the weldment, the load transfer, the environ-
umn loading. In the members loaded in tension, the part mental conditions, the code restrictions, and the con-
can be reduced in cross-sectional area by the amount or straints of the welding process. The computer hardware
by the size of the rivet holes that were punched in the required ranges from PCs with advanced microproces-
member. The replacement member would have the same sors (CPU) to the supercomputers. The type of hardware
strength since its entire cross-section would be used. In used depends on the weldment's size and complexity and
such a substitution it is necessary to lise standard rolled the speed needed to get the job done in a timely manner.
sections, and the section that provides the cross-sectional Many software programs are available for PCs. They
area equal to that of the original less the rivet hole area cover various aspects of welding design and analysis, and
should be used. For safety's sake it might be wise to go up are available from various organizations that provide
one size for the member. This technique must not be used computer-aided design and drafting (CADD) software.
for long members subjected to compressive loads. It can- These programs must be carefully researched to deter-
not be used because such members are designed based mine the best one for your product. They allow the de-
on the slenderness ratio and the possibility of buckling signer to create accurate three-dimensional (3-D)
rather than the unit stress produced in compression. For drawings of the desired part, which render images that
those members subjected to bending, particularly outer appear similar to photographs of the finished product.
fib 1'8 where the bending load produces tensile stresses, The many advantages of computer-aided design are
the size of the members should not be reduced. The rea- illustrated by the following example of a very simple
son is that the stress is not consistent through the entire weldment. It is manually drawn as the front, side, and top
length of the member, and the stress level could be ex- view, as shown in Figure 19-38. Usually this is drawn on
trernelylow at the joint or where the rivet boles are lo- paper, with separate detail drawings of each component
cated. The allowable stresses may be proper at some
other point; therefore, this member should not be re-
duced in size. A designer with experience in this field FIGURE 19-38 Side, top, and front views. Original
should design the product. design.
For maxtmum cost savings, the complete redesign
based on the fundamental factors involved should be
done. This would mean following the general concepts
outlined in the earlier part ofthls chapter.
··l9:7·COMP:UTER ..AIDED =,
DESIGN (CAD)
computer.aided d~isn (CAD)and compurer-aided man- ,
tlfaChl:r~ng .GAM)are,no:w the Industrystandard fat prod-

.U ,td~SiSi1:and nlan~Jeactn.p;t. Co.tnputets are being used. to o
':destgniuid analyze wekl~.ents and weld. d structures.
\ '. I
CHARTER 19,
60°
SECTION A·A DETAIL A-A
1
8 45°
SECTION B·B DETAIL B-B
FIGURE19-39 Isometric view original design.

SECTION C-C DETAIL C-C
so that the shop can produce the weldment. When us-

ing CAD, it is drawn electronically on the computer
screen. By means of the computer, it can be reviewed SECTION D-D DETAIL D·D
from many different points of view. An isometric view
Is a typical printout, shown in Figure 19-39. More de-
tails are shown in Figure 19-40, which shows each joint
With the weld symbol and the joints in cross section.
The weldrnent is then studied by looking at different
views that are provided by the computer program. An SECTION E-E DETAIL E-E
example is shown in Figure 19-41, which is an isomet-
ric View of the bottom of the tank. This and other views
show the designer that specific changes could be made
to improve the weldment. For example, the joint should
be eliminated on the bottom plate, saving considerabJe SECTION F·F DETAIL F-F
welding. Two corner joints should be eliminated by a
90-degl'ee bend, which would also reduce the amount FIGURE19-40 Cross-section views,
of Welding. Using bars for the top of the tank would
eliminate much flame cutting. This would require four
extra small welds but would be a net cost savings. Once
the design is finalized and approved, the computer pro-
gram. will produce detailed drawings of each compo-
nent part. The final design is shown in Figure 19-42,
which should be compared with Figure 19-39 to show
the improvement.
Another advantage of CAD is the ability to modify
the design when one factor changes.Thts can be accom-
plished quickly and easily by skilled people.
Various software packages are available to provide
thoi'ough analysis. Most of them are based on finite ele-
m,entanalysis (FEA).Theseprograms are available as pack-
ages that link with other finite element analysis programs
Or stand alone.In this way CAD allows for the assessment
of a weldmenrs fitness for service.
Th se studies may ne d to b conducted in seversa}
Phases, each of different complexities. Some analysis pta-
FIGURE19-41 Isometric view of bottom. qrigin~1
grams highlight stress concentrations and predict fatigue design~. . , _-_ ',. . . ; - .." ,
fallures based on dlfferent loadings, Some predict residual
\
Since the design is the basis for the product, it is good to
relate all factors to the design except those that must be
accomplished by other groups.
The first step is to involve welding shop person-
nel.Ask them if the weldment is easy to weld.Are there
any difficult or inaccessible weld joints? Are welds cov-
ered up by parts added later? Do the parts fit together
without trimming or create large gaps? The investiga-
tion team should also check other manufacturing per-
sonnel and everyone involved in the manufacture of the
weldment. Critical items should be investigated and so-
lutions found. The following items should be checked
and corrected.
Designers and Engineers

FIGURE 19-42 Final design.
1. Investigate the field service record. If there have
been no field failures, recheck the load calculations;
stresses by analyzing mechanical, electrical, thermal, and the weldment may be overdesigned.
metallurgical factors; others provide welding thermal 2. Investigate field failure reports. The redesign should
analysis showing heat flow. Software packages might pro- correct design weakness but not overloading.
vide adaptive meshing that refines or simplifies the oper- 3. Eliminate weld joints whenever possible. Use rolled
ation to improve accuracy. sections, small steel castings for complex area, and
These programs provide a multitude of informa- formed or bent plates.
tion such as weld joint details, properties and stresses, 4. Reduce the cross-sectional area of all welds. Use
and joint cross-sectional data. Other programs provide small root openings, small groove a.ngles, and double-
welding procedures based 011 process materials, posi- instead of Single-groove welds. The weld metal is
tion, and so on.The analysis may also include welding pa- the most expensive metal on the weldment, The
rameters, welding sequence, and joint geometry. Some amount of weld metal should be kept to a minimum
provide cost estimates for making the weld. Thus, a com- (see Figure 19-43).
plete study of the weldment is performed via computer 5. Use fillet welds with caution. If the size is doubled,
analysis. the strength is doubled but the cross-sectional area
Computers are helping to optimize weldrnent de- and the weight increase four times.
sign. They aid in synthesizing the knowledge of welding
6. Intermittent ftllet welds should be studied. It may
experts, textbook information, and problem-solving rae-
be possible to reduce the fillet size, make the weld
tics.They provide the ability to easily build extensive data-
continuous, and use less weld metal.
bases for expert systems. They are paving the way for
welding rechnological advancements through improved 7. Where extra thickness is required, use flame-cut
modeling and data analysis. Taking advantage of these de- heavy plates or billets or small simple castings.
velopments requires computer-llrerate personnel. 8. Premachine parts wherever possible for bearings,
housings, and so on. This avoids large machine tools
for completed weldments.
9. Provide easy accessibility for all welds. Otherwise,
19-8 WElDMENT REDESIGN special attention and time are required (see Fig-
TO REDUCE COST ure 19-15).
Valllc engincertng programs generate large cost savings 10. Select weldable materials: mild steel and low-alloy
from welded product analysis. Value engineering grou~ steels. Difficult-to-weld metals require preheat and
review all practices witliin a company to find a better way complex expensiveprocedures.
to provide thesame value. for less cost. The value engi- 11. Design the weldment with the least number of
neeringtechntque should be used for· valuating welded thicknesses of steel. TWs reduces stocking extra
. .produ ts and will usually suggest changes that will save thicknesses.
money. 12. Balance using heavier materials without reinforce-
. V~lue ngill eritlg qfweldeqpr<)duc[s may take SeV· meats agamst th cost of extra pieces of gussets and
el'alp.~th!i;Analy~etheweldlllerit w
design, the ldtng pro- welding. .
cedltre~tn~\terials prepara:tilllll, andtbe welding operation. l~; Use weld sY111bolSwith size notations for atl welds.
'CIirlAPT
..
, '. R.q 9',
4. Check with the welding department for fitup prob-
~ lems and fix part drawings.
- 112 r----
1/4 D> + ROOT
Welding Department Personnel
1. Provide accurate fitup of all weldments. Use locating
OPENING
fixtures for setup. Tack weld only in weld setup fix-
f:1lJ tures. Inspect fitup prior to welding. Figure 19-44
! -- l
~
R;;" OPENING
) shows the effect of fitup on extra. weld metal and
time required.
~
<] 2. Do not overweld. Make welds the size shown on
weld symbols. Figure 19-44 shows the additional
weld metal and time required when overwelding
(see also Figure 19-24).
3. Eliminate excessive reinforcing on all welds. Rein-
forcing is not required to obtain weld strength.
4. Use subassemblies whenever possible. This will
ROOT FILLET SIZE %MORE WELD
WELD METAL minimize distortion and reduce cycle time.
OPENING REQUIRED REQUIRED LB/FT. METAL
REQUIRED
5. Follow welding procedures to minimize distortion.
0 114" 0.212 - Distortion will create poor fitup, which may require
1/16" 5/16' 0.334 157% additional welding.
liS" 3/S" 0.476 224% 6. Use positioning equipment and flat-position weld-
ing in all production.
3/16" 7/16" 0.652 30S%
7. Follow welding procedures. Use proper arc length
FIGURE19-43 Extra weld metal required for poor and welding current.
fitup. S. Use all the ft11er metal purchased. Do not discard
long stubs. Use large electrode sizes. Purchase filler
metals in large lot sizes.
9. Provide power tools for slag removal and for weld
Process or Manufacturing Engineers finishing.
10. Provide for welder comfort and safety by using scaf-
1. Make sure written welding procedure or job sheets folding, worker positioners, and guard ralls.
are provided to the welding departments for all jobs.
11. Maintain welding equipment efflciency through
2. Use the semiautomatic or automatic or robotic
routine maintenance procedur s.
method of application of welding.
12. Check for cable and connector efficiency in the
3. Use high-deposition-rate welding processes and
welding circuit. Hot spots waste power. Involve-
filler metal.
ment of all personnel will turn up unexpected cost
4. Consider stress relieving. Is it required for service or savings. Be flexible.
for machining stability? Can the vibratory tech- Finally, take an overall view of the weldment.
nique be used? TIle design must be functional and improve every
5. Provide fixtures when economically possible; use time it is changed.
simple fixtures for setup operations,
6. Use subassemblies where possible.
7. Use positioning equip Alent when economies are
provided.
19..9 WELDING SYMBOLS
The American Welding Society developedand established
Parts Preparation Personnel . a system of welding symbolsln tbe 1930s.Theptl1-pt>se
was to identify the location of welds and transmit this In-.
1. Shear or blank parts whenever possible-use auto- formation on-engineertng drawings from the designer to
matic back gauges. the welding shop. Since that tim I numerous r visions -
2. Use automatic shape-cutting equipment. Use the have been made. TI1e Original purpose is being fulflll d
optimum process, fuel gas, or cutting tips. and welding symbols are being used it1.Creashlgly by .(>t?"
. 3._ Use stOPSI gauges, and other tools in metal-forming gressivefabticatorsand -us rs of wel'dJqg. Int4e-rec~nt
op. rations to Increase aCCU1'aCY of parts.
\
past, thrQugh the efforts ofthe lnternational r~stitl.\te6f .
.\
\
Fillet Size Theoretical Ollerwelding Requires This
Overwelded Size wt/ft Much More Weld metal
j_
~i 1/4 x 1/4 design
1/4 x 5/16
0.106 -
IiC-
0.133 25%
1/4 x 3/8 0.159 50%
i~
j_
~5 16 5/16 x 5/16 design 0.166 -
TIr ., f.il! 5/16 x 3/8
5/16 x 7/16
0.199
0.232
20%
40%
j_
~3 ii 3/8 x 3/8 design 0.239 -
., ~~~
3/8 x 1/2
3/8 x 9/16
0.318
0.358
33%
50%
1.
~1
/
"2 1/2 x 1/2 design
1/2x9/16
0.425
0.477
-
12%
1/2 x 5/8 0.531 25%
~~t
FIGURE19-44 Extra weld metal required for overwelded fillets.
Welding and the Interuational Standards Organization, 1. Reference line

the weld.ing symbols of different countries were being 2. Arrow
unified to. create a common system of weld symbols
3. Basic weld symbol
throughout the world. The latest edition of the American
Welding Society's "Standard Symbols for wetdtng, Brazing, 4. Dimenston and other data
and Nondestructive Bxaminatton'<" is in substantial 5. Supplementary symbol
agreement with the ISO standards and those of many 6. Finish symbol
countries throughout the world. Increased Internanonal 7. Tail
trade makes the standardizatton of welding symbols an 8. Specification, process, Dr reference
tmportant objective. FDr universal internarional use, two.
more steps are required. This includes converting the The first and second elements and either the third
Am dean measuring system to. the metric system and re- or seventh must be used to make an intelligible welding
solving the differences between drafting-room practices symbol. The others may Dr may not be used, in aCCDr-
in North America. and in Europe. In North America, the dance with the necessity of passing along the informa-
third-angle projectionis normally used. Enrope uses the tion Dr the standard practice of the organizatton that is
first-angle prolectiou.In the first-angle projectton, the side using them.
vtew is the lett-side view; and in the third-angle projec- The foundation for constructing a welding symbol
tton, the side view is the right-side view. This is not tDD im- is the reference line. The reference line is always shown
portant with respect to. weld symbols but does cause in the horlzontal posltton, and it Should be drawn near
onfuston in. Interprenng drawings and symbols, "-.
the weld joint that it is to' identify. The other parts of the
TIle purpose Df welding symbols is to describe ~ welding symbol are constructed on the reference line.
desi1'ed w:eldaccurateJyand completely. The welding Each cf the Dther elements of the welding symbol must .
. symbDl can {l;iSDbe tlsed to transmit other inform~tiDn, be placed ~n proper location with respect to' the refer-
such ~s pecifications apd procedures, This is done by en.ce line and .in accordance with the standard location
m~n$ c f speciaJ inforcpatiDn in the tail of the arrDW.Weld- (Figure 19-45). The elements that descripe the basic
jng ~ymbol can alSo. be combined with nDndestructive weld, the dimensions and Dther data, and the suppiemell-
~aml(;1,atiQll symbols. , t~Lryand finish symbDls ate always located with the same
"', .1 ,Tbe we.lding·~ymbol consists of eight elements that relationship to the refercnc line no mattc;:f which eud of
;tnayot tn~wnotall be u$e~ in each symbDl.
'. . the re.fe1'(~nceline carries the arrow.
Finish symbol\ Groove angle; included
Contour symbol angle of countersink
for plug welds
Root opening; depth of filling~
for plug and slot welds
Groove weld size
iii
w
e
.w)
we
j!:-
0(1)
iii
j!: joint or arrow side

0 ~g
~w ) of joint
!!!. ~(I)
.:(
Weld-all-around symbol
(N)
Number of spot. stud. or
projection welds
W ,ements in this
area remain as
hown when laill----..-I
and arrow are
reversed
FIGURE19-45 Standard location of elements of a welding symbol.
The next important element of the welding symbol eluded angle of countersink for plug welds are placed
is the arrow. This is a line from one end of the reference above or below the weld symbol. This dimension is often
line to an arrowhead to the arrow side or arrow side omitted if there is a company standard or all-inclusive note
member of the weld joint. When the symbol is used for on the drawing.To the immediate right of the weld symbol
joints that require the preparation of one member, only will be the dimension indicating the length of the weld,
the arrowhead should point with a definite break to the and if required, a dash and the next number will indicate
1! member of the joint that is to be prepared. the pitch, which is the center-to-center spacing of inter-
The other end of the reference line carries the tail mittent welds.These are all given by Figure 19-48, show-
of the arrow. The area In the tail can be used to provide ing the standard location of elements of a welding symbol.
references to specifications, processes, or other specific More than one basic weld symbol can be used to
information; when there are no such references, the tail is specify a weld joint. For example, in a T·joint a fillet weld
Omitted. may be included in addition to a groove weld. In this case,
The most important part is the weld symbol, which the basic groove weld symbol would be made to touch
is used to indicate the desired type of weld.The basic sym- the reference line and the basic fillet weld symbol would
bOls are shown in Figure 19-46. If the basic weld symbol be added on top.
is placed under the reference line, that symbol is to define The next element of the welding symbol consists of
the weld on the arrow side of the joint or the arrow side the supplementary symbols. These are to be used in con-
member of the joint; if the weld symbol is placed above junction with welding symbols and have a pecific location.
the reference line, it is to define the weld made on the TIle supplementary symbols are shownin Figure 19-49.
other ide or other side member of the joint. When the The suppl mentary symbols are used for situations that re-
SYmbol is placed on both sides, it would indicate that quire them. Supplementary symbols Includ one fOJ: weld
1 th weld is made on both sides. Figure 19-47 shows the

identification of the arrow side and the other side of the
all around, the field weld symbol, and symbols indicating
the contour of th finished weld. Surface finish symbols
I jOint and the arrow side and other side member of the joint.
The various dimensions that help describe and de-
are used for exacting requirements.
The following letters are used to, indicate the-
tine the weld have a specific location relationship to the method of finishing but not the degree offu1ish.
Weld syrnbol.I'hestee of the weld is to be placed at the left
1 of the weld symbol. In groove welds, jf th size is not
• C Chipptng
• Grinding
shOWn, it indicates complete joint penetration. The root
Opening or depth of filling for plug and slot welding is to • H Hammering
b Placed directly. in tile,weld symbol.The groove angle- ., M.Machining
that is, the included angle .......
for groove welds and the in- • R Rolling
GROOVE
SaUARE SCARF Y BEVEL U J FLARE·Y FLARE·BEVEL
__11__ _£._ _ ::::.L__ __y- __ __

't.__
__f___ __l.C__ __lL _
--rr-- -7/-- -A-- --1':-- --~-- --h--- -7"~.. -- --1\.:"-
PLUG SPOT BACK

FILLET OR STUD OR SEAM OR SURFACING EDGE
SLOT PROJECTION BACKING
__
0__
--~-- _0_ --~-- -'-=7-
.rn.
-0- --Q9- --8-- --:@:--
--[7--
--0-- --~-- -~-
'-X:;7-
-ur-
NOTE: THE REFERENCE LINE IS SHOWN DASHED FOR ILLUSTRATIVE PURPOSES.
FIGURE19-46 Basic weld symbols.
a.slc Joints
Identification of Arrow Side and other Side Joint
Butt Joint Corner Joint
Other
Side
of Joint
LIIpJolnt idgIJoint
Arrowot
Welding
Svrnl:lQl
Arrow 0' Welding Symbol
FIGURE 19-47 . Identification of arrow side and of he side.
- "
A number of typical welding symbols are shown in The AWS "Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing,
F.igure 19·-50 .Baste weld symbols. as well as the standard and Nondestructive Examination" should be available in
location of elements of a welding symbol, should be every drafting room, engtneermg department. and weld
learned by all who. use weld symbols: the designer, the shop.Training programs are avatlable for learning welding .
dt1tftsman, the detailer1 the layout person, the setup per. symbols. AWS will soon have a recommended praCtice for:
~onl the ~~lder, and the welding inspector, detailing welding symbols for computer-atded drafting ..
B.lle W.ldlng SymbolI .nd Th.lr Locltlon 8Ignlflc.nc.
l.ootItlon Plug Spot or Baokor
FIllet Stud SNm .. ldng
Burhlolng . Edge
SIgnificance or Slot Projection
A.rraN Side
~ ~ r=: r»: .:= ~
.s.> ~
Other Side
r": _o_/ ___o_/ Not
Used ....t:L/ ~
Not
Used '-m_
Both Sidee
No Arrow Side
or Other Side
r- Not
Not
Used
Not
Not
Used
Not
Used
Not
Used
Used
Not Not
Used
Not
Used
Not
Used
No1
UHd
I'm
W
Not
Used
Signlftcance Used Used
~ ~
I..ocIrtlon Groov. SoIrffor
8Itnlftoanoe SqUIre V Bevel U J FI..... V FI..... Bevel I!lraadJolnt
A.rrow Side
'-rr- ~ ~ ~
~ .;:» ~ r=:
Other Side '-.J.t_ r=: ~ ~
~
r= '-u:_ '---.a_
Both Sides
~ ~
'2 ~ ~ --f-/" '--*- ~ ~
No Arrow Side Not Not Not Not Not Not Not

or Other Side
Slgnlllcance Used Used Used Used UHd Used Used
~
FIGURE19-48 Basic welding symbols and their location.
Suppl.mentllry Symbola
W.ldoAJIAround Fillet W.1d MlIt·Thru Conlumablt Inll"
__j/
;0- ~
..
r": ~a~)
BMkln; S~r (AlOtInguler) Contour

Con.x
-
Flulh Conctft
~
. SoaeeyeJ
BocWng
- .._.....
'\ \ \
FIGURE19-49 Supplementary symbols.
'l\'plcal Wilding Symbol.
Double-Fillet Welding 8ybol Chlln Intltrmlttant FIllet Welding Symbol 8tIIggIred IntIrmIttent Fillet Welding 8ymboI
weldllz.~
/Length Pttch (eIIllance
between cent.ra) ~
oflnoremen~
5116 :os
r Pitch (dlalance
bttwMn cent.ra)
of Inc:rtrnentl
4
~ /118 2:-6
0mIIIkln of length Indlcat.. that
weld mendt between abrupt changel Siz. \_ Length of _/~ \_
~:~ of leg) IAngth of Mgmentl
..- _. r""",,,.._
In direction or u d1rntn1loned (length of leg) Incrementa
Plug Wilding 8ymbol Beck Welding 8ymbol IIIoklng Welding Symbol
oountlll'llnk ~
Size (diameter
ofholeltrool)~
•
between centera)
of WIld. =~
-------- OR ---------_ --------
~~ng
OR ---------_
weld
m=
.1 314 2nd opereHon C'
~optration
Depth 01
(omllllon I
InoI1et
t.. IIlIIngI. complete)
lit operetlon
'V 2nd operetlon
Size or
8pot W.ldlng 8ymbol
r Number 01weide
'"
Stud Wilding 8ymbo1
SIze or
IIMm WeldIng Symbol
Increment
length ~ Pitch
Itrength ~ () /"" Pitch llrength~ "\
~'--
_/ <,
t
R Pitch
~ Sizi Number of ~EW
Prooe.. IIIUda
Prooe..
8qutne-Groove Welding Symbol Sque,..V.Qroove Welding Symbol Double-a.v.J.Groove Welding Symbol
Weld8lZ8\
(l)V
Root
=_/~ Weld
~
.'ze
_/
~
opening
Groova angle
W.1d Ilz1 _./
(1·114)
Arrow pointe toward

member to be prtptlred
'"
;>
Symbol wltlllackFulllng Flare-V.Qroove Welding 8ymbo1 FII,.. .. ~ve WeldIng 8ymbo1
Depth 01
/ Weldllze
~
~
~~ \_weldalz.
..-~
Multiple Reference U,," Compltte Ptnttl'ltlon Edge Welding Symbol
let operallon on IInll Indlcat" =e joint penetration

nea'"t arrow
2nd operation
~
/ ...."'_
or jojnt preparation
~
3nI operation "'/ ~P
WoId_/
11111
~
FlI.h or Upt4It W-'dIng Symbol MIIt·Thru Symbol JoInt with Blcldng
~7 ~
L Root reinforcement
~
'R' Indicates bI!.cklng
ramoved aftar welding
Jolnt wllh 8~r FlUlh Contour SYmbol Convex Contour lIymbol
Willi modIfllId groove wold $YmboI
~ ~ ~
Double Ilevel grOOllfl
·'t al'l9uld bI!I undelliood that theas chlJrtfi are I"tended only JlJ 81lop ali:la" Tl'le only complete and official presentation of the standard welding symbOls fa In "2,4,
\
FIGURE19-50 Typical welding symbols including use bf supplementary symbols.
QUESTIONS
19-1. List all the advantages of welded construction. 19-12. What are the seven types of groove welds? Are they
19-2. The designer is responsible for weldment design. List used as single or double?
the factors the designer must consider. 19-13. Is the surfacing weld used for making corner welds or
19-3. Define and explain the factor of safety. T-welds?
19-4. Explain tensile loading, compression loading, bend- 19-14. Name the fields of welding in which weldment de-
ing loading, torsion loading, and shear loading. signs are governed by specifications.
19-5. What is a stress concentration? What causes it? How 19-15. What is weldment conversion? How is it done?
can it be eliminated? 19-16. Is the welder responsible for not making an inacces-
19-6. How does a stress concentration affect the life of a sible weld? Why?
weld? 19-17. Which is the arrow side of a weld symbol reference
19-7. What are the five basic types of joints? Describe each. Hne?
19-8. What are the eight types of welds? Describe or 19-18. What does the triangle symbol indicate? How do you
sketch each. specify a double one?
19-9. Define the six parts of a fillet weld. 19-19. What is the symbol for weld all around? What does
19-10. Define the five parts of a groove weld. it mean?
19-11. If the fillet weld size is doubled, how much more 19-20. What symbol indicates welding at field erection? De"
weld metal is required? scribe it.
REFERENCES
1. "Welded Brake Shoes: End of the Road for Castings," 5. "Welded Joint Design," Military Standard MlL-STD·0022B
Welding Design and Fabrication (October 1963). (SHIPS),U.S.Naval Ship Engineering Center, Hyattsville, Md.
2. "Steel Plates and Their Fabrication," Lukens Steel Com- 6. "Manual of Steel Construction," American Institute of
pany, Coatsville, Pa. Steel Construction, New York.
3. "Fatigue of Welded Structures," Welding Research Bul- 7. "Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing, and Nonde-
letin No. 422 June 1997. structive Examination," AWSA2.4,American Welding So-
4. "Structural Welding Code-Steel," AWS D1.1, American ciety, Miami, Fla.
Welding Society, Miami. Fla.
.Design fot: \\'ielqing~

, _- '.
OUTLINE
,<
These methods can be used to compare the cost of com-
20--1 Weldment Cost Elements
peting welding processes.The basis for this system is the
. 20~2 Weld Metal Required for Joints amount of weld metal deposited to produce the weld
,20-3 Filler Metalan(t MaterH1Is Required joint. It requires the input of data concerning labor costs
20 4, :'Ttm,e and Labor Requtred ' related to the time required to accomplish the weld, plus
"~O 5· 'Powefand O~~rheadCosts the materials required, plus the overhead involved. Nor-
mally, additional overhead such as factory administrative
20.6' .Weld: Cost FornWla.S and ExampJes, ,
costs and company overall sales and administrative costs
are prorated according to direct labor involved in manu-
facturing the part.
20 ..1 WELDMENT COST The basis for labor costs is time: time per weld, time
ELEMENTS per increment of the length of a weld, or the time re-
quired to weld a part. Time is universal, and in many situ-
The cost of welding, like the cost of any industrial ations time represents the cost of the labor. When labor
process, includes the cost of labor, materials, and over- costs are prorated in another fashion, this can quickly be
head. Welding costs are used to make cost estimates for related in time per part or parts per unit of time. Welding
bidding 011 welding work, for setting rates for incentive materials are also related to the total cost. For those
programs, and for comparing welded construction and processes where weld metal is deposited in the joint, the
competing processes. amount of metal deposited becomes the basis of the cal-
It is necessary to differentiate between the cost of culation of material costs. The amount of metal required
weldments versus til cost of a specific weld. For exam- is then related to process to determine the amount of
ple, U,1 pipe welding, we are interested in the cost of mak- filler metal required to accomplish the weld jotnt.The rate
, Ing each weld.Thts is done in order to determine the cost of depositing weld metal relates to time, which is the ba-
advantage of on process versus another or between one sis for labor costs. This same basis can be used for estab-
joint design versus another. lishing time standards and for constructing charts of data
The cost of the weldment is of major importance. that can be used for estimating and rate-setting purposes.
This includes the COstof the weld, the cost of the material The welding procedure is the starting point fO.t es-
requlr d, the preparation of the parts, and the postw~~ tabllshlng welding costs. WeldJng pro edure schedules
tt~atment requtred, TIle cost of the weldment is required' presented throughoutthis book can all be used In estab-
to determlne the competitive advantage of a weldment lishing welding costs. To be of value, the welding proce-
versus a casting or some other typ of construction, dure schedule must include the welding joint details,
The costing of welds and weldments must fit into which in turn establish the amount of weld metal re-
the company's accounting pta rices. This can be done quired to accomplish a weld joint. The procedure must
since all cost systems Include labor, material, and over- also include the weldingprocess and the type of flller
,,'-.hi2ad, This chapter presents methods thar allow welds to metal involved since t:hi!$ relates to the cost of tbenller.
be-costedwhen tlSing an, of the arc welding processes. meta], TIle weldlng procedure must specify the welding
current since welding current, ftller metal, and process re- equipment for fitting up or handling the work, experi-
late to the rate of depositing weld metal and the use of ence and skill of the welders, power rates, special code re-
filler metal purchased and deposited in the weld. The quirements, weather and temperature' conditions,
welding procedure must include the method of applica- industrial regulations, and many other variables affect
tion since this influences the operator factor or duty cy- costs. Tables, graphs, and charts can be offered only as
cle, which in turn determines the amount of labor used in general guidelines applying to average conditions.
depositing weld metal. Finally, the travel speed should be The tables and graphs that provide final costs when
included in the procedure since it determines the labor rates are inserted should be used with caution.These
amount of time required to produce weld joints. Travel data must be based on many assumptions that might not
Speed is vitally important when weld metal is not de- apply in your situation. For example, the weld designs can
posited in the joint (i.e., autogenous welds). vary in root opening, groove angle, and so on. The rein-
The procedure provides the data needed to calcu- forcement may be different. The filler metal yield varies
late the cost of a weld.The labor rate and the cost of filler from electrode to electrode, and the operator factor can
metals must be included to get actual costs. In this regard, also vary widely. In addition, the data might be slanted to
filler metals include fluxes, shielding gases, and any other favor one process over another.The data ptesented in this
material consumed in making the weld. chapter will enable you to construct your own tables and
TIle cost of the weldment includes the cost of weld- charts based on your standard weld designs, the processes
ing; however, closely related to the cost of welding is the you employ, the filler metals used, and the operator factors
cost of joint preparation.This is included in total weld.ment you expect. When these data are modified by your pay
cost since joint preparation is required, and it adds to the rates, overhead rates, and materials prices, they will apply
total weldment cost. Joint preparation varies according to to your operation. It is wise to include only the standard
material thickness and joint design. To minimize welding data in charts, since rates and prices continuously change.
cost it is wise to consider alternate joint designs and alter- Computer programs are available for making cost calcula-
nate welding processes. Less expensive joint preparation, tions (see SectionA-3 in the Appendix).
based on joint design, can be used with certain processes;
for example, with the electroslag welding process a square
Cut or a mill edge can be used for the joint preparation. For
deep groove welds, one or two cuts are required for the 20 ..2 WELD METAL
Submerged arc welding process.The trade-off Involves the
amOunt of weld metal required to produce the joint. In
REQUIRED FOR JOINTS
some cases more weld metal might be required, but it can The filler metal cost is based on the amount of weld metal
be deposited at a higher rate. This might offset a different deposited in the joint. The exception is the autogenous
loint design that uses less weld metal but is applied with a welds when weld metal is not deposited. The same
slOWer process. These factors must all be studied so that method of calculating weld metal in joints can also be
the optimum weld joint can be made for the least cost. used for surfacing and overlay applications. The proce-
The cost of postweld treatment will be considered dure involved applies to all the arc welding and other
but Without the same detail. Postweld treatment includes welding processes in which metal is deposited.
final machining, grinding or polishing, heat treating, shot This system uses standardized joint designs. Most
blasting, and possibly straightening. Some welding welding organizations' welding codes and standards pro-
processes require more or Jess postweld treatment, vide standardized designs. Standardized designs are also
Which influences the total cost of the weldment. presented in Chapter 19. The same informatlon is pre-
Welding, particularly manual welding, is a highly sented here with area and weight calculated for these
labor-intensive manufacturing process, As plants change joint designs in various thicknesses of material. This ln M
fl'Qtn manual to semiautomatic, the labor input is re- formation is based on the use of steel base metal and weld
dUced, and in changing to automatic it is further reduced. metal. However, the information is presented so that data
In View of this, calculations for weld costs must be ex- for other metals can be easily calculated. The cross-
tremely accurate and based on practical procedure data. sectional area is related to the standard joints and can be
Olnparisons of different welding processes or methods modlned fordi;f:fereo,t metals based 011 their density. In
of application can be the basis for investments in auto- this chapter only the convennonalmeasurements are
ll1atic equipment, Data in the book and this chapter pro- provided since 'to include mettle measurements would
Vide the basis for making these cost determinations, unduly complicate the tables., .
Which can greatly affect capital expenditures. EV' ry weld has across-sectional area that 'an b de-
Field welding costs more than shop welding. Weld- termined by stl"tlJghtforwar.q geometric alculations. If
ing in the hortzontal, vertical, Of overhead position costs we14 details .are standardiz d, it isa simple matter to .cal..
lltore than welding in. uie flat. position, Local wcrkmg cul ate tnecross-seeaonat-area, Thefarmulaa for the dif.'
Conditions ill the shop OJ: on the job, affect costs. Available ferent welds are shown In FigUre '20 ...1. In tnec·figtl1·cs
WELD DESIGN FORMULA FOR CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA
-\
FILLET
1_
(EQUAL 5 t-. CSA·1I2(S)2
LEGS)
C S~ ?
-"
L -,
FILLET
(UNEQUAL
LEGS) ,_
5,
52 ~
CSA· 1/2 (5, x5,)
SURFACE
tr-~ }
CSA-SxW
-JOt--
VOL •• (~) 2 X T
1::1 f ~
PLUG
FORMULA PROVIDES VOLUME OF WELD METAL PER WELD
~ ~
SLOT ~D~i WJ
~ D D!f~~
VOL- [.. (~r+(L-D)D]T
ARC
SPOT .~~W~l
~ 2 !~f @J
VOL. 1/25 (.~)2 (VOLUME PER WELD)
ARC S~Wf+1 [(] CSA -1/2WS

SEAM
.e ~~O ~~
~+S
lEAD
t AO
" } CSA -1/2WS
SQUARE
db} CSA- ROxT
,\A7
SINGLE-
V
D~.FrI
16*
CSA • (T - RF)2 tin (~ ) + RO x T
",Aj
Oai (t) + RO x T
DOU'H,E-
V CSA· 1/2(T - RFliJ tift
c'
FIGURE20-1 . crcss-sectlonat area of welds.

'\
WELD DESIGN FORMULA FOR CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA
SINGLE-
iA-,.-
BEVEL
O~I ---ll-
RO, '
CSA" 1/2(T - RF)' tIIn A + RO x T
iA"/
DOUBLE-
BEVEL
OUI -J ~
RO
CSA· 1/4(T - RF)2 tan A + RO x T
,\A-,
SINGLE-
U
G+~_t.F 1j_
-II-+-
RO
+
T CSA-(T-R-RF)2tan
+ 1/2.R' + RO x T
(~) +2R(T-R-RF)
,A-oj
DOUBLE-
U
~"t®I
,A, . RO
CSA. 1/2(T - 2R - RFI2 tIIn (~)
+1I'R2 + RO x T
+ 2R(T - 2R - RPI
O~I
SINGLE- CSA • 1I2(T - R - RF)2 tin A +
J RIT -- R - RF) + 1/4 ..R2 + RO x T
--ho'-
IA/
DOUBLE-
J
Dff}T
~l RO
. ~RF T
j_
CSA. 1/41T - 2R - RFI2 tan A +
RIT - 2R -- RFI + 1/21rR2 + ftO)( T
FLARE-
V
T-. GS8 CSA. (2. R + T):I.;1r(R + TI'l
FLARf- CSA* (2. R + T)'4-1r(R + TIll

BEVEL
~o.~
-:
FIGURE 20-1 Cross-sectional area of welds. (Continued)

the letter designations for the different parts of the weld In addition, the weld designs are the same as those
are the same as Chapter 19.These are as follows: in Chapter 19.
Information shown in Figure 20-1 can be applied in
Groove angle
• A different ways. For example, the bead weld can be used
• CSA Cross-sectional area for a backing bead or a sealing bead or for thinner metals
•D Diameter plug weld, arc spot weld for the flange, edge, and corner weld.The amount of metal
• L Length of slot weld required for the bead weld may sometimes be added to
Radius (used in) and V-grooves) the full-penetration groove welds for root reinforcing.
• R
·RF Root face When welds of different design configurations are
used, the cross-sectional area is calculated using geomet-
• RO Root opening
ric area formulas. The formulas for each weld provide the-
• S Fillet size, bead size, or size of groove weld if oretical cross-sectional area values with a flush surface.
not complete penetration Weld reinforcement is not induded in these values. For
•T Thickness practical purposes, however, reinforcement must be
Width of surfacing added to a weld. The standardized weld designs are
• W
FIGURE 20-2 Area and weight of weld metal T CSA Weld Deposit CSA Weld Depositw/
Weld Design in Thear. Theoretical w/ref. Reinforcement
deposit. inch in.' Ib/ft In.' Ib/lt
1/8 0.008 0.027 0.009 0.030

3/16 0.018 0.061 0.020 0.067
r-"r- 1/4 0.031 0.106 0.034 0.117
Fillet
(equal
lega)
--~r 5/16
3/8
7/16
1/2
9/16
0.049
0.070
0.096
0.125
0.158
0.167
0.238
0.326
0.426
0.537
0.054
0.077
0.106
0.136
0.174
0.184
0.262
0.360
0.468
0.591
6/B 0.195 0.663 0.215 0.729
3/4 0.281 0.956 0.309 1.052
~ 7/8 0.383 1.503 0.421 1.653
1 0.500 1.700 0.650 1.876
lib
1/4 x 3/8 0.047 0.160 0.052 0.176
Fillet 3/8 x 1/2 0.094 0.319 0.103 0.351
(un,qual 112 x 5/8 0.156 0.530 0.172 0.583
legsl 5/8 x 3/4 0.234 0.795 0.258 0.875
3/4 x t 0.375 1.274 0.413 1.401
1/8 0.016 0.054 0,019 0.065
Square
D'b~
T
6/32
3/16
7/32
1/4
9/32
5/16
0.Q19
0.023
0.027
0.031
0.036
0.039
0.065
0.078
0.092
0.105
0.119
0.132
0.023
0.027
0.032
0.037
0.042
0.047
0.078
Q.094
0.110
0.126
0.143
0.158
y6Q°-y _j_ 1/4 0.067 0.228 0.074 0.251

Single-
V DDT
-Hf- T
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
0.128
0.206
0.306
0.418
0.384
0.702
1.040
1.430
0.141
0.227
0.336
0.460
0.422
0.772
1.144
1.573
1 0.702 2.396 0.772 2.636
3/4 0.266 0.874 0.307 1.049
yeoQ'Y 1
1-1/4
1-1/2
0.414
Q.B08
0.838
1.420
M75
2.860
0.497
0.730
1.008
1.704
2.490
3.432
u,(H
1-3/4 1.106 3.765 1.3'6 4.518
2 1.405 4.180 1.886 5.736
Double- 2-1/4 1.742 6.946 7.134
'!.090
V 2-1/2 2.210 7.530 2.652 9.036
2-3/4 2.530 8.620 3.038 10.344
3 2,978 10.150 3.674 12.180
3·1/2 3.970 13.530 4.764 18.236
4 5.820 19.130 6,744 22.956
~ ~46·.y 1- 1/4
3/8
0.063
0.11'1
0.216
0.364
0.009
0.129
0.237
0.400
0.207
OD+
i'\.~lngle • 1/2 0,188 0.641 0.705
~el 6/8 Q.301 1.026 0.331 1.128
--lir-- 3/4 0.:n5 1.280 0.413 1.408
1 0.625 2.136 0.687 2.349
0.6()O . 0.720
r ·y
6/8 0.178 0.211
46 3/4 0.234 0.798 0,281 0.958
7/8 0,301 1,025 0,361 1.230
tl63I
1 0.375 1.279 0.450 1.636
Double- 1-1/4 0.547 1.882 0.856 2.'134
l:I4vel 1-1/2 0.7110 Hi 0 Q,OO J.on
1-3/4 0.984 3.360 1.181 4.032
2 1.260 4.260· 1.600 5.112
2-m 1.875 6.398 2.260 u!/n
3 -2.625 '$,950 3.150 10,740
shown in Figure 20-2.1n this figure, the diff~rent weld de- in the different material thicknesses without reinforce-
signs are related to material thicknesses. The theoretical ment.The final column provides the weight of the weld de-
cross-sectional area in square inches is shown for each posit with reinforcement in pounds per foot of weld.
weld in its normal range thickness. In addition, the theo- Another value of the data presented in Figure 20-2
retical weight of the weld deposit is shown related to the is their usefulness in visualizing how welding costs are re-
design and thickness. The weight is based on 12 in. or 1 lated to weld designs.They illustrate the amount of weld
ft. of joint of steel weld metal in pounds per linear foot of metal required for different weld designs. For example,
Weld.This is calculated using Equation 20-1. they will show the increase in cross-sectional area or
weight of weld metal required when the size of a fillet
weight of deposit (lb.zft.) = cross-sectional
weld is increased. Other comparisons can be made such
area (in.2) X 0.283 (lb./in.3) X 12 (in.zft.) =
as the difference in the cross-sectional area or weld metal
3.396 (lb./ft.) (20-1)
required between a bevel and a V-groove weld or be-
The constant 0.283 is the weight of a cubic inch of tween a single- and a double-groove weld. They can also
steel in pounds per cubic inch. The data can be used for be used for braze welding and for oxyfuel gas welding.
any metal by using its density or weight per cubic inch. These data can be the basis for a standard cost system
To make this datum more practical, a reinforcement when standard weld design as shown is used. If the weld
factor is added. A value of reinforcement of 10% is added designs are different from those used in the charts, the
to single-groove welds and 20% reinforcement is added to data must be recalculated to reflect these changes.
the double-groove welds.Ten percent is also added as rein-
forcement for fillet welds. These are arbitrary figures, but
they are sufficiently accurate for most calculations. For
greater accuracy it may be desirable to make representative
20 ..3 FILLERMETAL AND
welds, cross section them, and measure the reinforcement. MATERIALS REQUIRED
This would be accurate for a particular weld, but since re-
inforcement varies it may not be worth the effort. Figure Electrodes
20- 2 therefore includes two additional columns. One pro- Section 20-2 provides information necessary to calculate
Vides the cross-sectional area of the welds in square inches the weight of weld metal deposited in a weld joint or on
FIGURE20-2 Area and weight of weld metal T CSA Weld Deposit CSA Weld Depo,ltwl
Weld
deposit. (Continued) Oelign In
Inch
T~eor.
In.a
Theoretica'
Ib/ll
w/ref.
in.'
Reinforcement
Iblft
r °·l 2
1/2
3/4
0.163
0.310
0.666
1.058
0.179
0.341
0.611
1.164
t¥81
7/8 0.392 1.338 0.431 1.472
1 0.479 1,636 0.527 1.199
Single. 1-1/4 0.671 2.':88 0.138 2.611
U 1-1/2 0.88~ 3.020 0.914 :l.322
T 1-3/4 1.120 3.820 U32 4,~2
8
J 2
2-1/2
1.:P6
1.961
4.680
6.660
1.514
2.157
6.148
7.348
3 2.831 8.960 :t894 9.658
,2 0.,
2
1
1.1/4
1.1/2
1-3/4
0.396
0.643
0.701
0.870
1.161
1.350
1.852
2.390
2.968
3.912
0.475
0·652
0,841
1.044
1.381
1.620
2.222
2.868
3.582
1
4.106
00
Double· 2-1/4 1.242 4.236 1,490 !i.Q82
U 2-1/2 1.444 4.926 1.732 5.910
j 2·314
3
3-1/2
4
1.668
1.819
2.389
2.951
6.660
6.410
If.ISO .
10.070
2.000
2.255
2.1'167
3.Ml
6.780
7.692
.9.'80
12,084,
4-1/2 3.469 11.790 4.151 14.148.
1/2 0.1aO 0.814 0.198 0.676
,20·-",; 3/4 0.261 0.890 0,281 0.979
00]
1 0,409 1.396 0.460 1,635'
1-1(4 0.080 1.&78 0.638 2.116
Slngl •• 1-1/2 Q,7'14 :1.640 .
,J
0,8$1 U04
1-3/4 a.1I81l 3.;1'15 1.088 3.113
2 1.229 4.\90 1.362 4.609
2-1/4
2-112
1.491
t,774 .
5.0110
6.060
1.840
1.91il
!,.
::~: .'
1 0.360 1.;12l! 0:432 1.414" . ,

'1-1/4, 0.437 1.490 ' 0.624 1.760
Oqub1o-
J
r-
' , ,L
~ ,
1
~ T
..
1.112
1·3/4
:!l
2-1(4
2-1/2
0,689
Q.1~8
0.875
1,02Q.
1.191
2.Q1Q
2'.4(12
2.963
3.610
4,Qij5
0.107
0.874
1,05Q
1.23ft
'.429
2.412
~.978
3.680
4,212
4.p7tt·
2J'kJ
. 2-3/4 1.360 4,640 1.1:132 6..~a '
3 . 1.536. U3S 1,8't2 6.282
.-
iH/2; \JIO'
2.313
V;!i'lQ.
7.880~,
.2.2~!c
2.116 I>,
';,;
7\81~;A
9.,~S6' r
a weldrnent. It also provides tables that give the weight of ends of coils are discarded, but this is usually negligible
weld metal deposit for standard weld designs made in dif- compared to the total weight. The spatter loss relates to
ferent thicknesses of material. The total weight of weld welding process and welding technique. In the sub-
metal deposited in the joint or required to produce the merged arc and electroslag welding processes, virtually
weldment can easily be calculated using these tables. all of the electrode is deposited in the weld. There is little
The weight of filler metal purchased to make the spatter and, therefore, deposition efficiency or yield ap-
weld or the weldment is greater than the weight of the proaches 100%. In gas metal arc welding the loss from
weld metal deposit. This is true for most of the arc weld- spatter amounts to approximately 5% of the electrode
ing processes, but not for all. Stated another way, it means melted, which provides a deposition efficiency or yield of
that more filler metal must be purchased than is deposited 95%. In the case of the cold wire processes, gas tungsten
because of stub end losses, coating or slag losses, and spat- arc, plasma arc, and carbon arc, the cold wire filler metal
ter losses. This can be shown by Equation 20-2. These is completely used and has a 100% yield.
losses are sometimes represented as a ratio and called The flux-cored electrode has slightly higher losses
deposition efficiency.filler metal yield, or recovery rate. because of the fluxing ingredients within the tubular wire
that are consumed and lost as slag.The fluxing materials in
weight of weld metal deposited (lb.) = the core represent from 10% to 20% of the weight of the
electrode. Different types and sizes have different core-to-
weight of weld metal deposited (lb.)
(20-2) steel weight ratios. For accurate results, measure yield of
1 - total electrode loss the electrode to be used.There can be up to 5% loss as spat-
Deposition efficiency is the ratio of the weight of ter; therefore, the deposition efficiency or yield for flux-
deposited weld metal in the weld divided by the net cored electrodes ranges from 75% to 85%.The deposition
weight of filler metal consumed, exclusive of stubs. As efficiency or yield of filler material and the process have an
shown by Equation 20-3, filler metal yield is the ratio of important bearing on the cost of the deposited weld metal.
the weight of deposited weld metal divided by the gross The filler metal cost can be calculated several dif-
weight of the filler metal used. Thus yield relates to the ferent ways. The most common is based on cost per foot
amount of filler metal purchased.The filler metal yield for of weld, as shown by Equation 20-4.
the different types of electrodes and filler metals will electrode cost ($/ft.) =
range from 50% to 100%. Yield is the better term to use
electrode price ($/lb.) X weld metal deposited (lb./ft.)
since stubs occur only when using covered electrodes.
When the equation calls for a percentage figure, use the tiller metal yield (%)
decimal equivalent. (20-4)
weight of flller metal required (lb.) = The electrode prtce is the delivered cost to your
weight of weld metal deposited (lb,) plant. Electrode price can be reduced by purchasing in
(20-3) large lot sizes. In this formula the yield can be taken from
filler metal yield (% )
Table 20-1. These are average figures and should be suffi-
The covered electrode has the lowest yield; that is, cient for most calculations; however, for more accuracy
it has the highest losses. These losses are made up of the
stub end loss, the coating or slag loss, and the splatter
loss. Considering a 2-jn. stub, the 14..In-long electrode has TABLE 20-1 FILLER ME;TAL YIEl.D FOR VARIOUS TYPES
OF ELECTRODES
a 14% stub loss, the l8·in. electrode has an 11% stub loss,
and the 28-in. electrode has a 7% stub loss. Yield (%)
Electrodes are not always melted to a 2-in. stub.The
coating or slag loss of a covered electrode can range from Covered Electrode for:
10% to 50%.Thc thinner coatings on an E6010 electrode SMAW l4~in, manual 55-65
are at the lower end of the scale approximating 10%, SMAW 18-in. manual 60-70
SMAW zs-m. automatic 65~75
w.hile. th ..eavy. coa.til1g. on an "7.028 elc'tfo. de-w~ ~p.
11
preach 50%.This C~l1 apply even when iron powder i~' Solid bare electrode for:
.eorpcrated in the coating. For accurate results, measure Submerged arc 95~lOO
this factor for the electrodes to beused.The spatter loss Electroslag 95-100
depends on the welding technique, but normally ranges Gas metal arc welding 90-95
from ;% to 15%loss. Cold wire use 100
The solld bare Iectrode or flller rod has the highest Tubular flux-cored electrode fon
yield. since th losses are mlnimized, Normally, in the con- Flux-cored arc welding eO-85
. 'tit'!.UpU~e1ec'trode wire .recesses-the entire spool or coil Cold wire use 100
'ofel¢ctl'odewlr is consumed fnmaktng the weld. Scrap ,Note: Does not incllJde shIelding except for covered electrodes.
actual measurements should be made using' the filler met- mine that the weld procedure is satisfactory, and then,
als that are employed. without welding, actually allowing the electrode wire to
A different method can be used for calculating the feed through the gun and measuring the amount of wire
amount of weld metal required when the continuous wire fed per minute. Since this can be an extremely large
processes are used. It is particularly advantageous for amount of wire, it can be simplified by feeding for 5 sec-
single-pass welding. Three simple calculations are re- onds and multiplying the amount of wire fed by 12 to re-
quired, but the end result is the electrode cost per foot of late it to inches per minute. Instruments are available for
Weld.The first step is to determine the amount of electrode making this measurement.
used, expressed as pounds per hour using Equation 20-5. The second part of this calculation is to determine
or measure the weld travel speed and arrive at this rate in
weight of filler metal required (lb./hr.) =
feet per hour. Normally, welding procedures provide weld
Wire feed speed (in./min.) X 60 (min./hr.) travel speed in inches per minute. If these data are not in
(20-5) the welding procedure, tests should be made to deter-
length of wire per weight (in./lb.)
mine travel speed while making the required weld.This is
The pounds per hour of electrode used disregards then converted to feet per hour by using Equation 20-6.
the yield or deposition rate factor since we are measuring The 60 represents minutes in an hour and the 12 repre-
the actual filler material consumed. The factor 60 is the sents inches in a foot, which is the conversion factor 5.
minutes in an hour, which converts minutes to hours.The
Weight per length of the electrode wire is a physical travel speed (ft./hr.) =
property of wire based on the size of the wire and the travel speed (in/min.) X 60 (min./hr.)
density of the metal of the wire (Table 20-2). The wire =
12 (in.jft.)
feed speed in inches per minute is the same as the melt-
off rate of an electrode wire. It is not a true deposition travel speed (tn.Zmin.) X 5 (20-6)
rate since the spatter losses and slag losses are not con-
The third part of this calculation is to determine the
Sidered. The wire feed speed can be determined from
weight of weld metal required per foot of weld, as shown
Charts that relate the welding current to the wire feed
by using Equation 20-7, This information would then be
speed according to the size of the electrode wire, the
multiplied by the electrode price ($/lb) to obtain elec-
composition of the electrode wire, and the welding
trode cost in $/ft.
process. Charts showing these data are given in Section
11-2.To use this formula it is essential to know the weld- weight of filler metal required (lb./ft.) ==
ing current or to measure the wire feed speed. In some in- deposition rate (lb./hr.)
stances wire feed speed is called for in the welding (20-7)
weld travel speed (in./min.) X 5
procedure. For very accurate work it is best to make a.
measurement of wire feed speed.This can be done simply This system can also be used for flux-cored arc
by setting the wire feeder, making a test weld to deter- welding, but in this case the length of electrode wire per
TABLE20-2 LENGTH VERSUS WEIGHT (INCHES PER POUND) OF BARE ELECTRODE WIRE OF TYPE AND SIZ.E SHOWN
WireDiameter
.......... ,
Decirtial Fractlor, Alum.10%
- 0.020
0.025
in. in, Alurrilnurn
32,400
Bronze
11,600 10,300 9,800 9,950 50,500 9,900 11,100 10,950

22,300 7,960 7,100 6,750 6,820 34,700 6,820 7,680 7,55Q
0.030 14,420 5,150 4,600 4,360 4,430 22,400 4,400 4,960 4,880
0,035 10,600 3,780 3,380 3,200 3,260 16,500 3,240 ~,650 3,590
0.040 8,120 2,900 2,580 2,450 2,490 12,600 2,480 ' 2,790 2,750
0,045 f4 6,410 2,290 2,040 1,940 1;970 9,990 . 1,960 2,210 2,170
.0,062 ~. 3,382 1;120 1,070 1,020 1,040 5.270 1,030 1,160 1,140
.0.078 A 2,120 756 675 640 650 3,300 647 730 718
0.093 i2 1,510 538 510 455 462 2,350 460 519 510
0.125 ~ 825 295 263 249 253 1,280 252 284 279
0.156 ~ 530 189 169 160 163 825· 162 182 -179
0,187 n 377 134 120 114 116 587,_. 115 130. If?·
.0.250 t 206 74 66 62 64 320 63 ' .....
'}! .'"'1'0
~ ;- :'T ~ •
TABLE 20-3 LENGTH PER POUND OF STEEL FLUX-CORED to make the weld. Shielding gas is normally used at a spec-
ELECTRODE WIRES ified flow rate and measured in cubic feet per hour. The
amount of shielding gas used would be the time required
Electrode Diameter (in.) Length by Weight (in.llb)
to make the weld times the rate of gas usage.The cost of
0.045 2,400 shielding gas can be figured two ways. Normally, the gas
..L
16 1,250 cost is based on the cost per foot of the weld and it is cal-
f4 1,000 culated using Equation 20-9.
12 650
gas cost ($/ft.) =
i4 470
0.120 380 price of gas ($/ft? ) X flow rate (ft.3 /hr.)
(20-9)
345 weld travel speed (tn.Zmin.] X 5
225
The gas flow rate is provided in the welding proce-
pound is a little more difficult to determine since differ-

ent types of flux-cored wire have different amounts of
dure, or it can be measured with a flow meter. The price
of gas is the delivered price at the welding station.
Shielding gas cost per minute of operation is used
I
core material of different densities (see Table 20-3). The when calculating the cost of making an arc spot weld, a
length per pound of steel flux-cored electrode wire can small joint, 01' a small part. This is based on the time re-
be used for normal calculations. For better accuracy, acquired to make the weld, and it may be calculated using
tual tests should be made to determine the amount of Equation 20-10.
wire in inches that weighs a pound. gas cost ($/weld) =
Flux price of gas ($/ft.3) X
When flux is used, the cost of flux must be included in

the cost of materials used. The cost of flux in submerged
flow rate (ft.3/hr.) X weld time (min.)
60 (rnm.rhr.)
(20-10)
I
arc welding, electroslag welding, and even oxyfuel gas
welding can be related to the weight of weld metal de-
posited and may be calculated using Equation 20-8.
Miscellaneous Material Costs
To obtain a total cost of a particular weld, other items
I
flux cost ($/ft.) = flux price ($/lb.) X should be included. These include the guide tube used in
weld metal deposit (lb.zft.) X flux ratio (20-8) the consumable guide electroslag welding process, the
cost of ferrules and studs in arc stud welding, for exam-
In the submerged arc welding process, normally ple. In stud welding the price of each stud must be con-
one pou nd of submerged arc flux is used with each sidered, even though studs are not strictly filler metals.
pound of electrode wire deposited. This is a flux-to-steel They are related to the number of welds made and can be
ratio of l.This ratio may change for different welding pro- calculated in this manner. Also, since a ceramic ferrule is
cedures and for different types of flux. requlred for each weld, it must also be included in the
The flux ratio of 1 can be used for costing; however, cost of making each stud weld.
for more accuracy, tests should be run with the particular
flux u ed, The flux ratio can rise as high as 1.5.
For electro slag welding the ratio of flux to elec-
trode wir deposited is 5 to 1.0 lb. of flux per lOO lb. of
20 ..4 TIME AND
electrode consumed.This is a flux-to-steel ratio of 0.05 to LABOR REQUIRED
O.lO.Tbe exactamount of flux used is based on the sur-
The cost of the labor required to make a weld is the sin-
face area of retaining shoes exposed to the flux pool.The
gle greatest fa tor in the total cost of a weld, Section 20-
rul of thumb .1.$ 1./4 lb. of flux per v rtical foot of joint
3 provided the weight of metal deposit for differ nt
hdgb:t, The 10% ratio mention d previously is ample to
welds of different Sizes.With this information, the cost of
covet the cost of electroslag flux. In oxyfuel gas Wetoing
the fillet' m tals required is determined. The amount of
and torch brazing the amount of flux used can also b~e~
weld deposit 01' the amount of filler metal required Is one
tared. to the amount of·liller wire consumed. This ratio is
basis for determining the-amount of time required 'to
.. ual.1aUy on the order of 5% to 10%, Accurate checks can
make a weld or weldment. Time is normally the basis for
. be made .for a more precise flux ratio if desired.
pay for welders Since many are paid by the hour. The data
that follow will be used to d terrnin the cost or weldlng
Sh{ Iding Gas when w: Iders are paid an hourly rate.
W1"'tl si;1teldfrig gas Is 'Llseg, it- mustbe included in mate- Wc-lders are someumes paid on. the basis of welds .
·tialostThecost .of theJgns is r luted to the time required made.This may be.on a per footage basis fot different size
Welds or on the number of pieces welded per hour. This
METHOD OF OPERATOR FACTOR IN PERCENT
type of pay is usually involved with incentive systems. To APPLICATION (DUTY CYCLE)
establish costs on this basis, it may be necessary to deter-
mine time required for making welds of different types or,
MANUAL (MA)
Conversely, the speed of making certain welds. In some
cases, time studies are used to determine the normal SEMIAUTOMATIC (SA)
Welding time for making a particular weld or weldment.
In other cases, standard cost data are used, and quite of- MECHANIZED (ME)
ten these are based on the weight of weld metal de- I I

AUTOMATIC (AU)
POsited. In developing the cost of welds, these data can be
Used in many different ways according to the pay systems o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
and accounting systems employed. The basis for accurate FIGURE 20-3 Welder operator factor related to
Weld costing is a welding procedure. The welding proce- method of application.
dure may not be available at the time of setting cost stan-
dards or estimating costs; therefore, welding procedure
schedules like those presented throughout this book job being costed.Automatic time recorders are sometimes
should be employed. used to accurately determine operator factor on repetitive
The basis for calculating the cost of labor on a jobs. The results of this calculation provide labor costs in
dOllars-per-foot basis is given in Equation 20-11. The op- dollars per foot of weld joint.This can be added to the cost
erator factor shown here is the same as duty cycle, which per foot of materials, filler metals, and so on.
is the percentage of arc time against the total paid time. As an estimate for operator factor, when other data
are not available, refer to Figure 20-3.This shows the op-
labor cost ($/ft.) =
erator factor related to the method of applying the weld.
welder pay rate ($/hr.) The arrangement of the work, the use of positioners and
travel speed (in./ min.) X operator factor (%) X 5 fixtures, and whether the work is indoors or outdoors all
have an effect on the operator factor. Construction would
(20-11)
tend to be the lower end of the range, with heavy pm-
Each of the elements of this formula requires conduction toward the high end of the range. The operator
siderable analysis. The welder's hourly pay rate can be en- factor will vary from plant to plant and from part to part
tered into the formula; however, in most cases companies if the amount of weld metal deposited is much different.
prefer to factor the pay rate to cover fringe benefits such The operator factor is higher for the continuous elec-
as Cost of insurance, cost of holidays, and cost of vaca- trode wire processes since the welder does not have to
tions. This factor must be determined in line with com- stop every time a covered electrode is consumed. Slag
pany accounting policies. It should be the same as the chipping, electrode changes, and moving from one joint
lllethod used for determining machining costs and other to another all reduce the operator factor,
direct labor costs used in the plant. When the welding procedure schedule is not avail-
This assumption applies prtmarily to single-pass able or when travel speed involves more than one pass,
welds, since weld travel speed is available in the welding Equation 20-12 is used.The weight of weld metal deposit
procedure schedules. It should be used when metal Is not in pounds per foot is the datum presented in Figure 20-2.
depOSited, specifically GTAW and PAWTravel speeds re- As mentioned previously, this can be changed for different
late to the welding job, the weld type, and the welding metals if the density of the metal is used in the formula.Thts
Process· employed. This Is relatively easy to determine datum is untversal when the proper density factor is used:
when single-pass welds are made, but it is more difficult The new factor introduced by this formula is depo-
With multipass welds and for this reason a different sys- sition rate in pounds per hour. Deposition rate is the
tem is used for large multipass welds. weight of the filler metal deposited in a unit of time. It is
Duty cycle or operator factor also requires analysis expressed as pounds per hour, Charts and graphs pre-
Since it varies considerably from job to job and from sented in the sections for particular processes provide
process to process. The shielded metal arc welding deposition rat tnformatlon. Figure 20 ..4 is a composite
Pr~cess .has the lowest operator factor, while semrauto- chart coveringrnost of these processes using steelelec-
matk welding is much higher, often double. The type of trodes. The deposition rate has a' tteroendotls effe'clon
Work dictates the operator factor. Construction work, in welding costs.The grearer thedeposttien rate I usuQlly'the
~hich Small welds are made in scattered locations, has a . less time required to make a w ld. This should be tem-.
lOW operator factor. Heavy production work, in which pered, however, stnce certain high·depositiOn-tat
1atge welds are made on heavY weldments.can have much processes cannot be applied to ~1f)1aUet}OQs. for acctlNte ' .
ltgl1er QPCf'4tor factors. Time study is sometimes used to results it is necessary to calculate depositidll tates forspe~
cleterinine, operata!' factorbased 00-' work similar to the dflc weld preeedures.Ihls CM be done by w~i~h4igthe,
20-5 POWER AND
OVERHEAD COSTS
~
:r
'-
Overhead cost consists of many; many things, both in the
m
...J factory and in the office. It consists of the salaries of plant
w executives, supervisors, inspectors, maintenance person-
~
a: nel, janitors, and others whose time cannot be directly
z ELECTROSLAG
charged to the individual job or weldment. These costs
0
j::
are apportioned pro rata among all work going through
@ the plant.Another important overhead cost is rent or de-
a..
w
0 preciation of the plant and the general maintenance of
the building, equipment, and grounds. Depreciation of
10
plant equipment includes welding machines, materials-
handling equipment, overhead cranes, and all other
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
equipment that is not charged directly to individual or
CURRENT (AMPERES)
specific weldments. In addition, all the taxes on the plant,
FIGURE 20-4 Deposition rates for various processes real estate, equipment, and payroll and any other taxes ap-
with steel electrodes. plying to plant operations afe considered as overhead.
Another item of overhead is the small tools such as chip-
ping hammers, electrode holders, and safety equipment
filler metal used, weighing the weld metal deposited, and that are not charged to specific jobs. In addition, in most
measuring the arc time. This will provide the deposition plants the cost of heat, light, maintenance, and repair of
rate and also the filler metal yield or use. the building and equipment are also charged to overhead
labor cost ($/ft.) = accounts.
Almost all plants or factories have Similar systems
welder pay rate ($/hr.) X for handling overhead expenses, but they vary in detail
weight of weld metal deposit (lb./ft.) and for this reason are not described here. In all cases,
deposition rate (Ib.zhr.) X operator rate (%) however, the overhead charges must be distributed to
the welding jobs in one manner or another. In some
(20-12) cases this is based on per ton of steel fabricated or 011
Deposition rate can also be calculated. This re- the weight of steel consumed. U sually; however, the over-
quires the use of Ftgures 11-19 to 11-21. These curves head costs are prorated in accordance with the direct la-
show the electrode wire feed speed per minute versus bor charges against the different welding jobs.When this
welding current. The melt-off rate and the wire feed system is used, accurate labor costs for weldments are
speed are the same.The curves can be used for. these cal- essential. l'
culations. The melt-off rates are given in inches per Overhead rates are sometimes separate and not in-
minute based on the type and size of electrode, the cluded in the welder pay rate. When this is the case, the ,
welding process, and current. Table 20-2 shows the same formulas as described before [i.e., Equations 20-10
length of bar electrode wire per pound of different and 20-11] are used, but the overhead rate is substituted
metals. The relauonshtp between melt-off rate and for the welder's pay rate. Both are in dollars per hour.
weight of filler metal melted can be deterrnin d by us- For single-pass welding, use Equation 20-14. Duty
ing Bquation 20-13. cycle and operator factor are the same. For multi-pass
welding, Equation 20-15 should be used.
deposition rate (lb./hr.) =
melt~off rate (1n./131in.)X 60 X fiHcf metal yield (%) overhead cost ($/ ft.) ==
, length of electro le wire per weight (in.jlb.) "" overhead rate ($/hr. )
"'-. travel speed (in./min.) X operator fa tor (%) X 5·
(20-~,?)
''lIse the wlr feed.speed graphs for melt-off fate anti (20-14)
use Table 20-2 for the length and weight of electrode wire.
The deposition rate, which I pounds of metal de- overhead Cost ($/ ft.) :::
P sttcd p r hOU1:, is relat d to the melt-off rate by dividing
melt-off l-ate by thefUJ.er metal yield or deposition effi- overhead fate ($/hr.) X
detacy:For solid wtrc systems the yield is high, as shown weight of weld metal deposit (lb.jhl'.)
. . . .. (20-1;)
'ill Tabl 20...1;,' j . depcsitiou rate (lb./hr.) X operator factor (%).
The cost of electrical power is sometimes consid- cost of the principal elements. One method is best for
ered part of the overhead expense. However, when it is single-pass welding with continuous wire processes, and
necessary to compare competing manufacturing the other is best for multipass welding.
processes or competing welding processes, it is wise to
include the cost of electric power in the calculations. In
some plants, electric power is considered a direct cost Materials Cost
and is charged against the particular job.This is more of- For all weJding processes that use deposited metal, the
ten the case for field welding than for large production weight of deposited metal is the basis for material costs.
weldment shops. In this case, Equation 20-16 is used. The weight of each type of weld in the weldment is cal-
culated, and the results are added together to determine
power cost ($/ft.) =
the total weight. Use Equation 20-3.The weight of weld
local power rate ($ /kWh) X volts X metal deposit for each weld type is obtained from
amperes X weld metal deposit (Ib.jft.) Figure 20-2. Filler metal yield is based on the type of
1000 (w/kw) X deposition rate (lb./hr.) X filler metal and the data of Table 20-1. These results can
be factored by the electrode price to. obtain the cost of
operator factor (%) X power source efficiency (%)
filler metal required.
(20-16) To determine the electrode cost per foot, use Equa-
tion 20-4. Obtain the weld metal depostt from Figure
The local power rate is based on the rate charged to
20-2. The electrode price is the delivered cost to. the
the factory by the local utility company. If time penalties,
plant, and the filler metal yield is from Table 20-1.
Power factor penalties, and other charges are involved,
Another method of determining the weight of filler
they should be included. Volts and amperes are the values
metal required when using a continuous electrode wire
Used when making the weld.The weight of the weld metal
process is to use Equation 20-S.The wire feed speed is
is the weight of the weld metal deposited. The deposition
taken from the welding procedure, or can be obtained
rate is that used for a particular weld, as is the operator fac-
from the process schedule charts based on welding cur-
tor. The final factor is the efficiency of the power source;
rent, or it can be measured. The length of wire per weight
this can be found from the machine performance curve.
is taken from Table 20- 2.
Performance curves were presented in Chapter 10.
A third method of determining filler metal required
Special fixtures for tack welding and holding may
is to use Bquation 20-7.The weld travel speed can be ob-
be conSidered an indirect labor cost and are classed as
tained from the welding procedure, or from process
Overhead.These items are considered as capital expendi-
schedule charts, or by measurement. The deposition rate
tures and are depreciated over a period of five years or so.
is arrived at from process deposition rate charts based on
These costs are also added to the welding department or
the current or by Equation 20-13.
plant overhead. When this information is calculated, it is
The wire feed rate is obtained from the welding
added to overhead costs, the cost of labor, and the cost of
procedure, from charts based on welding current, o.r by
filler metal to arrive at the total weld cost.
measurement. The other two. factors were mentioned
earlier.
The cost of welding flux used for SAW is deter-
mined by using Bquation 20-8. The flux price is th de-
20-6WELD COST FORMULAS livered cost to the plant.The weld deposit metal deposit
AND EXAMPLES is computed using Equation 20-1 or from Figure 20-2.
The flux ratio is 1, Ll .or 1.2. For accuracy.make a.test and
Welding costs are obtained by adding the major cost
measure the weld deposit and flux consumed and estab-
elements:
lish the ratio.
• Materials cost: filler metals, flux, gas, etc.' The cost of shielding gas per foot for GMAW,FCAW,
• Labor cost: direct labor o.r GTAWis determined by using Equati01l20-9.The price
of gas is the cost of the shtelding ga delivered to the
• Overhead cost: normally prorated to direct labor
plant. The flow rate is the usage and Is from the welding
One method of calcularlng cost is using the basis of procedure, from process schedule charts, or by measure- .
COstper weld. This Is used for arc spot welds (sometimes memo The weldingtravel speed is obtained the same way.
COstis based per 100 arc spot welds), for plug welds, and The cost of shielding gas per weld is used when
fOr small welds used to make a small part. costing arc spot weld r plug welds, at small w ldments
The more common method of cal ulating welding and is determined by using Equation 20-10.The pri e of
COStis on the basis of cost per foot of weld. Each of the .gas and the ftow rate' are obtained as' menUqn~d.The
Cost elements previously mentioned can be determined weld time is Ctst,abUshedby the wtt1dillg procedure, or
. on this basis. There are several ways. of determining the from process schedule charts/or by m:eastU'emellt.
Labor and Overhead Cost 40 ft. of 1/2-in.V-groove = 28.1 lb.
The labor and overhead cost for single-pass welding is de- 60 ft. of 3/8-in. V-groove = 23.0 lb.
termined by using Equation 20-Il.The welder pay rate is Total weld of metal desposited = 82.1 lb.
normally factored to cover fringe benefits.The travel speed
What is the cost of the filler metal required when
is taken from the welding procedure, process schedule
covered electrodes are used? Use Equation 20-4 (modi-
charts, or is measured. The operator factor, or duty cycle, is
fied) and a filler metal yield of 60% from Table 20-1:
obtained from Table 20-3; however, for better accuracy it
should be measured or related to similar jobs. electrode cost ($) =
The labor and overhead cost for multipass welding
(price $/lb.) 0.48 X (total wt.lb.) 82.1 6 6
is determined by using Equation 20-12.The data for each ...::.-.-__:_____:_--__;_----- = $ 5. 8
factor involved in this formula have been explained. (yield %) 0.60
The overhead cost must be calculated separately if
What is the cost of filler metal required when solid-steel
all of the overhead is not included in the welder pay rate.
electrodes are used? Use Equation 20-4 (modified) and a
The equations to use are similar to Equations 20-14 and
filler metal yield of 92.5% from Table 20-1:
20-15. The only difference is that the overhead rate is
substituted for the welder pay rate, and it should be ob- electrode cost ($) =
tained from the accounting calculations, which is beyond
the scope of this book. For simplicity, the overhead rate (price $/lb.) 0.48 X (total wt. lb.) 82.1 = $42.60
can be assumed to be equal to the welder pay rate. In (yield %) 0.925
some plants it is two times the payor even higher.
A variety of computer software programs can help Note that the total cost is less when using a higher-speed
provide cost information for welding. In general they are electrode.
mostly based on the principles outlined in this chapter:
They are based on calculated weld metal requirements to EXAMPLE 2 What is the cost of a foot of 1/4-in. ftllet
produce the weld joint. These different programs are ref- weld made manually with SMAW using E6024 electrode
erenced in the Appendix. 3/16-in. size? The operator factor is 30% and is from Figure
20-3.The filler metal yield is 55% and is from Table 20-1.
The weight of weld metal deposited is 0.117 lb.zft. and is
Sample Cost Calculations from Figure 20-2. Use Equation 20-4:
The following will show how the different equations are electrode cost ($/ ft.) =::
used. The following rates will be used in these examples.
(price $/lb.) 0.48 X (total wt.lb./ft.) 0.117 =::
Wel.der pay rate == $15.00 per hour
(yield %) 0.55
Overhead rate = $30.00 per hour
Power cost = $0.06 per kWh $0.102 $/ft.
Argon gas cost == $0.21 per cubic feet The labor cost is calculated using Equation 20-11.
CO2 gas cost== $0.10 per cubic feet The travel speed of 15 In.zrntn. is from the process sched-
overed electrode price == $0.4:8 per pound ule chart:
Steel electrode wire price s= $0.55 per pound labor cost ($/ft.) =::
Flux-cored electrode prtce s= $0.65 per pound
(pay $/hr.) 15.00
AU other data are taken from information refer- -----~--~~~~----~----~=
(speed in. mtn.) 15 (factor %) 0.30
X 5 X
enced elsewhere in this book.
$0.666 $/ft.
EXAMPLE 1 In thls exampl we wish to establish the cost
The overhead cost is double the labor cost.The total cost
of a weldment that contains 120 ft. of 1/4-in. fillet1_300 ft.
is the total of: $0.102 + 0.666 + 1.332 :;:::2.10 $I!t. of
of 3/16-it:L fillet, ·0 ft. of 1/2-in. v-groove, and 60 . f
weld.
3/S ...In,V-gi"oQve weld. To determine the amount of welM
metal deposited, consult Figure 20 ..2.0btain the weight of
weld-metal of each type of weld, mtutiply it by the length EXAMPLE 3 What is the cost of a foot oJ 1/4·in: fillet
of that type of weld, and add the total: . weld made semiautomatically using GMAW with CO2 gaS
shielding using an E708-1 electrode of 0,035 in. sizej The
l.~Q ft. of 1/4-in. flllet = 12.7 lb. operator factor is 50%, frorn Ptgure 20-3. the filler metal
300 ft: of 3/16-in,fillet
,-I •
== 18.3 lb. yield is 95%,from Table 20-t',Use Bquationzr) ....4:
electrode cost ($/ft.) = overhead cost ($/ft.) =
(cost $/lb.) 0.55 X (wt ft./lb.) 0.117 (rate $jhr.) 30
-_.:___:__ __ .:____:_____:_- = $0.067 $/ft. =
(yield %) 0.95 (speed in. /)min. 15 X (ffactor % ) 0.5 X 5 $0.80 $/ft.
The gas cost is calculated using Equation 20-9.The shield- The total cost is the total of: 0.067 + 0.033 + 0.400 +
ing gas flow rate is 25 cubic feet per minute, and the 0.80 = 1.90 $/ft. of weld. Note that the gas metal arc is
travel speed is 15 in./min. obtained from the process less expensive than shielded metal arc welding for the
schedule chart: same weld size.
gas cost ($/ft.) = EXAMPLE 4 How many pounds ofE70S-1 electrode wire
0.035 in. in diameter should be purchased to make a tank
(gas $/ft3.) 0.10 X (flow ft.3 / min.) 25
= $0.033 $/ft. requiring 25,000 ft. of 1/8-in. square-groove butt weld?
(speed in. /)min. 15 X 5 The weld deposit, with reinforcement, is 0.065 lb.zft.
from Figure 20-2, multiplied by 25,500 ft., which is
The labor cost is determined using Equation 20-11 (all of
1,657.5 lb. To determine the pounds of filler metal
the factors involved were mentioned previously):
needed, use Equation 20-3 (the filler metal yield of 90%
labor cost ($/ ft.) = is from Table 20-1):
(pay $/hr.) 15.00 weight of filler metal required (lb.) =

--------~~~--~-------------=
(speed in./min.) 15 X (factor %) 0.5 X 5 (wt. lb.) 1657.5
----- = 1842 lb.
$0.400 $/ft. (yield %) 0.90
The overhead cost is determined using Equation 20-14 These computations are quickly made using an
(all of the factors involved were mentioned previously): electronic calculator.
QUESTIONS
20-1. Why is the cross-sectional area of a weld joint impor- 20-14. What is the most expensive metal of a weldment?
tant to cost? Why?
20-2. What is the formula for the cross-sectional area of a 20-15. What is the formula for the cross-sectional area of a
regular fillet weld? corner joint using a single bevel weld reinforced by a
20-3. If the cross-sectional area is known, how do you de- fillet weld?
termine the weight of a foot of weld? 20-16. What is the theoretical weld deposit for a 3/8-in.fUlct
20-4. What is filler metal yield? Why is the yield lower for weld 72 in. long?
covered electrodes? 20-17. What is the weight of weld deposit for a slngle-V butt
20-5. Which has the better yield, a 14-1n. electrode or an jolnt in a 30-in,-diameter pipe having a 3/8-in. wall
18-ln. electrode? Why? thickness?
20·6. Why is deposition rate so important for welding costs? 20-18. How many pounds of E6010 electrodes should b
20·7. What different materials are included in gas metal arc purchased for making a 5-mile-long pipeline using the
welding? In submerged arc welding? In shielded pipe size tn Question 20-17? Assume that each length
metal arc weldingj of pip is 20 ft.
20-8. What is rhe operator factor wh n calculating weld- 20-19. A weldm nt requires 40 ft. of lI2-in. V, 60 ft. of
Ing cost? ' 1/2-1n. V, 120 ft. of 1/4in. fillet, and 300 ft. of 1./·1n.
fillet welds. Wbat: Is the weight of w Id uletal de-
Why Is operator factor so important?
.posrted, iuc}:u4ing reinforcement?
Wb~t major cost elements must be totaled to obtain
20·20. In Question 20-19, how many pounds of ele.cttocle
total welding cost?
·20-11. should be purchased to make 10 weldmenrs using·
How does poor fitup affect welding costs?
the shielded m tal arc process? How inany pounds
20-12. How does one'S welding affe .t welding costst How . of electrode wire should be purchas d for the
does excessiv reinforcement affect osts? lO weldments using the flux-cored arc welding
Why is a positioner used to reduce weldtng costs? process? ..
. .
.. Gost 0f5AL~kjing
OUTLINE
welder petformance qualifications, and an overall total
21-1 Quality Control Program
welding quality control program. It is a "welding manufac-
·21-2 Destructive Testing
turing system." As part of a total manufacturing system it
21 ....3 Visual Inspection will provide good-quality welded products by establishing
21-4 Nondestructive Testing. the necessary engineering capabilities.
2 i-5 Corrective Actions for Weld Defects These quality control programs are all slightly dif-
21-fi '. Workmanship Specimens and Standards ferent. It is important to study the particular specification
involved. Review your program with the representative
21- '7 Ncndestructfve Examination Symbols
of the accrediting organization. Make sure your approach
is the approach the organization specifies and that your
documents will meet its approval. In general, all quality
control programs are similar, but the accrediting agencies
21 ..1 QUALITY CONTROL may have different requirements.
PROGRAM The remaining portion of this section concerns the
quality control plan and offers a suggested quality control
A principal factor in the performance of an organization is program. It can be adopted by companies desiring to im-
the quallry of its products. There is a worldwide trend to- prove weld quality, and it is similar to the program estab-
ward mote stringent customer expectations with respect lished by the nuclear code.(4)
to quality. A growmgreallzadon is that continual improve- For certain classes of work, quality control require-
ments in quality are necessary to maintain an organization's ments are well established. Strict requirements, which are
success. (1) A need for more reliable products, increasingly found in the nuclear code, require a quality assurance
complex technology, and the need to conserve resources program based on the technical and manufacturing as-
makes weld quality increasingly important. This has pects of the product. The program must ensure adequate
prompted many organizations to provide special speeiflca- quality from the design, acquisition, and manufacturing to
tions; however, these will not in themselves guarantee that final shipment. The program must define authority and
th quali.ty requirements will be consistently met. This has responsibility for each portion of the work. The quality
led' co .the development of quality system, standards and assurance plan must include the following:
gUidelines .tha.t complement relevant product rec.fiti.tt-
.ments,1,'he international community has established such a, 1. OrganizattOI'I. The organization for quality must
r-eql:litement.known asIS09000.(1)nlis is stmilar to a U.S. be clearly prescribed. It~should define and show
mmtatyspecitlcation, "Quality PrograrnRequiremems.',(3) charts for responsibility and authority and the orga-
This' Q1IUIUfactu.rin.g system provtdes management support nizational freedom to identify and evaluate quality
the 'ugh poll ·y·~uld delegated aurbonry The system in- problems. Quality control. personnel should not re-
clud s documentaeton to establish lesigns, manufacturing port to production personnel.
. techniques,. and qUI\Uty control methods. From a welding 2. Quality assurance program. l11e producer must
:PQhtibfvtew, it Includes welding procedure qualtttcauons, . conduct a review of the requirements of the quality
required of the product. Various factors for ensuring involve the use of documented work Instructions,
product quality, such as specialized controls, drawings, and special equipment. It further requires
processes, testing equipment, and skills, must be that such instructions be provided with space for
identified. This program must be documented by reporting results of inspection by the manufacturer
written policies, procedures, and instructions. and the inspector, including the date and initials.
3. Design control. The design must provide for veri- 10. Inspection. The quality assurance program should
fying the adequacy of the design via performance ensure a system of inspection and testing for all
testing and independent review. It should include products. Such testing should stimulate the product
qualification and testing of prototypes. Measures service, and records must be maintained on the ad-
must be established to ensure that the design spec- equacy of the product to meet these specifications.
ifications and code requirements are correctly trans- 11:. Test control. The program must assure that all tests
lated into drawings, procedures, and instructions. are performed according to written instructions.
4. Procurement documents. The program requires Instructions must provide requirements and accep-
that specifications be written for each item pur- tance limits. Test results must be documented and
chased and that the specification ensure the quality evaluated to ensure that test requirements are met.
required by the end product.These specifications also 12. Control of measuring and testing equipment.
require quality assurance programs from vendors. The program should provide for methods of main-
5. Instructions, procedures, and drawings. The qual- taining the accuracy of gauges, testing devices, me-
ity program must ensure that all work affecting ters, and other precision devices, showing that they
quality must be prescribed in clear and complete are calibrated against certified measurement stan-
documented instructions of a type appropriate to dards on a periodic basis.
the work. Compliance with instructions must be 13. Handling, storage, and delivery. The program
monitored. should provide adequate instructions for handling,
6. Document control. The quality program must in- storage, preservation, packaging, and shipping, so
elude a procedure for maintaining the completeness that the product is protected from its time of man-
and correctness of drawings and instructions, show- ufacture until its time of use.
ing dates, control, effective point, and so on. These 14. Inspection test and operating status. The program
drawings, procedures, and instructions must be main- must include methods of identifying parts to deter-
tained and continuity explained by change notices. mine its status as far as inspection and approval are
7. Control of purchased material, equipment, and concerned.
services. The program must include a control sys- 15. Nonconforming materials, parts, or components.
tem for purchasing from qualified vendors. This A procedure should be established to malntain an ef-
means that vendors must have acceptable quality fective and positive system for controlling noncon-
programs for producing their items. A qualified forming material. It may include and allow for
product list is required, and only those vendors hav- rework; however, records must be maintained of
ing adequate quality programs and providing qual- such work. Resolution of nonconformities should be
ity products will be included.The program requires in conformance with paragraph 7 of this program.
receiving inspection systems so that purchased 16. Corrective actions. The quality program must es-
items can be checked against the specifications. tablish methods of dealing promptly with any con-
Raw materials and purchased parts will be in- ditions that are adverse to quality, including design,
spected by instruments, laboratory procedures, and procurement, manufacruring, and testing. The pro-
other means to ensure that the products meet the gram should also include methods of overcoming
specifications. defects and taking corrective action to produce a
8. Identification and control of materials. The pro- product that meets the required quality.
gram must provide for identification of all parts, ma- 17. QuaUty assurance records. The. program requires
terials, and components, from receipt throughout that records be maintained, including all data es-
all processing to the final item. Records shall pro- sential. to the economical and effective operation of
vide traceability of aU materials and components. A the quality program ..Records must-be cQ11lpletce Mcl "
checklist shall be established for reporting all char- reliable and include measurements.idnspections, .
acteristics and recording test reports that have and observauons, and these records must be avail-
been received, reviewed, and found acceptable.' able for review ..
9. Control Of special processes. The quality program .. 18. Cost related to quauty: The program should allow
must ensure' that all manufacturing operations, infor maintenance and use of cost data fOl' Jdentliyil'lg
dl.lding weld.ing, are accomplished under con- the cost of the proSnun and forprevelltlt1i ill1dcoj,'·
trolled conditions. TIiese controlled conditions. recttng defect, encountered,
19. Production tooling and inspection equipment. code or specification in question be checked when mak-
Various items of tooling, including fixtures, tem- ing test welds and specimens and examining those rests.
plates, and patterns, may be used for inspection pur- The American Petroleum Institute Standard 1104,
poses, provided that their accuracy is checked at "Standard forWelding Pipeline and Related Facilities,"is ex-
periodic intervals. tremely popular and used for pipeline Welding.Figure 21-1
20. Audits. The program must include a system of
planned and periodic audits to verify compliance
with all aspects of the quality assurance program. FIGURE 21-1 API 1104 specimen locations.
The audit must be done by personnel not normally
NICK,BREAK
involved in the areas being audited. Audits must be
documented and reviewed, and action must be ·ONE FULL PIPE
SECTION TENSILE
taken to correct any deficiencies found. TEST SPECIMEN
MAY BE USED
FOR PIPE 1,5/16"
The preceding list is an abbreviated outline of the ROOT BEND
AND SMALLER
requirements of a quality assurance program necessary
for critical products. It can be modified, expanded, and
used by companies where a code of specification is not
imposed.When applying for approval of any type, it is ab- TOP OF PIPE ROOT BEND
solutely necessary to review the specification or standard OR SIDE BEND
NICK-BREAK
being applied. In addition, consult with the accrediting
agency you are dealing with to make sure that your input
is in agreement with their requirements.
2·3/8" TO 4-112"
ALSO 4-1/2" AND
NICK,BREAK ~~~""SMALLERWHEN THE WALL
ROOT BEND OR SIDE BEND THICKNESS IS OVER 1/12"
21-2 DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Welds and weld metal are subjected to more different types
of tests than any other metal produced. Weld metal can be TOP OF PIPE
tested in the same manner as any other form of metal. Me- TENSILE SECTION TENSILE SECTION
chanical tests are used to qualify welding procedures, NICK-BREAK
welders, and welding processes and to determine if elec-

trodes and filler metals meet the requirements of the spec-
ification. Welds in weldments are often tested for
soundness, strength, and toughness by mechanical tests.
Mechanical tests are destructive tests since the ROOT BEND
OR SIDE BEND
weld joint is destroyed in making the test. They are also
expensive because they involve preparing material, mak-
ing welds, cutting and often machtning, and destructive
testing the specimens.
ROOT BEND
OR SIDE BEND
Procedure' Qualification NICK·BREAK
TENSILE SECTION
TENSI LE SECTION
NICK-BREAK
FACE BEND
To quallfy a welding procedure specification (WPS), spe- OR
SIDE sEND
ciflcwelds are made, cut into standardized sizes and ,
shapes, and tested todestruction.The tests are spelled out - OVER'12-3/4"
'-1---
hi det~il DYthe code or specification.This involves making
test plates according to the welding procedure specifica- FACE ~END
tion M4 then mechantcalty testing the w Ids.The weia1a~ sloe
OR
SeND TENSILE SECTION
process; tlUerttlet~ls,-andWelding schedule are selected to' "lICK·BReAK NICI<:'QREAK
teNSILE SECTION ROOT Bi:ND
.maketh~weld In.theposltton required 011 the base metal OR SIDE· BEND
,that is to be l~sed.WelcUhgjoint details and material thick-
11 ss m,ay be specltled and may not be xactly as used in
,making the production weldm I1t. Requirements vary
ft< m code to code.The test specimens are not always ex. Non: AT THE COMPANY'S OPTION, THE LOCATIONS MAY BE ROTATED
45 DEG REES COUNTER·CLOCKWISE OR THEY MAY BE eQUAt.l Y
actly the $am~.nor ,are'they-taken h-om the same positions SPACED AROUND THE PIPE ExCePT SPECIMENS SHAl.1. NOT
INCI.UOE THE \"oNGITUOINAL WELD. ALSO, AT TH-ECOMPANY'S .
. of a test weld. n'js essenti 1that the proper edition of the' OPTION, ADOIlJ'IONA\. SPECIMENS MAY as lA-KEN.
CHAPtER.21.
shows the location of test specimens based on the size of with a portable bend test machine. The basis for accep-
pipe. It also indicates the number of test specimens that tance of the test welds is spelled out in detail in the cocle.
should be taken.The detail of the nick-break test specimen The American Society of Mechanical Engineers
is shown in Figure 21-2. The bend test specimens are Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section IX,"Welding and
shown in Figures 21-3 and 21-4. Note that root and face Brazing Qualifications," is widely used for pressure vessel
bend specimens are used for thinner material and the side work and is the reference specification for pressure pip-
bend specimen is used when the wall thickness of the pipe ing work. This code makes use of the guided bend test
is more than 1/2 in. (12.7 mm). and the fillet weld test. The ASMEuses reduced section
TheAPI tests are often made in the field, and it is per- tensile test for certain requirements. The location of test
misSible to use flame-cut edges and grinding to prepare specimens and the details of them are shown in the
Specimens.This eliminates machining and makes it possi- code. For the guided bend test, special dimensions are
ble to quickly prepare test specimens and to make tests provided for different thicknesses of test specimens. The
American Welding Society's "Structural Welding Code,"
D1.1, is widely used for qualifying procedures and
FIGURE21-2 API code nick-break test specimen. welders, One of the tests, which is often used for pre-
liminary evaluation, is the fillet weld break specimen
NOTCH CUT BY HACKSAW. used for qualifying weld tackers. This specimen and the
--SPECIMEN MAY BE MACHINE OR
OXYGEN CUT. EDGES SHALL BE way it is fractured are shown in Figure 21-S.The thick-
PARALLEL AND SMOOTH.
APPROX. l/B" ness of the plates shall be 1/2 in. (12.6 nun), and the fillet
3/4" weld should be 1/4 in. (6.3 mmj.Variations of this specimen
MIN.
use thinner plates and smaller fillet sizes. This specimen
I APPROX. liS'
It-
T[
ev='APPROX9"
~'-----;
--: t
t FIGURE21-5 AWS fillet break test.
WALL TEST SPECIMEN DETAIL:
DO NOT REMOVE REII\JFORCEMENT OF THICKNESS
WELD ON EITHER SIDE OF SPECIMEN.
FIGURE21-3 API code root and face bend specimen.

SPECIMEN MAY BE MACHINE
OR OX.YGEN CUT~ 1/8" MAX.
r RAD. ALL
~Z~i i
CORNERS BILL OF MATERIAL
Item 1 - 1 piece 3/8 x 6 x 6 Mild Steel - ASTM A·37
r---[ ---'IDIAPPRox.l" Item 2 .~ 1 piece 3/8 x 4 x 6 Mild Steel - ASTM A·37
I~____ 8" MINIMUM-----~l I WELPING PROCEDURE:
r "r:-==. I..L
C::C:::::==========:J_j-r--c:::=======:=::j1 ,WELD
WA LL TH ICKN ESS
Position
Electrode
size (in)
Fillet
size lin)
t Flat 3/16 1/4
WELD REINFORCEMENT SHALL BE REMOVED FROM BOTH FACES FLUSH 3/16 1/4
WITH THE SURFACE OF THE SPECIMEN. SPECIMEN SHALL NOT BE
FLATTE;NED PRIOR TO TESTING Vertical 6/32 , /4 and 3/8
Overhead 5/32 1/4 and 3/6

TEST BAR PRI!PARATION: None
FIGURE21-4 API code root bend specimen.

TEST.SPECI.FIED
Force
WELD REINFORCEMENT SHAl..l BE AEMovm FROM BOTH
FACES, FlUSH WITH TH':.'.,,~, ",' OF TH' SPE',IM:~ __ WALL
1-- ....,>...!.L_::l-- __ ~_~ t THICKNESS

L~. -,----,,8" MINIMUM ..J liB" RAOI\JS MAX. ALL.
Ir--~__"'_ _.;:. ~ ·-......,;JJ\ _ C)RNERS
I .
7
tf
I I
STANDARD OF ACCEPTABILITY: '
1/2''}- WIDTH OF
t~'
t
SpECIMEN
(a) COntour- The OX posed face o·r the weld shall be te~.onably '",oinh and reQular.
There shall be no overlllPplng or undercutting, The weld shall eontorrn to the
// WALL THICKNESS required <:r!~$' section tor the size of weld spef;lfied per 91l.1!Q. .
/' (b) Extent Of FIl$ion- Ther~ sMIl btl complet!! fusion betwe n rill! Wllld lind base '
metal and f\Jllpenetration to the rOot of loa weld,. .
SPECIMENS MAY BE MACHIN~ CUT TO 112 INCH WID'] H OR THIEY MAY Be (e) SoundMS$- The Wllld$l1allconta!n no g3S PQcket,_ o)!ide particle
. OXYGEN CUT TO APPROxiMATELY 3/4 INCH WID!: AND iHEN or sleg InclYllon.$xlllledTng 3/3ain. In greatl,,! dil'l''IIm$ion, In
valN'CR ~eMOVED BY MACH1NINGOR GRINDING. CUT 6dcSitiQn,n(ls!jU\lrll inch of weld mitral afell $11J!I1contain mor~
SUAFAGES SHALL BE SMOOTH AND PARALLEl.. than 6 !l8$ poeketsexQQtltling 111ft Inch in greatl,\$t dimeNlgn.;
\
THESE EDGES MAY BE OXYGEN CUT AND
MAYORMAYjOTBiM~e '/BI'~
01 RECTION OF ROLLING
1-4---3" MIN'---1
15/16"
r ~
3" MIN,--1
PORTION BETWEEN FillET WELDS

_L __
T __ I ~
LMAY BE WELDED IN ANY POSITION
I
t 3/~~X, SIZE SINGLE PASS ~ .J\\
FillET WELD 3/B" AT lEAST 3/S". 1", IF RADIOGRAPHY IS USED
~>-----'-------------- --------------- THEN USE AT lEAST A 3/S". 3" BAR
BACKING TO BE IN INTIMATE CONTACT
WITH BASE METAL
Weld reinforcement and backing shall be removed flush with bale metal,
flame cutting may be used for the removal of the major part of the
backing, provided at least liS" of its thickness is left to be
_1_ removed bv machininq or Qrtndinq
FIGURE21-6 AWS fillet weld root bend test.
can be used for each welding position and can be used for specimens. In some cases impact properties are also
all of the arc welding processes and any electrode type. specified.When required, impact test specimens must be
The structural code includes another fillet test that prepared. They are made with the same joint detail as
has been used 'for welder qualification. In this test, fillet shown in Figure 21-10. The detail of the all-weld metal
welds are made between two plates and a backing bar. test specimen Type 505 is shown in Figure 21-11 and the
The plates are separated 15/16 in. (24 rnm), and fillet detail of the Charpy V notch impact test specimen is
welds are made between each plate and the backing bar. shown in Figure 21-12. These test specimens are univer-
The remaining area between the fillet welds is filled in sally used, and the detail dimensions of them are identi-
like a groove weld. The difficulty with this test is that the cal in most specifications.
backing bar must be removed, which requires machining. Several other weld test specimens may be used, in-
This specimen can be tested with the root in tension or
the face in tension. This test can be critical when it is
tested with the root in tension, since this shows root pen-
cluding the transverse fillet weld specimen (Figure 21-13)
and the longitudinal fillet weld shear specimen (Fig-
ure 21-14). Many other weld specimens are used for the
I
etration of the fillets.The details of this test are shown in development and research work. For further information
Figure 21-6.The examination of this test and the require- refer to theAWS "Standard Methods for Mechanical Testing
ments are listed in the code. Por welder qualification, the ofWelds."CS)Thisdocument shows the detail dimensions of
code also provides for groove weld test specimens. The most weld specimens.
weld joint detail is a single V-groove weld with a 45°
included angle and a 1/4·in. (6.3-tnm) root opening. A
backup bar is used. The specimen can be welded in any
position. However, when it is used in the horizontal post-
21 ..3 VISUAL INSPECTION
tion, it is usually a single bevel weld with the bottom hor- Visual examination is the most widely used nondestruc-
izontal and the 45° bevel on the top piece. These tive testing technique. It is extremely effective and the
specimens are shown in Figure 21-7. These specimens least expensive inspection method. The welding inspec-
are then cut and given a guided bend test. For plate heav- tor can use visual inspection throughout the entire pro-
ier than ,3/8 in. (9.5 mm), the side bend specimen is reo duction cycle of a weldment. It is an effective quality
quired, tnce different strength-level materials have
I
control method that will ensure procedure conformity
different beading characteristics, the design, detailQf the and will catch errors at early stages.The work of the weld-
guided bend fixture is altered. The details of the gu1(1 d ing inspector using visual inspection methods can be sub-
_pendtlxture- are $110Wlj in Figure 21 ~8. Testing a spect- divided into three divisions: (1). vtsual examination prior
menIn a guldedbend fixture is shown in Figure 21.-9.
Other tests are required for other reasons. For ex-
ample, to check the compliance of deposited weld
to welding, (2) visual examination during welding, and
(3) visual examination of the finiShed weldment,
I
I
metal, a special Joint design and all-weld metal test spec-
Imerr is req1.1ir d. This join t design and test specimen ate Visual Examination Prior to Welding
- ',.' specified tn-the ruler metal spectttcattons. Figure 21 ..10 A great many items must be reviewed ~d checked prior
-'Shows th join.tdetaU tor makingall-weld metal test to welding. - ..
I.
TEST SPECIMEN DETAI L:
TACK WELD BACKING STRIP
BILL OF MATERIAL: 2 pieces 5 x 6 x 3/8 and 1 piece 1 .3/16 Mild Steel
w-
WELDING PHOCEDURE:
t
No,
t
Electrode
Position size (in) of Passes
7 OR
~ TACK WELD
Horizontal 1/8 6 to 7
Vertical 1/8 6 to 7
t t I
~ I
TEST BAR PREPARATION:
Overhead 1/8 6 to 7
(a) Contour-The exposed face of the weld shall be reasonably smooth and regular.
There shall be no overlapping or undercutting.
(b) blent of Fusion-There shall be complete fusion between the weld and base
metal and full penetration to the root of the weld.
(e) Soundness-The weld shall contain no gas pocket, oxide particle or sl<t9
inctusion exceeding lIS" in greatest dimension. In addition, no square inch of
weld metal area shall contain more than 6 gaspockets e)(ceedlng 1/16" if1
greatest di mension.
FIGURE21-7 AWS groove weld.
1. Review all applicable drawings, specifications, pro- 7. At the fitup operation, check the cleanliness of
cedures, and welder qualifications. This helps the the welding joints and the conditions of tack
inspector to become familiar with the job and all welds.
applicable specifications.
At the fltupandtack weld operation, many weld-
2. Revi w the material specifications of the parts corn-
prtsing the weldment and determine that the mate-
ments are completely fitted and l'e~dy for 1'1'o41\1(:tioo
welding. In othercases certain welds may later be. hid-
rials are according to specifications.
den, and these welds 1U\.lStbe completed before £it'll' is
3. ompare the, edge preparation of each joint with finished. It is re ommended good practice for the fitter to
the drawings. At the same time, check edge prepa-
mark in. chalk the symbols showing sizes for all welds to
ration for surface conditions. be made by the production welders. On high-volume pro-
4. Check the dlmenstonsof each item since they will duction work thls may not be.necessary, especially if .:;ah1'"
affect weldment tttup. ples of production parts are available-tor reference;' '
5. At the fltup operation check assembly dimensions At the fitup station, the welding inspector should
and fitup, with special emphasis on root openings check the tack welds to' deternnne ,that the correct
of the weld joints. electrode types are being used for the base metal and to
6. At the fitup operation check the backing, bars, see if any special precautions sud) as preheat 'are re-
rmgs. and flux to be sure that t~ey are in accor- quired. If _preheatitlg is specified, local:R:rehe~tff.\1J m~y
b used, .. , ." ' -. ,'..s.r , '
dance With requirements.
TAPPED HDLE TO SUIT HARDENED ROLLERS, 1·1/2 DIAM. _--10" MIN.'
TESTING MACHINE MAY BE SUBSTITUTED FOR JIG
SHOULDERS ... 1/2 LENGTH ... ,
1--J
1
-I AS REQUIRED
POINT OF
TEMPERATURE
MEASUREMENT
y_!_
1/4
--<
45°
ALL-WE LO·METAL
TENSION SPECIMEN
PLUNGER
MEMBER IMPACT
SPECIMENS
FIGURE21-10 AWS all-weld metal test.
DIE
MEMBER
THICKNESS OF
SPECIMEN
A B t-'r-----------5"---------1-~
3/8
1
1·1/2
4t
2·3/8
6t + 1/8
r-'.375" -"II+-I"~--- 2.25"---'1: '.375:--j
t t0.75"
NOTES:
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN INCHES.
HlIIlU: I 0.50"
I 11 II 11 I _L
f
-.
1. The ram shall be fitted with an appropriate base and provision for attachment to the
testing machine. The ram shall elso be designed to minimize deflection and misalign-
ment.
2. The specimen shall be forced into the die by applying the load on the plunger until the i 2" •
curvature of the specimen is such that a 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) diam. wire cannot be placed 0.375"R. 3/4 - 10 UNC
between the specimen and any point in the curvature of the plunger member of the jig.
FIGURE21-8 AWS guided bend test jig. FIGURE21-11 Tensile test specimen: 505.
NOTCH DETAIL
j__
Dimension in. mm
A-Distance of sarnple
belOW specimen 0,06 t 0.002 1.6 t 0.05 - 0
L-Length of specimen 2.1115 t 0.002 55.0 t 0, -2.5
Ll2-Location of notch 1.082 t 0.002 27.5 :I: 1.0
C-Cross section (depth) 0,394 t 0.001 10,000 :I: 0.025
W-Cross secfion (width) 0.394 :t 0.001 10.000 t 0.025
O-Bottom of notch to base 0.315:t 0.001 8,000:1: 0.025
A-Radlu.S of notch 0.010:t 0,001 0.250 t 0.025
O-Angl!! of notch 45 deg ± 1 deg Adjacent sides shall be 90 dll9
t 10 minutes
FIGURE21-12 Impact test specimen: Charpy V notch.
j
FIGURE21:-9 Ma.klnga guided. bend test.
1. Determine that the designated' .welding process i
I
and method of application are in accordance with
procedures.
Visual Examination During Welding 2. Determine that the designated electrode is proper
Whn 'welding begins, several items should be checked, for the base metals, D termine the storage facilities
, in '.t~141nsthe weldtng procedures. M~lcesure they ate in and condition of electrodes, and for critical work,
prd~r;-appliCablt~ to' ttie 'wddment, and available to the record the hear numbers of the electrodes used in -
p 'ople doing die welding,terns that must be checked are: specific [oints or weldments.
'(pHAPlER 21 ,"
2 2
OR OR
1'1
!!~ DISCARD B B
I,
II
1.1
2
t
W
-------- --:Ir-
f-------- __ +-_ _.1
......
II
II ~-10 APPROX. --04--10 APPROX.·--~I
w 1,1
I-
0 ------- ~-II:--
--------
z
II
1--------
~-~i'-- II
I:
I I
1,1
f--------
I I
112 DISCARD 'i: WELD BASE PLATES
TOGETHER AFTER
MACHINE BASE PLATES
AND FILLETS AFTER
TI .. 9 ~I!! 9 MACHINING. WELDING.
L L i -;;{ THROATDIMENSION ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN INCHES.
DIMENSION IN. MM
[1,MIN~r~jt=j~445. I
SIZE OF WELD. F 1/8 3.2
2t MIN. 4.1/2 FILLET WELDS
1/4 6.4
3/8 9.5
t .. SPECIFIED SIZE OF FILLET WELD + 1/8
1/2 12,7
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN INCHES. 9,5
THICKNESS, t. MIN. 3/8
1/2 12,7
NOTE: SEE SPECIFICATION FOR ADDITIONAL DETAILS. 3/4 19.1
1 254
FIGURE 21-13 Transverse fi Ilet weld test.
THICKNESS. T. MIN. 1/4 6.4
3/8 9.5
1/2 12,7
5/8 15,9
3. Survey the welding equipment to make sure it is in WIDTH. W 3 76.2
3 76.2
good operating condition, including clamping de- 3 76.2
vices, flxrures, and locating devices. 3,1/2' B8.9
4. Determine that the correct welding current and the FILLET LENGTH, C 1·1/2 3B.l
,·1/2 38.1
proper polarity are being used. Use portable meters. 1·.112 3B.1
1 25.4
5. Determine that preheat requirements are adhered
to at the time of welding. Determine that base NOTE: SEe SPECIFICATION FOR ADDITIONAL OfOTAILS,
111 tal temperatures are heat-soaking temperatures
instead of merely surface heat. The time of preheat- FIGURE 21-14 Longitudinal fillet weld test.
ing can help establish whether through-heating is
accomplished.
6. Identify all welders assigned to the weldment or job 9. Determine that interpass cleaning by chipping,
or Joint inquestion.Their qualification level must be grinding, and gouging is being done in accordance
in accordance with the requirements of the job. with the procedure or specification or in accor-
Qualification paper should be reviewed to deter- dance with good practice.
mine that they are in order. 10. Watch out for slugging (t.e., adding rod~ Of metal to
7. Observe welders making welds. This has a rather a weld groove that does not belong and weakens
star tUng effect on welders, especially when they the joint).
know that their welds are being watched as they With the welding inspector an the site during weld-
are being made, If a welder does not appear to have ing operations, it is possible for any' unusual activities or .
the necessary skill for the job in question, the in- repair to be n('}ticed. TbJs type of~~6rkjs oftel1 req~Uted
spector can, in consultation with the supervisor, re- but should-have speciai'attc,fltionand. supet'vislo1'lto ae~.
quest that the welder make reqllaUfication tests. termme tl:nit the qUality tequirements are m,aintittnea: In
Thts requirement may not be in the code but is. many situ~ltjons repalo work must be d s(:dbe<t and 'ap'
common practice for high-quality work. proved prior to doing th . work.
8, Determine that Interpass 'temperatures are being
malntained.If welding operations are dfscontlnued
fora period, the interpass temperatures must De ob-
tained before welding is resumed,
inspection notebook or on applicable report forms,
whichever is required.
2. The inspector should determine that any type of
postheat treatment performed is done in accor-
dance with the procedure or other requirements.
3. Finally, the inspector should check any warpage
corrective activities, such as press work or thermal
bending, that might be employed. It is also neces-
sary that these types of activities be recorded in the
inspection notebook.
L OK ; 11" NO GO )
Visual Examination after Welding ~~

on the Completed Weldment
FIGURE 21-16 Fillet weld size and method of
The inspector is expected to determine that the weldment checking.
conforms to the drawings and specifications for which it
is designed and constructed. This includes many items
with respect to the weldment but more importantly to the
welds.The welds must all be made to the size specified.
1. It is important to check the weld size of all welds.
The size of fiUet welds can easily be determined by
means of weld gauges. Figure 21-15 shows the use
of a standard fillet weld gauge used in North Amer-
ica. Figure 21-16 shows the size of fillet welds and
the method of checking fillet welds to determine
that they do meet the size specifications. There are
many other types of gauges. Figure 21-17 shows
the use of a U.S. Navy gauge for checking fillets.
There are other gauges, primarily from Europe, that
are used throughout the world, including North
America. One of the most popular is the British
gauge, shown in Figure 21-18. It has capabilities for
checking the sizes of different types of welds.
2. All welds should be inspected to see that they do
not have any of the defects listed on page 543. FIGURE 21-17 U.S. Navy weld gauge.
FIGURE21 ....t5, Use of standard fillet gauge.
j
l
FIGURE'21-18 British welding gaug~. 1
a. Surface cracks (including toe cracks) It is the privilege of the welding inspector, using vi-
h. Crater cracks (or unfilled crater) sual inspection, to call for any of the nondestructive tech-
niques if there is reason to be suspicious of a specific
c. Surface porosity
joint, welder, 01' weldment. Good practice allows such
d. Incomplete root penetration weldments to be taken and subjected to at least one of
e. Undercut the NDT methods. It is expected that the inspector will
f. Underfill on face, groove, or fillet (concave) have reason for making such requests. If weldments or
g. Underfill of root (suck-back) joints do not show defects, it is then wise to determine
h. Excessive face reinforcement, groove, or fillet the competence of the inspector. Visual inspection of the
(convex) surface or welds or of any metal part will not reveal in-
ternal flaws or problems. Surface inspection cannot show
i. Excessive root reinforcement (or drop-through)
the lack of fusion at the root of the weld if the root is in-
j. Overlap accessible for visual inspection. Internal porosity cannot
k. Misalignment (high-low) be seen from the surface, nor can internal cracks and
1. Arc strikes other internal defects. It is therefore necessary to allow
rn. Excessive spatter the inspector the privilege of requiring occasional inter-
Each of these defects is described in detail in nal examinations to maintain credibility with welders.
Section 21-5. The welding inspector must have certain qualifica-
tions. Under certain circumstances on some types of'work,
3. The weldment must also be checked by the in-
it is necessary that the welding inspector be qualified and
spector. The following are considered weldment
certified. The American Welding Society tests and certifies
defects.
welding inspectors (CW1).(6)The inspector must have
good eyesight corrected to 20-20 vision. The inspector
Warpage Warpage ofweldments can be a reason for reo
must also be given the necessary tools and instruments for
jection or repair work. If warpage is beyond the allowable
making inspections. This includes welding gauges, mea-
or acceptable limits, corrective action should be initiated.
suring instruments, temperature indicators, welding
This can include mechanical methods, such as the use of
shields, flashlights, notebooks for recording data, and a
clamps, strong backs, and presses, or thermal methods,
marking crayon, normally yellow or red, which can be used
such as the use of torches. Judgment of the inspector is
to mark those welds or weldments that must be repaired
important. If the inspector feels these remedial actions
or rejected. Finally,it is necessary that the welders cooper-
might damage the weldment, records of action taken
ate with the inspector, that weld slag be removed for ade-
must be made in the inspection notebook.
quate inspection, and that critical welds are never covered
Base Metal Defects The inspector must also be on over before they can be inspected. This type of coopera-
the lookout for these defects, which can appear as lam- tion will ensure that quality weldments are produced by
ination in edges of steel plates. They can also be scabs the team of welders, supervisor, and inspector. For more in-
Or seams in the base metal. Caution is particularly im- formation, see AWS "Guide for the Visual Inspection of
Portant when steel plate is stressed in the through or Z Welds.,,(7)See also theAWS book, Welding Inspection.(S)
direction.
Backing Welds These must be used whenever there is

a question about the quality of root fusion of groove
Welds and corner type f1l1etweld joints.
21 ..4 NONDESTRUCTIVE
TESTING
Nondestructive testing (NDT) is also known as nonde-
Nondestructive Examination structive examination or evaluation (NOE) and nonde-
Recommendations structive inspection (NDO. These techniques apply
The welding inspector should determine if nondestruc- physical principles for the detection of flaws or disconti-
tive testing symbols are on weldtnent drawings. If so, it is nuities in materials without impatring their usefulness.
important that the appropriate [otnrs be marked for· There are a number of examination methods or tech-
nondestmctive testing (NDT) and the inspector deter- . nlques. The growth of nondestructive testing has peen
min.e that such tests are made.These tests can involve the greatly accelerated by the need for higher quality and bet-
use of" ultrasonic inspection, magnetic particle inspec- ter reliability of manufactured products.
tion, radlographic Inspection, or dye-penetrant inspec- In the field of welding, four nondestructive t sts .
tion. Dye-penetrant inspection is sometimes used for are widely used: dye-penetrant testing and fluoresce:nt·
rOOt~pass .Inspection, especially 01+ high-quality pipe penetrant testing,ma~letic partiqe tC$ti,t)g•..tI1trasoni(: ..
\Veldmcl1ts. ' . testing, and hldiogmphictestitlg. Ea:c.h.orthesc t¢t.hntques·
Quality Control anqEval\JationofVVeld$"

. . ". _._ . ,,' ;
has specific advantages and limitations. A comparison of Stationary equipment usually consists of a tank in
the different techniques compared with visual testing is which the penetrant is applied by dipping, pouring, or
shown to provide guidance in selection of the different brushing. Other tanks provide drain, wash, and developer
tests. For more information see AWS "Guide for the Non- stations. The size of the tanks and individual stations is
destructive Inspection ofWelds.',(9) governed by the sizes and quantities of the parts to be ex'
amined, Specialized, high-volume units are available that
provide for parts examination at production rate speeds.
Penetrant Examination This equipment uses moving conveyors. The operator
Liquid-penetrant examination (PI) is a highly sensitive, places the parts on the conveyor, and they proceed unat-
nondestructive method for detecting minute discontinu- tended throughout the entire processing operation. At
ities (flaws) such as cracks, pores, and porosity, which are the end, an inspector examines the parts and interprets
open to the surface of the material being inspected. This the indications.
method may be applied to many materials, such as ferrous Applications In the field of welding, liquid-penetrant
and nonferrous metals, glass, and plastics. Although there examination is used to detect surface defects in alu-
are several types of penetrants and developers, they aU minum, magnesium, and stainless steel weldments when
employ common fundamental principles, as shown in the magnetic particle examination method cannot be
Figure 21-19. used. It is very useful for locating leaks in all types of
One of the most important aspects of liquid- welds.Welds in pressure and storage vessels and in piping
penetrant examination is the preparation of the part be- for the petroleum industry are examined for surface
fore the penetrant is applied.The surface must be cleaned cracks and porosity using this method.
with a solvent to remove any dirt or film. Discontinuities
must be free from dirt, rust, grease, or paint, to enable the
penetrant to enter the surface opening. The solvent Fluorescent -Penetrant Examination
cleaner, used to remove the excess penetrant, is excellent The fluorescent-penetrant examination (PP1) technique
for precleaning the part surfaces. is almost identical with the dye-penetrant technique.
A liquid penetrant is applied to the surface of the There are two basic differences, however. The penetrant
part to be inspected.The penetrant remains on the surface is fluorescent, and when it is exposed to ultraviolet or
and seeps into any surface opening. The penetrant is
drawn into the surface opening by capillary action. The
parts may be in any position when tested. After sufficient
FIGURE21-20 Using penetrant on finished weld.
dwell time has elapsed, the surface is cleaned and excess
penetrant is removed. When the surface is dry, a pow-
dered, absorbent material or a powder suspended in a liq-
uid is applied.The result is a blotting action that draws the
penetrant from any surface opening.The penetrant is usu-
aUy a red color; therefore, the indicatlon shows up bril-
liantly against the white background of the developer. The
indication is larger than the actual defect. Thus even small
defects may be located.
Equiptnent Portable inspection kits are available for
visible dye penetrant. Some of the kits use pressurized
cans so that Itquids may be sprayed
spected.Theuse of pressurized
Figure 21-20.
on the parts to be in-
liquids is shown in
I
FIGURE21';"19 Principle of penetrant
examination.
.1
A. I,..IQUIQ Pf:NE'rRANT I}. EXCe:SSP£,NUR4HT C.O!,;VEl.OP[R DRAWS PENE-

, APPLIEP R[NOVEO TRANT FROM CRACK,
black light it shows as a glowing fluorescent type of read- A cold shut (lap), which is caused by imperfect fu-
Out. It provides a greater contrast than the visible dye sion, is smooth in outline and continuous. Penetrant indi-
penetrants. It is considered to have greater sensitivity. cations of gas holes appear round with definite color
For the use of the fluorescent-penetrant system, the contrast.
other extra piece of equipment required is the ultraviolet The most effective aid for identifying and recogniz-
or black light source. It is recommended that the inspec- ing defects is a collection of parts containing defects.
tion be done in a darkened area with the black light as the These can be compared to parts containing unknown in-
predominant source of light available. dications. Extreme care and judgment must be exercised
Kits similar to the dye-penetrant equipment are also in interpreting indications. Consult the specification in-
available for fluorescent-penetrant examination; how- volved for standards of acceptability and qualifications of
ever, it is probably more popularly used with liquid pen- operators.
etrants in tanks similar to that mentioned for dye
penetrant but with the fluorescent-penetrant material
and the black light for examination.
Magnetic Particle Examination
Examination is made using the ultraviolet or the Magnetic particle examination (MT) is a nondestructive
black light. Sound areas appear deep violet, while the de- method of detecting cracks, porosity, seams, inclusions,
fects will glow a brilliant yellowish green. The width and lack of fusion, and other discontinuities in ferromagnetic
brightness of the fluorescent indication depend on the materials. Surface discontinuities and shallow subsurface
size of the crack or defect. discontinuities can be detected by using this method.
There is no restriction as to the size and shape of the
Applications Probably one of the most useful applica- parts to be inspected; only ferromagnetic materials can
tions of fluorescent-penetrant examination is for leak de- be examined by this method.
tection in magnetic and nonmagnetic weldments. A This examination method consists of establishing a
fluorescent penetrant is applied to one side of the joint magnetic field in the test object, applying magnetic parti-
and a portable ultraviolet light (black light) is then used cles to the surface of the test object, and examining the
on the reverse side of the joint to examine the weld for surface for accumulations of the particles that are the in-
leaks. Fluorescent-penetrant examination is also widely dications of defects.
Used to inspect the root pass of highly critical pipe welds. Ferromagnetism is the property of some metals,
mainly iron and steel, to attract other pieces of iron and
Interpretation When visible dye penetrants are used, steel.A magnet will attract magnetic particles to its ends
defects are indicated by the presence of a red color against
or poles, as they are called. Magnetic lines of force 01' flux
the white background of the developer. A crack appears flow between the poles of a magnet. Magnets will attract
as a continuous line indication. The width and brightness magnetic materials only where the lines of force enter or
of the dye indication depend on the volume of the crack
leave the magnet at the poles.
Or defect. Figure 21-21 shows a typical indication.
If a magnet is bent and the two poles are joined so
as to form a closed ring, no external poles exist and hence
it will have no attraction for magnetic materials. This is
FIGURE21 ....21 . Penetrant indication, the basic principle of magnetic particle inspection. As
long as the part is free of cracks or other discontinuities,
magnetic particles will not be attracted. When a. crack is
present.north and south magnetic poles ate set up the at
edge of the crack.The magnetic particles will be anracted
to the poles at the edges of the crack or discontinuity
(Figure 21-22).
FIGURE21-22 Principle of magnetic particle

examination.
CRAC«
--- .-
..,...._
....... ..,.._
N .NORTH SOUTH S
. PO!,.E POL.E .
FIGURE21-23 Using magnetic particle examination. I
Electric currents are used to induce magnetic fields Stationary units. are widely used for examination of
in ferromagnetic materials. An electric current passing small manufactured parts. These units usually contain a
through a straight conductor creates a circular magnetic built-in tank with a pump that agitates the wet particle
field. For reliable examination, the magnetic lines of force bath and pumps the fluid through a hose for application to
should be at right angles to the defect to be detected. the test parts. These stationary units are usually provided
Hence, for a straight conductor with a circular field, any with an inspection hood; ultraviolet or black light can be
defect parallel to the conductor will be detected. used so that fluorescent particles can be used and viewed.
If the part is too large to run current through it, the
Applications TIle iron particles can be applied as dry
part can be circularly magnetized by using probe contacts
powder or suspended in a liquid. Magnetic particle exam-
(Figure 21-23). Direct current is the most desirable type
ination may be applied to all types of weldments. On mul-
of current for subsurface discontinuities. It is most com-
tipass welds, it is sometimes used to examine each pass
monly used for wet magnetic particle inspection. For dry
immediately after it has been deposited.An indication us-
particles, pulsating DC is used for both surface and sub-
ing the dry powder method is shown in Figure 21-24.
surface defects.Thls current causes the particles to pulse,
The majority of steel weldments in the aircraft in-
which gives them mobility and aids in the formation of in-
dustry are examined by the magnetic particle method. If
dicatlons. Alternating current tends to magnetize the
the weldments are thin enough, this method may provide
cracks of the metal-only, and hence it is used only for sur-
sufficient sensitivity to detect any subsurface defects.
face discontinuities such as fatigue or cracks caused by
Consult the specification involved for standards of ac-
grinding.
ceptability and qualifications of equipment and opera-
Ferromagnetic parts that have been magnetized re-
tors. Parts may have to be demagnetized after testing.
tain. a certain amount of residual magnetism. Certain parts
may require demagnetization if they are to function prop-
erlY-T.be..attraction of smaLl.ChiPSOJ; particles c.'auseOb~he Radiographic Examination
residual magnetism may cause excessive weal' and faUut~s Radiography is a nondestructive examinanon method that
With rotating Parts: such as bearings and bearing surfaces.
uses tnvtstble.x-ray; or gamma radiation to examine the in·
f..quipment The most necessary piece of equipment for terior of materials. Radiographic examination eRn gives a
n,~gnetic particle examtnatton is the speclallzed power permanent film record of de.f; cts that is relatively easy to
sour c. Small portabl units are available that supply AC interpret. Although. this is a slow and expensive method
whil op :rating from lIS-V AC power lines. These units of nondestructive examination, it is a positive method for
geuflrallr·use d1'Ypowder, but portable magnetic particle detecting porOSity!inclusions, cracks, and voids in the itIr
tllat
ttnits employ a presurized spray may also be used. terior of castings, welds, and other. structures.
f •
~X-RAY SOURCE
;11\1\\ .
/ / 1;11\\\\
\ \ \~ PENETRATING
RAYS
/1// \ \ \\
/1,/1 \\\
PE NE TRAMETER
/11 II \\\
SPECIMEN
FIGURE21-25 Principle of radiographic examination.
FIGURE21-24 Magnetic powder indication.
X-rays generated by electron bombardment of tung-

sten and gamma rays emitted by radioactive elements ate
penetrnting radiation whose intensity is modified by pas-
sage through a material. The amount of energy absorbed
by a material depends on its thickness and density. Thus a
thinner part will absorb less energy than a thick part, and
a heavy dense metal, such as steel, will absorb more en-
ergy than a light metal such as aluminum. Energy not ab-
sorbed by the material will cause exposure of the
radiographic film. These areas will be dark when the film
is developed. Areas of the film exposed to less energy re-
tUain lighter. Therefore, areas of the material. where the FIGURE21-26 Setting up to take radiograph.
thickness has been changed by discontinuities, such as
porosity or cracks, will appear as dark outlines on the
fllrn.lnclusions of low density, such as slag, will appear as x-ray tube, the apparatus consists of a htgh-volrage gener-
dark areas on the film, while inclusions of high density, ator with necessary controls.Xrays are produced when a
sUch as tungsten, will appear as light 'areas. AU disconti- high-speed stream of electrons collides with a piece of
nttities are detected by viewing shape and variations in tungsten.The electrons are produced in the x-ray tube by
the density of the proces ed film. a hot cathode. TIley sre accelerated toward the anode by
TIle ~-ray or.gamma-ray source and penetrarneeer are means of an.electron gun in the vacuum of the x-ray tube.
- placed above the piece to be radiographed and the film is The anode is a pieceo{tungstcl1,·and w!tenthe electrons
placed on the opposite side of the part (Figure 21 ...25). hit it, the x-rays produced are directed through a window
. Figure 21-26 shows an oil-cool d and sbjelded head,
to the part being inspected. ". < .
Which encloses the x-ray tube, being positioned to make a Gamma rays arc produced by radioactive de ay of
l"'<\diogrt\phof a weld test plate. certain 'radioisotopes,TIle radioisotopes :normally used are .
nqUipme:nt X.rays are produced by electrons-httting. a cobalt.;.60,iridiull),-192)· tuulium*'170, al1d, CeSi\lm,:,,137~ .
tungsteQ. target Inslde ali x-ray tube. In addition to 'the 1hese isotopes areColltaln.eo. inc a.le-a.dor spent unutiu.tt1 '~"
vault or capsule to provide safe handling. They have a rel-
atively short half-life and the strength of the radiation de-
creases with time.
Isotopes must be handled in such a way that radi-
ographic sources can be positioned and yet produce min-
imum radiation hazards to operating personnel. Remote
handling equipment is employed when the radioactive
source is drawn from the shielded container to the mate-
rial to be radiographed. In the United States a license
from the U.S. Department of Energy is required for use of
radioisotopes.
The radiation intensity or output from an x-ray ma-
chine or from radioisotope sources will vary. Common
materials such as concrete and steel are used to house the
x-ray machine and protect the operator from exposure.
The thickness of the shielding enclosure walls should be FIGURE 21....27 Examination of a radiograph.
sufficient to reduce exposure in all occupied areas to a
minimum value. If the work is too large or too heavy to
be brought into the shielded room, special precautions Consult the specification involved for standards of ac-
such as lead-lined booths and portable screens are used ceptability and qualifications of equipment and operators.
to protect personnel. In the field, radiography protection
is usually obtained from distance alone, since radiation in-
tensity decreases as distance increases. Ultrasonic Examination
Penetrameters are used to determine the sensitiv- Ultrasonic examination (UT) is a nondestructive exami-
ity of the radiograph. They are made of the same mate- nation method that employs mechanical vibrations simi-
rial that is being inspected and are usually 2% of the lar to sound waves but of a higher frequency. A beam of
thickness of the part being tested. Therefore, if the pen- ultrasonic energy is directed into the specimen to be ex-
etrameter can be seen clearly on the radiograph, any amined. This beam travels through a material with only a
change in thickness of the part (2% or more) will be small loss, except when it is intercepted and reflected by
seen clearly, a discontinuity or by a change in material.
Radiographic film consists of a transparent plastic Ultrasonic examination is capable of finding surface
sheet coated with a photographic emulsion. When x-rays and subsurface discontinuities. The ultrasonic contact
strike the emulsion, an image Is produced, The Image is pulse reflection technique is used. This system uses a
made visible and permanent by a film-processing opera- transducer, which changes electrical energy into mechan-
tion. Most processing equipment consists of tanks that ical energy. The transducer is excited by a high-frequency
contain a developer, a fixer; and rinse solutions. Pilm- voltage that causes a crystal to vibrate mechanically. The
processing operations are just as critical as the film ex- crystal probe becomes the source of ultrasonic mechani-
posU1'e. Unsatisfactory radiographs can sometimes be at- cal vibrations. These vibrations are transmitted into the
tributed to errors in the processing technique or from test piece through a coupling fluid, usually a rum of oil,
mishandling of materials. called a couplant. When the pulse of ultrasonic waves
strikes a discontinuity in the test piece,it is reflected back
Applications Radiography is one of the most popular
nondestructive examination methods for locating sub-
surface defects, It is used for examination of weldments
in all types of materials, including stcel.alumlnurn, and
magnesium. Radiography j~ used in the pipeline industry
to its point of origin. Thus the energy returns to the trans-
ducer. The transducer now serves as a receiver for the
reflected energy, The Inittal signal or main bang, the re-
turned echoes from the discontinuities, and the echo of
I
the rear surface of the test material are all displayed by a
toensure proper weld quality;
....._ trace on the screen of a cathode-ray osclllo cope. Vi leo-
Interpretation MostIndlcations will show up as da\k tapes may be used for permanent records,
regions_agaInst the light background of the sound weld. .The basic principles of ultrasonic examination are
Radiographs should be examined With a fUm illuminator shown in.Flgure 21-28.Tbe transducer is sending out a
pl'oV:id,lnga strong light source. Figure 21-27 shows a ra- beam of ultrasonic energySome of the energy is reflected
diograph being xamined, by the internal flaw, and the remainder is reflected by the
It lse s nnal that qualified p rsonnel condu t x-ray back surface of the spe Imen. Figure 21-29 shows the
il'J.tetpretationssince false Interpretation of radiographs equipment in use.
c~uses a loss attune and money; Radiographs for reference Plgure 21- 30 Shows a _typical display as presented
ar:extr~m -iy helpful in ecurtng correcrlnterpreranons. ~n the oscilloscope. Screen. Signal strength is indicated by
REFLECTION FROM
F~=r=r=:;=:;==r=~~-
TRANSDUCER
OIL
COUPL,ANT
MAIN
BANG I
INTERNAL FLAW
REAR
....SURFACE
ECHO
SPECIMEN
FIGURE21-30 Oscillograph display.
FIGURE21-28 Principle of ultrasonic examination.

TRANSMITTED BEAM
RETURN ECHO - - - _,..
OIL
~~~~~r-~~~==~ ~PUNT
INTERNAL DEFECT
FIGURE21-31 45° use of ultrasonic inspection.
For examining irregularly shaped parts, the immer-

sion testing method is often used. With this method, the
part and the transducer are submerged in water. The
water transmits and couples the ultrasonic beam and
the part. Actual contact is not required, thus irregular sur-
faces can be scanned.
The application of ultrasonic examination to weld-
FIGURE21-29 Making an ultrasonic examination of a 0
ments is shown in Figure 21- 31. A 4'5 angled beam trans-
Weld. Courtesy of Welding Inspection Techology, American ducer is used to inspect the weld area. This search unit
Welding Society. directs the beam toward the weld from a position on one
side of the weld.
a vertical deflection of the pip on the screen, and trans- Butt joint welds in plate are usually examined with
mitted time is indicated by horizontal deflection. By the angled search unit.The reflection obtained by the use
measuring the height of th pip, the size of the flaw can of the 450 head is similar to Figure 21-3Q.The joint welds
be determined. The depth of the flaw from the surface. is of heavy plate are examined with a straight beam trans-
found by use of horizontal base.The front reflection and ducer through the top of the joint, or with. an angled
the rear reflection are at the extreme ends of the screen. beam transducer from one side of the bottom. Fillet welds
The echo from the flaw is between the two. are more difficult to examine.
To determine the size and depth of flaws, calibra- Bqulpment Equipment required for this process on-
tion techniques and reference standards must be used. sists of a transducer, pulse rate generator,amplifier" timet.
A. Set of test blanks that have holes of known diameter and cathode ray osctlloscope, :These, devices ate el~c-
and depth is used tocalibrate the tesr tnstrument.The ref-
tronic, qulte small in "size for portabiliry; yet rugged, In-
erence· standard is described in detail by the AWS struc-
stant cameras are available to pho~ogdtPl1 oscllloscope.
tural code, '
displays for permanent records.Tapes can also he used,
Testing can be done with one transducer that serves
both as a. transmitter and receiver, or 'With two transduc- AppUcatioQS . Ultrasonic examinatton' an be used to
:rs, one transmitting only, and the other recerving only. test practically any .metal or material. Its: use is resttlctett
rIte Single transducer is used for portable equipment. only by complex weldtnents.The process is tncreasirig ~ ..,
popularity and widely used. Consult the specification in- lated effect render a part or product unable to meet min-
volved for standards of acceptability and qualifications of imum applicable acceptance standards or specifications.
equipment and operators. This term designates rejectability. A defective weld then
becomes a weld containing one or more defects. For our
Leak Testing purposes, we will consider defects as anything undesir-
able in a weld. It mayor may not be cause for rejection or
Leak testing (1T) can be accomplished in many different cause for repair. This is normally a matter left up to the
ways. It can be used only when the weldrnenr can be speciflcations or codes involved. It is important that we
made to contain a gas or liquid. The most common leak learn to recognize the different types of weld defects and
test is the soap bubble test, which can be applied to ex- learn enough about them so that we can recognize them,
ternal joints if internal gas pressure is present. Another is repair them, and avoid them.
the use of internal liquids and the maintaining of high Upcoming figures will show photographs and draw-
pressure over an extended period. The same test can use ings of the possible different welding defects that can oc-
a vacuum. Halogen gases with sensitive detection meters cur. It is an effort to present, in an organized manner, the
are used to inspect production parts. various defects that can occur, the description of the par-
Do not use toxic or flammable gases or air for in- ticular defector problem, and an indication of how or what
ternal pressure testing. The internal pressure will store caused the problem and the action that should be taken to
energy and if the part should fail it could cause an explo- correct the specific problem. The presentation may not de-
sion that might cause bodily harm. Use internal liquids in- scribe all possible weld defects. There are others, and some
stead, or test inside a safety chamber. of the defects described may occur on different types of
welds, but they would generally resemble those presented.
Proof Testing In this collection, an effort is made to indicate the
responsibility for each of the defects. This breakdown is
Proof testing cPRT) is controversial. In the past, proof test-
broad, but will indicate whether it is the fault of the
ing was used on vessels and mechanical components. It
welder-that is,a problem of welding technique; the fault
consisted of loading the part 50% or 100% greater than
of the designer-that is, a drawing or design error; or a
the designed load. The logic was that if the part passed
fault of some manufacturing or shop function, such as ma-
this test and if it was never loaded above its designed
terials preparation. In the figures these are designated as
load, it would never fail in service. However, concern per-
sists that proof testing could cause internal damage that
might reduce service life. Also, proof testing cannot pro-
vide assurance if the part is subjected to corrosion, fa-
a welder responsibility, designer responstbility; or a shop
responsibility .
An indication of how the particular defect was de-
I
tected will also be given. This is based on the inspection
tigue, or low-temperature impacts. Consider proof testing
techniques used to find the defect. The five most popular
only in light of these concerns. Its use is declining.
nondestructive examination techniques are as follows:
• VT Visual examination
Guide to NDT Techniques
• MT Magnetic particle examination
Table 21.-1 is a guide to welding quality control compar-
ing the different nondestructive examination techniques. ·PT Dye-penetrant examination (including
fluorescent)
This table shows the equipment required, the defects that
can be detected, the advantages and disadvantages of • RT Radiographic examination
each technique, and other factors. • ur Ultrasonic examination
The corrective action for the particular defect is
briefly mentioned. Corrective action means the way to
21 ..5 CORRECTIVE ACTIONS correct the specifi defect to make the weldment suit-
able for service. Efforts will also be made to provide an ex-
FOR WELD DEFECTS
-
TIle problem of weld defects has become complex.par-
tially because of the great number of different words arid
planation to prevent a recurrence of th same type of
defect. This may be covered in the general information
concerning the different classifications of defects.
'
1
..
. The defects are arranged according to tbe cla sill-
dt::flrutions being'\lS d. For example, a' welding flaw is a
syhonym for discontinuity, which is the preferred term, canon of weld defect system established by Commission
V of the International Institute of Welding. Their docu-
,A. discontinuity is an interruption of th typical struc-
. ture of a material, such as a lack of homogeneity in its me- ment nS/l1W-340-69 and Commission V Document'""
classify the defects into six groups:
chan! a!jtlletallurgical. or physical characteristics. A
(Uscontlmuty is)lotnecessarily a defect. A defect is a dis- • Series 100, .Cracks.' inc1~lding 10ng~tudjnal, trans-
. contInuity o~'discP.nth1,l{(,itiesthat by nature or accumu- verse; radiation, crater
TABLE21-1 GUIDE TO WELD QUALITY CONTHOl TECHNIQUES
Defects Detected Advantages Disadvantages Other Oonslderations

Visual: VT Pocket magnifier, Weld preparation, fitup, Easy to use; fast; For surface conditions Most universally used
welding viewer, cleanliness, roughness, inexpensive; usable only; dependent on examination method
flashlight, weld gauge, spatter, undercuts, at aII stages of subjective opinion
scale overlaps, weld contour production inspector
and size; welding
procedures
Dye penetrant or Fluorescent or visible Defects open to the Detects very small. tight, Time consuming in the Often used on root pass
fluorescent: OPT, FPT penetrating liquids surface only: good for surface imperfections, various steps of tile of highly critical gas
and developers; leak detection easy to apply and to process; normally no welds if material
ultraviolet light for the Interpret; inexpensive; permanent record improperly cleaned;
fl uorescent type use on magnetic or some indications may
nonmagnetic materials be misleading
Magnetic particle: MT Iron particles; wet or dry, Surface and near-surface Indicates discontinuities Used on magnetic Examination should be
or fluorescent: special discontinuities, cracks, not visible to naked materialsonly: surface from two
power source; etc.. porosity, slag eye; useful in checking roughness may distort perpendicular
ultraviolet light for th edges prior to welding, magnetic field; directions to catch
:fluorescent type also, repairs; no size normally no permanent dtscontlnuittes that
restriction record may be parallelto one
set of magnetic lines
of force .
MQstfnternal Provides permanent Usually not su Itable for Most popular technique
discontinuities and record: indicates botn' fillet weld inspection; for Subsurfac.e
flaws; limited by surface and internal film exposure and inspection; required
directl9n of fll3wSi applicable on process~ng critlcar, by some codes and
discontlnwJty all materials "'-. slow and e)(pensive specifications
. Ex.tremely sen$iti.ve; use . oerrlends highly Requ41'ed. by some codes

J6strictedotlly by develo'P~d and speciftGatjon~
complex weldmentsj . Interpretator Skll{
can be used on all
materials .
• Series 200, Cavities: including gas pockets, inter-
nal porosity, surface porosity, shrinkage
• Series 300, Solid inclusions: including slag, flux,
metal oxides, foreign material
• Series 400, Incomplete fusion or penetration:
including incomplete fusion, incomplete penetration
• Series 500, Imperfect shape or unacceptable con-
tour: including undercut, excessive reinforce-
ment, underfill, fiUet shape, overlap
• Series 600, Miscellaneous defects not included
above: including arc strikes, excessive spatter,
rough surface
This International Institute of Welding document

catalogs all welding defects and provides index numbers
of three digits for groups and four digits for specific types
of defects within the groups. It also cross-indexes with CRATER CRACKS
the International Institute of Welding Radiographic Ref- FIGURE 21-32 Types of surface cracks of welds.
erence Radiographies.
The examples of defects presented here are shown
to illustrate the problems, and no reference is made to
what is acceptable or allowable. To determine the ac-
ceptability limits of these different defects you must refer
to the specification or code that is involved. Certain de-
fects of a minor nature may be acceptable under specific ~----~---
conditions in some codes, whereas they may be unac- TOE CRACKS
ceptable in other codes. In general, defects that can prop-

agate under stress are not acceptable in any code; for
example, cracks are not allowed in any of the major codes
hut porosity of a specific magnitude and spacing may be
acceptable.
Other problem areas that may be encountered in
FIGURE 21-33 Weld toe cracks and underbead
welding are not specifically included here. These would
cracks.
include such factors as distortion and warping, brittle
heat-affected zones, brittle weld metal, arc blow, and so
on.These topics are covered elsewhere in the book.
metal that normally corne to the surface.The subsurface or
Internal cracks are also of many types. Some may be in cite
Series 100: Cracks weld, and some in the heat-affected zone-sometimes
Cracks are the first category of weld defects.A crach is a called underbead cracks (Pigure 21-33). Some may be at
fracture-type discontinuity characterized by a sharp tip the interface between weld metal and base metal, some-
and high ratio of length and width to opening displace- times called lamanar tearing, which is completely in the
ment. Cracks are perhaps the most serious of the defects base metal. There can also be microsize cracks as well as
that occur in the welds or weld joints in weldments, Cracks macrosize cracks. Sometimes the smaller cracks are called
can be found in other metal products such as forgings, cast- fissures, or if the cracks are extremely small they are called
lngs.and even hotrolled teel products. Cracks are consid- microftssures, which require special techniques to find.
ered dangerous because they create a serious f. --.,_eduction in Another way of classifytng cracks is based on tem-
strength. They can propagate and cause sudden failure. perature. Hot cracks occur during or immediately after
TIley are most serious when impact loading and\ cold- the weld is made or during the cooling cycle. Cold cracks
temperature service are involved. Cracks must be repaired. occur .sometime after the weld is finished, after it has
There are many different types of cracks, One way of cooled to room temperature. Cold cracks may be delayed
categorizing ttl rn is as surface or subsurface cracks. Sur- hours or even days after the w Id is flntshed. Fatigue-type
face racks can be seen on the surface of the weld using cracks may occur months or years after fabrication as a re-
..thevtsualtesnng technique.There are several types of sur- sult of an initiating point and fatigue loading. There are
face .crackS-tmnsverse, longitudinal, and-crater cracks also stressccrrosion cracks that are cau: ed by a corrosive.
(J.i1igtTre.;;n -32).1'her~arealso toe cracks in adjacent patent atmosphere and a high stress condition.
Weld Defect Class - Cracks c~
Appearance or Cross Section or Radiograph
Class No. 100 II i= :.6
a: 'iIi
Probable Ceuse Corrective Action
VT X design General
Longitudinal 1. Incorrect electrode. 1. Use proper or matched
X
Creck MT X electrode.
2. High restraint of joint. 2. Reduce rigidity of weld·
welder
PT X ment or change walding
X sequence. Use higher
ductility welding filter
RT X
A shop metal.
3. Rapid cooling of weld. 3. Use preheat and/or inner
UT X
passheat to reduce
cooling rate.
VT design
4. Improper joint pre- 4. Use proper joint for
Longitudinal
X paration. welding process.
Creck MT X 5. Change center line of
weldor weld to avoid interface
PT 5. Fillet weld longitud· between parts.
X inal crack.
RT X
shop
UT X
VT X design Crater Crack

Crater
Crack 1. Unfilled crater. 1. Filler crater with
MT X proper technique.
welder 2. Crater creck in sub- 2. Utilize run-eut-teb,
PT X merged erc welding.
X
RT X
shop
UT X
VT X design TransvBr$6Crack
Transverse
Crack 1. 'ncorrect electrode. 1. Use proper electrode.
MT X
2. Rapid COOling. 2. Use larger electrode.
welder higher welding current
PT X 3. Welds too small for
X size of parts joined. or preheat.
3. Use larger weld possibly
RT X
shop larger welding electrode.
UT X X
FIGURE 21-34 Collection of weld defects: cracks.
In general, cracks in welds or cracks adjacent to Internal detecting techniques. Gas pockets can occur as
Welds indicate that the weld metal or the base metal has extremely large holes ill the weld metal 01' extremely
low ductility and that there is high restraint. Any factor small holes scattered throughout the cross section of a
that contributes to low ductility of the weld and adjacent weld. Some types of porosity are called worm boles when
metal and high restraint will contribute to cracking. Some they are long and continuous, Others are called piping,
of these factors are rapid cooling, high-alloy composition, usually long in length and parallel to the toot of the w ' ld.
h1s0fficient heat input, poor joint preparation, and incor- Some types may occur exclusively at the root and others
teet electrode type.The examples shown ill Figure 21-34 almost at the surface. Porosity is not as serious a def ct as
Will help further explain the different types of weld cracks primarily because porosity cavities usually have
cracks, the probable cause, and corrective action. rounded ends and will not propagate like cracks, Many
codes and specifications provide comparison harts
showing the amount of porosity that may beacceptabl .
Series 200: Cavities Figure 21-35 shows an example of comparison charts
Cavities are the second category of defects. The most used ·by the API '1104 code. The AWS strucmrsl weld.lng
common type of cavity is called-porosity, defined as cav- code has taken a sUghtly different point of view and has
ity type dtscontinulues formed by gas entrapment during a 8110mg scale (Figure 21- 3'6) .nus takes tmoaceoust si~e
SOlidification. Specifi defects can be called gas pockets, and spacing of the porosity and relates to the .stze of th
Which are cavities caused by entrapped gas. These are weld. For more tnforrnation refer to these codes.
SOmetimes called blow holes. Porosity can also be divided 'Iher are other types of ca lties. Some at alled
huo two types.surface porosity. which can be seen by the sh1'inkage votds, which are d.efilled a a caVity disCOllti~
naked eyc@d detected by visual inspection technique, nuitynol'mally fonne,l by shrinkag dutin~ solidlijaatlo.ll. .
and subsurface porOSity, wl1iCll can be foundo.nly by the CavitieS', voids, and 'Pot9Sityare ca'llsed:py gases. {qat are-!" .
• .
1·ASSORTED
... . . .
4·FINE
1\· • •
.
.. ,'1 I .
I
S·ALlGNED (3 OR MORE)
2·LARGE
• • • I· • •• 4T
I' • •
•
• • •
I • • • • • ---2T-- ••
3·MEDIUM
I· . I
WALL THICKNESS 1/2" OR LESS
MAXIMUM OISTRIBUTION OF GAS POCKETS
FIGURE 21-35 Porosity chart for pipe welds.
I. TO DETERMINE THE MAXIMUM SIZE OF DEFECT

PERMITTED IN ANY JOINT OR WELD THROAT THICKNESS:
1.1/4 PROJECT (A) HORIZONTALLY TO (B)
II. TO DETERMINE THE MINIMUM CLEARANCE
ALLOWED BETWEEN EDGES OF DEFECTS EI c;,
1 OF ANY SIZE: I!>I' C'{'.~
PROJECT (B) VERTICALLY TO (C)
________________ '1 60 ~f~ C-c;c;,/\~
3/4 of 0
O~
~\,EI ~~c;,\
'O/O\~ I
1/2
I
I
1/4 I
I
I
o 4·1/2
C-MINIMUM CLEARANCE MEASURED ALONG THE LONGITUDINAL AXIS OF THE WELD

BETWEEN EDGES OF POROSITY OR FUSION·TYPE DEFE:CTS-INCHES
(LARGER OF ADJACENT DEFECTS GOVERNS)
FIGURE 21-36 AWS structure code weld quality requirements.
present in the arc area, or may be present in base metal, feet and would include any foreign material entrapped in
that are trapped in the molten weld during the solidifica- the deposited weld metal. The most common type of
tion process. Common causes for porosity are high sulfur solid inclusion is a slag inclusion, defined as nonmetallic
in the base metal, hydrocarbons such as paint on the sur- solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld
face of the metal, water, oil, moisture from damp elec- metal and base metal. Another very similar type of
trodes, wet submerged arc flux, or wet shielding gas.When inclusion is a flux inclusion, which is an entrapment of
the porosity exceeds that acceptable by the code, it must flux from an electrode, from submerged arc flux, or from
beremoved and repair welds made. In general, surface another source of flux that for one reason or another did
porosity is an indlcatton that subsurface porosity may have not float out of the weld metal as it soHdifi:ed. Slag mcto-
been i1.1 the-weld before it became noticeable as surface sions and flux inclusions can be continuous, intermittent,
~
poros.ity.In these cases extra Inspectton should be Qone to or very randomly spaced. In general, flux or slag inclu-
qeterm_ine .the. extent of tne subsurface porosity. The fol· sions are rounded and do not possess sharpcorners like
loWing examples of cavities will help. further explain this. cracks and fat this reason are not quite as serious as
type ofwekl de~ ct.These are shown in Pigut 21-37. Cracks. The applicable -cod or specification, Indtcares
how much entrapped slag or flux is acceptable.
On certain. metals, particularly those that have high-
Series 300: Inclusions temperature oxide coatings, there is the possibility of ox,
~,. SoUd.-in:cl1;l$ion~ are the f1ex~t:yp,e of defect, Solid Inclu- tdeinclustons in the weld metal, This is a troublesome
. > Sio.n~ilre. normally peered to be a subsurface type of de- problem 'When welding aluminum. Aluminum oxide will
Weld Defect Class- Cavities
Class No. 200
~i
~j
~
i~
a::'u;
Probable Cause Corrective Action
gene!!!!. Surface Porosity

VT X design
1. Welding over foreign 1. Clean weld bevels and
MT material on surface area adjacent to weld
such as rust, oil, and keep clean.
welder moisture, paint, etc.
PT 2. Use fresh dry electrodes
X 2. Damp electrodes. or rebake electrodes
RT that have been exposed
shop 3. Improper base metals to dampness.
such as free machining 3. Utilize correct base metal
UT X or high sulphur. possibility to use low
4. Welding current too hydrogan type electrodes.
VT X design low. 4. Increase welding current .
MT .Gas Shielded Welding Proce~,!!
1. Incorrect shielding 1. Use specified shielding
welder
PT gastype. gas.
X 2. Incomplete gascoverage 2. Provide windshields,
due to breeze, defect- check efficiency of gas
RT
shop iva gassystem, clogged system such as broken
nozzle, etc. hoses, gasvalves, empty
UT X tanks, clean nozzle.
3. Moisture in the shield- 3. Check to make sure gas
VT X deSign Ing system. Is dry or welding grade.
Check for water leeks
MT X in water cooled systems.
welder 4. Poor gascoverage. 4. Use proper nozzle to
PT X work dlatance, Check g s
X flow rate, may be too
AT X high or too low.
shop 5. Welding over tack 5. Utilize gas. metal arc for
UT X weld made with tack welding.
X Shielded metal arc
VT X deSign prOceiss.
Submorg$d Arc Welding

MT
1. Camp submerged arC 1. Utilize fresh dry flux or
welder flux. dry dllmp flux,
PT 2. Clean surface of
X
2. Contaminated surface
of electrode wire, dirt electrode wire.
RT X shop end/or moisture.
3. Too many fines in 3. Use fresh flux and
UT X X flux. discard fines.
FIGURE 21-37 Collection of weld defects: cavities.
form rapidly in the atmosphere and can be entrapped in fusion, defined as a weld discontinuity in which fusion
the weld metal easily if cleaning and other precautions did 110toccur between weld metal and fusion faces on ad-
are not taken. Oxide inclusions are detected by the inter- joining weld beads. It is shown in Figure ~1-39-
nal inspection techniques. Other metallic inclusions such This can be inadequate joint penetration, defined
as tungsten inclusions can only be found by internal in- as joint penetration which is less than specified. The
Spection techniques, particularly radiographic testing. word penetration. is not preferred; the term should be
OXide inclusions or tungsten inclusions are not accept- joint penetration, defined as the distance the weld metal
able for high-quality work.When copper backing bars are extends from Its face into a joint, exclusive of weld rein-
llsed, local melting may OCCU1' and copper can be en- forcement, or root penetrarion, Root penetration is de-
trapped in the weld metal. This can be detected from the flned as the distance the weld metal extends itlto the
Underside surface of a weld or by internal detection tech- joint 1'00t and is shown in Figure 21-40. These illustra-
niques.All such inclusions are defects that must be evalu- tions help show the dJfference between complete and
ated in accordance with the code or specification in incomplete fusion and complete joint versus partial jotnt
qUeStion or with respect to good practice. The examples penetration and root penetration. Incomplete fusion as a
Shown in. Figure 21-38 will help further explain these defect means tliat the weld deposited did not completely
types of defects. fill the joint preparation or there is.space inbetween the
. beads or passes or a space at tl1etqot of the joii1t. Pene-
tration is a slightly diffe:r.e,ot term. The term jO#lt pene-
Series 400: Incomplete Fusion tration is the mmtmum depth of the joint; the groove or'
Incomplete fusion or penetration is the next defect cate- flange weld extends from its face mto the.root, exdu$ive
gOrY.This is sometimes called lack of fusion or lack o(pen- of reinforcement.The termp()1'lett~rton meansthe depth
eh'ation; however, the. ptefei'red term is tncomplete- that tbegroove weJd extends into, theroot"ofa~oiri~" -- )" <
Weld Defect Class - Solid Inclusions
::N
o 1Il
C:~
0._
Class No. 300
:t"'"OJ
0
¥J£
a: en
VT design General
1. Slag inclusion-between t. Remove solidified slag
MT passes. after each pass.
welder 2. Intermittent slag inclu- 2. Remove slag at bead
PT sion at edge of bead edge. Utilize proper
X (wagon tracks). technique to avoid high
RT X crowned bead contour.
shop 3. Irregular surface of 3. Provide for smooth bevel
X bevels. surface, grind if
UT
necessary.
4. Incorrect welding 4. Utilize correct welding
VT design
technique or wrong technique for electrode
current or Voltage. type and joint design.
MT 5. Submerged arc welding 5. I rnproper direction of
welder -flux inclusion. electrode wire. Welding
PT current too low. Elect·
X rode wire misdirected
RT X possible correction use
shop
wire straightener.
UT )( Improper joint detail.
VT design
MT
welder
PT
X
AT X
shop
UT X X
FIGURE21-38 Collection of weld defects: solid inclusions.
ROOT JOINT
JOINT
PENETAATION
[~J[~~ INCOMPLETE ROOT

INCOMPLETE INCOMPLETE PENETRATION JOINT PENETRATION
FUSION FUSION FUSION
AI-I.. ORIGINAL
JOINT SURFACeS,
PASSESAND
L.AVERS HAVE NOT c_~ ROOT
BEEN FUSED PENeTRATION
FIGURE21....39 Incomplete fusion.
JOINT PENETRATION
ROOT
measured on the centerline of the CrOSS section. These PENETRATION
terms arc often used in erchangeably but do have a dif· JOINT
ferent m anlng.The defect is the absence of complete fu- PENETRATION
sion of a [oint, nod this provides a stress riser, which is JOINt PENETRATION
"undes.ir'4bl~tor welds loaded in.fatigue or subject to Im- FIGURE 21-40 Root penetration and Joint penetration.
"pa'Ct~-br Iow-tem erature service. Figure 21-41 helps
Weld Defect Cless - Incomplete Fusion
Appearance or Cross Section or Radiograph Probable Cause Corrective Action
Class No. 400
VT X design General
X 1. Welding speed too fast. 1. Aeduce welding speed.
MT 2. Electrode too large for 2. Utilize correct size
welder joint detail. electrode.
PT X 3. Welding current too 3. Increase welding current
X low. for more penetration,
RT X 4. Improper joint design 4, Utilize correct joint
shop such as excessive root detail.
UT X face or minimum root
opening ..
VT X design 6. Improper joint fit-up 5. Make setup correct to
such as root opening agree with joint
X too small. design detail.
MT X
welder Shielded Metal Arc Welding
PT
X 1. Irregular travel speed. 1. High speed will reduce
complete fusion, lower
RT X speed will cause corn-
shop
plete fvsion.
UT X 2. Irregular arc length 2. Maintain proper arc
length.
VT X design
Gas Metal Arc Welding
X 1. Incomplete fusion- 1. Direct arc at leading edge
MT X
(cold shut) of puddle. Current too
welder low, voltage too low,
PT
X adjust for proper pro-
cedure. Pause too short
RT X at dwell when weaving.
shop
Increase pause to allow
UT X melting of base metal.
VT X design
MT Submerged Arc lautomatic

welder 1. Incomplete root fusion. 1. Failure to direct welding
PT electrode to root of
X weld joint.
RT X
,hop
UT X
FIGURE21-41 Collection of weld defects: incomplete fusion.
illUstrate different types of this defect. The cause of such

defects can be dirty surfaces such as heavy mill scale,
UNDERCUT'
heavy rust, or grease; failure to remove slag from prevt-
OUsbeads; the fact that the root opening may not be suf- OVE R LAP--_"""""'"
fiCiently large; or unsatisfactory welding technique. The OVERLAP

danger of the defect is the serious reduction in static
Strength and the production of a stress riser.
UNDERCUT
Series 500: Imperfect Shape

Imperfect shape, or unacceptable contour, is the next cat-
egory of defect. One of the most serious of these defects
is undercut (Figure 21-42), Undercut occurs not only on UNDERCUT
fillet Welds but on groove welds as well. Undercut also
FIGURE21-42 Undercut fillet and,groove and overlap.
PrOduces stress risers that create problems under Im-
paCt, fatigue, or Iow-temperature service: It is normally .
callsed by excessive currents, incorrect manipulatton of .
e1eCtrod I incorrect electrode angle, Or type of electrode. groove welds as well as fillet welds.Ther is also the prob-
Undercut actu ally refers more to the base rnets I adjacent lem of excessive retnforcem nt all the root of tIl welqJ
to the 'Weld, whereas imperfect shape is a defect of the primarily open root gr ave welds, lE""cC\!ssiV;· reinfo:r 'e·
:veld itself. This can Include such things as excessive re- ment is an .economic waste. It can, also be it .Stress riser .
ulforccment on the face of a weld, which can occur on .and is objectionable ftm.U at} appea:ram:,e point Qf v1'"«1; It
\ Quality Control and

is normally a factor involved with fitup, welder tech- Series 600: Miscellaneous Defects
nique, welding current, and type of electrode. A similar
flaw is the concave type contour or lack of fill on the Miscellaneous defects are the final category conSidered
face of the weld or a suck-back on the root of a groove and actual1y cover all defects that may not be categorized
weld. The proper term in both cases is underftll, de- in any of the other classifications given previously. One
fined as a depression on the weld face or root surface ex- type of defect in this classification is arc strikes, which
tending below the adjacent surface of the base metal are unacceptable in certain types of work. These are de-
(Figure 21-43). Underfill reduces the cross-sectional fects where the welder accidentally struck the electrode
area of the weld below the designed amount and there- on the base metal adjacent to the weld. This creates prob-
fore is a point of weakness and potentially a stress riser lems, particularly on hardenable steel and on critical
where failure may initiate. The fillet weld is particularly types of applications. It is not acceptable. For certain
vulnerable to the problem of imperfect shape. Figure types of work, protective wrappings are made around the
21-44 shows some different fillet weld contours , both part, especially pipe adjacent to the weld, to avoid stray
acceptable and unacceptable. Those that reduce the arc strikes. Excessive spatter adjacent to the weld is atso
throat of the fillet weld actually reduce the strength of a defect and is unacceptable. This may be caused by arc
the weld so that premature failure may occur. Examples blow,by the selection of the incorrect electrode or weld-
shown in Figure 21-45 help show the different types of ing current, or the technique of the welder. There are sev-
possible defects in this series. eral other types of miscellaneous defects, and those
defects that apply specifically to particular processes are
covered in the examples shown in Figure 21-46.
The explanations and illustrations of different
weld defects are based on opinions of various experts in
FIGURE21-43 Groove welds and various defects. the welding industry. Unfortunately, it is not universally
possible to indicate which are acceptable and which are
unacceptable. Some defects can be critical under certain
service conditions or on specific metals. The same de-
fect on less-demanding service on mild steel would be
SUCK SACK EXCESSIVE UNDERFILL
CONVEXITY acceptable. There is no common agreement as to what
is acceptable and unacceptable in different types of
service.
A discontinuity is any flaw, crack, or unwanted im-
perfection in the material or weld metal. Some disconti-
nuities are acceptable and some are not. Acceptable
discontinuities do not exceed the limits of the standard of
EXCESSIVE OVERLAP
UNDERCUT the welding code being used as an acceptance criterion.
FIGURE21-44 Contour of fillet welds.
C
OESIRABLE FILLET WELD PROFILES INSUFfiCIENT EXCESSIVE ExceSSIVE
THROAT CONVEXITY UNDERCUT
ACqEPTABLE FILLET WELD PROFILES oveRLAP iNSUFFICIENT INCOMPlETE

LEG FUSION
CONVEXITY "C" SHALL NOT
, .
exceac
0.25 OF SIZE UNAcCt:PTAaL~ FILI,.ET WJ:I.D PROFILES
. CHAP [£R21.
. -
Weld Defec1 Class - Imperfect Shape C:~
Class No. 600
~]
:t:.M
III
i~
:s
ex: 'Iii
0
VT X design Undercutting 1. Use uniform weave in

1. Faulty electrode groove welding pause at
MT X manipulation. edges.
2. Use prescribed welding
welder current for electrode size.
PT X 2. Welding current too
X high. 3. Use correct electrode
3. Incorrect electrode size for size weld being
RT X made.
shop size (usually too large).
4. Use correct electrode
UT X with position capabilities.
4. Incorrect electrode for
welding position. 5. Adjust electrode angle to
VT design fill undercut area.
5. Incorrect electrode
angle.
MT X
welder
PT
X
RT X
shop
UT X
VT X design Incorrect Profile

1. Root opening too wide.
1. Excessive root
MT X penetration.
2. Welding ourrent too high.
welder 2. Travel speed too slow. 3. a. Welding speed too slow.
PT X 3. Excessive crown or
X b. Welding voltage too
reinforcement.
high arc length too
RT X long, correct arc length.
shop
4. Incomplete root or 4. a. Voltage too high.
C UT X negative root reinforce· b. Travel speed too fast.
mont or "suck back" c. Root OPening too wide.
VT X design (internal concavity).
6. Improper fillet contour 6. Improper welding tech-
MT X u$I.Isllywide on horl- nique. Welding current
20ntal snd not too high. Reduce welding
welder cu rrent, Use smaller
PT X sufficient on vertical
X leg. electrode.
6. Incorrect electrode 6. Use proper electrode
AT X type.
shop type.
D UT X
FIGURE21-45 Collection of weld defects: incorrect shape.
A diSCOntinuity that exceeds the limits of the working quality of'weldments produced duringWorldWar II.Work-
Standard or code is called a defect and is unacceptable. It rnanship specimens were made for each of the weld joints
is therefore necessary to refer to the code or standard of an ordnance weldment. Cross-sectional samples were
that is being used. cut from the weld joint, pollshed, etched, and tack welded
to the specimento provide additional information. A weld
schedule 'Or procedure chart shows the welding joint de--
sign, welding conditions, em-rent, and voltage for each
21 ..6 WORKMANSHIP layer of the particular joint made. The schedules were fo}·
lowed in making the specific workmanship specimens.
SPECIMENS AND STANDARDS 'I'his technique provides a good tool for quality control.
A Workmanship specimen is an actual weld with each The information should be post d and made a ailable to
Weld bead showing for a short length. Such a specimen welders, welding supervisors, inspectors, engineers,' and
prOvides the welder with an example of what is expected others at the point where the welding is dOlle.Workm~it"
and also gives the welding supervisor and the inspector an ship specimens can.be made f6x: any weld joi.nt welded iri.
exanlple. Figure 21-47 shows a vertical up v-groove weld any position using any of the arc welding p ()Cesses.1'he
~ade of medium thickness plate.Tbe workmanship spec- principle is to show the joint f'itup d tail and e;fc!l bead OJ;'
l~e:tl, is a quality control tool and also an instruction de- Id asIt is made in producing the total weld.joint •.
Vl~e. The workmanship specim n concept originated Compl re parts are someumeaused Instead of
'WIth the U.S.~rmy Ordnance Department to ensure the welding drawtngs or blueprints in the l~anuf'Qet(lring ,.
J, ~
, ."
\
,-:
Quality 'Control and Evaluation of Welds ..
~ _; > .,~~ ,I,' • ~ . - " '_',
Weld Defect Class - Mlscellaneolls Defects
Appearance or Cross Section or Radiograph Probable Cause Corrective Action
Class No. 600
I-V_T+-X~design Poor Appearance 1. Use prescribed

1. Welding current too procedure.
high or too low. 2. Provide additional
2. Improper technique. welding training.
PT welder 3. Use fresh electrode or
X determine correct type
3. Faulty electrode.
RT X t----i to be used.
shop
4. Allow for additional
4. Irregular travel speed. practice and experience.
UT
VT X 1. Reduce arc blow-use

design 1. Arc blow-see welding alternating current.
MT
current. 2. Adjust for proper welding
2. Excessive welding cur- current for size elect·
welder for type and size rode used.
PT X electrode. 3. Hold proper arc length
3. Excessive long arc- and usa correct arc
RT high voltage. voltage.
shop
4. Improper electrode 4. Utilize proper electrode
UT type. type for location.
VT X design
MT
Poor Tie·ln 1. Use correct electrode
welder 1. I ncorrect electrode angle. Improve training.
PT
X angle. 2. Provide additional traln-
2. Improper technique ing and experience.
RT X t----f
shop for restriking arc.
UT
VT X design
MT
welder Whiskers 1. Use correct root opening.
PT X Use weaving motion and
1. Root opening too wide. direct arc on weld puddle.
RT X f----l
shop
UT X
FIGURE21-46 Collection of weld defects: miscellaneous.
department. These welded parts sometimes are posted Ification will refer to a particular weld schedule and
in the welding booth where that part is manufactured. workmanship specimen that has been qualified in accor-
For companies making relatively small parts on a pro- dance with the code. By this means, the welding crew will
duction basis, that is an excellent technique of inform- always make the weld joint in the same manner and will
ing the welder and others of exactly the type of welds use the procedure that is known to produce qualitY
expected 011 the finished weldment, Many times these welds. This assists in consistency of welding but also in
parts are painted with the welds highlighted in a differ- consistency of weld quality and further provides cost
enrcolor of paint to make them stand out. Welding control since the weld joint is alway made the same way.
schedule and weld size information can be posted adja- Figure 21-48 shows a typical welding specimen and the
cent to the weldment specimen. test bars produced from the specimen. The schedule for
The concept of workmanship specimens is used making this weld is shown in Figure 21-49.
extensively by major structural steel contracting com- Companies produ ing heavy weldments can also
panies. Many of these companies operate erection crews use workmanship specimens, but in these cases they may
in w.. idel-r se'par~.l.ted areas, yet expect to lia~ welds only show the different joints ill a small section. These
. made the same way py the different crews. The~ com- joints serve to show a proper way for making a particular
panies produce workmanship specimens and provide weld and-also provide the appearance expected for Jllak~
the welding schedules for producing these workman- ing these Welds. Companies that manufacture construC-
ship specimens. They go a step further and run qualifl- tion equipment often use vthese types of welding
cation tests On each of th different joints that are workmanship specimens.
normally employed. Other companies have used the same concept to
The tail o:f the arrow of t11 we1<;ling symbol will produce examples of welds that. are acceptable and una.c•
show a Bpedfic jOint detaU specification.This detail spec- ceptable, Odginally the construction equtprnentcompartf
The use of workmanship standards is another tech-
nique for maintaining weld quality and can be used as a
quality control tool. Workmanship standards are a list of
requirements that should be followed in producing qual-
ity weldments. A list of 20 requirements has been com-
piled and is shown in Figure 21-52.This list was made by
reviewing the major welding codes and specifications
and adopting those rules that repeat in the different
codes. In many cases, welding codes and specifications
are written in legal terms that may not be easily under-
stood by welders. In compiling these 20 requirements an
.effort has been made to use terminology welders will be
more likely to understand. It is suggested that companies
that do not use established codes adopt these 20 re-
quirements as their own company standard.The basis for
this standard is stated in the first sentence:Welders are re-
sponsible for their own work.
1. "Surfaces to be welded must be reasonably free from

scale, paint, grease, water, etc." This is qualified by \
the word reasonably to allow welders and inspec-
tors to exercise judgment. For example, mill scale 011
new steel just received is usually tight and it would
be needless to remove it; if the steel has excessive
mill scale or rust, it should be removed. The basis
here is to provide a good surface for welding. The
surface must be sufficiently clean of anything that
might contain hydrocarbons, which break down in
FIGURE21-47 Workmanship specimen: vertical up
the heat of the arc providing hydrogen and can be
SMAW.
absorbed in the weld and cause cracks.Welding over
paint is a special case and is discussed elsewhere.
produced good and questionable welds of different types 2. "If it is necessary to trim adjacent parts for proper
and posted the actual welds in the manufacturing depart- fitup, the designed bevel and root opening must
ment. However, they found sufficient variation in the dif- be maintained." Too often tolerances accumulate
ferent specimens to create confusion. To overcome this, when setting up a weldment, and these are ab-
they produced one set of acceptable welds and one set of sorbed in weld jotnts.Thts can eliminate root open-
unacceptable welds and then made plastic replicas of each ings so that incomplete penetration will result.
Weld from these molds. The plastic weld replicas were However, it can result in excessively large gaps that
POsted in the department and in this case each and every will require too much weld metal to make the joint
impression was identical. Figure 21- 50 shows the plastic ~U1d may also introduce undesired warpage,
replicas of acceptable and unacceptable welds. These Welders should be cautioned to review the re-
types of exhibitsar also very useful in the training of quirements of the weld joint and take orrective ac-
Welders. The Department of Defense has used a similar tion when required.
technique wnh the military specification, which. covers 3. Where the spacing between members _to be joined
the smoothness of flame-cut surfaces, (11) To actually por- by a'l-rype fillet welded joint is greater than 1/16 in.
tray the surface as expected and surfaces not acceptable, (1.6 rom), the size of the fillets should .be th size
they have made a plastic repl tea of the actual flame cut sur- sp crtted plus the amount: of the opening. This Is
.faces,Thjs is reproduced and is a part of a military specffl- shown in Figure 21-53. A weld ftllet stz ils speci-
Cation (Figure 21-51).Fot the purpose of welder training, fied can be made, and the inspection 'after the weld
Workmanship specimens have beenused and specimens i~made would illdJcltte that .tt ,isaeceptable. In view
have been developed that include typica] problem areas of the opening betw en th¢ paits. the' eflictive area
for training welders. Some of the problem areas are weld- of the fillets woulrlbe much less than designed.This
ing into and. out of corners, changing electrodes, and problem is relatively .Ontttlon, pal'ticulatiy when
Olaking fillet welds l outside corners. These welding fixrures are us' d to locate premachlned parts su h
1;)roblems can be put t gether into one workmanship as lugs and gussets. Premature fallure wtll.o .C1.ltJf
sPechnenand displayedio the welding department. '. .tb~se lugs are load,carrying p2lrts.~ .
FIGURE21-48 Workmanship specimen and test bars,
4. The preheat 01' interpass temperatures specified Some welders feel that they have sufficient skill to
must be adhered to. It may be that the preheat is burn through or melt out a cracked tack weld. This
only a surface heat instead of a through heat. If at all may be so, but the average welder normally does
possible, the temperature of the part should be not have this skill, and the crack is still in the final
checked on the side opposite that to which heat is weld where it can cause problems.
being applied. Specifications recommend a soak S. "Cracked welds or welds having surface irregulari-
heating, not merely a surface heating. ties must be repaired before welding continues,"
5. "The specified electrode or electrode matching the This is sometimes ignored with the feeling that the
base metalmust be used," On some weldments two, crack or the irregular weld metal can be covered up
three, or more types of electrodes may be em- with the next pass.This is poor practice because the
ployed. It is extremely important that the proper crack is still in the weld joint and may propagate
electrode be used where specified. The quality of and create problems later. The best policy is to re-
deposited weld metal from different shielded metal pair a weld at its earliest possible time of repair.
arc welding electrodes varieaand the properties 9. "Welds showing excessive surface porosity must be
may not be satisfactory for the service life. removed and few lded," Surface poroslty is usually
6, The written welding procedure provided must be an indication of subsurface porosity Porous welds
followed explicitly. However, in construction jobs should be removed and a determination made if
and in large manufacturing plants the Wr~en pro- subsurface porosity occurs. The cause of the poroS-
" cedures may not be available to the welders. The ity should be corrected before welding continues.
.C,OSt ofproducing written quallfled procedures is 10. All weld craters should be completely filled before
.expensive. It is prudent to provide the information depositing the next weld bead or pass. A crater is dle
to those who must follow it. depression at the end of the weld. If welding is to be
7. "Cracked Or defective tack welds must be removed immediately continued, after cha nging an electrode,
before the weld is made," Tack welds frequently the crater is fllled quickly with th next electrode
crack, Th y crack because they are small with reo when. the bead is continued. If the crater is at the et1d
specteo the loads that can be imposed on them. of a weld,at a change-of dfrection.or at a cornea it
CItIARTER 21
, c~
APPLICABLE THE ABC STRUCTURAL COMPANY
SPECIFICATIONS: SHEET NO.: PO·3

PROCEDURE SHEET
FOR
1) See Sheet No. PQ·l
___ QUALIFICATION OF WELDING PROCEDURE FILE NO.: PQ/GS
2) __
WELD PROCEDURE: GS·B SV2
3) __
PROCEDURE SHEET TITLE: -WELDING PROCEDURE-
Basemetal: ASTM A441 Welding gasshielded metal arc

Fit·up: as shown Process: CO2 gas;flux cored wire
Preheat: none Welding machine: seml-autcmatic
Post heat: none Welding position: flat
Dew point of CO2 gas: -40°F
(welding grade) 45°
j_
I"
T
Passsequence
O"TO I"
-ELECTRODE- POWER TRAVELSPEED
PASS NO. SIZE AMPS VOLTS GAS FLOW
SIDE TYPE STICKOUT SOURCE (I NS.lMINUTE)
1 3/32 FabCO 71 1- 1·1/4" DC+ 475 30 13

A 475 30 10
2AND3 3/32 FabCO 71 1-1·1/4" DC+
45-50
Turn plate over and back gouge to sound metal C.F.H.
8 3/4-1" DC+ 475 12
A 3/4-1" DC+ 475 13
ISSUED BY: WELDING ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
FIGURE21-49 Welding schedule for workmanship specimens.
!. FlllUhE.21-50 PI$stio replicas of acceptable and unacceptable welds,
I
1
.1
must be filled.This can be done by the welder by hes-
itating shortly before breaking the arc. Craters are
prone to produce cracks that might propagate.
11. "Each bead or pass of a multipass weld must be
cleaned before the next bead is made." This re-
quirement is for shielded metal arc welding. It ap-
plies also to submerged arc welding and flux-cored
arc welding. It is important to remove the slag since
it can be trapped in an undercut area and will re-
duce the strength of the joint. In the case of hori-
zontal multipass fillets, judgment can be exercised
and cleaning may not be required if, in the opinion
of the inspector, the welder has sufficient skill to
avoid entrapping the slag.
12. The specified size and length of welds as shown on
blueprints and drawings is the minimum accept-
able.Weld size tolerances should be -0 and + 1/16
in. (1.6 mm). Many drawings have standardized tol-
erances printed on the drawing form, stating that all
fractional dimensions must be + or - 1/16 in. or
similar. If there are many 3/16 in. fillets, this would
mean that ftllet welds could all be 1/8 in., which
would in effect greatly weaken them.
13. Weld reinforcement or crown should not exceed
1/16 in. (1.6 mm) for manual welds or 1/8 in. (3.~
rom) for automatic welds. The extra reinforcement
is not required and is thus an economic waste. Some
FIGURE 21-51 Plastic replicas of flame cut surfaces. welders may put extra reinforcement on a weld to
(From Reference 11.) camouflage internal flaws in a groove weld. Addi-
FIGURE 21.-52 Workmanship standards.
Every welder is responsible for welding done. The following workmanship standards must be followed to produce high-quality
welds. They may be employed as a company standard. (Specific codes or specifications take priority over these standards.)
1. Surfaces to be welded must be reasonably free from scale, paint, grease, water, etc.
2. If it is necessary to trim adjacent parts for proper fitup, the designed bevel and root opening must be maintained.
3. Where the spacing between members to be joined in a T·joint is greater that ~ in. the size of the fillet weld shall be the
size specified plus the amount of the opening.
4. Preheat or lnterpass temperature requirements must be adhered to.
5. The specified electrode or electrode matching the base metal must be used.
6, Welding procedures must be followed explicitly.
7. Cracked or defective tack.welds must be removed before weld is made.
8, Cra.cked welds or welds h'lving surface irregularities must be repaired before welding continues.
9. Welds showing excessive surface porosity must be removed and rewelded.
10. All weld craters shall be filled completely before depositing the next weld pass.
11. !£ach bead or pass of a multipass weld must be cleaned before the next bead Is made.
12.· The specified SiZe and length of weld as shown on drawings are the minimum acceptable. Weld size tolerances should be
+ra
In.-O.. .
13, Weld reinforcement or-crown shall not exeee ta
in. for manual welds.
14, Undercut isnot permissible on highly stresse~r dynamicl'lllyloa<led members.
15. R96t fu~jon must be complete on all joints ~esigned with a root opening.
16. Wel~s shoWing 5ubs\lrfl)ce slag or volds,·by nondestructive in$pectipn, must be gouged out to sound metal and rewelded.
17. WelQs showIng slIPsul'face cracks by NbT must be gouged out to sound metal and rewelded.
18. All work should b'e positioned for flat-position welding whenever possible.
, 19. Specffic welds may be taken at random and submltted to a 100% vlsua' inspection or to any of the nondestructive testing
. rnsthede, . . .'
20, Weloers may be required to requalify if, In the opinion of the Inspector and the supervisor, the work is of questionable .
quality.
,
CHAP:t_R21.
,-._
can occur on both tensile and compressive loaded
weld joints.
15. "Root fusion must be complete on all joints designed
with a root opening." Root fusion is absolutely nec-
essary for any weld with a root opening. The root
face of both sides of the joint must be fused into the
weld.
16. Welds showing subsurface slag or voids by nonde-
structive testing must be removed to solid metal
(a)
and rewelded. Small amounts of slag or voids may
be permitted. Some codes allow small amounts of
slag 01' porosity provided they are small and not
continuous. Usually, slag and porosity voids have
rounded edges and will not propagate under de-
signed loads.
17. Welds showing subsurface cracks by nondestruc-
tive testing must be removed to sound metal and
rewelded. This is absolutely necessary since cracks
have sharp corners or sharp ends and propagate un-
der load. They are stress risers and will cause pre-
mature failure or shortened service life. Internal
cracks are not acceptable by any code.
18. "All work should be positioned for flat-position
welding whenever possible."This is good economi-
cal practice. A welder who is working In a com-
fortable position will produce higher-quality welds.
19. Weldments or specific welds can be taken at ran-
dom and submitted to 100% visual inspection or
any of the nondestructive testing rnethods.This rule
and the next are provided to give the inspector the
necessary authority to maintain quality.
20. Welders may be required to requalify if, in the opin-
ion of the inspector and the welder's supervisor, the
work produced is of questionable quality.A welder's
work may deteriorate for one reason or another,
This nile provides the mechanism of having the
welder retested to determine the cause of the prob-
lem, The inspector can. use this tool whenever a
(b) questionable weld quality situation results from the
work of a specific welder,
FIGURE21-53 Equal-size fillets with different
strength. Companies that do not produce weldments by a na-
tional code should adopt this set of workmanship stan-
dards. This will provide a better understanding between
tionally, extra reinforcement causes stress concen- the designer, the welder, the welding supervisor, and the
trations. It is absolutely unnecessary for mild steel inspector to maintain weld qllaUty.
and low-alloy steels; the weld metal is stronger be-
cause it has. a higher yield strength than the base
metal. 21 ..7 NONDESTRUG:TIV6
14. "Undercut is not permissfble on higll1y stressed or EXAMINATION SYMBOLS
dynamically loaded members." Undercut is a defect
that is not allowed by most codes. Some codes allow Nondestructive examination symbols have been estab-
a small amount of undercut, provided tbat it is lished by til American\~ lding Society.O~)rhey a1' u5~d
Within specified limits. Undercut areas tend to con- by the designer to convey information to the i'p.sptct.or
centrate stresses and will createfteld problems.This . concemmgjctnts, welds!- orweldments that ne '.~d sp qat.
'.
,
\
NUMBER OF EXAMINATIONS
REFERENCE LINE
-, (N)
OTHER BOTH
TAIL
SIDE SIDES
T
/.
SPECIFICATION
ARROW
SIDE
BOTH
SIDES
OR OTHER
REFERENCE
FIGURE 21-54 Standard location of elements. BASIC EXAMINATION SYMBOL
__!!f_/ L!:!_
Letter De$ign~tion
MT\ PT rUT-
Acoustic emission AET (a) TEST ARROW (b) TEST OTHER (e) TEST BOTH (d) NOSIDE
sloe SIDE SIDES SPECIFIED
Electromagnetic ET
Leak LT MT
Magnetic particle MT
~ ~ ~
Neutron rad iograph ic NRT PT RT ~
Penetrant PT (e) EXAMINATION AND WELDING SYMBOLS COMBINED
Proof PRT
Radiographic RT ~ rn:-
~
Ultrasonic UT MT8 ~ fMT
Visual VT (f) NOT SYMBOLS COMBINED
FIGURE 21-55 Examination methods:

letter designation.
(9) LENGTH OF SECTION, IN INCHES, TO BE EXAMINED
L_
/Mf6 RTe lif7
(3) (3) (2)
(h) NUMBER OF TESTS (IN PARENTHESES) TO BE MADE

RT
NRT WHEN NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION SYMBOLS HAVE NO ARROW OR OTHERSIOE
SIGNIFICANCE, THE SYMBOLS SHALL BE CENTERED ON THE REFERENCE LINE AS
FOLLOWS:
--. VT~ " -MT,

-AT__,/'
FIGURE 21-56 Radiation location symbol. NOT SYMBOLS AND WELDING SYMBOLS MAY BE COMBINED AS FOLLOWS:
MT
~~~ ~~
LT OPT
attention. These symbols are similar to welding symbols
andean be used in conjunction with welding symbols.
Fi.gure21-54 shows the elements of the examination
symbol and the standard location with respect to each NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION SYMBOLS MAY BE COMBINED AS FOLLOWS:
other, and only those elements required to provide the F!T+MT I VT+RT
needed information are used.The examtnatton: ~mbol or
designated letters are shown in Figure 21- 55.On~l'eCial
symbol is used to show the direction of radiation that is
-DPT+ET.I
\
-
UT
,
+ LT PRT
: FlT+FPT
RTt LT
\.
I
RT + LT
RT+ Lr
j
.used in conjunction with the radiographic examination fiGURE 21-57 Typical examination symbols.
symbol (Pigure 21-56).Typical testing symbols are shown
in Figure 21-,57. For complete information on nonde-
structtve examination symbols, the reader should consult
the AWSstandard.
QUESTIONS
21·1. There are 20 factors in a quality assurance plan. Name 21-10. Can penetrant testing be used on plastic parts?
as many as you can. 21-11. Explain the principle of magnetic particle testing.
21·2. What is the difference between a root bend, a face Why is it not used on aluminum?
bend, and a side bend test? When is the side bend test 21-12. Is AC or DC current used for MT examinations?
used instead of root or face bend tests? 21-13. Explain the principle of radiographic testing. How
21·3. When is a fillet break test used? are radiographs developed?
21·4. What is different about the guided bend test jig for 21·14. What is a penetrameter? Explain.
testing 3/8"-in. specimens or t-In. specimens? 21·15. Can permanent records be made of UT results?
21,5. What is the reason for the O. 50S-in. diameter of a ten- 21·16. Explain the principle of ultrasonic testing. Can it be
sile test specimen? used for field inspection?
21·6. What is the most widely used nondestructive evalua- 21·17. Why is leak testing with compressed air dangerous?
tion technique? What are its three divisions? Name the six classes of defects.
21·18.
21·7. Explain the use of a fillet weld gauge. Show typical fil- Why are cracks more dangerous than porosity to
21·19.
let size problems. weld service life?
21·8. Does AWS qualify and certify welding inspectors? Can testing symbols be combined with weld symbols?
21·20.
How is this done?
21-9. Explain the principle of dye-penetrant testing. What
are its limitations?
REFERENCES
1. "Guidelines for Quality Assurance in Welding Technol- 8. Welding Inspection, AWSWI-80, American Welding Soci-
ogy," IlS/11W 902-86, International Institute of Welding, ety, Miami, Fla.
AWS, Miami, Fla. 9. "Guide for the Nondestructive Inspection of Welds,"
2. "Quality Management and Quality Control Assurance AWS B1.10, American Welding Society, Miami, Fla.
Standards-Guidelines for Selection and Use," ISO 9000, 10. "Classification of Defects in Metallic Fusion W Ids with
International Organization for Standardization, ANSI, Explanation," IIS/llW-340-69 (ex doc V-360-67),
New York. Metal Construction and British Welding Journal (Feb-
3. "Quality Program Requirements," Military Specification ruary 1970).
MIL-Q-9858. U.S. Department of the Navy,Washington, D. C. 11. "Acceptance Standards for Surface Finish on Flame or
4. "Quality Assurance Criteria for Nuclear Power Plants and Arc-Cut Material," Navships 0900-999-9000, U.S. De-
Fuel Reprocessing Plants," Code of Federal Regulations, partment of the Navy, Naval Engineertng Center, Wash-
Section 10, Energy Part 50, Appendix B (10 CFR50-B). ington, D.C.
5. "Standard Methods for Mechanical Testing of Welds," 12. "Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing, and Nonde-
AWS B4.0, American Welding Society, Miami, Fla. structive Examination," AWSA2.4,American Welding So-
6. "Standard for Qualification and Certification of Welding ctety, Miami, Fla.
Inspectors,"AWS QCI,American Welding Society, Miami, Fla.
7. "Guide for the Visual Inspection of Welds," ANSlJAWS
Bl..LlAmerican Welding Society, Miami, Fla.
Quality Control and valuation of WeJds

, f·
OUTLINE
on specific materials under identified conditions. It is of-
22-1 Weld Reliability ten called the performance qualification test record.
22-2 Welditlg Codes and Specifications Neither the welding procedure qualification nor
22-3 Welding Procedures and Qualifying Them the welder performance qualification establishes the ca-
22:..4 Standru,-dWelding Procedure Specifications pabilities of an organization to continuously make an ac-
(SWPS) , ceptable welded product. A quality control program,
Qualifying and Certifying Welders which was described in detail in Chapter 21, is employed
22-5
to ensure adherence.
Quality welding on a product must be judged with
respect to a specific quality standard based on its in-
tended service. It must be a balance between the service
22-1 WELD RELIABILITY requirements and the consequences of failure versus eco-
Reliable welds are required on every weldment pro- nomic factors. For many products, weld quality require-
duced. Many different techniques are used to ensure ments are controlled by codes, specifications, and
weld quality 01' reliability. Almost all welding codes, stan- standards. However, when codes or specifications do not
dards, and specifications include a plan for ensuring apply, the producer must make products to a high quality
weld quality. Most of these documents prescribe a standard to survive. The success of maintaining the bal-
method of ensuring that the welding procedure will ance between high quality and high cost is decided in me
provide the quality required for the product. They al- field and in the marketplace, where quality and price de-
most always provide a method of testing the welders termine the producer'S conttnuing success,
who apply the welds to determine if they have the skill Welclments in space vehicles and nuclear plants are
required to provide the desired quality. Close adherence exposed to environments unheard of in the past. The
will ensure that the product as d signed will satisfy the weld perfection obtained by this class of work is due to
service requirements. excellent procedures, extensive training, and stringent
The purpose of a welding procedure qualification is quality assurance methods. It is obtained because of ex-
to show that the proposed. weld jotnt or weldment will tensive preparation. and time-consuming procedure test-
have the required properties for its intended application. ing and qualificarions that contribute to high cost. Perfect
The document that does this is the record oltJ~ actual welds are not requited on all weldments, The industry
welding variables used to produce the test weld ~p.d the must guard against establishing super-quality require-
results of the tests .conducted. It .is often called the ments when they are not necessary.
procedure qualltlcation record. Responsibility for producing hlgh-qualtty products
The purpose of the welder performance qualtfica- rests on many people. It is management's responsibility to
non is to determine the ability of the welder or welding create the proper cooperative spirit among designers,
operator to produ e sound weld metal following a weld. welders, supervisors, and inspection personnel to make
,ing pro,cedllre specification. This qualifies the individual sure that the quality requirement is reasonable and jJ1
we1a.eror welding 9perator for specific processes made agreement with the 5 rvtce lffeexpeeted.The responst
ti
biltty for producing high-quality welds rests with the
welder. Each welder must accept this responsibility. The
welding supervisor has the responsibility for welders and
their performance. The welding inspector must verify
that quality standards are met. The welding standards,
specifications, and procedures are the basis for weld qual-
ity, and these factors, coupled with weldment design, are
the responsibility of designers, welding engineers, mate-
rial managers, and quality assurance personnel. It is a to-
tal responsibility with a complex interrelationship.
Designers, material specifiers, and others must keep
close contact with field service personnel with respect to
field requirements and problems.They must be sensitive to
needs for change and they must respond as required.Weld-
ing supervisors and production managers must be contin-
Uallyalert for evidence of substandard workmanship.
The need to differentiate between the adequate and
the perfect weld has led to research concerning the ac- FIGURE 22-1 Popular codes and specifications.
Ceptability of weld imperfections and their effect on ser-
vice life.The termfttnessjor service is the result of studies
relating to degrees of imperfection and reliability in ser- these consensus documents or write standards for appli-
Vice.Years of investigation of this information has allowed cation to items under their jurisdiction.
the establishment of fitness for service data. These data The standards adopted or issued by government
have been translated into codes and standards for different bodies are enforceable by law and quite often become
types of equipment based on different types of service. contractual requirements. Trade association and profes-
This knowledge gained from field experience and investi- sional engineering society specifications are usually in-
gation is reflected in the revision of codes and standards. volved in purchase agreements as standards of quality
A major problem encountered in weldment produc- acceptance. Similar products have very similar welding
tion is the designer'S suspicion that the shop will not man- specifications. In some cases the qualification of a proce-
UfaCl1.1re the weldment as designed. This suspicion occurs dure to one specification may be acceptable by another
When designers consider welding workmanship factors specification for the same or similar products. Figure 22-1
that are seemingly beyond the designer'S control. They feel shows some typical specifications.
the welder can produce welds that meet the design re- Code-writing bodies are continually upgrading
quirements under ideal conditions. They also feel welders specifications and attempting to make them more unl-
prOduce good-quality welds when the performance quali- form and to make interchange of qualifications easier.
fication tests are passed. However, they want assurance that Many codes and specifications are approved by the Amer-
every weld in,the weldment will be of high quality. This de- ican. National Standards Institute CANS!).
pends on the quality assurance program, which saves The following products use welding specifications:
Inoney in the long run since they eliminate premature field
1. Pressure vessels
failures, catastrophic disasters, and the cost of overwelding
in order to overcome suspected shop malpractice. 2. Nuclear reactors
3. Piping and pipelines
4. Buildings and bridges
22-2 WELDING CODES 5. Storage tanks and vessels
AND SPEC1FICATIONS 6. Ships, barges, and offshore drill rigs
7. Railroad rolling stock
Many Codes and specifications cover welding applica-
tiOns. Having evolved over years of experience based on 8. Aircraft: and spacecraft
SpeCific industries or types of products.codes and speci- 9. Automotive and trucks
fications change continually as the technology changes 10. conerrucnon and agricultural equipment
and as the demands -for the products covered change. ll.-Industrial machinery
They are written by different organizations, including 12. Shipping' containers
ProfeSSional societies and trade associations. They a~
13. Ordnance material
lttlOwn as consensus standards; codes, and speCifica-
tions, Federal government departments, state govern- 14. Nonstructural sheet llwtal components atlG ~yst;i9,s
nlents, provincial governments, and cttieseither adopt . 15.M1scQllan:eO'LUlequipment .'. ,.
Each is explained briefly, and the specific codes or speci- and apply for the code symbol stamp required.The actual
fications are identified. mechanics are quite involved but include obtaining a
contract with an authorized inspection agency. TheAmer-
Pressure Vessels and Boilers ican Society of Mechanical Engineers will provide advice
on the exact requirements. The requirements include at
The manufacturer of boilers and pressure vessels, and all least the need to prepare a written quality control man-
other items defined as pressure vessels, come under the ual describing a controlled manufacturing system for the
specification of the ASME "Boiler and Pressure Vessel scope of the proposedASME certificates of authorization-
Code.,,(1)This code consists of 11 sections: The ASMEwill send a survey team to inspect the facilities,
• Section J Power boilers review the quality control manual, and witness a demon-
• Material specifications-ferrous stration of all items affecting quality within the scope of
• Section II
the certificate. If everything is satisfactory, ASME will is-
• Material specifications-nonferrous
sue a certificate of authorization and the applicable code
• Material specifications- welding symbol stamp.
rods, electrodes, and filler metals The National Board Inspection Code provides rules
• Secrion III Nuclear power plant components for repairs and alterations to boilers and pressure vessels
• Section IV Heating boilers by welding after such vessels have been in service.This is
• Section V Nondestructive examination in contrast to the ASME code rules, which apply to new
• Section VI Recommended rules for care and op- construction (except Section Xl). Repair organizations
eration of heating boilers that make repairs or alterations will usually have an "R" 01'
"NR" code symbol stamp issued by the National Board of
• Section VII Recommended rules for the care of
Boilers and Pressure Vessel Inspectors.
power boilers
• Section VIII Pressure vessels, divisions I and II
• Section IX Welding qualifications
Nuclear Reactors
Fiberglass-reinforced plastic pressure Nuclear reactors, components, and material used in nu-
• Section X
vessels clear power plants are covered by the provisions of Sec-
tion III of the ASME pressure vessel code and the Nuclear
• Section XI Rules for in-service inspection of
Regulatory Commission Specfflcation.v" Any part that. is
clear reactor coolant system
used in a nuclear plant must be manufactured under the
Products manufactured under the requirements of jurisdiction of these codes.The exceptions are those com-
these codes may also. be manufactured under the varying ponents for navy ship use that are covered by a similar but
rules and regulations of states and provinces that follow different code issued by the Department of Defense Naval
the boiler and pressure vessel code, In general, Section IX Ship Division.This is known as" Standard for Welding of Re-
is used throughout North America and in other parts of actor Coolant and Associated Systems and Components for
the world as the method of qualifying procedures and Naval Nuclear Power Plants.,,(3)These codes require the
welders for work on boilers, pressure vessels, and pres- certiflcarion of materials and traceability of all materials,
sure piping. including welding filler metals to the point of origin. They
also include strict control systems of inspection during the
Code Symbol Stamps Manufacturers or contractors
manufacture of the nuclear power plant components.
who. regularly build or install pressure vessels or pressure
piping wtll usually have an ASME symbol stamp. This
means they have been approved by the American Society Pressure Piping
of Me 'hanical Engineers as an authorized manufacturer Code specifications and procedures for welding piping
or installer of the type of equipment specified. Different are covered in Chapter 25.
stamps are used to. mark the installation or the product
manufactured. some of the symbol stamps are:
Buildings and Bridges
• N
Nuclear vessel Steel buildings welded in most cities in North America arc
• pp Pressure piping covered by city code and specifications. The huger cities
Pressure vessel may publish their own codes, while others follow the
•U AWS "Structural Welding Code-Stee!,,(4) and AISC "Mao-
Power boilers
• S ual of Steel Constl'uctioni'('S) which includes the AISC
Hating boilers
• Ii Speclftcation for Structural Steel Bulldtngs and the AISC
To. obtain anASME symbo.l stamp, a man.ufa,crurer or Code of Standard Practice. Some Cities require qualifica-
contractor must contact the American SOciety of Me- tion of welders andcertiflcation of. electrodes for struC-
<:hnnical El;lgineers, oiler and Pressure CodcoComm,ittee- t tural appllcations.
..
Welding on highway bridges is under the jurisdic- Freight Cars.,,(18)These specifications provide information
tion of the state or provincial department of transporta- concerning the design of welds and the qualifications of
tion. Basis for these codes, either by reference or by direct welders. They are in substantial agreement with require-
COpy, is the "Bridge Welding Code" of AASHTO/AWS ments of the AWS"Railroad Welding Speclficatton.?"?'
Dl.5.(6) This code incorporates the requirements of the
U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Public Aircraft and Spacecraft
Roads. Some states publish their own bridge codes, which
Weldments intended for use in aircraft and spacecraft are
reference the AASHTO/AWS"Bridge Welding Code." Many
welded to the requirements of U.S. government specifi-
states supplement the AASHTO/AWS requirements. Some
cations. Other groups write specifications for materials
require welders to be examined yearly and certified by
that might be used, including the Society of Automotive
the state to work on bridges. Some states maintain rosters
Engineers'f'" and the Aerospace Industries Association of
of certified welders. Some highway departments also re-
America. (2I) Welding codes or requirements are covered
qUire yearly certification of welding electrodes. In addi-
by specifications of the National Aeronautics and Space
tion, AWS also provides a welding code for aluminum
structures(7) and a code for welding reinforcing steel. (8) Administration (NASA) and of the Department of Defense
Military (MIL) Standards and Specifications. The one per-
taining primarily to welding on aircraft is "Qualification of
Storage Tanks and Vessels Aircraft, Missile and Aerospace Fusion Welders.,,(22)This
There are two major codes for welding storage tanks. A standard covers many welding processes, metals, and lev-
Code for welding elevated storage tanks is published by els of proficiency for testing welders and must be ad-
AWSand the American Water Works Association, "Standard hered to when welding on aircraft. Qualification under
for Welded Steel Elevated Tanks, Standpipes, and Reser- this standard is supervised by government inspectors.
VOirs for Water Storage.',(9) The other is for oil or petro-
leum product storage tanks, published by the American
Automotive and Trucks
PetrOleum Institute, entitled "Standard for Welded Steel
Tanks for Oil Storage.,,(lO)Both of these codes refer to Sec- There is no national specification for welding on auto-
tion IX of the ASME boiler code for welding qualification. mobiles or trucks; however, AWS has issued two docu-
ments relating to the welding of automobiles and trucks:
"Specification for Automotive Frame Weld Quality-Arc
Ships Welding,,(23) and "Recommended Practices for Automo-
Welding on ships is covered by different specifications tive Weld Qua1ity- Resistance Spot Welding." (24)
and codes. In the United States, all federal government
vessels are covered by codes issued by the U.S. Coast
GUard(ll) or t.he Navships Division of the Department of
Construction Equipment
DefenseY2) These requirements are nearly identical as to Most manufacturers of construction, earth moving, and
Welding procedure qualification and welder qualification. agricultural equipment have their own specifications that
They are also similar to the requirements of t.he Maritime cover welding. These have been in use for years and are
Administration for commercial ships.o3) Qualification of acceptable based on field experience, Recent1y, the Amer-
welders is usually transferable among these three organi- ican Welding Society has issued a specification that COy-
Zations. The American Bureau of Shipping has similar re- ers aU structural welds used in this type of equipment. In
qUirements for welding on ships they survey.(14) Lloyds addition, it covers weld joints, welding procedures,
and othee classification societies also publish specifica- welder and procedure qualification tests, and the inspec-
tiOns that cover welding. Certification of filler metal ts reo tion of welds used in this type of equipment. The "Speci-
qUired. The American Welding Society publishes two fication for Welding Earth :Moving and Construction
guides related to ship welding:"Guide for Steel Hull Weld- Equipment"(25) also accepts welders tested to the. AW&
ing',(15)and "Guide for Aluminum Hull Welding.,,(16) structural code. Rollover protective structures (llOPS) on
construction, mining, and agriculture equipment may be
field welded using welders qualified toAWS D1.1 01' MIL
Railroad Rolling Stock srn 248 or their equlvalent.(26)
In the United States, specifications for rolling stock for
~orth American railroads is under the [urisdlctton of the
federal Department of Transportation. However, as far as
Industrial Machinery
'Welding qualification and welding design requirements Such a wide variety 'of industrial ma,cbUlery is produced
are concern.ed, the controlling speciftcations are issued by by welding that it is impossible to cover ea hand ev. t'Y
the Association of American RaUl'oads.1Wo specifications type. However) the American Welding So lety has isstled
at' involved:"Specifications forTank Cars,,(l7)and "'Specift~ standards .covering some typ 81 ~ along with astarir,ttp'd
eatioAS for Design; Fabrication, .and Coustruction of with a classification and application of welged joi~~~~r,
" . Welding Spe ifkatic;ms, Procederesand Qua!ificati<;ms " '

• ,-' :J i. . ,
all types of machines.TheAWS specs are "Specification for
Welding Industrial and Mill Cranes and Other Material
22-3 WELDING PROCEDURES
Handling Equipment.V" "Specification for Metal Cutting AND QUALIFYING THEM
Machine Tool Weldments,,,C2l:1)"Specification for Welding
Qualifying welding procedures is complicated because
Earth Moving and Construction Equtpment.Y" "Classifi-
of slightly different terminology and definitions of the
cation and Application of Welded Joints for Machinery
different cades and standards. It is extremely important
and Equipment.V'" "Specification for Welding of Presses
to consult the latest or specific edition of the code or
and Press Cornponenrs.P'" and "Specification for Rotat-
standard involved and follow it in detail.A welding pro-
ing Elements of Equipment.P!' In general, these are min-
cedure is "the detailed methods and practices involved
imum requirements for welded fabrication of the types of
in the production of a weldment."This broad definition
equipment covered. They cover the specifications, joint
covers twa types. The first is the legal requirement of a
types, documentation, procedure qualification, and
code or specification. The second is the directions for
welder qualification. Refer to the specific specification
making a specific weldment. Procedures of this type are
with respect to welder qualification.
written to. shaw haw a weldment must be built to. main-
tain consistency.
The welding procedure specification (WPS) re-
Shipping Containers quired by many cades describes the step-by-step direc-
Strict welding specifications are required for shipping tions for making a specific weld and proof that the weld
containers used for transporting gas under high pressure is acceptable. All welding codes and specifications re-
and for tanks carrying liquid petroleum and similar prod- quire qualified procedures. It is necessary to write a weld-
ucts. These codes and specifications are used by the U.S. ing procedure and then to. prove ar qualify it by making
Department of Transportation. Additional detail is given welds that are then tested for acceptability. All codes re-
in Section 14-4.See also the Code of Federal Regulations, quire proof that welders and welding operators have the
Title 49.(32,33) skill and ability to follow the welding procedures suc-
cessfully. They must make specific welds to prove they
can provide the quality required. The cades and standard
Ordnance Material requirements are somewhat different, and this is covered
Ordnance material is produced for the government, nor- in the next section.
mally the U.S. Army, and includes such items as combat Qualifying a procedure by one manufacturer under
tanks, gun carriers and mounts, personnel carriers, and a specific code normally will not qualify the procedure
retrieval vehicles, These are covered by MIL Specifica- for another manufacturer or contractor. There are a few
tions and Standards issued by the Department of De- exceptions. In the piping field, procedures are qualified in
fense. Performance, procedure, and welder qualification the name of the National Certified Pipe Welding nureau
are usually covered by MIL-STD-2219,(34)but each spe- or a local contractor's association.The procedures may be
cific MIL specification should be referenced to determine used by all of the association members, and welders qual-
the exact requirements, ified to the procedures can transfer from one member
company to another without requalification. This saves
the expense of continually requalifying. The welders are
Nonstructural Sheet Metal Components hired from a labor pool and may work for different con-
tractors on each new job.With this arrangement they are
and Systems covered by the association-qualified procedures and need
The AWS "Sheet Metal Welding Code"(35) provides qual- not retest for each job.The contractor/employer is still re-
ifications, workmanship, and inspection requirements sponsible for the procedures, for the welders, and for the
for both arc welding and braze welding as they apply to quality of the work.
the fabrication; manufacture, and erection of nonstruc-
tural she t metal components and systems, such as
ductwork. Boiler Code Welding
Probably. the most widely used code for procedure and
performance qualifications is Section' IX of the ASM£
Miscellar:teous Equipment "Boiler and. Pressure Vessel Code." The "Qualification
Undoubtedly, other spectttcations and codes cover Standard for Welding. and Brazing Prccedures=- Welders,
items not mentioned here, It Is Important to determine Brazers, and Welding and Brazing Operators" will be eJ'-
tb code or speclftcatlon involved. These can be ob- plalned in detail with examples.The other popular codes
t.ainect:from. the- buyer or purchaser of the weldments w. will be mentioned briefly since. the boiler code explana-
.muestion,' ,. tion wUl provide the background tnformattonneeded .
The boiler code makes the following statement code when writing, testing, or certifying the welding
concerning welder responsibility: procedures.
Each manufacturer or contractor is responsible

for' the welding done by his organization and
Welding Procedure Specification
shall conduct the tests required to qualify the
welding procedures he uses in the construction of An example of a WPS is shown in Figures 22-2,22-3, and
the weldments built under' this code, and the per- 22-4. In this example the ABC Pressure Vessel Company
formance of welders and welding operators who is using gas metal arc welding, semiautomatically applied,
apply these procedures. to weld Pol grade steel pipe in the horizontal fixed and
vertical positions. Each entry will be explained.
It further states: "Each manufacturer, or contractor,
shall maintain a record of the results obtained in welding Joints The joint design is a single V-groove with a 60
procedures and welder and welding operator perfor- to 700 included angle.A sketch is drawn on the form un-
mance qualifications. These records shall be certified by c1er details. If more space is needed, use a third sheet,
the manufacturer or contractor and shall be accessible to such as Figure 22-4 (sheet 3 of 3) in the example. The
the authorized inspector." Computer software programs welding variables are placed in the table provided. Back-
are available for recording this information and should be ing is not used. However, if backing is used, it must be
Used; see AppendixA-3. described.
The ASME code calls the welding procedure a Base Metals To reduce the number ofWPSs required, P
welding procedure specification (WPS). This document numbers are assigned to base metals depending on char-
prOVides in detail the required conditions for specific ap- acteristics such as composition, weldability, and mechan-
plications to ensure repeatability by properly trained ical properties. Groups within P numbers are assigned for
Welders and welding operators. A WPS is a written weld- ferrous metals for the purpose of procedure qualifica-
ing procedure prepared to provide direction for making tions where notch toughness requirements are not spec-
production welds to code requirements. The ASME pro- ified. The same P numbers group the various base metals
vides a sample form, which may be used or modified pro- having comparable characteristics. The P numbers and
Vided that it covers all information. The completed WPS groupings of most of the different steels are given in Sec-
provides directions to the welder or welding operator to tion IX of the code. If a P number is not available for the
ensure compliance with the code requirements.The com- rnaterial involved, its ASTMspecification number may be
pleted WPS describes all of the essential, nonessential, and used. If an ASTM speciflcation number is not available, the
Supplementary essential (when required) variables for chemical analysis and mechanical properties can be used.
the welding process. The WPS should reference the sup- Under base metals the thickness range must be shown,
pOrting procedure qualification record (PQR).A PQR is a and if it is of pipe, the pipe diameter range must be
record of all of the welding conditions that were used
shown.
When welding the test coupons and the actual results of
the tested specimens. The completed PQR should record FUler Metals Electrodes and.welding rods are grouped
all eSSential and supplementary essential (when required) according to their usability characteristics, which deter-
Variables for the welding process used to weld the test mine the ability of the welders to make satisfactory welds
coupon. Nonessential or other variables used during the with a given ftller metal.The groups are given F numbers,
welding of test coupons need not be recorded. The PQR which relate to composition and usability. This is filled in
should be certified accurate by the manufacturer or con- on the form. This block also requires the ASME specifica-
tractor. This certification is .the manufacturer's or con- tion number and the AWS classification number of the
tr-clctor'Sverification tbat the information is a true record fillermetal used.Th ASME specification numbers are the
of the variables that were used during the welding of the same as theAWS specification numbers with the addition
test coupon and that the test results are in compliance of the letters SF. These data are given in Section lX. The
With Section IX of the code. The manufacturer 01' con- AWSclassification number of the ruler metal specification.
tractor cannot subcontract this certification function. is also given on the label on the electrode boxes. FOl' ex-
. There are three types of variables for WPS.Essen- ample.A-! is a mild steel weld metal deposit. The size of
tlal variables are those In which change is considered to the filler metal) which is its diameter, must.be shown as
affect mechanical properties of the weld joint or weld. well as the deposited "weld metal thickness nmgeior
lll.ent. Supplementary essential variables are requited for groove or fillet welds. In the case of sllbmerged ate weld~
m tals for which notch toughness tests are required. ing, Jectrode flux class and the flux trade name mu: t be
NonessentiaJ variables are those in which a change may shown. FQr gas tungsten arc welding, the consumable tn-
b made in the WPS without requaliftcation. The vari- sertanalysts should be shown. Other ituormatiollrelat.ing
a,bIesfor each welding process are listed in detail in Sec, to filler metals not mentioned previollsly h. uld be ·giVtifl
tlon IX. For this reason it lsnecea ary to refer to the wheilavaila61e.· . .
QW·482 SUGGESTED FORMAT FOR WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION (WPSI
(See QW·201,1, Section IX, ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Codel
Company Neme ec.
..... ere~5ur, \Je5C;:,el CcMPo.n':1 By: Fr£1l\\( .Tone., Welcl.Eogc,
Welding Procedure Specification No. 1 Dete AUj.11 ., 1'lQ 1 Supporting PQR No.(s)_..L10""-1.1 __ ~ _
Revision No......, .Date_...;.-;__ --,-, _
Welding Process(es) ~ClS keta I Arc Wtld.lC\4 "V Shed Circ,y',tjro Type(s) 5eooj ~ Au.tarol1tl·c.
:J J (Automatic, Menual, Machine, or Seml,Auto.)
JOINTS (QW·402) Details

Joint Design ~i09lc ~eJ:
(NO) )I.
Backing (Yes)
;"V
Backing Material (Type)
(Refer to both backing and retainers.)
o Metal o Nonfusing Metal
o Nonmetallic o Other
"""~ 35· t SO
Sketches,
specified.
Production
should show the general arrangement
applicable, the root
Drawings,
spacing and
Weld
the
Symbols
details
or Written
of the parts to be welded.
of weld
Description
groove
Where
may be
"",1""U-·1 I I
(At the option of the Mfgr., sketches may be attached to illustrate joint
design, weld layers and bead sequence, e.g. for notch toughness proce-
dures, for multiple procell procedures, erc.l
·BASE METALS (QW·403)

P·No. 1 Group No. 1 to P·No. 1 Group No. 1
OA
Specification type and grade ..-
to Specification typa and grade
......
OR
.--
Chem. Analvsis and Mach. Prop.
_..
to Chem. Analysis and Mech. Prop.
Thickness
Bale Metal:
Pipe Dis. Range:
Range:
Groove
Groove
~fLf., to I
l.A'al"lYI i t"d
18 Fillet
Fillet
,-
.....
Other
"FILLER METALS (QW·404)

$pec. No. (SFA) '1:\ 1~
AWS No. (Class) ER 70S-3
F·No.
A·No, "
1
Size of Filler Metals
Deposited
Thickne"
Weld Metal
Range:
GroOV!! ,/~.
r
-
a'~~·I·1'\
,....
iaCh
'
I""
Fillet
Eleetrode-FI'UlI (Closs) blQO~
Flux Trade Name r-
Consumable I nsort tjao~
Othor f'V
·I;.ch bale metal.fliler mlltal combination .houle:! bo r,cQrdad IndlvldlJlIlI.y.
FIGURE22-2 ASME welding procedure specifications (WPS), sheet 1. Courtesy of ASME (American Society of
Mechanical Engineers).
Position The welding position of the groove or ftrlf~tweld --- Postweld Heat Treatment If a postweld heat treat-
must be descnbed according (oAWS terminology. lfv'e11ical ment is used, it must be described.This includes the tern-
,
welding is mvofved, it should be mentioned whether pro-
.
perature range and the time at temperature. If there is 110
gresslon is upward (~lphill)or downward (downhill). postweld heat treatment, write in "none,"
"
Preheat A mtrumum temperature shall be given as well Gas The shielding gas, if used, must be identified, and. if it
flsthe maxtmum lnrerpass temperature. Preheat mainte- is a mixture, it should b described. The shielding gas flow
o.auce temperatureshould be given, Where applicable, rate should be grven, If hacking gas or tra.i1ingshield g~s·iS
,1i.Ped~ttheati1.1gsho ld be re orded. used, the gas composition and flow rate should be giVe1l.
:. .';!.-
WPS No. 1 Rev._ ../"
POSTWELD HEAT TREATMENT (OW-407)

POSITIONS (OW·405)
Positionts] of Groove ~~ f?1~~ ~~i~ Vu:tical Temperature Range t"IQ O:1!.
Up
,- Down
.,.. Time Range /-
Welding Progression:
".....
Positionlsl of Fillet
GAS (QW·408)
Percent Composition
PREHEAT (QW-406) 0
(Mixture) Flow Rate
Preheat Temp. Min. tOQ E Gastes]
l.QQ. E
Interpass Temp.
Preheat Maintenance
Max.
I QQ" E Shielding (OJ.. ~e Idl~ ~caJe u»: F+1
.,-.... AJ
(Continuous or special heating where applicable should be recorded I Trailing t:!!20'
..... A.
I Backing h.laM:'
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS (QW·409)

Current AC or DC ~c. Polarity EI!:e.!rok ~i251I:iye
Amps (Range) 150-170 Volts (Range) A.I~2.J
(Amps and volts range should be recorded for each electrode size,
position, and thickness, etc. This information may be listed in a tab-
ular form slmiler to that shown below.)
Tungsten Electrode Size and Type

N,.,('lp
(Pure Tungaten, 2% Thorlatad, etc.)
Mode of Metal Transfer for GMAW S~ocl;; CJ r CU"I ti O§ llide

(Spray arc, short circuiting ere. etc.)
Electrode Wire feed speed range ~30 fL> 30c l~M

TECHNIQUE (QW-410)
String or Weave Bead ~el:: :De I a ~ls S 't<Q,tc b ~
Orifice
Initial
or Gas Cup Size
and Interpass Cleaning
1/.;"- il"\Cb
(Brushing,
:C.~.
Grinding, etc.l Br-!J.!I~ ±Q c,leao m~tal ""M"l=J
Method of Back Gouging hJone ~
f:,,!:l re¥Ai fed
L~L"",,
Oscillation
Contact Tube to Work Distance /.l.
Ir to !JZ4
, - i I"\CV\
Multiple or Single Pass (per side) MIJ(.,tl(ll~
Multiple or Single Electrodes
c; . At. I ...
;:::::~'~l &1 ±o u-'fpoo

0,""~II t~I~~ ~~~~ ~lj~;~ t~~~
Filler Metal Current
Other
(e.g., Remarks, Com-
c.c. Travel rnenrs, Hot. Wire
Type Amp. Volt Spe~d Addition, Technique,

Weld
Process CIIiSS Dia. Polar. Range Range Range Torch Angle, Etc.)
Layer(s)
1 6. "1A..\)( ~ 705-3 o .o~~-'oI Ele~ + 150 -170 ')..1- Z.3 7.1--1..6

,.
:tnC,xeC1$C
:;_
..
I' I'
" Shieldi~ 9t:ts
.."
" I' .. ~ . ..' .. fl6tJJ s ~"
..j. v' I' .. I 0'
'
I'
0' wne.t"l
5 o· ., .. '"
"I.'
" " u,.l'€.tc31'\ ~
.. _, ... OlA.-td. t)ors.
"
7 ... .' ...
"
,I
.
"
'
.1
"
"
II
I
FIGURE 22-3 ASME welding procedure specifications (WPS), sheet 2. Courtesy of ASME (American Society of
Mechanical engineers). .
!
t lUectrical Characteristics 111ewelding current should
be shown as alternating (Ae) or direct C~1frent (DC). If di-
is pc sented in tab~11ar form, as shown on Fiiltlre 22-:-4
(she t 3 of 3). In the case of GTA\V,the tl111gStenelec;trode
.rCet current is used, the poJarity of the electrOde must be size and type should be described. Fot GMAW the mode of
shown,The amperes, V'oliage, and travel speed range must metal transfer must be described.The electrode.wire fi d
be snownfot each electrode class, ·size, and position. This speed range and travel speed mge s!l-ould be sbowr'.' .
V;Velding Specifications, . rocedures, and Qualific;atioris

_ ' ~ .' ~ s· _".. ' " :~,._--_. '. " ...
WPS No. -t Rev.
POSTWELD HEAT TREATMENT (QW-407)
POSITIONS (OW·405)
Position(sl of Groove S~ el'~ AxiS E!!at - E il!:CC Temperature Range t-jbl1e
,;"-
Welding Progression: Up Down ~ Time Range
Position(s) of Fillet
......
I
GAS (QW-408)
I PREHEAT (QW-406)
lC2r;/ E Gastes)
Percent Composition
(Mixture) Flow Rate
Preheat Temp. Min.
100° F
---
Interpass Temp. Max.
Preheat Maintenance /000 E Shielding COl. (.I.~ldiAj ~I:tlde' 2..D C.Et±
(Continuous or special heating where applicable should be recorded) Trailing "J~~ c:
Backing Nao: """'
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS (QW-409)
Current AC or DC :PC Polarity El~!o'v-le PQ~it;ve.

Amps (Rangel 1s::o -11Q Volts (Range) uus
(Amps and volte range should be recorded for esch electrode size.
position, and thickness, etc. This information may be lilted in a tab-
ular form similar to that shown below.)
Tungsten Electrode Size and Type

1'..1,.,,,,,.
(Pur. Tung".n, 2% Thorlet.d. ere.)
Mode of Metal Transfer for GMAW Short Cicc.IJ.·' =s arc (Spray Irc. short circuiting arc •• tc.)
Electrode Wire feed speed range 2.30 To 30Q i~oo

TECHNIQUE (QW-410)
String or Weave Bead S e... 1'),. i-I'I' I c.. 5 \(',.tt' '"~
fh -i(",,,, '1":.0· 1/32 TO 1/16
..
Orifice or Gas Cup Sile
t
t-l:) dl"tin N\eJa..l
Initial and Interpess Cleaning (Brushing. Grinding. ete.) ~(jj"\i\
{t
Method of Back Gouging bloat!! ~
A~ ~~' i('e~
Oscillation
,J,. to
374· iOClA 1/1StAX
~:::~~r
Conlact Tube to Work DiJance
Multiple or Single Pass (per side I D\l.Llti pi';!
M\Jltipie or Single EI!!ctrodas _'Ii i('1111"
k I :tD 2 ~ ~(P ""
0,"er ~~ ~I~~~ ~ ~r~~tic~t ~~~~~.l
Filler Metal Current

Other
(e.g., Remarks, Com·
ments, Hot Wire
D·C. Travel
Weld Type Amp. Volt Speed Addition. Technique.
L.ayer(sl Process Cla51 Dia. POllir. Range Range Range Torch Angle, Etc'!
1 6tv1AVV ER70S-3 O,Q3S-in ..~ e1et. t 150 ·170 .2.1 -1.3 1.:1.., Lt)
.. In Ctf.~e
.-
I 1..- .' j<
...'"
~
.. ~hleld.,~ ~ Gt~
.. tl6VJ
.. ....
v'
.$
.. Yo
4f .. .. ... .. .. whe,n weJdin.9
0
OLltdt>O rs.
,
FIGURE224 ASME welding procedure specifleatlons (WPS), sheet 3, Courtesy of ASM£ (American Society of ---
,Mechanical £ngineers).\. . ' . '
Technique Under technique, describe the weld as ametee should be shown. The method of cleaning before
made wi.th stringer or weave beads. OscUlation should welding and between passes must be shown. Ii back
~e used to .make weave llcads. This should sbow In the gouging is employed, it ,should he described. The con-
sketch. Often, both tecllniques are used in the same tact tip-to-work distance should be described as a
weld. Fotthe .ga$~~'elded process the nozzle inside di~ minimtln,Hnaximum diniension,. It should 'be sta~ed
C;HARTER .22 .
Whether multiple- or single-pass technique is used. It is Structural Welding
also necessary to indicate whether a single electrode or
Requirements for the AWS "Structural Welding Code-
multiple electrodes are used. The travel speed range
Steel" D 1.1 are different from the Pressure Vessel Code.
should be described.
However,"each manufacturer or contractor shall conduct
Peening, if used, must be described and any other
the tests required by this code to qualify the welding pro-
pertinent information should be mentioned. For exam-
cedures." In addition, "the engineer, at his direction, may
ple, pulsing, if employed, would need to be described.
accept evidence of previous qualification of welders,
Procedure Quallfication Record To support the welding operators and tackers to be employed."Thus, as
welding procedure specification (WPS), it is necessary to with the Pressure Vessel Code, the manufacturer or con-
test and certify the weld results. This is done by making tractor is totally responsible for qualification of proce-
the welds described in the WPS, machining them, and test- dures and personnel.
ing the specimen in accordance with the code. The data The AWS structural code covers the welding re-
are entered on the procedure qualification record quirements applicable to welded structures. It allows the
(PQR), which is defined as a document providing the ac- use of pre qualified welding procedures. PrequaJified pro-
tual welding variables used to produce the acceptable test cedures are exempt from tests provided that they conform
weld and the results of tests conducted on the weld for in all respects to code requirements, which are described
the purpose of qualifying a welding procedure specifica- completely. The use of prequalified joint welding proce-
tion (WPS). It must reference a specificWPS.An example dures is not intended as a substitute for engineering judg-
of a PQR is shown in Figures 22-5 and 22-6.TWs sample ment or the suitability of applications to a welded
PQR is a record of actual conditions used to weld the assembly or connection. The code requires that the manu-
coupons made in accordance with WPS No.1, the exam- facturer or contractor prepare a written procedure speci-
ple shown previously. Many of the data required by the fication for the joint welding procedure to be used. This is
PQR are the same as the information on the referenced a record of materials and welding variables showing that
WPS. In fact, the data on the front sheets are almost iden- the joint welding procedure meets the requirements for
tical. The back, Figure 22-6 (sheet 2 of 2) of the PQR, is a pre qualified status. It is therefore necessary to prepare
straightforward record of the mechanical tests, the ten- welding procedure specifications that cover the work to
sion test, the guided bend test, the toughness test when be done under the requirements of the AWS Structural
required, and the fillet weld test, when used. A toughness Welding Code.
test, either impact or drop weight, is not required by Sec- The forms used by the code are shown by Fig-
tion IX of the ASME code. These tests may be required by ure 22-7. The front side gives the details of the welding
other sections of the code and must be made according to procedure specification: the data asked for are almost
the provisions of the code. The example shows typical the same as are used for the ASME code. This can be pre-
data that would be entered. If the test data meet the requalified or qualified by testing. If the procedure is qual-
qUirements of the code, the form is then signed by the ified by testing, it is necessary to use Figure 22-8. This
manufacturer's representative, certifying that the state- form is in reality the procedure qualificati.on record
ments In the record are correct and that the test welds (PQR) and shows the results of destructive testings, vi-
Were prepared, welded, and tested in accordance with re- sual inspection, and radiographic tests. This shows that
qUirements of Section IX.The test record of the PQR qual- the test specimens were acceptable and therefore pro-
ifies the WPS and fulfills the requirements for the code. All vides the support data to qualify the WPS. For informa-
Changes to a PQR .require recertlftcatlcn by the manufac- tion and limits of variables and acceptability of tests,
turer or contractor. " refer to the code.
It is necessary to have specific WPSs and PQRs to TheAWS"Stfl,l ttlralWelding Code-Sheet Steel,,(36)
COver all the weld processes, combination of welding has slightly different provisions. It does not accord pre-
processes, differentP groupings of base materials, and so qualified status to any welding procedures for sheet
on, to comply with the variables involved. Every process steel. However, at the engineer's discretion, evidence of
and base metal used in producing the product must be previous qualification of the welding procedure to be
COvered by a WPs., which must be"qualified by a PQR. employed on production work may be ace pted, It fur-
i . Keeping track of all of your WPSs can be difficult, . ther states that each welding procedure shall be pre-
pared as a specification for each type of weld and shall
I but it is necessary to avoid duplicating them. It is recom-
mended that all WPSs be recorded and documented in a
computer program. A successful computer program vir-
be qualified by the manufacturer or contractor. An inde-
pendent laboratory or testing agency may do the testing.
t\laUy eliminates cross-referencing. However, most pro- Further welding procedures shall be qualified for ea 11
I grams are related to a particular speclftcanon and are
~esigned to accommodate the more popular. specifica-
change of essential vanable as llsted in the cQde.'Onc
the procedure Is qualified, it shall \be consider d quali-
hons.. SeeA.ppendix &3 for more information. fled for that contractor'S use indefinite Iv.The
.. "" forrosused
-,',_.,
" ,- -
.
',- " ';
I
.,
'1
Welding Specifications, Procedures,
"' ) , '- . - and Qualificatiohs
-- -
.'
- ,~.,. '
PROCEDURE QUALifiCATION RECORD (PQR)
(See QW-201.2, Section IX, ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code)
Record Actual Conditions Used to Weld Test Coupon.
Company Name ABC Pressure Vessel Co. An}ltottll'l USA 123+5

Procedure Qualification Record NO.__ ..l..l.o!..i_ Date__,Aru,tuglj-...J8:2-...J/l;;'i!.:!1t..J#:- _
WPSNo. _J ~--._----------------------------
Welding Proceu(es) G1.A1AW (~as Ate!,,/ An We/din!f,l

TVPM(M~u~,AuWm8tic.~mi.Auw.)~S~e~mul~·-~Q~U~~~m~a~t~k~ _
JOINTS (OW-402)
5G
AXIS OF PIPE HORIZONTAL rn 35° ± 5°r
'>. i
~IP~~'
PIPE SHALL NOT BE TURNED _j_
B
OR ROLLED WHILE WELDING
1/16± ..
1116.""V/
L "....
"'6MAX,,=-,
~
AXIS OFPIPE VERTICAL
PIPE SHALL NOT BE TURNED
3/32 ± 1/32
1/32. TO 1/16
t
OR ROLLED WHILE WELDING
313'''~'
.J ~ 1/16 Mt:i~
'· 2G LI
i
~ r·
1/16 MAX
0.562
Groove Design of Test Coupon

(For combination Qualifications, the deposited weld metal thickne$lshall be recorded for each filler metal or proce,. used.l
aASe METALS (QW-403) POSTWELO HEAT TREATMENT (QW-407)
&,SL11 , None
--
Material Spec. A53 )
21Dft. Temperature
Tvpe or Grade A Time
P-No. 1 to P-No. f Other
Thicknell of Test Coupon 0, ~b2 - iach
24 - i!1,!J O_D.
DI,meter of Ten Coupon
Other - GAS (QW-408)
Percent COmpo,ltion
Gas(e.) (MIKture) Flow Rate
Shielding CO2 CJ'>efA(~ ~~ Za C.F tJ.

!f.Q.tJ.e. -
FILLER METALS (OW-404)
SFA Specification 5 18
Trailing
Backing tf..onf.
.... -
AWS Cla.. lficetlon £R 701:-3 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS (OW-409)
Filler Metal F-No. 6 Current D. C.
W~ld Metel Analvsl, A·No.
1 PolaritV E1fAfJrocle. .e"~/t;ve
0.035-/" 2/-23
Size of Filler Metel
Other - Amps. 150 -/SQ
Tungaten Electrode Size
Other $.hru:.'
Noae
~i[,c l.4itinfj. MQQC
Volts
Deposited Weld Metal
POSITION (QW-405) TECHNIQUE (QW-410)

Position 01 Groove 2~ CU'l~ SC Travel Speed 21-2& ;2m
f)ownhil/
Weld Progression (Uphill, Downhill)
Other _ - String or Wealle Bead
Oacillation
(/S r:.f::~uir",g_ - $"',",
~! '-",wi.",,£. -
Multipas$ or Single PaIS(per side)
Se~
M I.tltiple
$!;.~(;C:b.
skeh::.11
Single or Multiple Electrodes

Other
....,
..
Slnq/~.,,_
PRiHEAT (QW-4Qa)
Prehe.t Temp. /000 p-
Illterpan Tllmp. 2oo·F ;11(1)1.
Other
"<
FIGURE22-5 ASME procedure qualification record (PQR), sheet 1. Courtesy of ASM£ (American Society of Mechanical
I£ngineers).
«!
paR No._._l .... _
T.n.ll. T.1t (OW·1501
Ultimate Ultimate Typ. of
Total load Unit Stress F.ilure&
Specimen
Ib 5i Location
No.
;z.to I DOO
.1.S,'ItJo
~I ~OO
.'
Guided·Bend T.ttl (OW·1601
Type and Figvre No. Result
Side bend G(1, I No de~e.t

.sIde bellO ~ 1. I t-Jl) d.e. ~c-t
s5\',1.e('! bend ~ 1, ,
i"\L:)t'\A 1 I ~~ ~~~~.
J
Toughn ... T•• ts (OW·110)
Notch Test Impact lateral EXD. Dro~ Weioht

Specimen Notch
TVDe Ternn. Values % Shear Mils Break No Break
No. LQcation
.NOlle
Fillet·Weld T.tt (OW·180)
Result - Satisfactory: Ves 7' No Penetration into Parent Metal: Ves No
Macro-Resvlts .~----.-.---.--- _- _ ... - .--- -_ ._---
Other T•• ts
Type of Teat . Nor.e

Dopa.it Analysis None
Other NOl\e
, •••• , ••••••••••• , ••••••••••• ,."",. "', ••••••• , •••••• , •••••••••• , •• '00' ••• , ••••••••••• , ••• " •• 11'.' •• , •• · •• ·····.,··· ••••• ,."
Welder's Name 'Peter J. A.re Clock No. ~So<O Stamp No.50'

Tes"conductedby: H-obdrt f>roc.e.d.u..rf. ktborcttor~ Labor8toryTeslNo. T-J7"
We certify that tHe statements in this record are correct and that the test wal!.js were prepared, welded, and tested in accordance with the
requirements of Section IX of the ASME Coda.
MQnufacturer
Datfl ~.") J 1411'1 By ~ J)~~

(Detlil of record of te$ts ere illustrative only end mlV be modified to conform to tne type and number of tests required by tho COde.' .
FIGURE22-6 ASME procedure qualification record (PQR), sheet 2. Courtesy of ASME (American Society af Mechanical
tngineers).
WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION (WPS) Yes (X)
PREQUALIFIED QUALIFIED BY TESTING ....
'tES:.;;.__
or PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION RECORD (PQR) Yes ()()
Identification # -.:lIM=() _
Revision Date By _
Company Name X'il. .stru.t.tu.fgJ CoMPClt'\ld Authorized by Date _
Welding Process (es) _ _.fC,.-..A~W"JII- _ Type - Manual ( Semi-Automatic fY..J
Supporting PQR No. (S)I_"::"'~ _
Machine ( Automatic ( )
I POSmON
JOINT DESIG~~Egel
Type \Jee
Single (""N .
Vt! ..~ rDCl\l~
Double W~d ( )
Position of Groove Flat i
Vertical Progression: Up t-)
1:\0(;1.. Fillet
Down (_)
-
Backing Yes f'I..) ~~~)
Backing Matl1al~' ~l
Root Opening
Groove Angle:30 -
~.o"s-
Q
Root Face DimeosNo
Radius (J-U) 0 n"
u()
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERlSTICS
Transfer Mode (GMAW) Shan-Circuiting ( )

Back Gouging: Yes ( ) No 00 Spray ('N
'-'
Method Globular ( )
Current: AC ( ) DCEP f"/'J DCEN ( ) Pulsed ( )
BASE METALS Other
Material Spec. A • Ll.4-1
Type or Grade ........
I-loc.It\ - TECHN1QUE
Thickness Groove
Diameter (Pipe) - Fillet Stringer or Weave Bead striMer"
Multi-pass or Single Pass (per side) - n\ u1. ti. ba~ ~
~ne
FILLER METALS
AWS Specification Pr,.F-.. ).0
Number of electrodes
Electrode Spacing Longitudinal --
AWS Classification
SHIELDING
_5_ 1Q_T - ~ Lateral
Angle -
Flux None, Gas CO,.
Contact Tube to Work Distance st« to ~/IJ. l\~
CO"POSitiO~ Peening r'\ " Ol!
Electrode-Flux (Class) Flow Rate -
........ Interpass Cleaning: 1..lt!C;
Gas Cup Size a .. ....
PREHEAT 0 POSTW~~D HEAT TREATMENT
Preheat Temp., Min. 50 f Temp. lol'\!.
Interpass Temp., Min 0
s.a. E Max .- Time
WELDING PROCEDURE
Filler Metals Current Jomt Details
Amps or 30· + 5· -
_ ..-..J
o·
Pass or Wire
Weld Type & Feed Travel
Layer(s)
A-lt
Process
~AW
Oass Diam.
1;:1oT..S 3/32.-io D.C.t
Polarity Speed
~4Sc
Volts
ota ..3°
Speed
.
JD .14-
cgJJ ~ -3/16
'<>M
3/;: ~... ..
30' + 5° - o·
l
FIGURE22-7 AWS structural welding procedure specification.

Procedure Qualification Record (paR) # _.:.::1v;__ _
Test Results
TENSILE TEST
Specimen Ultimate tensile Ultimate unit Character of failure

no. Width Thic kness Area load.lb stress. psi and location
GUIDED BEND TEST
R.adiographic.ultrasonic examination
RTreportno: None. RcsuJt __ """"' _
UT report 110: . N Q 0 e. Result __ - _
FILLET WELD TEST RESULTS
Minimum size multiple PIW Ma.x.i:tnumsize single pass
Macroetcb None. Macroetch None.
I. 3. \-. I. v 3. ..,;
.....
;....__
C_,hA1'.,~v-n()te'" cOMMX/OMM 2. 2. -
S~ lo,t e0U94. t...Ct\:.c'4;~ -weld-metal tension tcst No t'\ L
All.
.!.eed~tJ(l ~ a.b~t'W ~)C(XlJ\~~er1Tensile strength, psi -..;;;..... _

wR :~~r qS~·I"~ 901'N(4) Yieldpoint/strengtb,psi -;..;_ _
IM1 • £(0 F S'l it. Ibe, 1" ~I('S Elongation in 2 in % _
""~ - bOoO f "5 Uo. Ib!' 1D f'WS ." _
4A p.
,..,"''''
~'-' -cP" 5'0 ~ 1"'11.. 1D Ml I~
..,.,,,~ Laboratory test no. ---------
Weider's name .¥>bO J)Q' Clock no. 1.13 ·lJ.s-a
.1 Stamp no. :¥4;1
Tests conducted by rlo bort 1?c.tA.n.t~aJ Centec Laboratory
Test num.b4'r • l:1N fA .. 101· '=
Per J'tlh" Jane'
We, the undersigned. certify that the statements in tbia record are (:olTCCtand that the tC3twelds were prepan:d, welded, and tested in
accordance with the requirements of section 5, Pan B of ANSII A WS 01.1. ( .'@4 .. ,) StTUQturaJ Welding Code-Steel.
.~
Signed ~ 't, 5 in4.ltL&,t<&~ Cem ~

Manw~ or Contnc;tor
By -I"'tMSca.I.lO,
.~:-:t:: ~:~~~C:,- ,.
FIGURE22-8 AWS structural procedure qualification record.
by the sheet metal code are different from the standard also provisions for qualifying welding equipment and
structural code. operators even if more than one operator is required. If
any of the essential variables are changed, including a
change in the welding process, a change in the pipe ma-
Other AWS Requirements terial or size, a change in the joint design, a change in
The AWS "Standard for Welding Procedure and Perfor- the position, a change in filler metal, a change in filler
mance Qualification" (B2.1/,'I7) covers the requirements metal size, and so on, the Welding procedure must be
for qualifications of welding procedures f01"weldments reestablished and completely requalified. These require-
other than structural for buildings and bridges. The re- ments are described in detail.The code must be referred
quirements of the B2.1 standard are very similar to those to in writing in a qualified welding procedure. An ex-
of Section XI of the Boiler Code.The forms are similar.and ample of an API-qualified welding procedure specifica-
the information required to fill in the forms for welding tion is given in Figures 22-9 and 22-10.The coupon test
procedure specification (WPS) is essentially the same as report form example is given in Figure 22-11.This form
the information required by theASME welding procedure is used for both procedure qualification and welder
specification. qualification. Always refer to the latest edition of the
The welding procedure specification is qualified by standard.
making specific welds as described and testing them.This
information is documented on the procedure qualifica-
tion record (PQR) form, which is also very similar to the
Boiler Code procedure qualification record. There are mi-
22-4 STANDARD WELDING
nor differences in thatAWS uses the American Welding So- PROCEDURE SPECIFICATIONS
ciety specification numbers for filler metals, and the
listing of base metals is slightly different. In addition, the
(SWPS)
variables are slightly different from ASME.For this reason, A major expense to producers of code-welded products
refer to the B2.1 document. is the necessity of writing, preparing, testing, and qualify-
ing welding procedures. This becomes excessive because
of the need to requalify the same procedure over and
Cross-Country Pipelines over. Requalification is due to code requirements when
The API Standard 1104(3R)for welding pipelines and re- customers or products are changed or for legal reasons.
lated facilities requires procedure and welder qualifica- Standard welding procedures supported by adequate test
tion. This code, which is used worldwide, was designed data and that satisfy the technical requirements for the
so that qualification tests can be made in the field. The commonly used welding codes and specifications have
procedure specification includes the process, the base been needed for many years.
metal, the size of pipe in diameter and wall thickness, Through the cooperation of the Welding Research
the joint detail, the filler metal type, size and number of Council and the American Welding Society, thousands of
passes, and the electrical characteristics used. There are qualified welding procedures and procedure qualifica-
FIGURE22-9 Sample procedure specification form.
AoI,renco. API Standard 1104. 2.2
,.3'--__
PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION NO ......
Prpe and Flltlngs
01.1 .slaal3" _
luted "bLov, ~O, ,gg, Welder -e. b· W¢1r:J.u-

ApptcYtd ""es
Ad9pted_...:>+JC'ollL-
,. _
W$ldlng 8up,rvioor \.\15, .:rOne.)
Chl~1 anglneer C. E: South
582 CHAPTER 22
tion records have been collected and analyzed. Based on with the "National Board Inspection Code.,,(:19)The ASME
these data, a number of standard welding procedure spec- Boiler Code Committee has approved specific SWPSs.
ifications cwPSs) have been written.This is an ongoing ac- The standard welding procedure specifications
tivity; so far more than 50 standard welding procedure provide directions for making acceptable welds with
specifications have been established, approved, and pub- specific processes on specific metals in the size range
lished by the American Welding Society. They are also ap- and posirtons covered. They provide ranges of welding
proved as national standards by the American National variables that will be practical for the applications. It is
Standards Institute CANS!).The current standard WPSs the policy of the AWS B2 Committee that the range of
based on ANSI/AWS B2.1, "Standard for Welding Proce- conditions and variables listed in the standard WPS be
dure and Performance Qualiflcationsr'Y" are shown in Significantly restrictive to ensure a high probability of
Table 22-1. successful application by all users. Each standard weld-
Many more standard welding procedure specifica- ing procedure specification (WPS) used by a company
tions are needed. In the meantime it is important to de- must be accepted with a company official Signing to the
termine if a particular need can be satisfied by an existing effect that "I accept full responsibility for the applica-
standard welding procedure specification or if it will be tion of this standard WPS for use with the particular
necessary to generate a welding procedure specification. product or project under construction."At the option of
A welding procedure selection criteria chart is shown in the accepting company, the variables can be limited or
Figure 22-12.This should be used to determine whether restricted.
an AWS Standard Welding Procedure Specification The standard welding procedure specifications are
CSWPS) is available for the specific application or permitted to be used on work covered by the code or
Whether it will be necessary to develop a customized specification for which it has been approved. They do not
welding procedure specification. Some of the standard require further testing or qualification work by the pro-
WPSs have been approved by the National Board for use ducer company. Thus it will no longer be necessary for
FIGURE22-10 Sample procedure specification form (cont.).
Reference: API Standard 1104, 2.2
'116" :t '/32" (1.59 mm :t 0.79 mm)
Standard V-Bevel Butt Joint
Appro,'ma,.'y v« (3.17 mm)
[BaI= f
Sequence of Beads
Note: Dimensions are for reference only.
EL.ECTROOe size AND NUMSER OF BEADS '".
Electrode Amperage
and
Bead Number Voltage POlarity Speed
Welding Specifications, Pro _edures, and QyaJJfications'

COUPON TEST REPORT
Date N~ 3~11~g:1 Test No. r: '2:4 J.

tocaten ~1.Ir
Weld Position: _ ~ Roll 0 0
State Q~~_
Welder
Welding time
::''::10 l! ~1~Ca1g,t1
I
Mark
Time of day
~5~
: 0 0 AH
Fixed
Mean temperature "7{)' F Wind break used No ae

Weather conditions fnAnl':lf ~
~ltage3·~·'-.'iO:- Amperage lit) -/.30
Welding machLle,,~e 14~blt.rt D ~ l1~n..:r12+l:I 'f Welding machine size "It e t"J A._I\'\ID •
Filler metal I.,.,
il1. r -\-'it 16 I:. 1'..."-+,,
Reinforcement size 11),'1 +0 vt u:
Pipe type and grade '.~ L. 'X 'l' «: y
Wall thickness • AO "" {nt'.!... Outside diameter 8' (~
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
I
Coupon stenciled
) I I.O/SXJ.-
Original specimen dimensions
()~:31l f') , :ltJ "!J
Original specimen area
o ,1'10 I o. ~OJ,
Maximum load
15J~()O ''',~OO
Tensile strength per square inch of
plate area
70,} q /I io.,JI68
Fracture location
b;t~rr.et"tt! M5e~
i Procedure
Welder
~auallfying
Une test
test ~aUalified
DiSQualified
Maximum tensile RQ, Of) /) Minimum tensile 75.1 ~OO Average tensile 7gJSDO
~ma~s
2. ~~
3.
Itffnslle-str~~h
d ~ ~~
tests~~
fit I, tl't u~
r, .~ lJ.teJ.a
4.
~m1fr"·m
l::-i~~d ;
Rema~s ~n.k tests
~:it:i . ts
3.
4.
i:::.:~~e at ~~~~C~ ~ lcal Cenlu Oate~

Supervised
t!t:J. ~
by ~ :-::oaI
I~
l:l z;'i
NOI.: Use back for additional remarXs. This form can be used to report either a procedure qualification test or a welder qualification
test.
FIGURE22-11 Sample coupon test report form.
the company to develop and qualify its own welding pro- significant knowledge of welding. They must provide the
cedure specifications for standardized requirements. New engineering capability, training and qualified personnel,
welding processes, special techniques, materials, or filler and proper equipment to implement the standard weld-
metals must still be tested and qualified as in the past. ing procedure specifications. The ability to make produc-
The standard WPSs do not replace or..........substitute for tion welds with properties suitable for application
fabrication documents (codes, spectfications.er contract depends on supplementing the standard WPS with
req4ir~ments). They are an alternative to the i.i1,dividual appropriate performance. qualification tests and sound
company's own WPSs and PQRs.l'he standard wrs is not engineering judgment. A standard WPS must be supple-
valid using conditions and variables outside the ranges mented by information and instructions for use by the or-
listed. TIle user organtzanon must have personnel with ganization and for information to the welders.
524 CHAPTER,22
,
TABLE 22-1 INDEXOF STANDARDWELDINGPROCEDURESPECIFICATIONS
FOR SHEETMETALAND STRUCTURALApPLICATIONS
Base Metal
Method .of M.> Thickness Heat . Miscellaneous

A.p.pHpationC ·Cla'Ssd ··Type (in.) Backing" Position' Treatmentg Information
001 SMAW MA 1 Carbon steel fa - ~ Yes All (UH) AW low hydrogen electrode
002 GTAW MA 1 Carbon steel fa - i Opt. All AW Argon shielding
003 GMAW SC SA Galvanized steel Sheet metal Opt. All AW Argon + CO2 shielding
004 GMAW sc SA 1 Carbon steel Sheet metal Opt. All AW Argon + CO2 shielding
005 GMAW SC SA 8 Austenitic SS Sheet metal Opt. All AW 90% He + 7% argon +
2% CO2 shielding
006 GMAW SC SA 1 CS to austenitic SS Sheet metal Opt. All AW 90% He + 7% argon +
2% CO2 shielding
007 MA Galvanized steel Sheet metal Opt. All AW Argon shielding
008 MA 1 Carbon steel Sheet metal Opt. All AW Argon shielding
009 MA 8 Austenitic SS Sheet metal Opt. All AW Argon shielding
010 MA 1.8 CS to austenitlc SS Sheet metal Opt. All AW Argon shielding
011 MA Galvanized steel 10-l8 gauge Opt. All AW E6010 or E6013
012 MA 1 Carbon steel 10-18 gauge Opt. All AW E6010 or E6013
013 MA 8 Austenitic SS 10-18 gauge Opt. All AW
014 MA- 1,8 CS to. austenitic; 55 10-18 gauge Opt. All. AW
015 MA 22 Aluminum 10-18 gauge Opt. All (UH) AW Argon shielding
016 MA 1 Carbon steel ~ - 1} Opt. All {UH} AWor PW E7018
017 MA 1 Carbon. steel t- H Opt. All (UH) AWor PW E6010
018 SA 1 Carbon steel 11
j .... Opt. All (UH) AW E7l T~8.
o 9 SA 1 Carbon steel 1 Opt. All (UH) 100% CO~ shielding
020
021
·,SA
··'MA;
.1; Carbon ~teel t- 1, Opt, All (UH)
AW
Awol' PW 75% Ar 1- 25% COz
ER. 70S~2j E7018
.',~,
1 ; Carbon-steel i'-1t' Opt. All (UH) AWorPW
02~ All CUM) AWor PW E60l0, E701S

·Q2~ . All (UR) AW V~l'ipus F.M.
All {l}H}
All tUH)
\ AW
AW,
Various: F.:M.
Var.loiJs F. M.
All (Drt)
. All (apt>
All O~~UH)
, All. (R..OH) AW
,.. ~ .. _,
TABLE 22-1 INDEXOFSTANDARDWELDINGPROCEDURESPECIFICATIONS

FORSHEETMETALANDSTRUCTURALApPLICATIONS,(CONTINUED)
Base Metal
WPS W~lding Method of M Thickness Heat Miscellaneous
Number : . Precess" Variationb Application" Otass'' 1ype (in.) Backing" Position' Treatment" Information
204 SMAW MA 1 Carbon steel i·- ~ No All (R-DHl AW E6010 root downhill,
balance uphill
205 SMAW MA 1 Carbon steel i- H No All (R-UH) AW or PW E6010 root
uphill E7018
206 SMAW MA 1 Carbon steel k > H No All (R-DH) AW or PW E6010 root
downhill,
E7018
207 GlAW MA 1 Carbon steel i- H No All (UH) AW or PW Argon, ER 70S-2
208 SMAW MA 1 Carbon steel i- H Yes All (UH) AW or PW E7018
209 GTAW, MA 1 Carbon steel i- H Opt. All (UH) AW or PW GTW root,
SMAW E7018
210 GTAW MA 1 Carbon steel i- H CI All (UH) AW or PW Argon, ER 70S-2
211 GTAW, MA 1 Carbon steel i- H CI All (UH) AW or PW GTAW root,
SMAW E7018
212 GTAW MA 4 Chromium- i- H No All (UH) AW or PW Preheat, Argon,
molybdenum ER 80S-B2
steel
213 SMAW MA 4 Chromium- i- H Yes All (UH) AW or PW Preheat, steel
molybdenum backing,
steel E8018-B2
214 GTAW, MA 4 Chromium- i- H No All (UH) AW or PW Preheat, GTAW
SMAW molybdenum root,
steel ER80S-B2
215 GTAW MA 4 Chromium- i- H CI All (UH) AW or PW Preheat, Argon IN515,
molybdenum ER80S-B2
steel
216 GTAW, MA 4 Chromium- i- H CI All (UH) AW or PW Preheat, GTAW root,
SMAW molybdenum IN515, ER80S-B2,
steel E8018-B2
217 GTAW MA 4 Chromium- i-~ Opt. All (UH) AW E880S-B2 Argon
molybdenum
steel
218 SMAW MA 4 Chromium-
. i- H Yes All (UH) AW or PW E8018-82
molybdenum
steel
219 GTAW, MA 4 Chromium- g - Opt. All (UH) AW or PW E880S-B2 E8018-B2
SMAW molybdenum
steel
220 GTAW MA 4 Chromium- g -J CI All (UH) AW ER80S-B2 Argon
molybdenum
steel
221 GTAW, MA 4 Chromium- I- CI All (UH) AW or PW ER80S-B2 E9018-B2
SMAW molybdenum
steel
222 GTAW MA 5A Chromium- g -3 Opt. All (UH) AW or PW FR905-B3
molybdenum
steel
223 SMAW MA 5A Chromium- i- 1i Yes All (UH) AW or PW FR905-B3
molybdenum
steel
224 GTAW, MA 5A Chromium- a - 1i Opt. All (UH) AW FR905-B3
SMAW molybdenum
steel
225 GTAW MA 5A Chromium- i- f CI All (UH) AW FR905-B3
molybdenum
steel
226 GTAW, MA 5A Chromium- i- 1i CI All (UH) AW FR905-B3
SMAW molybdenum
steel
* SMAW, shielded metal arc welding (stick); GTAW, gas tungsten arc welding (TIG); FCAW, flux-cored arc welding; GMAW, gas metal arc welding (MIG).
h SC, short-circuiting, SS, self-shielded; GS, gas-shielded.
MA, manual; SA, semiautomatic.
" Base metal class is M numbers of material.

" No, none; Yes, metal backing bar; CI, consumable insert; Opt., optional.
1
UH, uphill; DH, downhill.
1AW, as welded; PW, postwelded.
EVALUATE THE PRODUCTION NEEDS AND
DETERMINE IF A SUITABLE ANSI/AWS
STANDARD WPS EXISTS AND ITS USE IS
PERMITTED BY THE REFERENCING DOCUMENT
A WPS QUALIFIED BY THE EMPLOYER

MUST BE USED. THE EMPLOYER
SHALL DETERMINE, BASED UPON THE
REFERENCING DOCUMENT AND THE
TYPE OF PRODUCTION WELDMENT(S),
IF A SPECIAL TEST WELDMENT IS
APPROPRIATE FOR QUALIFICATION
DEVELOP A PRELIMINARY WPS DEVELOP A PRELIMINARY WPS

FOR A SIMULATED SERVIC!: OR FOR A REGULAR
PROTOTYPE TEST WELDMENT TEST WELDMENT
MAKE A PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION

TEST WELDMENT USING THE
VARIABLES OF THE PRELIMINARY
WPS AS A STARTING POINT
RECORD ACTUAL VALUES USED

IN PRODUCING THE TEST WELDMENT
TEST AND EVALUATE THE

TEST SPECIMENS
DOCUMENT THE VARIABLES USED,

THE TESTS PERFORMED,
AND THE TEST RESULTS IN A PQR
IF ACCEPTABLE, PREPARE A WPS
ISSUE EMPLOYER-APPROVED WPS
FIGURE 22....12 Welding procedure selection criteria.
The index for standard WPSs (Table 22-1) shows or whether it will be postweld heat treated.The format for
the standard WPS number, the base metal it is gesigned to each welding procedure specification is very similar to
,weld; the type of base metal by M number, the g~ometry those required by AWSB2.1 or ASME Section IX.
(whether srructurat plate or shapes), sheet metal hI.' pipe, Additional WPSs will be generated inthe future. It is
, tne thlcluless.1"d-nge of the base metal, the welding process anticipated that the standard WPSs will save the welding
employed With variations, whether backing is used or industry tremendous sums of money and enable it to be-
.not, the type o.fbacking, the type of filler metal, the weld- come mote competitive throughout the world. The stan-
ing position, whether the vertlcal progression is uphill or dard wPSs can be obtained from theAmerican Welding
: downl ill, and whether it is designed for "as welded" use Society headquarters in Miami, Florida.
• Certification is a written statement to the fact that
22-5 QUALIFYING AND the welder has produced welds meeting a pre-
CERTIFYING WELDERS scribed standard of welding performance. It implJes
that a testing organization, manufacturer, contrac-
All codes and specifications require proof that welders
tor, or owner or user has witnessed the preparation
and welding operators have the necessary skill and abil-
of test welds, has conducted the prescribed testing
ity to follow a qualified welding procedure successfully.
of the welds, and has recorded the successful re-
This is a legal requirement since the specifications state
sults of a test in accordance with prescribed ac-
that the manufacturer, contractor, owner, or user is re-
cepted standards.
sponsible for the welding done. They are unable to per-
sonally observe the work of each and every welder;
• Welder registration is the act of registering a welder
certification or a photostatic copy of the welder's
therefore, they rely on the fact that each welder and weld-
certification. This is done by an appropriate or au-
ing operator has passed qualification tests. Contractors,
thoritative organization. Welders and others some-
manUfacturers, owners, and users must maintain com-
plete records of qualified procedures and test results. times become confused when they encounter the
need for a "qualified welder." This confusion is the
Computer software programs are available that al-
low you to create welder performance qualification result of the great number of different codes, speci-
records (WPQR).These programs allow you to keep close fications, and government regulations with seem-
track of every qualified welder on the payroll. Each ingly different requirements that apply.
welder's record is entered into the program, which can
be used to monitor that welder's test record for various The following is a brief review of welder qualifica-
processes and which may provide warnings of test expi- tions under ASME Section IX of the "Boiler and Pressure
ration dates. Some programs provide for welder inspec- Vessel Code." ASME Section IX· is used for qualifying
tion results and rejection rates. welders to work on some other products; consult the lat-
To be qualified, welders and welding operators est edition of the code.
must make specific welds that are then tested to prove The welder who prepares the procedure qualifica-
they are of the quality required. These tests may be dif- tion record (PQR) specimens that pass code require-
ferent for different codes. Qualification under one code ments is personally qualified within his or her
Will not necessarily qualify the welder to weld under a dif- performance qualification variables. All other welders
ferent code even though the tests are similar.There is one and welding operators are qualified by specific welding
exception, involving certain Navy codes, the Coast Guard tests required by the WPS (welding procedur specifica-
COde,and theAmerican Bureau of Shipping Specifications tion) that will cover the work.An example of the Record
for the welding of ships.These codes are similar, and qual. of Welder or Welding Operator Qualification Test (WPQ)
ifications for one are usually accepted for the others. is shown in Figure 22-13.This record should include the
It is absolutely essential that the applicable code be essential variables, the type of test and test results, and
Used in qualifying welders and welding operators. Quali- the ranges qualified for each welder and welding opera-
fication of welders is an extremely technical subject and tor. Each welder and welding operator must be assigned
carries With it contractual responsibilities. In addirion.dif- an identifying number, letter, or symbol. It is used to iden-
ferent codes and specifications have slightly different def- tify the work of that person. The tests assigned are in ac-
initions. The following are used in this section. cordance with the code, and the mechanical tests should
meet the requirements applicable by the code. Radi-
• Welder's performance qualifications means the ographic examination may be substituted for rnechantcal
demonstration of a welder's ability to produce tests except for GMAW using short circuiting metal trans-
welds meeting prescribed standards. fer. The radiographic technique and acceptance criteria
• Welder certification means written verification that should be in accordance with the code. In general,
a welder has produced welds meeting a prescribed welders who meet the code requirements forgroov
standard of welder performance. ' welds are also qualified for fillet welds, but not vice
• QUalification is described differently in different versa.A welder qualified to weld in accordance with one
specifications, but in general qualification means qualified WPS is also qualified·· to weld Inaccordance
the ability of an individual to perform to a required with other qualified WPSs using· tbe satne'weldJng
standard. It'is the demonstration of a welder's abil- process. with.in the limits of essential variables a.Ccol'dmg.
ity to produce welds meeting prescribed standards to the code. .
or that welds made to a specific proc dure can If a welder has not welded for a period of'sb(:
meet prescribed standards. It involves taking and months or more, his or her qualtttcatton expire. If thet is
passing a practical welding test. reason to question the welder's ability to make welds·*at ...
.
\
QW.484 SUGGESTED FORMAT FOR MANUFACTURER'S RECORD OF WELDER OR
WELDING OPERATOR QUALIFICATION TESTS (WPQI
(See QW·301, Section IX, ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Codel
Welder Name Pete( j. p..,fe. Check No. 350 ~ Stamp No. 50 ,

USing WPS No. 3 Rev. - Date 9/"/9/
the above welder is Qualified for the following ranges.
Record Actual Valu ••
U .. d in Qualification QualifiCltion Range
Process
6t.-1AW" &MAW'
Process Type
:;wu .tU.ttOrna.!) e ~-em) .ilUlo01atl~
JJoOe None
Backing
Material
[metal, weld metal, flux, etc. (OW402))
Spec. (QW403)
P ·1 to _f.~.1_ p., to P...I
Thickness
Groove
¢·5<,) , in All
Fillet
Diameter
Groove
Fillet
Filler Metal (QW4Q4)
Spec. No.
s./e, S ·I~
E@,. 10S - 3
Class
F-No.
Deposited Weld Metal Thickness "
-
Groove __ .,..___ Fillet .. --.--------
POSition (QW405)
bt\ po~i+ioo
Weld Progression ~
Gas Type (QW408)
c..6y
Backing Gas (QW·408) NoO.e.__- .._._--.
Electrical Characteristics (QW409)
Current
p.e, D.C.
Polarity
E le6tro de -t
Guided Bend Test Results QW·462.2(a), QW·462.3(a), QW·462.3(b)
Type and Fig. No. Result
Radiographic Test Results (QW·304

For alternative qualification of groolle welds by radiography
Fillet Weld Test Results ISee QW-462.4(a), QW-462.4(b)1

Fracture Test (Describe the location. nature ana size 01 any crack 0' tearing of the specimen) ----------------
length and Per Cent Of Defects ...:~:....::.------ inches -__.~------_%

Macro Test-FUSion _ __.N~O~n(.~ -------~.
Convexrtv .z,
.......
...;.,_ .n. or Concavitv __ ..... in.
Appearance=-Filtet Size (Iegl '--=:.... In. X __ . _~ in.
Test ConductBd by J:.\:obD.t~ldi ~ ProceAure Lo.b laboratory- Test No. __.I~O~~~S!:!.- . _

Wfl certify that tile statements In this reeara lire correct and that the test welds Were prepared, welded and tested in accordance with the
requirements of Section IX of the ASME Code.
Organization h ~c. fke.~SuJe \1_~LCd. ..---..~.

Oate _~_, .lq9l ~~~- __ . By ~~~---~-
(OetallQI record of le$ts are iilustratlve only an~",y be mOdified 10 conform to lhe Iype and number of tests required by the COde.)
. NOTE: Any !l~senllal lIariable~ In addition to those above shall be recorded.
FIGUR~22-13 ASME record of welder qualification tests (WPQ). Courtesy of ASM£ (American SOCiety of Mechanical
engineers),
; <,
o _',
meet the specifications, his or her qualification shall be other steels permitted by the specification with the ex-
considered expired. Various other conditions relative to ception of coated steels. If coated steels are involved, the
welder qualifications are listed in the code. Performance qualification must be on coated steels.The welder should
testing can be done by independent testing laboratories. be qualified for each welding process used and in each
The code requires welding of performance qualification position used, In the case of vertical, it relates to uphill or
tests to be witnessed by the certificate holder. The prepa- downhill travel. Welders are qualified for all electrodes
ration and mechanical testing may be subcontracted, but within a group designation. Different combinations of
the full responsibility for all requirements must be borne electrode and shielding gas must be qualified.A differen-
by the manufacturer, contractor, owner, or user. The code tiation is made between different types of welds, such as
must be consulted for this information. fillet welds, flare groove welds, and so on. The manufac-
The following is a brief review of welder qualifica- turer or contractor must keep track of the qualification
tion under AWS"Standard for Welding Procedure and Per- records. The qualification is considered indefinite unless
formance Qualifications" CB2.1).This code is referenced the welder does not weld for a period of six months 01'
by many AWS specifications and should be used except there is some reason to question the welder's ability. The
for qualifying welders, welding operators, or tackers to form used is different from the structural code form. Re-
the Structural Code."Standard forWelding Procedure and fer toAWS 01.3 for details.
Performance Qualifications" is in many respects very The qualification of welders for cross-country
similar to the ASME Section IX requirements. The termi- pipeline work.according to API Standard 1104,is different
nology is essentially the same and information required from the others just mentioned. The cross-country
is almost identical. The variables may vary slightly and pipeline qualification work is usually done in the field,
the forms are slightly different. The recording of test re- and welds are tested in the Held.The tests require tensile,
sults made by welders or welding operators is recorded bend tests, and nick-break tests.The welders can be qual-
on a form called the Performance Qualification Test ified for single qualification or multiple qualification, de-
Record, which is similar to the ASME form. Upon com- pending on taking one or two tests. The Coupon Test
pletion of the tests and if they meet the code require- Report form is used for performance and for procedure
ments, this record is then signed by the qualifier, which qualification and is shown in Figure 22-11.TheAPI stan-
qualifies the welder or welding operator. The qualifica- dard should be consulted for details, including variables
tion record applies continuously unless no welding is and test results.
done for a period of six months or if there is reason to Welders or welding operators cannot be qualified
qUestion the welder's ability. Refer in detail to this spe- or certified on their own. Normally, manufacturers, con-
cific document. tractors, owners, or users certify that a welder is quali-
The following is a brief review of the qualification fled based on successful completion of specific test
of welders, welding operators, and tackers under the re- welds. This means that recertification or qualification is
quirements of AWS"Structural Welding Code-Steel."This normally required when welders change employers.The
Code is different from the Boiler Code andAWS B2.1. American Welding Society, in an effort to reduce the ex-
The structural code provides for the use of welding pense of requalifying welders for code work, has an-
procedure specifications, as mentioned previously, but nounced the "Standard for AWS Certified Welders" (AWS
also allows the use of prequalified joint welding proce- QC-3i40) program, which promises to save the industry
dures with caution. In addition, standard welding proce- millions of dollars annually. Welders who complete ase-
dure specffications may be used. Consult the code for ries of standardized skill tests successfully and pass a vi-
specific information. The form used' for performance sual acuity examination become AWS Certified Welders.
qualification is entitled "Welder and Welding Operator Certification remains in effect indefinitely as long as
, Qualit1cation Test Record," shown ill Figure 22-14. The they weld every six 111011thsprovide
l employment veri-
speCific tests that must be taken are covered in the code. fication to AWS headquarters, and pass the annual eye
It is further'stated that at the engineer's discrenon proper examination.
dOcumented evidence of previous qualifications of A test facility accredited by the Amerl 'an Welding .
Welders, weldmg operators, and tack welders may be ac- Society (41) will provide the skill tests to welders based on
cepted.Visual inspection, guided bend test, fillet test, and their application being a cepted by AWS headquarters,
radiographic test results are employed. The tests will be in accordance with the CertifiedWelder
. Welder performancequaltficatton for the "Struc- ,. Program, Accreditation of the independent test-laborato-
tural Welding Code-Sheet Steer' AWS D1.3 is different ries is handled by the .American Bureau of. Shipping!
from the Structural Code, Quallflcation is established for whichperforms on-site test assessments of til labora-
anYone of the steels perrnlrted by the speciflcation, and tory. AWS will provide. a list of accredited test f<Jcillties
the welder shall be considered as qualifi d to weld on any upon request.
\.
WELDER AND WELDING OPERATOR QUALIFICATION TEST RECORD
Welder or welding operator's name John Dcc Identification no. 1J.3· t.J.E· #"-'
Welding process Semiautomatic)( Machine _
Position _.,I....I.l--'-....lDIuPo_,_, .................
~......,......_ _
(Flat. horizontal. overhead or vertical - if vertical, state whether upward or downward)

In accordance with procedure specification no ...IiIII"'""'- _
M~eM~spedficadon ~A~5~~~~A~·*~+~I ~~~-----------~
Diameter and wall thickness (if pipe) - 9therwise, joint thi~kn~ss -:"'-1-........;o.....
CC""Iau- _
Thlckess range this qualifies +0
~ft iii lOt! '" Llo I!M,tc:d
FILLER METAL
Specification no. A $ ,'}:Q Classification 7oT·.5 e Fno.~LO'_ _

Oescribe filler metal (if not covered by AWS specification) __ ;..._ _
Is backing strip used? _........,..____ ...",...~,....._------------ __ -------

Filler metal diameter and trade name ..:&jLW.AI::'-'&.I.A..~ Flux for submerged arc or gas for gas metal arc or flux
cored arc welding C¢" we.lc.... @ rade 09
VISUAL INSPECTION (9.25.1)
Appearance Galld.L.oo
...... 4~ Undercut Noac "~l
Piping porosity .... ..
"UI«! _
Guided Bend Test Results
Type Result Type Result
Laboratory t~ no. ]j~.101-t.

Test date ~O\J. L_L'jJ
Rllet Test Results
Appearance -.a.Nx.:;i>A,jOl,Joe Fillet size _,,_. _
Fracture test root penetration ~ Macroetch _.....;;;;- _
(Oescribe the location, nature, and ize of any,crack or ie ring of the specimen.)
Test conducted by Laboratory test no. :nAte· =Z01-c..
per Test date Ne,,· 11:, I!it
RADIOGRAPHIC TEST RESULTS
Film FUm
Identifi- Results Remarks identifi- Results Remarks
cation cation
T8$t witnessed by ....!..,..:r;,:.ub:.klaIJ...WJO~oc:

.. ~;J. _
p r --
e wt1~ W. ore prepared and test~ in
We. the lmde1'$igl'led,oertlfy. that the stato~ents in this record are correct and that the
accordance with the requirements of section 5, Part 0 Of 0 of ANSI/AWS 01.1, ( •• I~ ) Structural Welding
COd.,..Steel.
Manufacturer or contractor
year
'S:J -z,.. ...l1b'wiM'" I
~ .AT. I\~
y;).
Authorized by 10M IOca"""

_. Date _.J;N~mJWI.I." ...J.\1J-+:,.u1q:J.,;<i;a.,JII..,.. _
FIGURE22-14 Welder and welding oper~1¢r qualification test record.

QUESTIONS
22-1. Why is welding covered in so many codes? 22-12. Can welders be certified by a 'contractors' associa-
tion? If so, how is it done?
22-2. What is the purpose of a procedure qualification
22-13. What is an ASME symbol stamp? Who can use it?
record cPQR)?
22-3. What is the purpose of a welder performance qualifi- 22-14. What welded products are covered by theAWS struc-
tun al code? What materials?
cation (WPQ) test?
22-4. Why are perfect welds required for some classes of 22-15. What are prequalified welding procedures?
work and not others? 22-16. Which welded products are covered by API Stan-
22-5. Who is responsible for a good-quality product? dard 1104?
22-17. How are automatic welding equipment and opera-
22-6. Who is responsible for a good-quality weld?
tors qualified?
22-7. What is a certified welder? What is welder registration?
22-18. What method does API 1104 use for fracture tough-
22·8. Codes and specifications are related to industries.
ness testing?
What industries use welding specifications?
22.19. How will standardWPSs reduce the cost ofweldments?
22-9. What is a welding procedure specification (WPS)?
22-20. Who makes standard welding procedure specifica-
22-10. What is a welding procedure? Name two types.
tions available to the industry?
22-11. Is the ASME Section lX, welding qualifications, en-
forceable by law?
REFERENCES
1. "Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code," American Society of 13. "Standard Specification for Merchant Ship Construc-
Mechanical Engineers, New York. tion," U.S. Maritime Administration, Washington, D.C.
2. "Quality ASSurance Criteria for Nuclear Power Plants and 14. "Rules for Building and Classing Steel Vesseis,"American
Fuel Reprocessing Plants," Code of Federal Regulations, Bureau of Shipping, New York.
Section 10, Energy Part 50, Appendix B (10 CFR50-B). 15. "Guide for Steel HuH Welding," ANSI/J\.WS 03.5,Ameri-
3. "Standard for Welding of Reactor Coolant and Associated can Welding Society, Mlaml, Fla.
Systems and Components for Naval Nuclear Power 16. "Guide for Aluminum Hull Welding," ANSl/AWS D3.7,
Plants," Navships 250-1500-1, U.S. Department of the American Welding Society, Miami, Fla.
Navy, Naval Engineering Center,Washington, D.C. 17. "Specifications for Tank Cars," Association of American
4., "Structural Welding Code-Steel,"ANSI/AWS D t.t.Amer- RaHroads,Washington, D.C.
ican Welding Society, Miami, Fla. 18. "Specifications for Design, Fabrication, and Construc-
5. "Manual of Steel Construction-Allowable Stress De- tion of Freight Cars," Association of American Railroads,
sigl'l,"American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago. Chicago.
6. "Bridge Welding Code," AASHTO/AWS D1.5, American 19. "Railroad Welding Specification," ANSI/AWS DIS.1,
Welding Society, Miami, Fla. American Welding Society, Miami, Fla.
7. "Structural Welding Code-Aluminum,"ANSI/AWS 01.2, 20. "Aerospace Material Specifications," Society of Automo-
American Welding Society, Miami, Fla. tive Engineers, Warrendale, Pa,
8. "Structural Welding Code-Reinforcing Steel," ANSI! 21. "NationalAerospace Standatds.'Aerospace tndustrtes As-
AWS D1.4,American Welding Society, Miami, Fla. sociation ofAme.rica,Washington, D.C.
9. "Standard for Welded Steel Elevated Tanks, Standpipes, 22. "Qualification of Aircraft, Missile and Aerospace Fusion
and Reservoirs for Water Storage," AWS 01.1, American Welders," Military Standard MIL-S1'D-1595A. (Notice 1),
Welding Society, Miami, Fla. U,S. Department of Defense,Washln~tOn, D.C.
10. "Standard for Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage," API 23. "Sp cificatlon for Automotive Frame Weld QuaJity--At
Standard 650, American Petroleum Institute, Washing- Welding,":I\NSI/AWS D8.8,Amerlcall Welding Society, Mi-
ton,D.C. ami, Fla.
11. U.S. Coast Guard, Department of Transportation, "Marine 24. "Recorotitended Practices for Automotive Weld. QtJal.
Bnglneering Regulations," Sub Chapter F, Part .?7,"Weld· tty-Resistance Spot Welding," ANSI/AWS 08.7, At»¢ti'·
tng and Brazing," Code of Federal Regulations, Washing- can Wcldin.g Sociery, Miami, Pla.
ton, D.C. 25. "Spe i.flcatio.Q.for Welding Eartb Moving anll ConstnlC·
12. "Fabrication,Weld1ng and Inspection of Ship Hulls," Nav- tion Equipment,"AWS D14.3,Amctican Welding Socletyl
ships 0900-000-1000, U.S. Department of me Navy, Miaml,Fla.
Naval Ship Systems commano, Washington, D.C.
\ \ ",
26. "30 CFR Roll-Over Protective Structures," Federal Regis- 34. "Fusion Welding for Aerospace Welders," Military Stan-
ter 39, no. 207. dard MIL-STD-2219, U.S. Department of Defense, Wash-
27. "Specification for Welding Industrial and Mill Cranes and ington, D.C.
Other Material Handling Equipment," ANSI/AWS DI4.1, 35. "Sheet Metal Welding Code," AWS 09. 1,American Weld-
American Welding Society, Miami, Fla. ing Society, Miami, Fla.
28. "Specification for Metal Cutting Machine Tool Weld- 36. "Structural Welding Code-Sheet Steel," AWS D1.3,
merits," ANSI/AWS DI4.2,American Welding Society, Mi- American Welding Society, MiamL Fla.
ami, Fla. 37. "Standard for Welding Procedure and Performance Qual-
29. "Classification and Application of Welded Joints for Ma- ifications," ANSl/AWS B2.1, American Welding Society,
chinery and Equipment," AWS DI4.4,American Welding Miami, Fla.
Society, Miami, Fla. 38. "Welding of Pipelines and Related Facilities," API Standard
30. "Specification for Welding of Presses and Press Compo- 1104, American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C.
nents," AWS D 14.5 ,American Welding Society, Miami, Fla. 39. "The National Board Inspection Code," National Board
31. "Specification for Rotating Elements of Equipment," of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors, Columbus,
ANSI/AWS DI4.6,American Welding Society, Miami, Fla. Ohio.
32. "General Design and Construction Requirements," Code 40. "Standard for AWS Certified Welders," AWS QC-3,Ameri-
of Federal Regulations, Title 49, Transportation Section can Welding Society, Miami, Fla.
178.340, Part D, U.S. Government Printing Office,Wash- 41. "Standard for Accreditation Test Facilities for AWS Certi-
ington, D.C. fied Welder Program," AWS QC-4, American Welding So-
33. "Specit1catlon of Cargo Tanks," ML.331, Code of Federal ciety, Miami, Fla.
Regulations, Title 49, Transportation Section 178.337,
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
~\
\
594., CHAPTER 22
OUTLINE rent flows (conventional flow) in the conductor, the fin-
23-1 Arc Blow gers point in the direction of the flux.The direction of the
23~2 Welding Distortion and Warpage magnetic flux produces polarity in the magnetic field, the
23-3 Heat Forming and Straightening same as the north and south poles of a permanent mag-
4
23... Weld Stresses and Cracking net.The rules of magnetism, which state that like poles re-
pel and opposite poles attract, apply in this situation.
23-5 In-Service Cracking
Welding current is much higher than the electrical cur-
23...
6 Welding-Painting rent normally encountered. Similarly, the magnetic fields
are much stronger.
The welding arc is an electrical conductor, and the
magnetic flux is set up surrounding it in accordance with
23-1 ARC BLOW the right-hand rule, The Important magnetic field in the
Arc blow is the deflection of a welding arc from its nor- vicinity of the welding arc is the field produced by the
mal path because of magnetic forces.i" Deflection of the welding current that passes through it from the elec-
arc can be extremely frustrating to a welder. It adversely trode and to the work. This self-induced circular mag-
affects the appearance of the weld and causes excessive netic field surrounds the arc and exerts a force on it from
Spatter, and it can Impair the weld's quality; It is well all sides according to the electrical-magnetic rule. As long
known to the welder using the shielded metal arc weld- as the magnetic field is symmetrical, there is no unbal-
ing process. It is also a factor in semiautomatic and anced magnetic force and no arc deflection. The arc is
automatic arc welding applications. Arc blow occurs pri- parallel 01' in line with the centerline of the electrode,
marily when welding steel or ferromagnetic materials, but and it takes the shortest path to the base plate. If the sym-
it can be encountered when welding nonmagnetic mate- metry of this magnetic field is disturbed, the forces on
rials.The welding arc is usually deflected forward or back- the arc are no longer equal and the arc is deflect d by the
Ward of the direction of travel; however, it may be strongest force.
deflected from one side to the other. It can become so se- This electrical-magnetic relaucnship is used in cer-
vere that it is impossible to make a satisfactory weld. Arc tain welding applications for magnetically moving or 0&-
blow is one of the most troublesome problems encoun- ctllating the welding arc. The gas tungsten arc is easily
tered by the welder and one that is the least understood. (1) deflected by, a magnetic flux. It can be OScillated by
The laws of electriciry and magnensm can. help-ex- transverse magnetic fields.or it can be made to defiecti;J)
P~in the problem of arc blow, When ail electric current the drrectlonof travel. To move the arc is to relyo:tl-the,
passes through an electrical conductor, it produces a flux field surrounding the arc "uti to move this field by:
magnetic flux in circles around the conductor in planes Introducing an external polarity field. Oscillation is ob-
perpendicular to the onductor and with their centers in talned by reversing the external transvers 'field.As ti)
th conductor, The riglJt-hand rule is used to determine self-Induced field, around the arc is- attracted and 1":." '.
the direction of the ma.gn.etic flux.It states that when the . pelle d) it tends to move the arccolumn, M~gnetic oscn-
thumb of the right hand polntsin the direction the cur- lation of the ga . tungsten weldillg.arc'lsU$ed
, .. , Widen.
$tl
.'
the weld deposit. Long arcs are more easily moved than produces a force on the stronger side, which deflects the
short arcs. The amount of magnetic flux to create the arc to the left. This is toward the weaker force and is op-
movement must be of the same order as the flux field posite the direction of the current path. The direction of
surrounding the arc column. this force is the same whether the current is flowing in
Whenever the symmetry of the field is disturbed by one direction or the other. If the welding current is re-
another magnetic force, it tends to move the self-induced versed, the magnetic field is also reversed but the direc-
field surrounding the arc and deflect the arc. tion of the magnetic force acting on the arc is in the same
Except under the most simple conditions, the self- direction.
induced magnetic field is not symmetrical throughout The second factor that keeps a magnetic field from
the entire electric circuit and changes direction at the being symmetrical is the fact that the arc is moving and
arc. There is always an imbalance of the magnetic field depositing weld metal. As a weld is made joining two
around the arc because the arc is moving and the current plates, the arc moves from one end of the joint to the
flow pattern through the base material is not constant. other. The magnetic field in the plates will constantly
Another factor helps produce the nonsymmetrical change. If we assume the work lead is immediately under
or unbalanced relationship of the magnetic forces. The the arc and moving with the arc, the magnetic path in the
magnetic flux passes through a magnetic material such as work will not be concentric about the point of the arc.
steel much easier than it passes through air.The magnetic This is because the lines of force do not take the shortest
flux path will tend to stay within the steel and will be path but the easiest path. Near the start end of the joint
more concentrated and stronger than in air.Welding cur- the lines of force are crowded together since they will
rent passes through the electrode lead, the electrode tend to stay within the steel.Toward the finish end of the
holder to the welding electrode, then through the arc joint the lines of force will be separated since there is
into the base metal (assume steel).At this point the cur- more area (Figure 23-2). In addition, where the weld has
rent changes direction to pass to the work lead connec- been made, the lines of force must cross the air gap 01'
tion, then through the work lead back to the welding root opening. The magnetic field is more intense on the
machine (Figure 23-1).At the point the arc is in contact short end, and the imbalance produces a force that de-
With the work, the change of direction is relatively abrupt flects the arc to the right or toward the long end.
and the lines of force are perpendicular to the path of the When welding with direct current, the total force
welding current, which creates a magnetic imbalance at tending to cause the arc to deflect is a combination of
this point. The lines of force are concentrated on the inthese two forces. Sometimes these forces add and some-
side of the angle of the current path through the elec- times they subtract from each other, and at times they
trode and the work and are spread out on the outside may meet at right angles. The polarity or direction of flow
angle of this path. Consequently, the magnetic field is of the current does not affect the direction of these forces
much stronger on the side of the arc toward the work nor the resultant force. By analyzing the path of the weld-
lead connection than on the other side. This imbalance ing current through the electrode and into the base metal
to the work lead, and analyzing the magnetic field within
the base metal, it is possible to determine the resultant
FIGURE23-1 Unbalanced magnetic force due to forces and predict the resulting arc deflection,
current direction change. The use of alternating current greatly reduces the
magnitude of the deflection. Alternating current does not
WORK ~ .r=J completely eliminate arc blow. The reason for the reduc-
TRAVEL t~
11----- FIGURE23-2 Unbalanced magnetic force due to
unbalanced magnetic path.
WORK ELECTRODE
ELECTRODE
wo K l..EA!J Cl.AMP ..
tion of arc blow is that the alternating current sets up The third factor explains why arc blow is much less
other currents that tend to neutralize the magnetic field with alternating current. This is because the induction
Or greatly reduce its strength. Alternating current varies principle creates current flow within the base metal,
between the maximum value of one polarity and the which creates magnetic fields that tend to neutralize the
maximum value of the opposite polarity, and the mag- magnetic field affecting the arc.
netic field surrounding the alternating current conductor The greatest magnetic force is caused by the differ-
does the same.The alternating magnetic field is a moving ence in resistance of the magnetic path in the base metal
field that induces current in any conductor through around the arc.The location of the work lead connection
which it passes, according to the basic laws of electricity, is of secondary importance. It is best to have the work lead
the induction principle. This means that currents are in- connection at the starting point of the weld. On occasion,
duced in nearby conductors in a direction opposite to the work lead can be changed to the opposite end of the
that of the inducing current. These induced currents are joint. In some cases, leads can be connected to both ends.
called eddy currents. They, in turn, produce a magnetic The conditions that affect the magnetic force acting
field of their own that tends to neutralize the magnetic on the arc vary so widely that it is impossible to do more
field of arc current. These currents are alternating cur- than make generalized statements regarding them. The
rents of the same frequency and are in the part of the following suggestions may help reduce arc blow.
Work nearest the arc.They always now from the opposite The magnetic forces acting 0.11 the arc can be mod-
direction (Figure 23-3).When alternating current is used, ified by changing the magnetic path across the joint.This
eddy currents are induced in the workpiece, which pro- can be accomplished by runoff tabs, starting plates, large
duce magnetic fields that reduce the intensity of the field tack welds, and backing strips, as well as the welding se-
acting on the arc. Unfortunately, alternating current can- quence.An external magnetic field produced by an elec-
not be used for all welding applications, and changing tromagnet may be effective.This can be accomplished by
from direct current to alternating current may not always wrapping several turns of welding lead around the work-
be possible to reduce arc blow. piece. Arc blow is usually more pronounced at the start
With an understanding of the factors that affect arc of the weld seam. In this case a magnetic shunt or runoff
blow, it is possible to explain the practical factors and tab will reduce the blow. It is wise to use as short an arc
provide solutions for overcoming them. Arc blow is as possible so that there is less of an arc for the magnetic
caused by magnetic forces. The induced magnetic forces forces to control.
are not symmetrical about the magnetic field surround- The welding fixture can be a source of arc blow;
ing the path of the welding current. One factor is the therefore, an analysis with respect to fixturing is impor-
nonsymmetrical location of magnetic material with re- tant. The hold-down clamps and backing bars must tit
spect to the arc.This creates a magnetic force on the arc, tightly to the work. Copper 01' nonferrous metals should
Which acts toward the easiest magnetic path and Is inde- be used. Magnetic structure of the fixture can affect the
pendent of electrode polarity. The location of the easiest magnetic forces affecting the arc.
magnetic path changes constantly as welding progresses; A major problem results from magnetic fields already
therefore, the intensity and the direction of the force in the base metal. This happens when the base metal has
change. been handled by magnet lifting cranes -.Residual magne-
The second factor is the change in direction of the tism in thick plates handled by magnets can be of such
welding current as it leaves the arc and enters the work- magnitude that it is Impossible to malo a weld.The solution
piece. Weltting current will take the easiest path but not here is to demagnetize the part, wrap the part with weld-
always the most direct path through the work to the work ing leads, or if this fails, stress relieve or anneal the parts.
lead connection. The resultant magnetic force is opposite
in direction to the current from the arc to the work lead
COt'lnection. It is independent of welding current polarity.
23 ..2 WELDING DISTORTION
~IGURE23-3 Reduction of magnetic force due to AND WARPAGE
Induced fields. The arc welding processes tnvolv heat. . High-
temperature heat is largely responsible for w~ldi1'J:g.cU&-.
ARC CURRENT FIE tortion, warpage, and stresses. When metal is heated it
expands, and it expands In all dttectlons. When m tal
cools it contracts in all dlrections. To undersu nd this,
consider an extremely small piece of metal tJ'l.. shap .. of
a cube (Figur;e7~..4).WileniUs expo d to a temp~m,.
ture fncrease, tr willexpailJ.;l tn, aU-th~(!¢ diteottris,-~.:J{
andz There is a direct relations}ttp between,tbe ~f!lQ1..nlt
WeldjngPr{)~lems:aI18·:Solt:Jtfons~,,;;:,~·.i~9l
• ,. I. .• •.•
z
.:
A
FIGURE 23-4 Cube of metal showing expansion.

._----
B
of temperature change and the change in dimension,
based on the coefficient of thermal expansion. This is a
measure of the linear increase per unit length based on
the change in temperature of the material.The coefficient
of expansion is different for different metals. Aluminum
has one of the greatest coefficient of expansion ratios and
changes in dimension almost twice as much as steel. The
coefficient of expansion of the common metals is given c
in Table I5-l.A metal expands or contracts by the same FIGURE 23-5 Round rod in vise.
amount when heated or cooled by the same temperature,
.if it is not restrained. In the case of welding, the metals
that are heated and cooled are restrained. They are re-
strained because they are a part of a larger piece of metal (which, incidentally would almost cause aluminum to
that is not heated to the same temperature. This is the melt) would cause a change of 0.0000138 x 1,000, or a di-
problem. Within uniform heating and unrestrained parts, mensional change of 0.0138 in. (0.35 mm), which is a
the heating and cooling are relatively distortion free. In change of almost 1/64 in. (0.4 mm) per inch.To make this
actual practice, the heating is not uniform across the a little more meaningful, take a 10-in. (250-mm)-long
cross section of a part. There is always restraint, because round rod. Each inch of the aluminum will expand the
the parts not heated or heated to a lesser amount tend to 0.0138 in. (0.35 mm), but the entire bar, which is 10 in.
restrain the portion of the same piece that is heated to a (250 mm) long, would expand 0.138 in. (3.5 mm), or
higher temperature. This differential or nonuniform heat- sllghtly over 1/8 in. (3.2 mm). This is significant with re-
ing and the partial restraint is the cause for thermal dis- spect to warpage.
tortion and warpage that occur in welding. In practical application, this is not free expansion
The coefflcient of expansion is important when and contracting and uniform heating. Consider a round
considering warpage. It is the factor responsible for the rod placed in a vise or in some device that is absolutely
different degrees of warpage between different metals. unmovable (Figure 23-5). With this rod in between two
Of the structural metals, aluminum has the highest coef- unmovable surfaces, uniformly heat the bar 1,000°F
ficient of expansion; it is approximately twice as great as (538°C) or the difference above room temperature to, say,
plain carbon steel. Tills is signtficant when relating the 1,070°F (577°C). In the case of the steel bar it would try
warpage that occurs when welding steel is compared to to expand 0.067 in. (1.7 rom) per inch, or in the case of
weldlngaluminurn.The coefficient of expansion for steel aluminum would try to expand 0.138 in. (3.5 .mm) per
is 6.7 x 10-6;written out, this would be 0.0000067, which inch. However, the restraining surfaces will not move. The
is the amount in inches per inch that steel expands for bar is restrained from expanding in the length or x direc-
every degree Fahrenheit the temperature rises.As an ex- tion. However, each of the small cubes within this bar still
ample, if a piece of steel is taken from 1000~(~8°C) up to will expand according to the laws of the temperature and
a dull redheat of 1,100DP (593DC), there wouldi>e a tem- expansion. All the expansion will be in the y and z direc-
perature Change of 1,OOODF(538°C). Multiplyihg these tions because it will be unable to expand in the x direc-
. would give a change in dimension per inch of 0.0067 in. tion. This means that the bar will become slightly larger
(O.17mrn), or 6.7 thousandths of an Inch.This is a small but not longer (Figure 23-5).This is the principle of up"
chang In dimension, but it is Significant. If aluminum is setting. Molecules have rearranged themselves and have
heated for the same temperature change, the results expanded in two directions, but not in the third direction.
wouldbe larger. Alumlnum has a coefficient of expansion Now allow the bar to cool down to room temperature.
·Qf 13.8 x 10-6 In.per degree change of temperature. Ex~ The small cubes within the bar wilt tend. to contract in
posing it to a I j'bOOop (538C>C)change in temperature the x; y, and z directions and will contract the same
if
, (.,-(,
A
I A
~
------~~~~o\l
______ .JI
c
-------
FIGURE 23-7 Long rod in vise.
c
FIGURE 23-6 Round rod in vise with spring.
pressibility of unheated metal. In the heated area there
will be expansion in the y and z directions so that the di-
ameter of the bar in the heated area will become larger
amount that they expanded. After cooling back to room (Figure 23-7). This is an example of plastic deformation
temperature the bar will be slightly shorter than it was or upsetting.When the bar is allowed to cool, contraction
originally (Figure 23-5). It will be slightly larger from the will occur uniformly in the x, y, and z directions, and the
upsetting force that occurred during the heating cycle. length of the bar will be slightly reduced when it returns
This illustrates the effect of restraint and shows that the to room temperature (Figure 23-7).
heated portion will not return to its original shape. This One final example to bring the problem of differ-
may be too elementary, at least when considering differential heating and upsetting into focus with regard to
ential heating with respect to welding. To be more prac- practical applications is illustrated by the use of a piece
tical, assume the same round rod between two of flat rectangular bar stock fairly thin and fairly wide:
unmovable surfaces, but in this case include a compres- 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) thick, 2 in. (50 mm) wide, and 12 in.
Sionspring (Figure 23-6). Now go through the same heat- (300 rnrn) long. Pass a hlgh-temperatur heat source such
ing cycle. Heat the rod the same 1,000°F (538°C), but in as a gas tungsten arc along one edge (Figure 23-8A).This
this Situation it will expand in length (x direction) as wen creates differentia) heating across the width of the bar.
as in the y and z directions; however, there is restraint in The top edge of the bar will be heated almost to the
the x direction. The rod actually becomes .longer and will molten stage. Approximately 1/2 in. (13 nun) below the
cause the spring to compress slightly.Because of the re- edge in the bar it will remain at room temperature. At the
straint by the spring, the bar length increase will be less bottom edge of the bar it will also be at room tempera-
than if it were unrestrained. The spring exerts force ture. Each small increment of metal in the upper edge of
against the rod, which restrains the rod from expanding the bar 'is being heated to approximately 2,OOooI~
aSmllChas when free.There will be expansion in the x, y, (l,093 C) and it will expand In all three directions.
Q
and z directions, so that the bar will actually become Slightly below the top edge, the bar will be heated to a
somewhat larger as well as longer (Figure 23-6), When lesser degree or to a lower temperature.Bven at tlus point
the heat is removed and the part returns to its original there will be a degree of expansion in all three directions.
room temperature, it will be slightly shorter than origi- Farther down with little or no change of temperature
llaJJy and somewhat larger in diameter (Figure 23-6).The there will be little or no chang in. dimension. 'Ihis will
deformation will not be quite so great because the re- cause the top edge orthebar to expand (Figure 23-8),but .
traint was less.This is moreslmllar to what happens to it is intimately a part of the lower portion of thebar)
.weld metal in a differentially heated cycle. which .has no tendency to expand because it is .not
. Another exampl :Again use a round rod, but in this heated. The restraint is from the lower portion of the bar,
ca e COllsidet'ttb1ylonger, and place it between the im- which will restrain the upper portion from expanding to
movable surfaces (Figure 23-7). In tllis situation, heat the amount to which it would expand if it were free. Plas-
Onlyth center portion of the rod. In the heated area, the tic deformation will occur and the bar will. become .
tem.perature rise will cause expansion in all three direc- slightlythickeraftlie.heaten edge,WllJ;~tl.thebar 'COQls, "'
tiOns. Restraint will be exercised by jaws and the com- contraction will occur ill all thteedirectiol1s, ariel this will
cause the upper edge of the bar to shorten. Shortening would quickly move within the bar to the lower portions
the upper edge of the bar without shortening the center so that the temperature differential would be minimal.
or lower edge of the bar will cause warpage (Figure This would be true of high-thermal-conductivity metals.
23-8). Shortening one edge of a bar and not shortening The higher the thermal conductivity, the less effect dif-
the other edge will create a curved bar. ferential heating will have. This physical property should
Another factor must be considered. This is the fact be considered, since arc temperatures are similar but
that metals have lower strengths at high temperatures. metal melting points are greatly different.
As the temperature of a metal increases, its strength de- When making a weld, take into consideration all the
creases. This can be shown by a curve plotting the yield factors mentioned previously and determine how each
strength against temperature. The case of steel results in one reacts alone but also how they react with one an-
a curve shown in Figure 23-9.As the temperature rises, other. Consider a weld bead made longitudinally on a rel-
the strength decreases at approximately 1,OOO°F(538°C) atively thin rectangular plate (Figure 23-10). When
to 1,500°F (816°C), depending on its composition. For making a weld bead on the plate, the deposited weld
low-carbon mild steel, when the temperature is above metal is momentarily at a temperature of about 3,OOO°F
1,500°F (816°C) the strength is reduced drastically. This (l,649°C),slightly above its melting point.The base metal
factor is involved because in arc welding a portion of the immediately under the arc is also brought to the molten
base metal goes above this temperature since surface
melting is involved.
In the case of the rectangular bar in the previous ex-
FIGURE23-9 Temperature-yield strength relationship.
ample, the bar is made of steel. When the temperature at
the top edge is practically at the molten stage, a quarter TEMPERATURE.OC
of the way down it would be at a relatively low tempera- 500· 1000·

ture, and halfway down the width of the bar and at the
bottom edge, it would be at room temperature. If the bar
is copper or aluminum, thermal conductivity becomes
important. The property of conductivity is shown in f
J:'
Figure 15-1 for common metals.The thermal conductiv- ~
(!)
ity of copper is the highest, that of aluminum is approxi- z

w
a:::
mately half, but that of steels is only about one-fifth as In
much. If the bar were made of copper, the temperature at _,
a
the top would be practically at the molten stage.The heat w
>=
FIGURE23-8 Long rectangular bar heated on one

edge.
o 1000° 15000 2000° 2500·
TEMPERATURE, OF
FIGURE23-10 Bead on plate.
.. CHAPTER 2.3 c. /
stage. As the weld metal cools and fuses to the base metal, important. This has to do with heat input or the travel
it takes shape and forms a bead. The weld bead freezes. speed of welding. Refer to Figure 23-12, which shows the
At the point of solidification the molten metal has little weld joint partially made. If the same'joint is welded with
strength. As it cools it acquires strength (Figure 23-9). It covered electrodes, the unwelded end of the joint tends
is also in its expanded form because of its high tempera- to close or the parts become closer together, If the same
ture.The weld metal is now intimately fused to the base joint is welded with submerged arc, the unwelded end of
metal and they work together. As the metal continues to the joint tends to open or the parts become farther apart.
cool, it acquires higher strength and contracts in all three The explanation is complicated because it involves the
directions.These factors are further complicated because geometry of the pieces being joined, the thermal coeffi-
the arc depositing molten metal is moving. In addition, cient of expansion, the thermal conductivity, the mass
the cooling differential is also moving, but follows the of molten metal, and most importantly, the travel speed of
travel of the arc. With the temperature further reducing the arc. If the travel speed is relatively fast, the effect of
and each small increment of heated metal tending to con- the arc's heat will cause expansion of the edges of the
tract, contracting stresses occur and there will be move- plates and they will bow outward and open up the joint.
ment in the metal adjacent to the weld. The unheated If the travel speed is relatively slow, the effect of the arc
metal tends to resist the cooling dimension changes.Tem- temperature and the cooling will cause contraction of the
perature differential has an effect on this. If it is a low- edges of the plates and they will bow inward and close up
conductivity metal, the changes will occur over a the joint. This is the same as running a bead on the edge
relatively small distance. If the metal has high thermal of the plate. In either case this momentary situation con-
conductivity, the heating differential will be less and the tinues to change as the weld progresses. By experiment-
change in dimensions will be spread over a larger area. ing with current and travel speed, the exact speed can be
In this bead-on-plate example, the cooling shrinkage found for a specific joint so that the root will neither open
changes are above the centerline of the thickness of the up nor close.This is one of the advantages of fine wire gas
plate.The tendency of the weld bead to shorten in length, metal arc welding of sheet metal.The heat input balance,
in thickness, and width tends to warp the plate by short- using normal procedures, approaches this travel speed re-
ening the weld area and shortening the top surface in lationship and warpage is minimized. Conversely, when
both directions. An exaggeration of how a plate of this using the gas tungsten arc process on sheet metal, the
type will warp is shown in Figure 23-11. travel speed is slower and greater warpage results.
Running a weld bead on the edge of a bar would be All these factors must be considered, yet they are
Similar to the example of a heat source on the edge of the not the entire story for more complicated welds. For ex"
bar. The effect might be slightly more since additional ample, in a large fillet weld all the factors mentioned pre-
molten or high-temperature metal is deposited on the viously-and more-playa role. Consider a single-pass
edge of the bar. The deposited metal becomes integral fillet weld to make a corner joint with the fillet weld on
With the bar and provides a greater mass of metal solidi- the inside (Figure 23-13).A fillet weld, by definition, bas
fying, gaining strength and cooling. This shortening of the a triangular cross section. 1.11 making the weld, the base
heated edge without a similar change in the nonheated metal immediately under the fulet is molten. The fillet is
edge would create warpage that would be the same or completely molten, and soon after it is deposited, it be-
Similar to that shown in Figure 23-8. gins to freeze. Initially it has 1ittle strength, but the
When making a weld joint, specifically a butt joint, strength rapidly increases as the temperature decreases.
between two narrow, thin plates, another factor becomes
FIGURE 23-11 Warpage produced by bead on plate. FIGURE 23-12 Butt joint showing warpage.
FIGURE 23-14 Single-pass V-groove butt joint.
The cross-section geometry of other welds and the

technique of making them contribute to warpage. Con-
sider a single V-weld joint. A slngle-V-weld in thin mate-
FIGURE 23-13 Inside fi Ilet corner joi nt. rial can be made with one pass. Figure 23-14 shows a
single-pass V-groove butt joint and the warpage that
would occur. As the weld is deposited in the groove, the
From the geometry of the joint we have absolute restraint adjacent base metal is raised to its melting temperature
where the edge of the vertical plate is in contact with the and becomes molten. The entire weld is molten but im-
surface of the horizontal plate. The metal deposited is mediately begins to freeze. As it freezes it increases its
now integral with the material of the two parts; its strength, but it still has considerable temperature, on the
strength is increasing but is decreasing in volume. Each order of 1,OOO°F(538°C).At the root of the V-groove, each
and every small increment of the heated metal is de- increment of weld metal shrinks in all three directions. A
creasing volume in its x, JJ, and z directions. As each in- weld in thinner material may freeze throughout its cross
crement shrinks and as the surfaces between the two section almost simultaneously. Since more volume of
plates are restrained and cannot shrink, warpage occurs. metal is freezing and contracting at the top of the joint,
Normally, the fillet weld freezes from the root to the face there will be more total dimensional contraction at this
and the strength would increase in this same relation- point.Angular distortion will occur because of the greater
ship. One reason why fillet welds are a special case is the amount of weld metal at the top of the joint.
fact that at the root there are less small increments of A change in weld joint design has an effect on
metal contracting. But toward the face of the fillet there warpage. If the root opening is increased and the bevel
are more increments contracting.There is more shrinkage angle is reduced, the difference in the amount of weld
at the face of the fillet than at the root, not only because metal at the root and at the face of the weld would be
of the larger volume of metal at the face but also because more similar and therefore angular distortion would be
of the restraint between the plates. If the plates had not less. Another approach to reducing angular distortion is
been tightly placed together, there would be less total an- to use the double-V preparation. One portion of the weld
gular warpage at the joint. The fillet weld is particularly would be made on one side of the plate and the other
vulnerable to warpage because of these two factors. portion on the other side. This is applicable only to
Figure 23-13 shows how this warpage occurs. Note that thicker plates. On a thinner material the square groove
all the warpage occurs on one side of the centerline of weld has an advantage since the shrinkage dimension at
the vertical plate and on the top side of the centerline of the root of the weld would be the same as that at the face
the horizontal plate. of the weld.The differential in the cooling rate would lead
One practical method of eliminating the angular to some angular distortlon, In these cases, the longitudi-
distortion produced by a Single-fillet weld is to use the 1'- nal shrinkage will still occur and create the shortening of
type joint or the corner joint with the one plate inset so the total weld and its effect on distortion.
that double-fillet welds would be made. If the fillet welds The cross section of an EB weld is almost rectangu-
ould be made on both sides simultaneously, it would lar, since the width at the face and the width dose to the
greatly reduce the angular warpage since the two would root are almost the same.Angular distortion is small since
be working against each other and their shrinkage. Lon- the sides of the weld are nearly parallel.
gitudinal shrinkage will still occur and result in highly The problem of distortion in fillet welds and in V-
stressed welds that might be stressed to the yield point of groove welds increases as the sizes of the welds increase.
the weld metal. ' --", The groov weld shown in Figure 23,..l5 will require
If One fillet is made andthen the second fdt6f Is made, many passes to complete the joint. With arc welding the
there will be a srnall amount of angular distortion because first or root pass would be placed in the joint and in ef~
the initial fillet will freeze flrst and create distortion, flow- feet would create a homogeneous structure between the
ever, if the second fillet is made larger than the first rulet, two parts. Little angular distortion would result from the
thi.s can be overcome.In common practice it is normal to root pass weld.The next pass would cause some angular
place one pass of the fillet on one side, then to place two distortion. In the second pass the first pass acts as a re-
passes of the second ftllet 011 the other side and finish up straining force. assuming that it is not completely melted
QO the firstside!'\Vi,thits second pass.Thistype of procedure by the second pass, TIle freezing of the second pass
tends to reduce' angtllaiwaJ:page. of tillet welded T-joints. , would create shrinkage of the deposited metal but the
,.
FIGURE 23-15 Multiple-pass single-V-groove butt
ioint.
root pass would offer restraint and there would be shrink- FIGURE 23-16 Square-groove butt weld cut apart.
age closer to the upper surface of the plates and less at
the bottom surface. When the next pass is made, there
would be more restraint at the root and more shrinkage
at the surface of the weld. Successive passes are larger
and wider, and there is a greater mass of weld metal
shrinking.This condition continues until the joint is com-
pleted. Each new pass creates its heating and cooling and
shrinking cycle, with previous passes acting as restraint.
It is like a hinge with the root acting as the hinge pin, and
each additional pass tending to bring the edges of the FIGURE 23-17 Fabricated beam.
jOint closer together. Multipass single-v-groove welds are
particularly susceptible to angular distortion.
The larger number of passes used increases the an-
gular distortion in single-groove welds.This disproves the center of gravity of the cross section of the part. Weld-
theory that by making many small passes with low cur- ments also have a center of gravity or neutral axis that
rents, the distortion will be reduced. The mass of molten can be calculated based on the thickness and size of the
metal and the mass of metal restraining the shrinkage component parts. An example of a symmetrical cross-
does affect the relationship.The additional applications of sectional part is a fabricated wide-flange or If-rype beam
heat make for more angular distortion of multipass single (Figure 23-17). To build such a beam will require the
fillets and multipass single-V-groove welds. A solution to welding of two flange plates to a web plate. If the parts
this is the use of larger passes, larger electrodes, or pro- are all equal size and thickness, the center of gravity
cesses that provide larger passes. would be the exact center of this assembly. The welds to
One solution is to use the double-weld, double-V or join the flanges to the web would be equally spaced
double-bevel preparation. The double fillet should be about the center of gravity. If all four of these fillet welds
Used if at all possible; if not, use a combination of fillet and could be made simultaneously, it would be possible to
groove welds. The principle of using double welds is to produce the beam without longitudinal distortion. The
equalize the shrinkage on both sides of the centerline of edges of the flanges will pull in slightly because of the an-
the weld joint. If one side of tile centerline contracts gular distortion produced by each fillet weld. If the weld-
more than the other, it will create angular distortion, ing can be balanced around the neutral axis of the
Angular distortion is greatly redu ed by balancing weldment, the distortion will be reduced. If each appll-
the welding on either side of the centerline of the joints cation. of heat is done ina logical manner about thecen-
being made. The distortion that occurs is based on the tel' of gravity of the weldment, it tends to keep the
Shrinkage that follows thermal cooling versus restraint weldment to. true shape. A' box-section, such as. a box
conditi.ons previously described. Even with no'vislble ev- column.presents the same opportunlry.The-weldnrerrt is
idence of warpage, high stresses approach yield points of symmetrical around its neutral axis and tIle applications
the metals in and neal" the joint. If a square-groove butt f the welds are also symmetrical. If all four elds could
weld Were made between tWD edges of two flat plates be made simultaneously, a straight part would result, In
. and if the welds were made from both sides properly, practice it is rarely possible to make all four welds si-
there Would be little evidence of warpage. However, if we multanecusly. Boxstrucrureshave been welded in the
~~wthrough the throat of the weld its entire length, the vertical position to make the' welds silll1l1tallcovsty.1\: .
Warpage would become immediately evident. The r sult more common practice, however, is to make two of the
Wotlld be the same as two bars with welds on one edg I welds ~t one rime- and 11111 make the remarning two
as described previously (Figure 23-16 . welds. Sometimes it is possible to vary the sizes of the
. The principle of balanced welding must be c n- welds to produ e balan ed stresses to, create a stl"aight
idered indesiglling welds, In the case of the b~tr,its cen- member, .Unfo~tlJnatel~l1l,Qst we~dme.tltsate ,not sy~
terUne is actually its neutral axis. The neutral axis is th rnetrieal around their neuttalms,an(,1mQre·· ft' ntball
! "
not, most welding must be done on one side or another
of the neutral axis, which creates warpage.
The following factors should be taken into consid-
eration to reduce welding warpage.
1. The location of the neutral axis and its relationship

in both directions
2. The locations of welds, size of welds, and distance
from the neutral axis in both directions
3. The time factor of welding and cooling rates when
making the various welds
4. The opportunity for balancing welding around the
neutral axis
5. Repetitive identical structures and varying the
welding technique based on measurable warpage
6. The use of procedures and sequences to minimize
weldment distortion
It is impossible to provide more than general guide-

lines in warpage control. When identical parts are made
with identical procedures, the warpage of each assembly
may be different.This can resu It from stresses within parts
themselves prior to welding or insignificant changes in FIGURE 23-18 Order of making weld joints.
technique by different welders. However, based on these
rules it is possible to minimize distortion on most weld-
ments.When making welds on a large box structure such technique and procedure are the best ways of controlling
as a ship hull, the sequence of welding can be varied from warpage in large structures.
side to side and from top to bottom to minimize distor- Warpage can be minimized in smaller structures by:
tion. At shipyards, precision measuring devices are used
1. The use of restraining fixtures, strong backs, or
to determine the amount of distortion. Corrective action
many tack welds
is taken to maintain straightness of the structure. This
same technique can be used for any large engineering 2. The use of heat sinks or the fast COOlingof welds
structures. If the structure tends to warp to one side, 3. The predistortion or prebendmg of parts prior to
welding can be increased on the other side to compen- welding
sate; by measuring continuously and altering procedures, 4. Balancing welds about the weldrnent neutral axis or
the structure can be made to come true, On large weld- using wandering sequences or back-step welding
ments it is important to establish a procedure to minimize 5. Intermittent welding to reduce the volume of
warpage.The order of joining plates in a deck or on a tank weld metal
will affect str sses and distortion. As a general rule, trans- 6. Proper joint design selection and minimizing of size
verse welds should be made before longitudinal welds.
7. As a last resort, use of preheat or peening
Figure 23...18 shows the order in which the joints should
be welded. Each technique has advantages and can be used in
Platens and bases that are large and thin and usually certain applications. No one of them is a cure-all for the
made of" egg crate" design Call also be regulated by making problem of weld warpage. Fixtures can be very effective,
certain joints first. The joints joining the web sections to- but flxtures must be extremely strong if they are to resist
g thcr should be madeprior to joining them to the top and warpage. Even with fixtures, balanced welding is ncces-
bottom or flange sections.The joining of the.web sections sary, Strong backs or face plates can be used to physically
to me flapges should be regulated and constan measure- restrain the parts. Massive tack welds mel heavy bracing
ments made to. d;etenninethar theweldment rematns true. .can also be used ..If me weldmenr is stress relieved with
the destgnand type of'weldment have much to. do bractng Inplace, warpage Will be minimized. Fig'ute 23-19
With wal'pag : Large weldments made of relatively thin shows a dipper for a large power shovel with massive
mateeials have a tendency to. warp. Control is possible bracing. Each half was str S8 r Iteved separate Iy,because
with properprocedures. Large weldments made of ex- of furnace size limitations, with the, bracing in place. Dis-
tcemelyheavy or thick members have, a greater degr e of tortion was minimized.
'~stralntandt1ie amount ot warpage may be less . Balanc- Prebendlng 0.1' ptedistortiQl1. of parts .O~ providing
".. i : iqs'the weidlng . nd UlOllitMiilg the, effect of changes 41 special dimenston for warpage; Of prewarping with the
FIGURE23-19 Heavy braces in weldment.
hope the welds will bring the parts into proper align-
ment, can be helpful. This technique is most useful when
repetitive products are being welded and a history of the
amOUnt of warpage can be determined. This technique is
particularly useful in field erection of large structures. It
is also used for welding premachined parts together to
avoid finish machining of a total weldment.
Rapid cooling by means of heat extractors or heat
Sinks has been used successfully in the aircraft industry. FIGURE 23-20 Backstep technique.
By means of hydraulic or pneumatic clamps the parts of
the weldment are put in intimate contact with large
masses of highly conductive metal. These are known as
beat sinks, which pull the heat away from the weld late, noisy, and usually not' the best solution. If the weld-
quicker than normal. This creates a more uniform heat ment is warped so that it cam lot be us d, it may be sal-
distribution and reduces the heat differential and distor- vageable by mechanical-or thermal methods. Mechanical
tion. Some weld fixtures have water-cooled heat sinks to methods involve the use of force, such as a straightenlng
help reduce distortion. press, jacks, and clamps. This can be expensive but justiflr
Use of the backstep technique shown in Fig- able. Thermal methods involve local heating to relieve
ure 23-20 has an advantage in that each small increment stresses in some cases or to. cause correcttve.warpage.
Will have its own shrinkage pattern, which then becomes Heat is usually applied by torches. Cautien should be ex-
inSignificant to the pan rn of the total weldment. This ercised not to overh at the metal, especially h at-tr ated
t chnique may be rather time consuming and question- materials. Local torch heating should not be used on
able for certain types of applications. highly thermal conductive metalssuchas alumtnum or
. Intermittent welding can be helpful; however, in- .. copper.The heat Will be condilcteclaway so qt.1icld,Y 1ih.at
terlllittentweldhlg is merely a method of reducing. the local upsetting will not occur.This was covered in an ear-
amourit of weld metal in certain areas to avoid warpage lier section. .
at that specific area. Using the smallest possible weld size Finally, one of the best approaches to weldmene diS-'
help reduce distortion. tortion is the intelligent design of the weldmene itself.
1\s a last resort use peening. Peening works the With intelligent r view it is possible to design or' re- '.
Weld metal and expands 1\, which counteracts the shrink- a
design weldment to b.cttet place th weld.s ill a .~~l"
age that Occurred upon freezing. Peening Is hard to regu- . anced geometry around the l1eutra:l alds .of,the .
weldment. Many times this can change the location of a shaped V-shaped area to points Band C on the E edge of
weld. It might involve the use of a bend, or it might in- the bar (Figure 23-21). The angle formed by B, C to A
volve the use of two welds; but if it can be accomplished, should be approximately 30° toward edge E. Holding the
it will greatly enhance the distortion control of the flame steady with the flame pointed slightly toward edge
weldment. E until point A becomes heated to a dull-red color, start
to move the torch as shown in the figure. Move the torch
slowly in a zigzag fashion, bringing it up to the same dull-
red temperature. Continue traveling, making sure that
23-3 HEAT FORMING the part comes up to temperature before moving farther
toward the far edge, E. Continue the zigzag line of travel
AND STRAIGHTENING until you have reached points Band C on edge E. This
Heat, normally applied by an oxyfuel gas torch, can be used will produce a V-shaped section that has been heated
to bend or straighten metal parts. In the previous section progressively from near edge D to edge E. Cooling will
we discussed how high-temperature heat from welding also be progressive in the same direction. After the bar
operations is largely responsible for welding distortion and has cooled, it will take the shape shown by the dashed
warpage and how this occurs. Briefly, all metal expands lines.
when heated and contracts when cooled. The amount of The heat at point A causes the metal to expand in
expansion depends on the temperature increase, the coef- all three directions; however, it is restrained by the adja-
I
ficient of the expansion of the metal heated, and the size cent cold metal and it will therefore upset or become
of the heated area. Unrestrained metal expands in all three slightly thicker. The localized heating continues as the
directions, but metal is normally restrained due to unequal flame is moved from point A toward Band C. The heated
heating. Rapid heating causes plastic deformation or up- area is increased as the flame moves away from point A.
setting, which creates dimensional changes upon cooling. The metal at point A begins to cool and contract as the
The strength of metal decreases significantly as the tern- temperature falls. Normally, points Band C are reached
perature of the metal is increased. Distortion occurs as a re- before the temperature at point A cools appreciably.The
sult of forces created by differential heating and restraint. widened heated area and the contracting metal behind
These forces can be used to bend or to straighten metal it create the forces that cause the bending. As the cool-
pieces. This principle was put to practical use by Joseph ing continues from point A toward edge E, the metal
Holt, who published the book Contraction as a Friend in contracts. There is more metal to contract as the heated
Need in 1938. This principle was perfected by his son, area becomes wider. This contributes to creating more
Richard Holt, in the 1960s and has been practiced through- motion or bending as cooling continues. Point D acts as
out the world by Ray Stitt. It has now been given a scien- the hinge pin; the material between Band C contracts
tific approach by Richard Avent(2)and may soon become a the most. The amount of distortion depends on the an-
recommended practice document by AWS. gle between Band C. If more motion is required, addi-
Heat forming and straightening, the application of tional heated Vs can be made adjacent to the first one.
these principles, can be used to correct distortion from The same application of V-shaped heating areas can
welding or from accidents.To understand the application be used to bend or straighten other types of structural
of heat to bend or straighten members, start with a rela- shapes. Figure 23-22 shows the heat application that can
tively simple example. Consider a flat bar 1/4 in. (6.4 be used for other shapes. The large end of the V will be
mrn) thick by 2 in. (50 mm) wide and 24: in. (650 mm) the portion where the maximum contraction occurs. The
long. Heat with any oxyacetylene welding torch using a amount of contraction can actually be calculated; how-
m dium-size single-orifice tip. Propane can also be used ever, since temperature control is not precise, the amount
as the fuel gas.Adjust the torch for a neutralflame, Before of metal heated is not known exactly; due to conduction
beginning the heat pattern use a piece of soapstone and of heat to the cooler areas. Formulas have been worked 1
mark, a triangular area from point A, located one-eighth out and are available. The best method of understanding
I
of the Width of the bar toward edge D, and mark a pie- the amount required for shrinkage is by experience.
. . - --
fiGURE 23-21 Application of heat to V-shaped areas.

i"--.------- __.!3_ E 9 ~_-~---
f
\
I
I
I
\
I
--- ...... ,...._

TOPV!I!W
CHAPTf2RQ3
When straightening shapes other than flat bars, it is portion of the V comes to that leg. Progressive heating
necessary to consider the relationship between webs and should not be done in the vertical Jeg. Progressive heating
flanges. For example, in the figure the rolled angle can be is used only when a V-shaped area is.to be heated. By fol-
bent with the vertical leg acting as the hinge point. All the lowing the figure closely, an angle can be bent in either
heating is done on the horizontal leg. If the vertical leg of direction.The same applies to channels,Ts, and lor wide-
the angle must be shortened, however, it should be done flange beams. The basic principles can also be used for
With thorough heating of the vertical leg when the wide box sections and pipe. In all cases the starting point
should be closest to the edge that is to be the hinge point.
The same technique can be used to correct
FIGURE23-22 Appl ication of heat to bend rolled warpage of structures that involve Tjoints using double
shapes. fillet welds. In this case the application of heat is linear
rather than V-shaped. Warpage is often encountered when
double fillets are made on one side of a member forming
a Tjoint. Applying the torch flame to the center of the
back side of the T will create shrinkage at this point,
which will tend to bring the top of the Tjoint back into a
flat plane (Figure 23-23).The same technique of straight-
ANGLES
line heat application can be used to shorten parts.
Diaphragms, bulkheads, or flat plates in welded as-
semblies sometimes buckle as a result of weld distortion.
One method of reducing buckling is to create round
heated areas approximately 3 in. (75 mm) in diameter
across the surface of the buckled plate. Each individual
heated spot will upset and as it cools will create shrink-
age in all directions. By adding enough of these round
heated spots, buckling can be completely eliminated
from the flat plate.
The technique of heat flame straightening and
bending can be used to salvage members damaged by ac-
cident, as shown in Figure 23-24. It has been applied suc-
cessfully to structural work of bridges, large buildings,
and offshore drilling platforms. In these cases, special: pre-
cautions must be exercised. Force is sometimes applied
to assist the heat-forming operation. A careful analysis
must be made before attempting such jobs, and it must be
determined whether the part being straightened is
stressed in tension or In compression. When the temper-
ature of the member is increased by flame heating, its
strength is greatly decreased.To create shrinkage action,
it is beneficial to have the members loaded in compres-
sion.Thls will assist upsetting and will help create the fa-
vorable direction of shrinkage to straighten the member.
Tees
FIGURE·23-23 Application of heat to correct' warpage.
j
FIGURE 23-24 Salvage of l-bearn after accident.
If the member is stressed in tension,compression loading in cooling the heated zones. Porced-air cooling or water
should be added, by means of temporary bracing, to ac- COOlingwill not appreciablyIncrease the amount of dis-
complish the heat-straightening operation. tortion. It will merely decrease the time for the shrinkage
The flame bending system is also used for creating action to take place. .
camber in beams. Samples of wide-flange beams formed To avoid metallurgical damage to the. steel, it is rec-
to large radiuses for roof structures are given in Refer- ommended that 1,200oP (649°<:;) be the maximum tem-
ence 3. Here wide-flange beams 80 ft. (24 m) long and perature used. TWs temperature produces a dark red
24 in.(288 nun) wide were formed to curvatures of 135 ft. color 011 steel in a subdued light. It has been found that
(41.1 m). These were erect d and became the arch of a reheating the same spot does not affect the steel ad-
gymn stum. With' skill and experience this -tYpe of heat v rsely, provided that it is not heated above 1,200°F
. "-
fOI'Ol.mg can be. very precise. Heat forming is~pensive (649°C). Heat forming can be used on stainless steels. For
compared to forming in large beam bending rolls. stainless .steels the maximum temperature should be
Certain precautions should be .taken when heat 8QOoP (427°C). Rapid cooling j8 encouraged to minimize
fort11ing or bending.Although used on low-carbon steels, chromium carbide formation.
these procedures shOt110be performed with caution on For thicker materials 1 larger torch sizes are required.
medium- or high- 'arbon or quenched and tempered For extremely heavy materials, multioriflce torches can
steels becaus of possible ·10 at hardcutng or effects on be used.Propane can be used as well as acetylene for heat
e.ar1ierheat rreatmenr.jheremperarure of the heated area forming. it is Important to maintain the maximum heat
IDUS,t be control; -'1 carefully. Precautions should be used differential between the heated area and the adjacent
cool area. This provides for more contraction during the ner; the fracture will exhibit little or no ductility. In such
CooLingperiod. cases there is no yield point for the material since the
In straightening materials in two dimensions, re- yield strength and the ultimate strength are practically
member that the torch side of the part being heated will the same. The failures that occur without plastic defor-
be heated to a higher temperature than the underside.For mation are known as brittle failures. When two or more
this reason, the torch side will normally have greater re- stresses occur in a ductile material and particularly when
action than the underside. Thorough heating is required, three stresses occur in the x, y, and z directions in a thick
and often it is possible to judge the heating by the color material, brittle fracture may occur, which is similar to the
on the underside. With sufficient practice and experi- fracture of a brittle material.
ence, some rather amazing feats can be done using the Residual stresses are not peculiar to weldments.
oxyfuel gas torch for heat forming and straightening. They occur in other types of metal structures, such as
castings and forgings, and even hotrolled shapes. Several
examples of spontaneous fracturing of rolled structural
shapes under conditions of zero external load have been
23-4 WELD STRESSES reported. (2) In one case an l-beam fractured sponta-
AND CRACKING neously under a condition of zero external load when the
beam was lying flat on the ground and under normal tem-
The subjects of weld stresses, cracking, weld distortion,
perature conditions. The failure occurred through the
lamellar tearing, brittle fracture.fatigue cracking, weld de-
center of the web splitting the beam its entire length.
Sign, and weld defects are so interrelated that it is impos-
High residual stresses also occur in castings and forgings
Sible to treat them separately. All of these factors relate to
as a result of differential cooling.The outer portion of the
weldment failure, and weldment failure should be elimi-
part cools first and the thicker and the Inner portion con-
nated. For clarification and ease of understanding, these
siderably later. As the parts cool, they contract and pick
factors are discussed in an orderly fashion. In this section
up strength. The earlier portions that cool go into a com-
the problem of welding stress and its effect on weld
pressive load and the latter portions go into a tensile
craCking is explained.
stress mode. In complicated parts the stresses may cause
warpage.
Residual Stresses Residual stresses are not always detrimental They
As noted previously, metals expand and contract the same may have a beneficial effect on the service life of parts.
amOunt when heated and cooled the same amount, if the Normally, the outer fibers of a part are subjected to ten-
metal is not restrained. The heating and cooling that oc- sile loading, and with residual compression loading
CUrin welding are not uniform, and there is a temperature there is a tendency to neutralize the stress in the outer
difference between the weld and areas adjacent to the fibers. One example of the use of residual stress is in the
Weld. The amount of nonuniform heating an.d the partial shrink-flt assembly of parts.An example is the oollng of
restrain.t creates stresses in the weld area, including the sleeve bearings to insert them into machined holes, then
Weld metal. If further temperature change occurs, the allowing them to expand ·to their normal dimension.
stresses will be greater than the yield point of the metal. Sleeve bearings. are used for heavy slow machinery and
Yielding will occur so that the retained or residual stress are subjected to compressive residual loading, One of
Will be at the yield point of the metal, This means that the most dramatic uses of Shrink-fit assembly for heavy-
Yield point stresses within the weldment may occur in all duty service is the shrink fitting of steel tires on wheels
~hree directions sirnultaneously.These internal or remain- for railroad locomotives. The tire is made of relatively
lng Stresses are known as residual stress,(4) the stress high-carbon steel. These steel tires are hated and then
present in a joint, member, or material that is free of ex- placed on the locomotive wheel and allowed to cool
ternal forces or thermal gradients. around the wheel and make a very strong mechanical
When stresses applied to a member exceed the yield onnection. Even with the trem ndous loads. 00001.10 ...
strength, the memb r will yield in a plastic fashion so that tered in use, the residual stress s continue to hold the
the sttesses will be reduced to yield point.Tbts is normal in tire on the wheel. There 18 no relaxing of the stres es
Simpl structures with stresses occurring in one dtrecnon from mechanical working. Itseemscertainthat normal':
On P3ttsmflde of ductile materials; Shrinkage stresses due operating loadsde not reduce the magnitude of lntetnal.
to normal heating and cooling dooccur ill.allthree dim n- residual stresses-
Sians, however, F01' example, in a.thin flat plate there wUl Many Investigations have been madcand tech-
be tension stresses at right angles=-ln other words, in the niques established to measure residual stress s. Restdual
.x alld y directions.As the plate becomes thicker the Stresses stresses occur it! all arc welds but only in til .more sim-
o cur in the :)C, ){ and z-or through-directions as W 11. pIe joints have accurate measurementsbeen made, 111C.
When Simple' stresses are Imposed on a thin brittle most common method ofmeaS:Ufing ;haSb~entol)r()~llce
material, the ma erial will faU intension in a britde man·· weld. specimens and· thell,to' m~dthle a.way,· spe *ific .
---- ..---.:::.==-=------ ---
COMPRESSION TENSION
FIGURE 23-25 Edge-welded joint: residual stress

FIGURE 23-26 Butt-welded joint: residual stress
pattern.
pattern.
amounts of metal adjacent to the weld and measure the

movement that occurs. This is done to produce data the heat source. Except for a single-pass simple joint, the
showing the magnitude of the residual stresses. Another compressive and tensile residual stresses can only be es-
method is the use of grid marks or data points on the sur- timated. To determine at least generally the mode and
face of weldments that can be measured in multiple di- type of stresses, it is important to remember that as each
rections. Cuts are made to reduce or release residual weld is made, it will contract as it solidifies and gain
stresses from certain parts of the weld joint and the meas- strength as the metal cools.As it contracts it tends to pull,
urernents are taken again. The amount of movement re- and this creates tensile stresses at and adjacent to the
lates to the magnitude of the stresses. Another technique
is to use extremely small strain gauges and gradually me-
chanically cut the weldment from adjoining portions to
determine the change in internal stresses. In this way, ex-
weld. Farther from the weld the metal must remain in
equilibrium and therefore compressive stresses occur. In
heavier weldments when restraint is involved, movement
is not possible and therefore residual stresses are of a
I
perts have been able to establish patterns and determine higher magnitude. For example, in a multi-pass single-
amounts of stress within parts that were caused by the
thermal effect of welds.
Based on these data, it is possible to establish a pat-
groove weld the first weld or root pass originally created
a tensile stress. The second, third, and fourth passes con-
tract and cause a compressive load in the root pass. As
I
tern of residual stresses that occurs in a simple weld. more passes are made until the weld is finished, the top
The residual stresses in an edge weld are shown in passes will be in tensile load, the center of the plate in
Figure 23-25.When the weld metal starts to cool, the up- compression, and the root pass will have tensile residual
set area attempts to contract but is restrained by cooler stress again.
metal. This results in the heated zone (upset zone) be- Residual stresses can be decreased in several ways.
corning stressed, in tension. When the weld has cooled to If the weld is stressed beyond its yield strength, plastic
room temperature, the weld metal and the adjacent base deformation win occur and the stresses will be made
metal are under tensile stresses close to the yield more uniform but still at the yield point of the metal.This
strength.A portion is compressive and beyond this is an- will not eliminate residual stresses but at least will create
other tensile stress area. The two edges are in tensile a more uniform stress pattern. Another way to reduce
stress with the center in compressive residual stress, as high 01' peak residual stresses is by means of loading 01"
shown by the figure. stretching the weld by heating adjacent areas, causing
The residual stresses in a butt weld joint made of them to expand. The heat reduces the yield strength ·of
relatively thin plate are more diffi ult to analyze.This is the weld metal and the expansion tends to reduce peak
because stresses occur in the longitudinal direction and residual stresses within the weld. This technique also
perpendicular to the axis of the weld. The residual makes the stress pattern at the weld area more uniform.
stresses wlthrn the weld are tensile in the longitudinal di- The more positive way of reducing high residual stresses
recnon of the weld and the magnitude is at the yield is by means of the stress relief heat treatment. Here the .
strength. The base metal adjacent to the weld is also at weldrnent is uniformly heated to. an elevated tempera-
yield stress parallel to the weld and along'ittqst of the ture at which the yield strength of the metal is greatly re-
length O.f the. weld, When rnovtng away from the weld duced. The weldment is then allowed to. cool slowly and
into the base metal, the residual stresses rapidly fall to uniformly, so. that the t mperature differenrinl between
zero and, to maintain equilihrtum, change to compression parts is minor and the cooling will be uniform and a uni-
(Fjgure 2.3-26).The residual stresses in.the weld at right form low-stress patt rn will. dev lop wtthln the weld-
angles to the axts of the w 14are tensile at the enter of ment. High-temperature preheating will reduce residual
the pl~te.and are compressive at the ends. For thicker ma- stresses since the entire weldment is at a relatively high
te.rlals,wl1en t.hcweldsare.madce with many passes, the temperature-and will cool more unJformly from that tern-
... ·relatiou.ship is different because of the multiple passes ~f perature and thus reduce peak residual stresses.'
:; 'GHAPq'ER~3
to reduce the cooling rate of the weld. In addition, if the
Weld Cracking base metal is at an elevated temperature, it will have
Residual stresses contribute to weld cracking.Weld crack- lower yield strength and wilJ not be as restrictive as far as
ing may occur during the manufacturing operation or its restraint on the weld.
shortly after the weldment is completed. Cracking may Another reason for this type of cracking is the al-
occur for many reasons and may occur years after the loy or carbon content of the base material. When a weld
Weldment is completed. Weld cracking that is a result of is made with higher-carbon or high-alloy base material,
the residual stresses and weld cracking that occurs dur- a small amount of base material is melted and mixed
ing the manufacturing operation or shortly thereafter will with the electrode to produce the weld metal. The re-
be described here. sulting weld metal has higher carbon and alloy content;
Cracks are the most serious defect that occurs in it may have a higher strength, but it has lower ductility
Welds. Cracks are not permitted in weldments, particu- and may not have sufficient ductility for plastic defor-
lady those subjected to low-temperature service, impact mation and cracking may occur. This can be eliminated
loading, or reversing stresses, or when the failure of the by using a more ductile weld metal or by reducing the
weldment will endanger life. It is important to under- cooling rate of the weld and also by reducing the amount
stand the mechanism of weld cracking to avoid cracks in of base metal picked up and mixed in with the weld
all welds. Weld cracking that occurs during or shortly af- metaL
ter the fabrication of the weldment can be classified as Another factor involved can be hydrogen pickup in
hot cracking or cold cracking. In addition, welds may the weld metal and in the heat-affected zone.When using
crack in the weld metal or in the base metal adjacent to cellulose-covered electrodes or when hydrogen is pres-
the weld metal, usually in the heat-affected zone. Welds ent because of damp gas, damp flux, hydrocarbon surface
crack for a variety of reasons: materials, and so on, the hydrogen in the arc atmosphere
will be absorbed in the molten weld metal and the adja-
• Insufficient weld metal cross section to sustain the
cent base metal. As the metal cools It will reject the hy-
loads involved
drogen, and if there is sufficient restraint cracking will
• Insufficienr ductility of weld metal to yield under occur.This type of cracking can be reduced by increasing
stresses involved preheat, reducing restraint, and eliminating the hydrogen
• Under-bead cracking due to hydrogen pickup in a from the arc atmosphere.
hardenable base material As a general rule, to eliminate weld cracking during
• Chemistry, i.e., sulfur or phosphorus fabrication it is wise to follow these principles:
• Poor width-to-depth proftle • Use ductile weld metal
Restraint and residual stresses are among the main • Avoid extremely high restraint
reasons for weld cracking during fabrication. Weld re- • Adjust welding procedures to reduce restraint
Straint can come from several factors.The most important • Use low-alloy and low-carbon materials
is the rigidity of the weldment, For example, if the weld- • Reduce the cooling rate by use of preheat
rn nt is made of thick material and it is of a highly reo • Use low-hydrogen welding processes and filler metals
strained nature, there will be little chance for yielding or
movement in the weld joint. If the weld metal does not When cracking is in the heat-affect dzone or if
have sufttclent ductility, cracking will occur. Weld metal cracking is delayed, the culprit is possiblyhydrogen
Shrinks as it cools, and if the parts being welded cannot pickupin the weld metal and heat-affected zone. Anoth 1.'
move With respect to one another, and if the weld metal important factor is the presence of higher-carbon materi-
has insuffiCient ductility, a crack will result. Additionally, als or high alloy in the base 'metal. Iris important to use
movement of welds may impose high loads on other low-hydrogen filler metals, to reduce cooling rates. by
Welds and cause them to crack during fabrication. The means of preheat, and to use ductile filler mat rials.
best solution is to use a more ductile weld metal or make One solution when w ldlng high-aUo:y or high-
the weld with sufficient cross-sectional ar a that Will hav carbon steels is to use the buttering technique. This in-
enOUgh strength to withstand cracking tendenci s, A volves surfacing the' weld face of the jo.;lnt' with a weld
-Weld crack can Occur in the root Pass when the parts are metaltltat is mudfJowe:rin carbon and aUoycontCJ;ltthflt1 ,
Unable to move. the base metal. tllewetd IS, then made ·bctwe~n the Cle~ .
, Another possible factor lsrapid cooling of the weld posited $\ltiacing material' ana ,avoids the Cjlfl~on..anCt a,t .
deposit. If the base metal is cold and the weld is relatively loy pickup ill th weld metal and aUoW'S'a nior . ductil .
smau, it will cool extremely rapidly. Shrinkage will OCC~lr weld metal deposit. Caremust be used SQ that tl\e total
qUicldy and cracking can occur, lithe parts being joined joint strength is s1.1fficlentt(j', U).eet qcsign requtren» nts,
~e prebeated, the cooUngra"te .will be slower and crack- ,Underbead cnlcklngiS' ~!f!n\:tlf'":te~UG¢dl?luse o:Nqw~
111g Qtt1be' elimlttated. One of the reasons for preheat. is hydrogen-type-processes .a.ndml~r "roetats.R~dueitlg, th· "
'.
.. ;,
.
. h
. . . .
,;Welding I?roblerrt$:aBd, $Qiutto.r,1$ '.'
cooling rate will materially reduce the chance of cracks. or no stretching or yielding.There is no reduction of area
When welds are too small for the service intended, they at the fracture (Figure 23-28).
will probably crack. This is common in tack welds where It is possible that a broken surface will display both
a small weld is expected to carry extreme loads. Many ductile and brittle fracture over different areas of the sur-
specifications list the minimum size of fillet welds that can face.This means that the fracture that propagated across
be used to join different thicknesses of steel sections. If the section changed its mode of fracture. Four factors
these minimum sizes are used, cracking will be eliminated. should be reviewed when analyzing a fractured surface:
(1) growth marking, (2) fracture mode, (3) fracture sur-
face texture and appearance, and (4) amount of yielding
or plastic deformation at the fracture surface. Growth
23-5 IN-SERVtCE CRACKING markings are one way to identify the type of failure. Fa-
The objective is always to design and build weldments tigue failures are characterized by a fine texture surface
that perform adequately in service. The risk of failure is with distinct markings produced by erratic growth of the
relatively small, but it can occur in structures, mechanical crack as it progresses. The chevron or herringbone pat-
parts, tanks, and other weldments.i? Welding has some- tern occurs with brittle or impact failures.The apex of the
times been blamed for the failure, but failures have oc- chevron appearing on the fractured surface always points
curred in riveted and bolted structures in castings, toward the origin of the fracture and is an indicator of the
forgings, hotrolled plate and shapes, and other types of direction of crack propagation. The second factor is the
construction. It is important to make weldrnents and fracture mode. Ductile fractures have a shear mode of
welded structures as safe against premature failure as we crystalline failure.The surface texture is silky or fibrous in
possibly can.Welders must be aware of at least four types appearance. Ductile fractures often appear to have failed
of failures so that proper steps can be taken to avoid in shear as evidenced by all parts of the fracture surface
them.These are: assuming an angle of approximately 45 with respect to
0
• Brittle fracture
the axis of the load stress. Brittle or cleavage fractures I
have either a granular or a crystalline appearance. There
• Fatigue fracture is usually a point of origin of brittle fractures.The chevron
• Lamellar tearing pattern will help locate this point. The necking down of
I
• Stress corrosion cracking the surface of the fractured part is an indication of the
amount of plastic deformation. There is little or no defor-
Each of these failure modes will be covered in detail.
mation for a brittle fracture and usually a considerably
necked down area in the case of a ductile fracture.
Brittle Fracture One characteristic of brittle fracture is that the steel
The fracture of metals is a complex subject beyond the breaks quickly and without warning. The fractures propa-
scope of this book. However, fracture can be classified gate at very high speeds, and the steels fracture at stresses
into two general categories: ductile and brittle. below the yield strength normal for the steel. Mild steels,
Ductile fracn ..ire occurs by deformation of the crys- which show a normal degree of ductility when tested in
tals and slip relative to each other. There is a definite tension as a test bar, may fail in a brittle manner. In fact,
stretching or yielding. There is a reduction of cross- mild steel may exhibit good toughness characteristics at
sectional area at the fracture (Figure 23-27). Brittle frac- room temperature. Brittle fracture is therefore more simi-
ture occurs by cleavage across individual crystals; the lar to the fracture of glass than the fracture of normal
fracture exposes the granular structure and there is little ductile materials. A combination of conditions must be
present simultaneously for brittle fracture to occur; This
FIGUR£ 23....27 Ductile fracture surface.

FIGURE23-28 Brittle fracture surface.
"
€htAPTER23
is reassuring since some of these factors can be elimi- have a higher transition temperature or lower toughness
nated and reduce the possibility of brittle fracture.The fol- than the same steel in a normalized condition. Normaliz-
lowing conditions must be present: (1) low temperature, ing produces a grain refinement, which provides higher
(2) a notch or defect, (3) a relatively high rate of loading, toughness. Unfortunately, fabrication operations on steel
(4) triaxial stresses normally due to thickness or residual such as hot and cold forming, punching, and flame cut-
stresses, and (5) the microstructure of the metal. ting affect the original microstructure.This raises the tran-
Temperature is an important factor. However, tem- sition temperature of the steel.
perature must be considered in conjunction with mi- Welding tends to accentuate some of the undesir-
crostructure of the material and the presence of a notch. able characteristics we wish to avoid. The thermal treat-
Impact testing of steels using a standard notched bar ment resulting from welding tends to reduce the
SpeCimen at different temperatures shows a transition toughness of the steel or possibly to raise its transition
from a ductile-type failure to a brittle-type failure based temperature in the heat-affected zone. The monolithic
on a lowered temperature. The change from ductile to structure of a weldment means that more energy is
brittle fracture is known as the transition temperature. locked up and there is the possibility of residual stresses
Unfortunately, notched specimens are different from that may be at yield point levels. Additionally, the mono-
large weldments. However, notched specimen results do lithic structure causes stresses and strains to be transmit-
provide a correlation that is useful in selecting the better ted throughout the entire weldment. Defects in welds
material. can be the nucleus for the notch or crack that will cause
A notch can result from faulty workmanship or fracture initiation.
from improper design that produces an extremely high The problem of brittle fracture can be greatly re-
stress concentration that prohibits yielding in the normal duced in weldments by selecting steels that have sufficient
sense. A crack, for example, will not carry stress across it, toughness at the service temperatures.The transition tern-
and the load is transmitted to the end of the crack. It is perature should be below the service temperature to
concentrated at this point, and little or no yielding will oc- which the weldment will be subjected. Heat treatment or
Cur,Metal adjacent to the end of the crack that does not normalizing or any method of reducing locked-up stresses
carry load will not undergo a reduction of area since it is will reduce the triaxial yield strength stresses within the
not stressed. It is in effect a restraint that helps set up tri- weldment. Design notches must be eliminated,and
axial stresses at the base of the notch or the end of the notches resulting from poor workmanship must not occur.
crack. Stress levels much higher than normal occur at this This requires the elimination of internal cracks within the
point and contribute to starting the fracture. welds and of unfused root areas either by design or by ac-
The rate of loading is the time versus strain rate.The cident. By closely following these conditions, the possibil-
high rate of strain, which is a result of impact or shock ity of brittle fracture will be eliminated or greatly reduced.
loa<;ling,does not allow sufficient time for the normal slip
process to occur. The material under load behaves elasti-
cally, allowing a stress level beyond the normal yield Fatigue Failure
pOint. When the rate of loading from impact or shock Structures sometimes fail at nominal stresses consider' ably
stresses Occurs neal' a notch in heavy thick material, the below the tensile strength of the materials involved. The
lUaterial at the base of the notch is subjected suddenly to materials involved were ductile in the normal tensile tests
high stresses. The effect Is rapid failure of the structure, but the failures generally exhibited little or no ductility.
This is What makes brittle fracture so dangerous. Most of these failures developed aft r the structure had
Triaxial stresses are more likely to occur in thick been subjected to a large number of cycles of'loading.This
material than in thin material.The z direction acts as a re- type of failure is called a fatigue failure. (6) Fatigue failure i,
straint at the base of the notch, and for ducker material the formation of and development of a crack by repeated .
the degree of restraint in the through directionis higher. or fluctuating leading.When sudden failur cccurs.tt is be-
This is why brittle fracture is more likely to occur in thick cau e the Crack has propagated suffictenuy to reduce the
plates or complex sections than in thinner materials. Itt load-carrying capacity of the part. Fatigue cracks may exist
acldjtioll, thicker plates usually have less .mechanical in.weldments, but they will not fail until the load-carrying
Working durmg manufacture than thinner plates and may area is sufficiently reduced. Repeated loading caus oS' pro-
have lower ductility in the z axis.The rrucrostructure and gresslve 'enlargement oftbefatigue CX'4ck:The rate atwhich
Chenlistry Of the material in the center of thick: plates the fatigue crack propagat sdepehds':upon the typ an(t
have poorer properties than thin plates. . Intensiry of stress and a number of other f~lctors invol ing'
The microstructure of the material is important. th design, the rate of.loadrng, type of matertal, and. 'so 'on, '
~jth respect to the fracture behavior and transition tem- The fracture surface of'e fatigue failure has a typi-
p rature range. Microstnlctufe of a steel depends on: the cal characterlsttc appearano ,It is, Sc:i) rally a smooth
ncmica! composition @,ndproduction processes used .in surface and freq\Jently shows coi)centri;c·rings O,f at. 'as.,
tnanufactu.ring it,A steel in the !'as-rolled" cOndit101l Will spreading from the point wilet·. 'the: crack'Jnitiate,t
is important to determine those factors that adversely af-
fect the fatigue life of a weldment.
The possibility of a fatigue failure depends on four
factors:
1. Material used
2. Number of loading cycles
3. Stress level and nature of stress variations
4. Total design and design details
This last factor is controllable in the design and
manufacture of the weldment. Weld joints can be de-
signed for uniform stress distribution using a full-
penetration weld, but in other cases joints may not have
FIGURE 23-29 Fatigue failure fracture surface. full penetration because of an unfused root that prohibitS
uniform stress distribution. With a full-penetration weld,
if the reinforcement is excessive, a portion of the stress
will flow through the reinforced area and will not be uni-
These rings show the propagation of the crack, which formly distributed. Welds designed for f1.111 penetration
might be related to periods of high stress followed by pe- might not have complete penetration because of work-
riods of inactivity. The fracture surface also tends to be- manship factors such as cracks, slag inclusions, and in-
come rougher as the rate of propagation of the crack complete penetration and therefore contain a stress
increases. Figure 23-29 shows the characteristic fatigue concentration. One reason fatigue failures in welded
failure surface. structures occur is because the welded design can intro-
Most structures are designed to a permissible static duce severe stress concentrations. The weld defect, in-
stress based on the yield point of the material in use and cluding excessive reinforcement, undercut, or negative
the safety factor selected. This is based on statically reinforcement, will contribute to the stress concentration
loaded structures, the stress of which remains relatively factor. In addition, a weld forms an integral part of the
constant with respect to time. Many structures, however, structure, and when parts are attached by welding they
are subjected to other than static loads in service. They may produce sudden changes of section that contribute
are loaded by various live loads applied in different to stress concentrations.
ways-for example, cyclic loading in the case of a rotat- Anything that can be done to smooth out the stress
ing device or of a bridge carrying varying traffic, dynamic flow in the weldment will reduce stress concentrations
loads from machinery, or loads based on temperature and make the weldment less subject to fatigue failure.To-
changes and vibrations. These changes range from simple tal design and careful workmanship will greatly eliminate
cyclic fluctuations to completely random variations. In this type of problem. See Reference 6 for more informa-
this type of loading the structure must be designed for dy- tion on fatigue failure.
namic loading and considered with respect to fatigue
stresses.
The varying loads involved with fatigue stresses can Lamellar Tearing
be categorized. These can be alternating cycles from ten- Lamellar tearing has Come into prominence because of
sion to compression. They can be pulsating loads with failures in structural steel work in buildings and in off-
pulses from zero load to a maximum tensile load, or from shore drill rigs and platforms. Lamellar tearing is cracking
a zero load to a compressive load; or loads can be high that occurs beneath welds and is found inrolled steel
and rise higher, either tensile or compressive. It is impor- plate w ldments. The tearing always lies within the base
tant to consider the number of times the weldment is metal, usually outside the heat-affected zone and gener-
sub]e 'ted to the cyclic loading. For practical purposes, ally parallel to the weld fusion boundary. This type of
loading is considered in millions of cycles atigue is a cu- era king has be n found in corner joints where the
mulative process and itS effec.t is in no way h led during shrinkage across the weld tends to open up the steel sfrn-
pert ods .of inactivity. Testing· machtnes are used forload- Ilar to laminations. In these cases, the lamination-type
ins metal specimens to millions. of cycles, and the results crack is removed and replaced .with weld metal. Only
are plotted on stress versus cycle curves. These show the when welds subject the base metal to tensile loads in the
.relation between th stress range and the number of cy- z or through direction of the rolled steel is theproblern
des tor the particular stress used . Patigue test specimens encountered. For many years the lower strength of rolled
ar machined and polished, and the results obtained may steel in the through direction was recognlz d, and the
.llotcortc;.'llatc with tbe act\Hu serwtce-llfe of a weldment.Jt structural code prohibited z-dlrectional tensile loads on
'614. GHAPTER ;23

,'':'
FIGURE 23-30 Corner joint. FIGURE 23-32 Redesigned corner joint to avoid
lamellar tearing.
under the heat-affected zone and are more apt to happen

in thicker materials and in higher-strength materials.
Only a small percentage of steel plates are suscepti-
ble to lamellar tearing. In only certain plates is the con-
centration of inclusions coupled with the unfavorable
shape and type that presents the risk of tearing.These con-
ditions rarely occur with the other two factors mentioned
previously. In general, the three situations must occur in.
combination: structural restraint, joint design, and the con-
FIGURE 23-31 T-joint. dition of the steel.The experience gained to date indicates
that joint details can be changed to avoid the possibility of
lamellar tearing. In the case of Tjoints, double-fillet weld
joints are less susceptible than full-penetration welds. In
steel spacer plates. Figure 23-30 shows how lamellar tear- addition, balanced welds on both sides of the Joint seem to
ing will come to the surface of the metal. Figure 23-31, present less risk than large single-sided welds.
~howing a T[oinr, is a more common type of lamellar tear- Cotner joints are common in box columns. Lamel-
ulg, which is much more difficult to fincl. In this case, the lar tearing at the corner joints is readily detected on the
crack does not come to the surface and is under the weld. exposed edge of the plate. The easy way of overcoming
This type of crack can only be found with ultrasonic test- the problem of corner joints is to place the bevel for the
111g,01' if failure occurs, the section can actually come out joint on the edge of the plate that would have tearing,
and separate from the main piece of metal. rather than on the other plate (Figure 23-32).
Three conditions must occur to cause lamellar Butt joints rarely have a problem with lamellar tear-
tearing:
ing since the shrinkage of the weld do s not set tJP a ten-
1. Strains must develop in the through direction of the sile stress in the through thlckness direction of the steel.
plate.These strains are caused by weld metal shrink- Experience indicates that higher heat input welds
age and can be increased by residual stresses and by are less likely to create lamellar tearing.Thls is because of
loading. the fewer number of applications of heat and the 1 sser
number of shrinkage cycles involved in making a weld. It
2. The weld orientation must be such that the stress
is also found that the deposited filler metal with, lower
acts through the joint across the plate thickness or
yield strength and high ductility reduces the possibility of
in the z dlrection.The fusion line beneath the weld
lamellar tearing. It does not appear that preheat is specif-
is roughly parallel to the lamellar separation.
ieally advantageous. Also, stress-relief'heat treatment does
3. The material will have poor ductility in the through not appear to have any beneficial effect. The burtering
or z direction. .
technique of laying one or more layers of low-strength,
Lamellar tearing can occur during flame cutting op- high-ductility weld metal deposit on the surface of the
erations and in cold-shearing operations. It is primarily the plate stressed in the z direction will reduce the po aibil-.
low strength of the material in.the z or tbroughdirectton ity of lamellar tearing.This is perhal'sane~trerne sollJtlou .
and should only beusedas a last resort. Steel conlpal1i(ls . , ..
that contrlbutes to the problem. A stress placed in the z
direction triggers the tearing. The thermal heating and are making' Improvemenrs in steel processing to avoid
stresses resulting from weld shrinking create the fracture. lamellar tearing. By using the design {actors just men';
Lamellar tearing is not the same as under-bead hydrogen tioned, the lamellar tearing problem is reduced. Mor .in-
~raCking.lt can occur soon after the weld has been made formation regarding lamellar tearingcan be f, unci in
• ut on Occasion will occur much later. Also, the tears are Reference 7.
·WeldlngPt9b1ems and: Sofutlq,t'lS.

, • - _.••••• c
should be done on clean metal. In some industries, how-
Stress Corrosion Cracking
ever, welds are made on painted base metal.
Stress corrosion cracking and delayed cracking due to hy- In the shipbuilding industry and in others, steel,
drogen ernbrittlement is troublesome when the weld- when it is received, is shot blasted, given a coat of prime
ment is subjected to an environment that accentuates paint, and then stored out of doors. Painting is done to
this problem. Delayed cracking is caused by hydrogen ab- preserve the steel during storage and also to identify it.
sorbed in the weld metal at high temperatures. Molten In some shipyards a different color paint is used for dif-
steel will absorb large quantities of hydrogen. As the ferent classes of steel. When this practice is used, every
metal solidifies, it rejects the hydrogen that is forced out effort should be made to obtain a prime paint that is
of solution. The hydrogen coming out of the solution sets compatible with welding. Three factors are involved
up high stresses, and if a sufficient amount is present, it with the success of the weld when welding over painted
will cause cracking in the weld or the heat-affected zone. surfaces:
These cracks develop over time.The concentration of hy-
drogen and the stresses resulting from it when coupled • Compatibility of the paint with welding
with residual stresses promote cracking. Cracking will be • Dryness of the paint
accelerated if the weldment is subjected to thermal
• Paint film thickness
stresses due to repeated heating and cooling.
Stress corrosion cracking in steels is sometimes Paint compatibility varies according to its compo-
called caustic embrittlerneru: This type of cracking takes sition. Certain paints contain large amounts of aluminum
place when hot concentrated caustic solutions are in con- or titanium dioxide and are usually compatible with
tact with steel that is stressed in tension to a high level. welding. Other paints may contain zinc, lead, vinyls, and
The high level of tension stresses can be created by load- other hydrocarbons and are not compatible with weld-
ing or by high residual stresses. Stress corrosion cracking ing. The paint supplier should be consulted. Anything
will occur if the concentration of the caustic solution in that contributes to deoxidizing the weld such as alu-
contact with the steel is high and if the stress level in the minum, silicon, or titanium will be compatible. Anything
weldment is sufficiently high. This situation can be re- that is a harmful ingredient such as lead, zinc, and hy-
duced by reducing the stress level. Various inhibitors can drocarbons will be detrimental. The fillet break test can
be added to the solution to reduce the concentration. A be used to determine compatibility. The surfaces should
practical solution is to reduce the tensile stress of the area be painted with the paint under consideration. The nor-
in contact with the corrosive solution. On piping this can mal paint film thickness should be used, and the paint
be done by making weld beads on the outer surface, must be dry, The test should be run using the proposed
which causes compressive stresses on the inside-diameter welding procedure on the painted surface. It should be
surface. broken and the weld examined. If the weld breaks at the
Another type of cracking is called graphitization. interface of the plate with the paint, it is obvious that the
This is caused by long service life exposed to thermal cy- paint is not compatible.
cling-that: is, repeated heating and cooling. This may The dryness of the paint should be considered.
cause a breakdown of carbides in the steel into small ar- Many paints employ an oil base that is a hydrocarbon.
eas of graphite and iron. This formation of graphite, in These paints dry slowly since it takes considerable time
th edge of th heat-affected area, exposed to the ther- for the hydrocarbons to evaporate. If welding is done be-
mal cycling causes cracking. It will more often occur in
carbon steels deoxidized with aluminum. The addition of
fore the paint is dry; hydrogen will be in the arc atmo- 1
sphere and can contribute to underbead cracking. It will '
molybdenum to the steel tends to restrict graphitization also cause porosity if there is sufficient oil pr sent. Water-
and for this reason carbon molybdenum steels are nor- based paints should also be dry prior to welding. I
mally used in high-temperature power plant service. The thickness of the paint film is another factor.
These steels must be welded with ftller metals of the Some paints may be compatible if the thickness of the
same composition. film is in the neighborhood of 3 to 4 mils. If the pain t film.
thicknesses are double that amount, which occurs at an
overlap, there is the possibility of. weld, 1 oroslry Paint
films that arc to be welded over should be Of themtnl-
23.6 WELDING-PAINTI~ mum thickness possibl .
Two other welding probl rns require explanation and so- Tests should be run with the maximum film thick-
lution.Th se arc welding Over painted surfaces and paint- ness to be used, but dry, to determine which paint has the
ing of w Ids, least harmful effect on the weld deposit.
The practlc ,> of welding over paint should be dis- Cutting' painted surfaces should be done with C~lU-
,
cotlrag~d;Everr code and specification state that welding tlonDemolinon of old structural steelwork that had
been painted many, many times with flame- or arc-cutting ing. When sand or grit blasting cannot be used, power
techniques can create health problems. Cutting through wire brushing is the next most effective method. In ad-
many layers of lead paint will cause an abnormally high dition, a chemical bath washing is recommended. Slag
lead concentration in the immediate area and will require coverings on weld deposits must be thoroughly removed
extra ventilation and personnel protection. from the surface of the weld and adjacent area. Different
Painting over welds is also a problem.The success of types of coatings create differing levels of problems in
the paint film depends on its adherence to the base metal adherence and removal. Weld slag of many electrodes is
and the weld.This is influenced by surface deposits left on alkaline in nature and must be neutralized to avoid chem-
the weld. Paint failure occurs when the weld and the im- ical reactions with the paint. The weld should be
mediate area are not properly cleaned prior to painting. scrubbed with water, which will usually remove the
Deterioration of the paint over the weld also seems to be residual coating slag and smoke film. If a small amount of
dependent upon the amount of spatter present. Spatter phosphoric acid up to a 5% solution is used, it will be
attjacent to the weld leads to rusting of the base material. more effective in neutralizing and removing the slag.
The paint does not completely adhere to spatter and However, if this is used it should be followed by a water
some spatter falls off in time, leaving bare spots in the rinse. If water only is used, it is advisable to add small
paint coating. amounts of phosphate or chromate inhibitors to avoid
The success of the paint job can be ensured by rusting.
preweld and postweld treatment. The preweld treatment It has been found that the method of applying paint
found most effective is to use antispatter compounds and is not an important factor. The type of paint employed
clean the weld area before welding. The antispatter com- must be suitable for coating metals and proper for the
Pound extends the paint life because of the reduction of service intended.
Spatter. The antispatter compound must be compatible Successful paint jobs over welds can be obtained by:
With the paint to be used.
Postweld treatment for ensuring paint film success 1. Removing weld spatter
cOnsists of mechanical and chemical cleaning. Mechani- 2. Mechanically cleaning the weld and adjacent area
cal cleaning can consist of hand chipping and wire 3. Washing the weld area with a neutralizing bath
brushing or power brushing, or sand or grit blasting. and rinse
Sand 01" grit blasting is the most effective mechanical
cleaning method. If the weldment is furnace stress re- The American Welding Society is preparing a stan-
lieved and then grit blasted, it is well prepared for paint- dard practice document on this subject.
QUESTIONS 1J¢ 9
23-1. What causes arc blow? 23-11. How do residual stresses build up and change in a
23·2. Why is AC welding less likely to have arc blow? multipass groove weld?
23·3. What is the best solution for arc blow when parts are 23-U. How can residual stresses b ~r duced?
magnetized? 23-13. What is the danger of brittle fracture?
23-4. ' If a metal piece is not restrained, will it come back to 23·14. How is the type of failure determmedr
its Original dimension after heating? 23-15. What is the characteristic of a fatigue f~l t1.1fC? What
23-5. Is heating uniform inmetal during welding? Does this four factors are involved?
cause distortion? 23-16. Describe lamellar tearing.
23-6, Is a weldment restrained? Does this cause warpag ? 23-17. .What causes stress corrosion cracking?
23-7. What is plastic deformation?How is it affected by heat? 23·18. How can stress corroston cracking b OV; rcome in
23-8, How can angular distortion be reduced? piping?
23~9. ExpJain the reason for the special order of making Wll~.t is the hazard of flam~ cutting old .structur s
weld joints 011 a tank. that are covered With many laytll's of paint? .
23·10. What is the stress level of residual stresses? 23·20. What is required to obt;tinffgood paint job over w~lds?
REFERENCES
1. C. H. Jennings and A. B. White, "Magnetic Arc Blow," 5. M. E. Shank, "Control of Steel Construction to Avoid Brit·
Welding Journal (October 1941). tle Failure,"Welding Research Council, New York, 1957.
2. R. R. Avent, "Engineered Heat Straightening Comes of 6. W H. Munse, "Fatigue of Welded Steel Structures,"Weld-
Age," Modern Steel Construction 35, no. 2 (February ing Research Council, New York, 1964.
1995): 32-39. 7. J. c. M. Farrar and R. E. Dolby, "Lamellar Tearing in Welded
3. J. R. Stitt, "Distortion
Control during Welding of Large Steel Fabrication," The Welding Institute, Cambridge,
Structures," SAE-ASME(April 1964): 844B. England,1966.
4. F. Campus, "Effects of Residua] Stresses on the Behavior of
Structures," in Residual Stresses in Metals and Metal Con-
struction, W R. Osgood, ed. (New York: Reinhold, 1954).
CHABTER23
.~, '
,
, .,
OUTLINE
This should be made at the failure site as quickly as
24-1 Weld Failure Analysis possible. Photographs should be taken, in color, of
24-2 Developing a Rework Procedure all parts, structures, failure surfaces, fracture texture
24-3 Making the Repair Weld appearance, final location of component debris, and
24;..4 Rebuilding and Overlay Welding all other factors. Witnesses to the failure should all
24-5 Surfacing for Wear Resistance be interviewed, and aU information should be
24-6 recorded.
Surfacing for Corrosion Resistance
24-7 2. Background data. Investigators should gather all
Other Surfacing Applications
information concerning specifications, drawings,
component design, fabrication methods, welding
procedures, weld schedules, repairs in and during
24 ..1 WELD FAILURE ANALYSIS manufacturing and in service, maintenance, and ser-
vice use. Particular attention should be given to envi-
Failures of large engineered welded structures are very ronmental details, including operating temperatures,
rare. Catastrophic failures of major structures and results ser ice loads, overloads, cyclic loading, and abuse.
of investigations are usually reported. These reports are 3. Laboratory studies. Investigators should make lab-
useful because they provide information that is helpful in oratory tests to verify that the materials itlthefailed
aVOidingfuture similar problems. parts have the specified. composition, mechanical
It is important to study objectively the failure of properties, and dimensions. Micrographic studies
parts of structures to determine the cause.This is clone by should be made. Each failed part should/be thor-
inveStigating the service life, the conditions that led up to oughly investigated to determine what bit . of Infor-
the failure, and the actual mode of failure. The study mation H can add to the total picture. Fracture
should lise every bit of information available, tnvestigare surfaces can be extremely Important, O:tiglnal draw-
all factors, and evaluate this information to arrive at the ings should be obtained andrnarkedshowing f.lil-
reason for the failure. ure locations. This should be coupled to d sign
Failure investigation will uncover facts that will stress data used 1.0 desigtlmg the product. Other de-
lead to changes in design, rnanufacturtng, or operating fects in the structure that are apparent, even tho\lgh·
P1'<l:ctie that will elirninate Similar. fatlures in the future. theytnight -not have cOJ1!tifiiltetl tQ··th¢~faUt1f~l ..
Eac.;h fqj1Ul'C and subsequent investigation will lead to should benoted and itwestlgate<r; ~," ",,' .'
<;hanges that will ensure a more l'eliable product. The in·
4. Failure a,ssu11tjJttons. InVeStigators$houldUstn:~t·
VeStigators must use extreme care and should present the
only all positive facts and eVldence th~t ,ma1 hU:Y,c
{acts in a, logical order.The following four areas should b
contributed to the failure, but also all negative reo
investigated to determine the cause of the failure and the
sponses that may be learned. about the fail~te.tt is
interplay of factorsInvolved. '
somettmes. a .fmportmlt to .kno~ ~w.bat~J1)e~ltlt·,
i. Inittal obsc_rvati01t.investigators 'should make "'it: . things {u~not happen or):vhat eVidenQeai~ llot ap- '.'
detailed Study of the actual component that failed. pear to help determine w~at happened .. hesedatu
should be tabulated. The actual failure should be The report of the inquiry into the accidents of the
synthesized to include all available evidence. This Comet airplane failures" was extremely informative.This
might lead to the need for collecting additional data study represented an outstanding example of investiga-
or asking more questions. tion and experimentation necessary to track down the
cause of failure. It provided knowledge regarding the fa-
The true cause of failure will emerge from this tigue problem of aircraft structures and changed the de-
study. Assumptions must be challenged by every bit of in- sign concepts for all large aircraft with respect to fatigue
formation available until it stands up as the one and only loading.
plausible cause for the failure. Failure cause can usually be Another important failure analysis report was the
classified as one of the following: "Brittle Failure in Carbon Plate Steel Structures Other
1. .Failure due to faulty design or misapplication of Than Ships.,,(2)This investigation provided insight into the
material failure mode of large weld structures, It emphasized the
fact that weldments are monolithic structures, and that a
2. Failure due to improper processing or improper
welded structure is one piece of metal that may have de-
workmanship
signed into it internal and external notches, stress risers,
3. Failure due to deterioration during service and crack starters. It also emphasized that stresses are diS-
The following is a summary of these three situations. tributed throughout the weldment because of its mono-
Failure due to faulty design or misapplication of the lithic structure, whether the designer had this in mind or
material involves failure due to inadequate stress analysis not. It helped clarify the design concepts of large welded
or a mistake in design such as incorrect calculations on structures.
the basis of static loading instead of dynamic or fatigue
loading. Ductile failure can be caused by a load too great
for the strength of the material. Brittle fracture may occur
Figure 24-1 shows the result of a weld failure, a fire
at a large refinery. It was apparently caused when cerro-
sion attacked a part, allowing a leak. The part was of the
I
from stress risers inherent in the design, an improper wrong material, and the result was a catastrophic multi-
weld joint, or the wrong material specified for the part.
Failures can be due to faulty processing or poor
million dollar explosion and fire that required many
~~ro~~ Ii
}
workmanship. The quality of the weld may be substan-

dard. Failures can be attributed to poor fabrication prac-
,
tice such as the elimination of a root opening, which may
cause incomplete penetration. Another possibility is the FIGURE24-1 Refinery fire.
use of incorrect filler metal.
A major problem is overload. Normal wear and
abuse to the equipment may have resulted in reducing
sections to the degree that they no longer can support
the load. Corrosion due to environmental conditions
and accentuated by stress concentrations will con-
tribute to. failure. There may be other situations such as
poor maintenance, poor repair techniques, and acciden-
tal conditions beyond the user's control. Or, the product
might be exposed to an environment for which it was
not designed.
Failure Analysis Examples

Thorough investigarions and reports are always made of
major failures, especially if there is a loss of life, The fed.
eralAviationAgency always investigates mc¢'t accidents
aJ:\C\ publishes a
report. The Office of Pipe1il~ Safety de-
t¢immes the caP'se of pipeline failures, and the u.s. De-
p(l'rtmen~of'Iransportatientnvesttgares ship, railroad, and
pighway catastrophe's andserious brtdge failures. Engl-
neertngmagaztnes summarize and publish these reports.
Invesdgaticn reports are always Inreresting and informa-
. tive, 4st\'ldy of these reports will reduce the 1ik Ilhood of
•., uJtl.-jte !all.ure:sSf 'slinllar types. The' following is a review
.of some studies thatrel~te to. welding, '
1 )
,.,' ,
C:HAp;fER 24
The "Report of the Royal Commission into the Fail- mum test pressure of 5,100 psi.The fracture was of a brit-
ure of Kings Bridge"(3) in Melbourne, Australia, is a classic. tle type. Two fracture initiation sites were located in the
The fractured beam is shown in Figure 24-2. The report heat-affected zone of the submerged arc weld between
indicated that the cause of failure was due to the com- the rolled plate and the end forging. The steel involved
bined effects of local stress risers due to poor design of banding and segregation, and failure resulted from high
cover plates, improper welding procedure for high- residual stresses around the weld and the fact the base
strength steel, and the failure to control low-hydrogen metal had low toughness.
electrodes, which resulted in many cracks in the welds. The failure of the Kansas City Hyatt Regency Hotel
Another famous failure is shown in Figure 24-3, pedestrian walkways resulted in a large loss of li.fe.(<;)
The
which was a large pressure vessel made of 5%'-in. (150-mm)- investigation revealed that the design had been changed
thick material with an inside diameter of 5~ ft (1.67 m) during construction. This design change using two rods
and nearly 60 ft (18.3 m) long" The failure occurred dur- instead of one essentially doubled the stress on the hang-
ing the hydrostatic proof test at a temperature of 50°F ers. This change, in addition to the extra heavy human
(la°C) and a pressure of 5,000 psi with a designed maxi- load, caused the catastrophic failure.
Welded ships have been plagued with problems
due to at-sea failures. Figure 24-4 shows a 32,000-ton ves-
sel in two piecesin the North Sea.(6)The break occurred
FIGURE24-2 Fractured beam. nearly amidships and ran approximately in line with the
transverse bulkhead at the end of the longitudinal stiff-
eners, which were interrupted at the bulkhead. This de-
sign created discontinuities and stress risers, which
caused the failure in heavy seas. '
Another example of a failure on a machinery part
is shown in Figure 24-5.A diesel power shovel with a
3-cllbic-yard dipper was digging taconite at an open pit
mine in the Mesa.bi Range in northern Minnesota. On a
mid-lanuary day when the temperature was 220°F
(229°C), the boom failed wlthout warning.The point of the
FIGURE24-4 Ship broken in two.
FIGURE24-3 Failed pressure vessel.
, '
. Fai[ure Analysj$:~Repair ~Wejding~c tid $orfaQ!in~

(b)
(c)
(a)
FIGURE24-5 Power shovel boom failure.
boom broke off completely about midway between the tion with shielded metal arc process using E6012 elec-
shipper shaft bearing and the point of the boom (Figure trodes. A diaphragm was located very near this butt
24-5).This was a brittle failure; there was no deformation welded joint. The boom was not stress relieved.
or necking down of the material thickness. The working The fracture was initiated at the fillet weld attach-
stresses on thts portion of the boom are compressive. ing the diaphragm to the box section and at a point of
When the machine rotates, there is a bending moment on poor root fusion in the transverse butt weld. It was con-
the boom point secrion.The severest load is caused by the eluded that the stresses were concentrated at this area be-
pun of the dipper as it goes through the heavy are. During cause of the abrupt end of the backing bars, the fillet
this period th boom shakes and Vibrates violently'Ihe cal- weld joining the diaphragm to the box section, and the
culated stresses when combined were wll:hin the allow- unfused root of the butt transverse weld. The base metal
able limit. ' and the E6012 weld metal both have relatively poor loW'·
The'booUl'-was it rectangular cross sectlon about temperature 'impact resistance. It was concluded that the
16 in,(424 mm) by 20 in. (526 mm) at the location of the low ambient temperature, the shock loading, stress can-
fra~ture. It was made of low-carbon mild steel whose centration, and poor 'Jow-temperature toughness of the
notch bar Impact properties were poor. The boom was steel caused the failure.
.made of two formed half-sections joined longitudinally Early in Wodd War II, welded merchant vessels bunt
by" _Sllbmerged arc welds. ,A ~/8-in. (9:5-111l,n) by I-m. in the United States experienced dtfficulries in the forn1
(2$,l1l7mm) backup bar was used.The pOint section' was of fractures that oeuld.not. beexplninecl. Matly"fractures
made as a suba . embly and' butt welded to the' main sec- oc urred With explosive suddenness and exhibited it
CHAPTER 24'
quality of brittleness that was not associated with the be- starts in a riveted ship, it generally progresses only to the
havior of normally ductile materials used. Immediate first break, that is, a riveted seam. There it awaits reload-
steps were taken to investigate and solve the problem.A ing to a stress that will give it a fresl start. In a welded
board was appointed to make a complete investigation structure, the crack will continue to propagate as long as
and report the facts. "The Design and Methods of Con- sufficient energy is available.
struction of Welded Steel Merchant Vessels ,,(7) is the com- A particularly bewildering phenomenon was the
prehensive report produced.The investigation took more appearance and nature of the fracture. It had been gener-
than three years, starting in April 1943 and concluding in ally believed that ship steel would deform elastically
July 1946. The investigation involved a total of 4,694 when loaded within the elastic limit, and that if it were
ships, of which 970 sustained some type of structural ca- loaded beyond that point, plastic flow would take place
Sualty. Eight ships were lost at sea, four others broke in and a permanent deformation would result, as evidenced
two but were not lost. Twenty-six lives were lost. by a reduction in thickness. It was previously believed
The study involved design studies of each type of that if the load were increased sufficiently, material would
vessel involved, loading and ballasting conditions, convoy fail only after considerable elongation. It was found on ex-
routes with accompanying sea and weather conditions, amining the ship fractures that the fractured surface ap-
and extensive laboratory research aimed at studying fab- peared crystalline, rather than silky as it would in a
rication and materials used in construction. The results of ductile failure. The break was square and the line of sepa-
this effort to eliminate the occurrence of hull fractures ration normal to the surface of the plate. Very little duc-
Were successful. The number of fractures decreased tility occurred as indicated by practically zero reduction
Sharply after remedial measures were taken based on the in the thickness at the fracture. This type of fracture is
findings of the board of inquiry. termed a cleavage fracture, denoting a separation of the
The following is a summary of the findings: surface of the crystal lattice rather than sliding action
along slip planes.
1. The highest incidence of fracture occurred under In the investigation, the designs were recalculated.
the combination of low temperatures and heavy These calculations showed that the hull girder strength
seas. was ample and that the margin of strength in the struc-
2. The age of the vessel had no appreciable influence ture exceeded that required by the design standards; The
on the tendency to fracture. monolithic character of the welded ship produced spe-
3. The loading and ballasting system did not create abo cific areas with high stress concentrations and severe re-
normal bending moments. straint. This condition did not exist in riveted ships. The
4. There was no marked correlation between the inci- danger of high concentration at points of structural dis-
dence of fracture on the ships and the construction continuities in the welded ship was further aggravated by
practices of shipyards. It was found, however, that the welds present at such points.
ships constructed in yards using subaverage con- Welding produces a complex metallurgical ondi-
struction practices showed a higher-than-average tion, which is sometimes aggravated by discontinuities in
incidence of fractures. the form of weld defects. A ship hull requires numerous
openings, machinery foundations, deck houses, and so
5. The bulk of failures were reported on Liberty ships,
on.At each of these points the section changes abruptly,
with only relatively fewer serious fractures on the
and when under a bending load, a stress concentration
Victory ships. (Victory ships were designed with
occurs. Stress concentrations of dangerousmagnitude ex-
fewer structural notches.)
ist at structural discontinuities, including hatch comers,
6. The steel supplied for ship construction compJied shear strake cutouts, and the points where foundations
with the applicable specification for ship steel.
and deck houses are welded to the deck,
7. Locked-in stresses in the decks of completed ves- Investigators found that most of the serious frac-
sels were not appre iably reduced in service. tures started at hatch corners l111d many started in the
8. Welding sequence in eneral had no effect 'upon shear strake cutout for the accommodation ladder.rrhis In-
the magnitude of residual welding stresses. dicated that msufflctentattentton was paid to discentinu-
9. Every fracture examined started at a geometrical Ities ox notches, whether they were large or small. At the
d!scontinuity 01' notch resulting from unsuitable de~ time the inyestig~tiOn started, the mechanismof 1l1etill
Sign or poor workmanship. fracture was not well understood. The incidence of sei'i-
10. There is a large variation in. the notch sensitivity of au fanures of large welded steel structures, botl'}during
steels usedt n ship construction. Steel removed from construction-and during servtce.mdicatedthe need for a'
fractured vessels showed high notch sensitivity; better understanding of the fundamental factors affetin.g
'steel performance, Lack of r liable inforttuttion.had led·
81 l'he inveStigarol's researched failures of riveted. designers to overdesign tn. rne.tnrerest of safety;Whtch.41 ..
·1ips prev~ouslyreported. T~ey found that when a crack SOUle cases enhanced the .possibility of·failure. Impact
tests of steel samples taken from vessels that suffered frac- The epidemic of fractures was greatly reduced
tures indicated that the steel was notch sensitive-that is, through the combined effect of corrective measures
its ability to absorb energy in the notched condition at taken on the structure of the ship during construction
low temperatures was low.The investigators explored the and after completion, improvements in new design, and
behavior of ship steel in the welded and unwelded condi- improved construction practices in the shipyards. The
tion and under the influence of multiaxial stress in the first remedial step taken was to eliminate stress concen-
presence of discontinuities, especially at low tempera- tration of cargo hatch openings. This was done by modi-
tures. These studies found that notch sensitivity was an fying the corners to provide rounded corners rather than
important factor in the occurrence of brittle failures. square corners. Crack arrestors were installed.
The welding subcommittee made a survey of ship- This exhaustive examination of failures led design-
yards and found varying degrees of quality workman- ers to appreciate the fact that weldments are monolithiC
ship. The analysis did not indicate a marked correlation in character; that anything welded onto a structure will
between the incidence of fractures in welded ships in carry part of the load whether intended or not; and that
shipyard construction practice; however, ships pro- abrupt changes in section, because of adding a deck
duced in yards using below-average practices showed a house or removing a portion of the deck for a hatch
higher-than-average incidence of failure. It was con- opening, create stress concentration. Under normal
cluded that high-quality workmanship is important in loading, if the steel at the point of stress concentration
welded ships. Investigators recommended that welders is notch sensitive at the service temperature, failure call
of each weld should be identified, and welder training result.
should be improved. They also felt that welding se- The board reported that the results of the investi-
quences and procedures must be prepared and fol- gation vindicated the all-welded ship. The statistice I
lowed. They concluded that evidence was found to show that the percentage of vessels sustaining serious!
indicate that residual welding stresses were important fracture is small. With proper design, high-quality work-
in causing the fractures. manship, and steel with good notch sensitivity at oper-
The board concluded that the fractures in welded ating temperatures, a satisfactory all-welded ship can be
ships were caused by notches and by steel that was notch obtained. This was reinforced by the fact that the Vic-
sensitive at operating temperatures. tory ships, which were designed to reduce stress con-
Figure 24-6 shows the Liberty ship and details the centration, sustained fewer and less serious fractures.
abnormal frequency of fractures. Figure 24-7 shows the Failure investigations produce valuable informa-
tragic results of the S.S. Schenectady breaking in two at tion and respond to the public's demand for answers
the outfitting dock prior to being placed in service. when tragic failures occur. Novels have even been writ-
FIGURE24-6 Liberty ship: location of fractures;

LIBERTY SHIP
DETAILS WITH ABNORMAL FREQUENCY OF FRACTURES
BUTT WEL.OSOF THESE DATA INCLUDE 2504 FRACTURES OF KNOWN
BUl.WARK RAIL. ORIGIN, OCCURING BEFORE 1 AUG. 45 ..
154 FRACTURes 6.2%
OPENINGS IN UPPER oeCK
OTHER THAN CARGO HATCH WITHIN ONE FRAME SPACE
36 FRACTURES 1.4~ OF HATCH CORNEAS ON
UPPER DECK
612 FRACTURES 24.4%
HATCH END BEAM AT ~
STANCHION ON TWEEN
DECK
36. FRACTURES 1.4%
SHAPE STANCHION HATCH VICINITY OF

CONNECTION TO RAIL TWEEN DI1CKS
:/ 49 FRACTURES 2.0%
73 I'RACTUAES 2.9%
OFFSET IN RAIL FOR
ACCOMMODATION l.ADOl:fI
52 FRACTURes 2.1%
CUT IN SHEERS1'RAKE FOR
ACCOMMODATION LADDER
92 FRACTURES 1.3%
OPENING FQI'I GATE TO
ACCOMMODATION l.AbDER
91 I'RACTUF!ES 3,6%
FAStilON pL.ATe STANCHION
CONNECTION TO RAIl,.
260 FRACTURES 10.4%
OECKHOUSi! CONNECTION
TO CECK AT CORNERS
232 FRACTUReS 9.39(.
we(OING Of'SH£:F.;RSTRAKEAND DItTAILs-
41FFlACTUflE& 1.13%
FIGURE24-7 S. S. Schenectady after splitting in two at dock.
ten about failure investigations. One of the most famous made to bring it back to its original strength.This applies
~as about an airplane crash.i'" A thorough analysis as also if the part has been abused or misapplied. It may be
Just described is not required in most situations. This is necessary to reinforce the part so that it will stand tem-
due to experience gained in analyzing jobs, making re- porary overloads, misapplication, or abuse.
pairs, and then checking on the service life of the re- In the case of poor workmanship, the weld repair
Paired part. As experience is gained, shortcuts can be should rework the poor workmanship responsible for the
taken. The reason for an investigation is to establish the failure. The part would be returned to its original condi-
cause of the failure. tion. If failme is due to poor design, design changes are re-
quired and reinforcement may be added. In a case of
incorrect matertal, it is assumed that the material was of a
lower strength level, which contributed to the failure. In.
24 ..2 DEVELOPING A this case reinforcing would be required. If the repair Is to
alter the part, it is necessary that the modification is ap-
REWORK PROCEDURE proved by an experienced designer, Drawings and addt-
'The SUccess of a repair or surfacing job depends on the tional parts will be required. It is important that the
thot1ght and preparation prior to doing the work. Metal repaired or reworked part meets or exceeds the strength
Surfaces deteriorate from corrosion, abrasion, and erosion of the original part.
until the part is no longer serviceable. Repairs are re- An important factor is the type of repair work re-
qUired, and welding Is the quickest and most reliable quired. It can be a standardized, rep titive job such as
lllethod for returning the part to service.Weld repair Is of- the resurfacing of dipperteeth of all excavator 01'the re-
:en the most economical solution, specially when the buildlng of track shoes of a crawler-tractor -.These are
OUt of service" time depends on obtaining a new part. part that routinely w ar and must be repaired by weld-
R.eplacement parts are often not immediately available, ing 01) a scheduled basis. Or It can be a weld repair be-
and if they are, they are expensive. The e .onornles of cause of a breakdown, which is a one-of-a-kind job and
W'eld repairing are favorable. Some weld repair jobs may oft n an merg ncy, All exampl would be th broken
Only take a few hours, and some complex structures may power. shovel boom mentioned previously. Emel'gancy
reqtlire weeks for preparation and welding. ' repair worl must be amilyzed quickly and ·fi,· prQGeth"h~·..
Onte the decision has been made to make weld a established as soon as possible: I:arge 'machines, wJ:i¢n .
repait, it is necessary to review why the part failed or down, create delays in an entire operation, such 'as a
7 0l'e out, This relates to the type of repair job since it in- min I and cost extremelylarge amounts of money while
t J.~ates if reinforcing is required, Reasons for th part to
ail Or wear out are determined by the failure analysis, ..
they ate out of operanon.Thts 'also applies otl-drillfng",
operations, offshore platforms, steel.rolling mtlls, .l~. ~, <
l' Uthepart failed because of an accident or an over- tric power generators; nnd othe:r;proc;luc:tiollequIp",'"
Qad, it. can be returned to service with the weld reparr ment, 'Ihese are the·typ sof repalrwork whcl'e ."retui·n ..,
to service" is most important and there is no time to ob- only with special permission and approval. These include
tain a replacement part. railroad locomotive and railroad car wheels, high-allof
high-strength truck frames, and compressed gas cylinders.
Most power-generating machinery, including tur-
Investigate before Repairing bines, generators, and large engines, are covered by casu-
In certain situations and for certain types of equipment, alty insurance. Weld repair can be done only with the
repair welding should not be done or may be done only prior approval of the welding procedure by the insurance
with prior approvals. It may be uneconomical to repair company. Approval may not be granted. In many cases
some parts.An example is the weld repair of a cast iron weld repairs can be made, but it is necessary to develop
part that is repeatedly heated and cooled.Weld repairs on a written procedure that must be approved in writing by
cast iron parts subjected to repeated heating and cooling the inAlsuranc~comP abn~dreprelsentative'l f b 'ld' gs ,I
may not provide adequate service life.The problem is that teranons 0 f n ges, arge stee rame U1 111 ,
cast iron parts such as machinery friction brakes and fur- and ships may be done only with special authorization.
nace sections failed originally from this kind of service. The alteration work must be designed and approved.Thv
The metallurgical changes involved with the weld may welders must be qualified according to the code used,
not be able to withstand repetitive heating and cooling and the work must be inspected. Written welding proce-
cycles. Such repairs should only be made on an emer- dures are required.
gency basis until replacement parts are available. Repairs to boilers and pressure vessels require spe-
If a failure occurs when equipment is new and within cial attention. The ASME codes are for new construction.
the manufacturer's warranty, it is necessary to contact the Repair, maintenance, or alterations are a jurisdictional re-
manufacturer of the equipment.The manufacturer must be sponsibility.The "National Board Inspection Code,,(ll) has
made aware of the problem and the repair that is planned. been adopted by most jurisdictional authorities in North
Failure to do this wi.ll cancel the machine's warranty. America (cities, states, and provinces) to provide rules for
Aircraft may be repaired by welding but only under inspection, maintenance, repairs, and alterations to boil-
stringent controls. The welder doing repair welding on ers and pressure vessels.To maintain reliability and Insur- ,
aircraft should be qualified in accordance with MIL- ability and ASME stamping on boilers and pressure
T-S021D or latest "Tests.Aircraft and Missile Welding Op- vessels, the rules of National Board of Inspection Code
erators Certification," on the type of metal being welded, must be met and an authorized inspector must be in-
using the process for which the welder is qualified and on volved during repairs and alterations.
the category of parts involved, Furthermore, the welder The National Board Inspection Code defines basiC
should be certified in accordance with requirements of and routine repairs and alteration. A repair is the work
the Department of Transportation Federal Aviation Ad- necessary to restore a boiler or pressure vessel to its orig-
mlnistrarion.The FAA issues two documents,"Acceptable inal or safe and satisfactory operation condition. Alter-
Methods, Techniques and Practices-Aircraft Inspection ations are any changes that affect the operation of the
and Repair,,(9) and the "Air Frame and Power Plant Me- boiler or pressure vessel from its original design.
chanics Air Frame Handbook.P'" Both provide precau- A written procedure is required for doing either re-
tionary information techniques, practices, and methods pair work or alteration. All work must be performed in a
that may be used for repair welding. Techniques, prac- manner to maintain the original integrity of the ASME
tices, and methods other than those prescribed may be code vessel. All welding procedures and welders must be
used provided that they are acceptable to the FAA ad- qualified in accordance with ASME Section IX.
ministrator. Extensive damage must not be weld repaired Some companies specialize in the repair and alter'
on items such as engine mounts, landing gear, or fuselage ations of boilers and pressure vessels. These companies .1
components unless the method of repair is-specifically have authorizatton from the appropriate jurisdictio,naJ
approved by an authorized representative of the FAA or authority, possess a current ASME Code Symbol Stamf
the repair Isaccomplished in accordance with the FAA- covering the scope of the repair work, or possess a cur-
approved instructions furnished by the aircraft rnanufac- rent National Board "R" Repair Code Symbol Stamp. 111
rurer,The reason for th se regulattons is.that many parts any case) when repair welding is performed, the authcr
are made ofhigh-strengthmaterial, and the st1\fngth is ob- Ized inspector must be involved. The repair firm will con-
tained by postweld heat rreatment. Certain parts are not tact the jurisdictional authority, the insurer, and tbe t
to be welded if the damage is beyond a specific amount. owner of the boil r or pressure vessel to ensure that the I.
Consult With FAAauthorities or the manufacturer of 'the method and extent of repair or alteration is given proper
atrcraft. For safety reasons welding must not be done on prior approval.This is required to ensure the proper con-
air raft inside hangers, unless all fuel is completely reo tinued use of the botler or pressure vessel that is repai red
moved and the aircraft is made inert. or altered. .
Certain types of containers and. transportanon ·A.ltel-ations to. hollers and 'pressure vessels req).urt: . I
equipment mu .t· not be weld repaired or may be welded special attention. A statement must be obtained from at1
r ,
ASMEcertificate holder with the appropriate stamp, cer-
tifying that the redesigned portion of the alteration is cor-
24-3 MAKING THE REPAIRWELD
rect. This certification of the design is made on the R-1 Once all factors have been reviewed and analyzed, the de-
Alteration Form and must be accepted and signed off by cision should be made to repair by welding. The analysis
the ASME certificate holder's authorized inspector. This indicates the cause of the failure. The material composi-
authorizes the repair company to proceed with the alter- tion is known. A repair welding procedure has been pre-
ation. The alteration must include the involvement of the pared and has been approved.The weld repair may be as
authorized inspector. In any case, the repair company simple as the removal and replacing of a body panel in an
must be an ASME certificate holder with the appropriate automobile or as complex as the repair of a rolling mill
stamp covering the alterations or must have a National frame (Figure 24-8). In any case, there are three separate
Board "R" stamp following the rules published in the Na- phases to the job:
tional Board Inspection Code.
1. Preparation for welding
2. Repair welding
Rework Procedure 3. Postweld operation
A Written repair procedure is required for all but the sim- The amount of detail that must be considered de-
plest jobs.The composition of the material being welded pends on the complexity of the job.
mUst be known. If this is not possible, particularly in the
field, look for clues as to the metal involved. Refer to Sec-
tion 15-3 for help. As a final resort, obtain a laboratory Preparation for Welding
analysis of the metal. Filings or a piece of the metal must
A large number of factors should be considered and de-
be sent to a laboratory for analysis. cisions made before starting to weld.
The normal method of selecting the welding
process based 011 the type and thickness of the metal, the 1. Safety The repair welding location must be sur-
POsition of welding, and so on, should be followed. This veyed and all safety considerations satisfied. This
aids selection of filler metal, which involves matching includes posting the area, required by certain regu-
composition and properties to provide weld metal that lations; removing all combustible materials from the
Will Withstand the service involved. area; draining fuel tanks of construction equipment,
In surfacing, the desired surface characteristics de- aircraft, boats, trucks, and so on; and removing or in-
pend 011 the service to which it will be exposed. Sur- erting fuel pipelines, tanks, blind compartments,
faces can be rebuilt many times without reducing the and so on. If electrical cables ar involved, they
Strength of the part, and the service life will be greatly should be removed or made inactive. Other precau-
ex~ended. tions include the elimination of toxic materials such
. The repair procedure should be complete. It should as thick coats of lead paint or plastic coverings. If
lUclude the process, filler metal, and the technique to be heights are involved, proper scaffolding with saf ty
llsed in making welds. The format used by Section IX of devices should be used. If' welding is enclosed,
the pressure vessel code can be. employed for repair pro- preparations for proper ventilation and personnel
~~dureS.The procedure for complex jobs should be qual- removal should be made. If these hazards cannot all
ifled to determine that it will provide a repair weld that is be removed, special safeguards should be estab-
equal in strength to the original part: This is done in the lished such as fire watch, wetting down, or protect-
same manner as qualifying a welding procedure by a ing combustible wooden floors.Traditicnally; repair
COde.The repair procedure should be approved by the welding creat s more safety problems than produc-
proper authority.This could be the inspector of a'casualty .tion welding; tra special precautions .must be
insurance company, the inspector of the National BOard, taken.
the representative of the manufacturer of the original 2. Cleclni'l'lg, The immediate work area musrb clean.
eqUipment, or a governmental representative, such ~ISthe This mcludes removal of dirt, grease, oil, rust, pamt,
State piping 01' boiler inspectors. For WOJ~kon ships, the and plastic coverings from the surface of th parts
Shill's rating agency should be' consulted. In every case being welded. The method of cleaning dep~ilds on .
COnsider tbe specification or code under whlch the prod- < the materialto be removed anc:ltbe locaUtl:tlofthe
ucr Was built. In case of extensive repairs on Critical items, wOl'kpiece. For most cOllstniction and ptod\l<!'tiort
1l1.,'tke
s'ttre the procedure is practtcal and wtllprovide the equipment, stearn cleaning is recomerended, When '
necessary strength for the service intended.Assume that this L.;; not. possible, solvent cleaning can be used, '.
Written procedur s and approvals are required prior to Blast cleaning with abrastves is also used, For srnalt
ma..king arry repair welds. Only after the procedure has parts.ptckltng orsolvent dip cleaning can 'b .uSe.;l.
. been apprOved by all necessary parties is it time to make Power .tool cleaning .'.wi,th brushesl,grlactin:g
the l'epalr Weld. whe' ls,alld disk gri11diug 'cilllbeemployed.'fhe
FIGURE24-8 Complex weld repair: rolling mill frame.
time spent cleaning a weld repair area will payoff 6. Layout repair work. In most repair jobs it is neces-
in the long run. sary to remove metal so that a full-penetration weld
3. Disassembly. Except for the Simplest repair jobs, can be made. A layout should be made to show the
disassembly may be required. This applies to lubri- metal that is to be removed by cutting or gouging.
cation lines, instrument tubing, and wiring. Some- The minimum amount of metal should be removed
times it is necessary to disassemble major to obtain a full-penetration weld. The layout should
components. Experience with similar jobs is im- be selected so that welding can be balanced, if pos-
portant, because it is expensive to disassemble and sible, and that the bulk of the welding can be made
remove machinery when not required. from the more comfortable welding position. The
4. Protection of adjacent machinery and machined root opening should be specified, and if the welding
surfaces. When repair welding is done on machin- can be done on the back side, it should be gouged
ery, parts that are not removed should be protected for full-penetration welding. If the back side cannot
from weld spatter, flame cutting sparks, and foreign be reached for welding, backing straps should be
material generated by the repair process. Sheet employed.The groove angle should be the mtnimurn
metal baffles are used to protect adjacent machin- possible for use but should be sufficient so that the
ery. For machined surfaces, cloth can be employed. welder has room to manipulate the arc at the root.
Secure protective material with wire, clamps, tape, 7. Preheating. Preheating and flame cutting or goug-
or temporary bracing. ing is part of the preparation, for welding but can be
5. Bracing and clamping. On complex repair jobs considered part of the welding operation. When
bracing 0.1' clamping may be required.Thl is be- flame cutting or gouging is required, preheat tem-
cause of the heavy weight of parts 01' the fact that perature should be the same as for welding. It is
loads may be exerted on the part .hetng weld reo wise to preheat prior to cutting or gouging to at
, paired. If main structural members are ~be C1.1t, the least one-half the temperature that will be used fot
, load must be carried by temporary braces. The the repair welding operation. Preheating should be
braces can be temporarily welded' to the structure based on the mass of the metal involved. If the mass,
being repaired. TIle braces can be strong backs or is great, heating should be slow so that thorough
pieces welde 1 on both. sides of th repair area to heating occurs. Surface heating is not acceptable.
matntam alignment of the part while the repair Preheating can be done by any of the normal meth-
wekOs being mad . If Strong backs or bracmg' ate ods; however, the slower processes would be ad-
,_ u$<;d,t!leyshould be located sothat they do not in- vantageous. Th!!,' equipment for preheating' 'and.
terfere Wi .the repair welding. sufficient fuel should be available prior to starting·
8. Cutting and gouging. The oxygen fuel gas cutting for engine-powered welding machines. If inspec-
torch is most often used for this application. Special tion equipment is required for intermediate check-
gouging tips should be selected based on the geom- ing, this equipment must also be available.
etry of the joint preparation. It is possible, by closely 4. Alignment markers. Prior to making the weld
watching the cut surface, to find and follow cracks alignment, markers are sometimes used. These can
during the flame-gouging operation. The edges of be center punch marks made across the joint in var-
the cracks will show since they become slightly ious locations. With precise measuring equipment
hotter. The air carbon arc gouging process is also such marks are useful in maintaining dimensional
widely used for weld repair preparation. Proper control and alignment during the welding opera-
power sources and carbons should be selected for tion. This is more important when repairing me-
the volume of metal to be removed. For some met- chanical equipment than for structural applications.
als the torch or carbon arc might not be appropri- 5. Welding sequences. The welding sequence should
ate and in these cases mechanical chipping and be well described in the welding procedure and
grinding may be employed. Chipping is preferable can include block welding, backstep sequence
to grinding, and power tools should be employed. welding, wandering sequence welding, and peen-
The resulting groove should be smooth without ing. These techniques are useful to reduce distor-
reentrant gouges or notches. tion and to help maintain alignment and
9. Grinding and cleaning. The resulting surfaces dimensional control. By making precision measure-
may not be as smooth as desired and may include ments from the checkpoints, the technique can be
burned areas or oxide, for example. Grind the sur- varied to maintain alignment.
faces to clean bright metal prior to starting to weld. 6. Personnel. A sufficient number of welders should
For critical work or where there is a suspicion of ad- be assigned to the job so that it can be completed
ditional cracks, it is wise to inspect the surface by quickly. Welders should be rotated so that they will
magnetic particle examination to make sure that all be able to produce good quality welds. Welders
defects have been removed. should not work excessive hours on precise jobs.
The nine steps just listed should be followed for Many jobs require three shifts of welders when the
'Weld preparation. Some of these may be eliminated but need to return to service is paramount. Supervision
they should all be considered to prepare the joint prop- must be around the clock.
erly for welding. 7. Safety. Safety cannot be compromised throughout
the entire operation. For example, ventilation must
Repair Welding be provided when fuel gases are used for preheating.
8. Weld quality. The quality of the weld should be
SUccessful repair welding involves following a logical se-
continually checked. The final weld should be
quence to make sure that aU factors are considered and
smooth there should be n ) notches, and r inforc-
I
adequately accommodated.
ing, if used, should fair smoothly into the existing
1. Welding procedure. The welding procedure must structure. If necessary, grinding should be done to
be available for the welders' use. It must include the maintain s11100thflow contours.
process to be used, the specific filler metals, the pre-
h at required, and any other specific information Postweld Operation
concerning the welding joint technique. This pro-
cedure must be understood by all concerned. It After the weld bas been completed, it should be allowed
should be written. to slow cool.It should not be xposed to winds OJ' drafts,
nor should the machinery: loads be placed on the re-
2, Welding equipment. All welding equipment should
paired part until the temperaturehas returned tothe nor-
be available so that there will be no delays. Standby
mal ambient temperature. .
equipment might also be required. This should in-
clude sufficient electrode holders, grinders, wire 1. Inspection. The ftnished weld should be Inspected
feeders, and cables. Sufficient power must be avail- for smoothne s and quality. This can include nonde-
able at the siteto run all of the equipment required .: . strucnve exanunatlQtl:The repair5veld should be of
. In addition, if the job runs around the clock,provi- high quality sinc~ it is;rc,plaCiJ?g 9tigiqa:l metalof
sions for Iighting and for personnel comforts such as ,h.igll qua]j,ty.. ,
winq breaks or covers should be provided. 2. Cleanup 'o]Jer(.:t~i(j)n" 11,}i$ includes the removal of
3. Materl.als. Sufficient materials must be available strong-backs and th¢ smooth grinding ofth points
for the entire job, Tllfs Includes the filler metals, In- where they were a.tta<;bed.lt also Involves the ~e. .
sen pieces, and reinforeing pieces; fuel for preheat moval of other bradng and protective. cQve.r.lp, ild~
. and interpass temperature: shlelding gases; and fuel dition,.at1.weldstubs,'weld spat~:r, weldslagj ::trtd.
\.
other residue should be removed from the repair
area to make it cleaner than it was originally. Grind-
ing dust is particularly troublesome, and every ef-
fort should be made to remove it entirely since it is
abrasive and can get into working joints and bear-
ings and create future problems.
3. Repainting. After the weld and adjacent repair
area have been cleaned, they should be repainted
and other areas should be regreased in preparation
for the reoperation of the machinery.
4. Reassembly. The pieces of machinery that were
taken away are returned for reassembly. Particular
attention should be paid to the fit of machinery. If
necessary, remachining or redressing should be
done to ensure proper fit. All other items, such as
lubrication lines, cables, and conduits, should be re-
assembled; once this has been done, the machinery
should be tested prior to operation.
There is a gratifying sense of accomplishment of a
successful repair job. Most complex repair jobs are done
under much pressure due to the short time out of service.
Weld repair is an extremely technical subject and
must be properly handled. However, it is a time saver
and an economic advantage. It requires greater-than-
normal skills for successful jobs, but will payoff in the
long run.
Remote Welding
Remote welding is automatic welding since the welding FIGURE24-9 TV viewing remote welding.
is done without the presence of a human welding opera-
tor.The operator may be a short distance from the weld-
ing operation, but could be far away. of the personnel and the use of gadgetry and special
Remote welding is often done for maintenance op- welding equipment are a must. More and more of thts
erations where each weld is different. Remote welding is type of work is being done as repair welding in radioac-
performed where humans cannot be present because of a tive bot areas increases.
hostile atmosphere, such as a high level of radioactivity. A Remote cutting using thermal processes is also
hostile atmosphere requires special protective equip- done. The plasma arc cutting process is used for remote
ment for the welder, which seriously hampers visibility preparation in a radioactive atmosphere. Another re-
and flexibility. Radiation greatly reduces the time that a quirement is the necessity to cut under water for certain .
person can work and allows time only for setting up the maintenance operattons, This is used when the area is
equipment, flooded.
Pipe welds are made remotely in radioactive atmo-
spheres.The joints are properly prepared and aligned. The
pipe welding head is attached to the joint. The power
source and operator control pendant are remote
, -..... from the 24-4 REBUILDINGAND
welding o.peranon and shielded from radioactlvityRe-
mote welds are made in pipe andtubing, as t&eywquld
OVERLAY WELDING
be made with the equipment under normal ccndtttons.To Rebuilding and overlaying With weld metal or thermal sprsy
observe the weld being made, aTV camera is mounted on metal are both considered surfacing operations. Sun acing is
the welding head and monitored remotely. Adjustments the deposition of metal on a base metal to obtain desired di-
.can be made if requlred. Figure 24-9 shows equipment mensions or properties. Overlay is considered to be a weld
fer this type in operation. or spray metal deposit that has specific properties some-
. The more 4tfficnlt jobs. arc the one-of-a-kind type, times unlike the original surface. RebuilQing is used on
wherestandard qulpment cannot be used.The ingenuity worn shafts, on partst:hat were machined undersize, and so
on. Overlay surfacing is used to return the part to its origi- as the welding processes. It is possible to thermal spray
nal dimensions but with the deposited metal having spe- materials that cannot be deposited with welding, such as
cific properties to reduce wear, erosion, and corrosion. ceramic coatings. ,
Rebuilding and overlay, or the all-embracing term The selection of the welding process and the weld-
surfacing, can be done by many of the welding processes ing procedure and technique is as important as the se-
and by the thermal spraying processes. In some situations lection of the deposit alloy. The factors discussed
thermal spray should be selected. The thermal spray previously should be considered; however, there are ad-
processes do not introduce as much heat into the work ditional factors.Whether the job is to be done in the field
or in the shop has a definlte bearing on process selection.
In addition, if it cannot be moved and must be welded in
place, the use of some processes is prohibited. The prop-
FIGURE24--10 Surfacing a dredge cutter head with erties and analysis of the base metal have an important
SMAW. bearing, as does the cost factor.
Shielded metal arc welding is commonly used for
hardfacing. Figure 24-10 shows the shielded metal arc
process being used to surface a dredge cutter head.
Submerged arc welding is used for plant operations.
It is used for repeat applications when the same part is sur-
faced on a routine basis. Rollers, track shoes, and drums are
commonly hardfaced with submerged arc welding. Figure
24-11 shows a power shovel ring gear being resurfaced.
Over 400 lb of weld metal was deposited in this operation.
Flux-cored arc welding is popular and is not re-
stricted to the flat position. Figure 24-12 shows the
process being used in the field to build up a dipper lip.
Gas metal arc welding is also used, but there is not
as wide a selection of solid electrode wires available for
hard surfacing applications. It is used for buildup appli-
cation, either semiautomatic or fully automatic. Fig-
ure 24-13 shows the process being used on a small shaft.
Gas tungsten arc welding is used for many smaller
applications. It is more expensive and is widely used for
nonferrous metals.
Plasma arc welding is also used in much the same
manner as gas tungsten arc welding.
FIGURE24--11 Surfacing a ring gear with submerged arc.

Salvaging of Shafts
Rebuilding round shafting is an important application of
surfacing.Worn or mismachined shafts can be salvaged by
surfacing with many different processes. The same pro-
cedure can be used to provide an overlay with specifiC
properties to improve service life. Shafts exposed to cor-
rosive atmospheres can be surfaced with stainless steel to
improve service performance.
Arc welding processes are preferred to thermal
spraying since they produce a weld. This is important
since splines and keyways can be cut in weld depositS
without harming the overlay.
Close adherence to the procedure is important
when the diameter of the part is small. Figure 24-13
shows the GMAW process surfacing a relatively small di-
ameter shaft. An old lathe or similar device can be used
to provide rotation. Precautions should be taken to avoid
welding current from passing through roller bearings. A
rotary connection should be used. The welding gun can
FIGURE 24-12 Surfacing a dipper lip with flux-cored be mounted in the lathe toolholder. It should be offset
arc welding. approximately one-fourth of the diameter of the part be- .
ing welded or at the 1:30 or 2-0'clock position. The off-
set is always toward the direction of rotation, and the
electrode should point to the centerline of the rotating
part. The longitudinal travel of the gun should be fast
enough so that each weld bead blends smoothly into the
preceding one. If the offset distance is insufficient, the
molten metal will not solidify before it reaches the top 01'
12-0' clock position and may form a high crown bead. If
the offset distance is too large, the molten weld metal
may run down the shaft ahead of the arc.The angle of the
gun can be adjusted to point slightly ahead up to 5°, to
improve shielding gas coverage. Experience will assist to
setting these exact distances based on different dtameter
parts.
The welding procedure must include the welding
travel speed. On rotating parts this is surface inches per
minute. The correct speed will ensure a s11100th weld
deposit that will require a mirumum amount of rnachfn-
FIGURE 24-13 Surfacing a shaft with gas metal arc.
ing: Figure 24-14 provides the surface speed based on
the diameter of the part and the rotational speed. To de-
termine the revolutions needed for the desired travel
The electroslag welding process is used for special speed, draw a straight line between the diameter of the
applications such as for rebuilding crusher hammers. shaft and the desired travel speed. The desired travel
These can be rebullt with special flxturing and done speed is 20 in.Zmin, Wher the line intersects revoltl-
quite rapidly. . tions per minute, read the rpm required. For example;
..__ .
Oxyacetylene welding is used for cc:~n applica- with a 2·in.-diameter sbaft, draw the line through 20 of
tions such as bronze bearing. overlay. \ the surface travel speed to the intersection with revo.
In general, the process is selected based on normal lutions pet minute, whichwould be 3.3,The 20-in./min.
. process selection factors and modified by the considera- surface speed is proper when using the 0.0035-io.-
tions cited previously. Once the process is selected. the diameter electrode wire in the range 120'to 150 A. Fol'
next requir m. nt ts the selection of the d posited metal bigger jobs, larger electrodes can be used and the pro'
to provide the necessary properties. cedure variables will be different.
CI-JAPTER24
Abrasion is the wearing away of surfaces by rub-
6 bing, grinding, or friction. It usually occurs when a hard
CONVERSION CHART:
5.5 SURFACE INCHES PER MINUTE material is used on a softer material. It is caused by the
TO
REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE scouring action of sand, gravel, slag, earth, or gritty mate-
5
rial on machinery.
<4.5 200 Erosion is the wearing away of materials by the
abrasive action of a liquid. This type of action gouges out
metal surfaces. This is also caused by steam and slurries
100 that carry abrasive materials. Pump parts are subject to
3.5 this type of wear.
Compression is a deformation type of wear caused
3 by heavy static loads or by slowly increasing pressure on
50
metal surfaces. Compression wear causes metal to move
<40
and lose its dimensional accuracy.
2.5 30 Cavitation wear results from turbulent flow of liq-
2 _.._--
1.9
_- _ __.i.g.
uids, which carry suspended abrasive particles.
Metal-to-metal wear is a seizing and galting type of
wear that rips and tears out portions of metal surfaces. It
is often caused by metal parts seizing together because of
1.8
1.7 10 lack of lubrication. Frictional heat helps create thistype
9
1.6 8 of wear.
1.5
1.5 7 Corrosion wear is the gradual eating away of metal
6
1.. surfaces by the effects of the atmosphere, acids, gases, al-
5
1.3 kalis, and so on. This type of wear creates pits and perfo-
-4 I
1.2 REVOLUTIONS
rations and may eventually dissolve metal parts.
3 PER MINUTE Oxidation is a type of wear indicated by the flaking
1.1 VELOCITY
SURFACES INCHES PER
off or crumbling of metal surfaces.This takes place when
MINUTE unprotected metal is exposed to a combination of heat,
air, and moisture. Rust is an example of oxidation.
FIGURE24-14 Conversion charts: in.!min to rpm.
Thermal shock is a problem indicated by cracking
or splintering, which is caused by repeated rapid heating
and cooling. Although not exactly a wear problem, it is a
deterioration problem and is considered here.
Many of these types of wear occur in combination.
24-5 SURFACING FOR It is wise to look for a combination, of factors that create
WEAR RESISTANCE the wear problem in order 'to best determlne the type of
hardfacing material to apply. This is done by studying the
Wear worn part, the job it does, us interaction with other parts
Wear is the result of impact, erosion, metal-to-metal con- oftbe equipment, and the environment in which it works.
tact, abraSion, oxidation, and corrosion, or a combination
of these. The effects of wear can be repaired by welding.
Surfacing with special welding filler metals is used to re-
Hardfacing Alloy Selection
Place worn metal. Hardfacing applies a coating to reduce There is no standardized method of classiiyin~ and spec-
Wear. It can be used to extend the usable life of wear ifying the dlfferentsurfactng weld rods and electtQd. s.
parts. It will save money since the replacement of worn Th American WelcUng Society has Issued.rwo specifica-
Parts is costly, particularly when the downtime and repair tions, AS. 13, "Specifications for Surfacing Weld Rods. and
labor is constdered. Blectrodes," andA5.21 ,"Specifi ations for omposit, Sur-
To select the proper hardfacing alloy, it is necessary fnc1ng Weld Rods and Electrodes.".There is some overhtp
to unde,rstand what caused the metal wear. The types of between these two speciftca.tiOlls and' wJthA'$,6ano
wear can be categorized as follows: AS.7, "Copper and CoppetAlloyWelding EI@ctrod s'an<1
Impact wear is the striking of one object against an- Rods." Many of the hardfaclng electrodes commercially
other.lt is a battering, pounding type of wear that breaks, available ar not covered by these specification:FjlJer, .
~P1ttS, or deforms metal surfaces. A good example is the metal suppliers provid data establtshlag classes ofs I;~
Impact nccuntered by a tamper; vie and . have categorlzed
-
their products within,.,._ these
'.' ..'
; '.--
classes. Suppliers also provide complete information for resistant to hot abrasion lip to 1, lOO°F and exhibit gaod
using their products for various applications and for dif- metal-to-metal wear at elevated temperatures,
ferent industries, such as quarrying, steel mills, and Graup 2D are the austenitic manganese steels,
foundries. This information is extremely valuable and which contain either nickel or molybdenum as stabiliz-
should be consulted. ers, The alloys in graup 2D are highly stack resistant but
A good system of classification has been estab- have limited wear resistance unless subjected to wark
lished by the American Society for Metals Committee on hardening. The total alloy content ranges from 12% to
Hardfacing. These data are provided in the Metals Hand- 25%. This group is excellent for metal-to-metal wear and
I2
book,C ) Volume 6, "Hardfacing by Arc Welding."This sys- impact when the deposit is work hardened in use.The as-
tem has five major groups classed according to aUoy welded depasit hardness is law, from 170 to 230 BHN, but
content, with subdivisions based on the major alloying will work harden to. 450 to 550 BHN.The deposit may de-
elements. These data have been abridged and simplified farm under battering, but it will not crack. The deposit
by L. E Spencer, who added the AWS specifications where should not be heated to. above 500°F (260°C), which
they apply(13) (Table 24-1). Most of these alloys are avail- would cause embrittlement.
able as solid bare filler rod in straightened lengths or in Group 3 cantains higher-alloyed compositians
coils or covered electrodes. Some of the materials are ranging fram 25% to 50% total allay. They are all high-
available as powder for special applications. Following is chromium alloys and same cantain nickel, molybdenum,
a brief description of the five major groups, what they or both. The carbon can range from slightly under 2% to.
contain as alloys, and where they are recommended.
Group 1 comprises the low-alloy steels that, with
few exceptions, contain chromium as the principal alloy-
over 4%. The allays in this group exhibit better impact,
erosian resistance, metal-to-metal wear, and shock resis-
tance than the previous groups. The 3B grouping will
I
I
ing element.The subgroup 1A has from 2% to 6% alloy in- withstand elevated temperatures of up to 1,000°F
cluding carbon. These alloys are often used as buildup (538°C).The 3C group is high in cobalt, which improves
materials under higher-alloy hardfacing materials. The high-temperature properties.The group 3 alloys are more
group 1B is similar except that these metals have a expensive than groups 1 and 2. 1
higher-alloy content ranging from 6% to 12%. Several al-
loys in the group have higher carbon content exceeding
The compositians within group 4 are nonferrous
alloys-either cobalt base or nickel base with total con- I
2%, and include several alloy cast irons. The alloys of
group 1 have the greatest impact resistance of all hard-
tent of nonferrous metals from 50% to 99%.
The group 4A alloys are the high-cobalt-based al- l
facing alloys except the austenitic manganese steels
(group 2D) and have better wear resistance than low or
medium carbon steels .They are the least expensive of the
loys with a high percentage of chromium.These alloys are
used exclusively for applications subjected to a combina-
tion of heat, corrosion, erosion, and oxidation. They are
I
alloy surfacing materials and are extremely popular. They considered the most versatile of the hardfacing materials.
I
are machinable. They have a high compressive strength The allays with higher carbon are used for applications
and fair resi.stance to erosion and scratch abrasion. requiring high hardness and abrasion resistance but
Group 2 contains higher alloyed steels. Group 2A when impact is not as important. These alloys are excel-
has chromium (Cr) as the chief alloying element, with a lent when service temperatures are above 1,200°F
total alloy content of 12% to 25%. Many of these alloys (649°C). They resist oxidation temperatures of up to
also contain molybdenum. Those with over 1.75% car- 1,800oP (982°C).
bon are medium-alloy cast irons. Group 2B has molybde- The group 4B alloys are the nickel-base alloys,
num (Mo) as the principal alloying element but many which contain relarively high percentages of chromium-
also contain appreciable amounts of chromium. The This group of alloys is excellent for metal-to-metal resis-
hardfacing alloys of groups 2A and 2B are more wear re- tance, and exhibits good scratch abrasion resistance and
sistant, less shock resistant, and more expensive than corrosion resistance. They will retain hardness to 1,000°:P
those In group 1. (538 C), The alloys with higher carbon content provide
Q
Groups 2A and 28 are quite strong and have rela- higher hardn sses but are more difficult to machine and
tively high compressive strengths. They ar ffectrve for provide for less toughness. These alloys show good oxi-
rebuildin.g severely worn parts and are used 'Of buildup dation resistance tip to. 1,750°F (954°C).
prior tousing higher-alloy facing materials, They provide The group .4C alloys are thechrorne-nickel cobalt
high impact l'e~istance and good abrasion resistance at . alloys and all are recommended for elevated tempers-
normal temperatures. tures.The blgh-nickel alloy has excellent resistance to hot
Group 2C<;:ontait18 tungsten and modified high- impact! abrasion, and corrosion, and moderate resistance
speed tool steels. They are ex ellent choices at service to wear and deformation at elevated temperatures. The
. temp ratures up to 1,lOQQF (593° ) and when good re- medium-nickel alloy has high-temperature wear resistance
sistance,coupled with toughness is required.They are not and impact resistance. It also. provides resistance to ero-
considered asgo'0d high abraslon-rcsfstant types but ~U'~ sion, corrosion, and oxidation.The low-nickel alloy is us d
j r
TABLE24-1 TYPICAL COMPOSITION OF' HARDFACING MATERIALS
Composition (%)
AWS
Group Class C Mn Si Cr Ni Me W v Co
lA 0.10 1.3 0.75 2.0 1.0
0.25 0.8 0.50 0.4 0.70 0.6
0.20 0.25 0.40 3.25 1.0
0.35 1.2 0.10 4.0 0.5
0.55 1.0 1.8 2.25
IB 0.70 0.9 0.3 6.5 0.8
0.70 1.0 0.7 3.0 4.0
0.70 1.2 1.0 5.0 0.5
2.2 0.4 0.5 5.0 5.0
3.0 0.7 1.0 3.0
3.4 4.8 2.4
2A 0.6 0.4 0.7 7.0 0.9 3.5 1.0
0.5 2.0 1.0 9.0 1.7
3.0 2.5 1.0 12.0 1.5
1.0 4.0 12.0
3.8 15.0 2.0 8.0
3.0 16.0 6.0 8.0
2B 0.80 4.0 9.0 1.5
1.0 0.9 15.3
1.4 4.2 9.7
3.5 5.0 4.0
RFeMoC 3.6 10.0
2C EFe5A 0.85 0.5 0.7 4.0 5.0 6.0 2.0
EFe5B 0.70 0.5 0.7 4.0 8.0 2.0 1.0
EFe5C 0.40 0.5 0.7 4.0 8.0 2.0 1.0
2D EFeMnA 0.80 16.0 0.3 0.4 4.0
EFeMnB 0.80 14.0 0.8 0.5 1.0
1.2 12.0 0.6 4.8
3A 2.7 1.0 1.0 26.0
3.0 18.0 16.0 6.0
3.7 1.0 0.8 28.0 3.0
EFeCrAl 4.0 6.0 1.7 29.0
EFeCrA2 4.0 1.0 1.3 29.0 3.5
3B 2.5 25.0 12.0 8.0
4.0 4.5 16.0 0.5
4.0 1.0 17.0 6.0 0.5
3.4 4.5 0.8 30.0
3C 2.3 16.0 6.0 20.0
3.6 0.6 '1.6 15.5 3.0 23.5
4A ECoCrA 1.0 2.0 ,0.5 29.0 3.0 1.0 4.0 Remainder
ECoCrS 1.3 2.0 1.0' 29.0 3.0 1.0 8.0 Remainder
2.5 32.0 17.0 Remainder
ECoCrC 2.5 2.0 1.0 30.0 3.0 1.0 12.0 "Remainder " '
0.3 27.0 2..7 5.0 Remaind~~ ,
48 ENiCrA 0.35 3.5 12,0· Rem.
ENiCrB 0.40 4.0 15.0 Rem.
0.10 16.0 Rem. 17.0 4.5
ENiCrC 0.75 4.5 15.0 Rem. .. '
4C 2.5 29.0 39.0 14.0

2.5 25.0 15.0 8,0
3.7 16.0 4,0 6.520.0'
5 EWC Tungsten carbide particles (38 to 60+% encased in matrix) most wear reststant of'ma'teriaIS.
RWC
for moderate high temperatures and provides good edge Preheating, interpass temperature, and cooling of the
strength, corrosion resistance, and moderate strength. part being surfaced are important.The factors that apply to
The group 5 alloys provide a tungsten carbide welding the base metal in normal fabrication should be fol-
weld deposit. This deposit consists of tungsten carbide lowed when overlaying. Preheating is used to minimize dis-
particles distributed in a meta] matrix. The matrix metals tortion, to avoid thermal shock, and to prevent surface
may be iron, carbon steel, nickel-base alloys, cobalt-based cracking.The preheat temperature depends on the carbon
alloys, and copper-base alloys. The tungsten carbide par- and the alloy content of the base metal and the mass of the
ticles are crushed to mesh sizes varying from 8 to 10 part being surfaced.A soak-type preheat should be used. If
down to 100 and have excellent resistance to abrasion it is extremely complex in shape, preheat should be in-
and corrosion, and moderate resistance to impact. The creased. The preheat temperature should be maintained
matrix material determines the resistance to corrosion throughout the entire welding operation and should then
and high-temperature resistance.The finish of the deposit be allowed to slow cool.The base metal composition must
depends on the tungsten carbide particle size. The finer be known to determine preheat temperatures. Welding
the particles the smoother the finish.The deposits are not should be done in the flat position if at all possible.
machinable and are difficult to grind. The thickness of the surfacing deposit is extremely
Another class of surfacing materials is used to pro- important. If the deposit is too thick, problems can be en-
vide corrosion or oxidation resistance surfaces that will be countered. Hardfacing alloys should be restricted to two
covered in Section 24-6.Table 24-2 shows the hard- layers. The first will include dilution from the base metal,
surfacing alloy classes just mentioned and provides prop- but the second layer should provide the properties ex-
erties and the welding processes that can be used. The pected. Some types of alloys can be used in three layers.
method of finishing and the application for the different Consult the manufacturer's data for the particular prod-
alloy classes are shown. This is generalized information uct involved.
and is presented as a starting point for making the final se-
lection. A welding procedure should be established for the
successful hard surfacing or overlaying operation. The pro-
The technique for buildup should be to within 1/4
in. (6 mm) of the final surface. This will then allow two lay-
ers of surfacing material to bring the part to final dimen-
I
cedure should relate to the particular part being surfaced. sion. A weaving technique is recommended instead of 1
It should specify the welding process, the method of ap- stringer bead welding. The pass thickness or layer thick-
plication, and the preweld operations. The welding proce- ness should not exceed 3/16 in. (5 mm). The adjacent
dure should give the preheat and interpass temperature beads must fair into the previous bead to provide as
and any special techniques that should be employed, such smooth a surface as possible. There is controversy con-
as the pattern of hard surfacing, whether beading or weav- cerning the pattern of welds that should be made when ap-
ing, the interface between adjacent beads, and finally, any plying the surfacing deposits. In general, the direction of
posrwelding operations such as peening and the method welding should not be transverse to the load on the part.
of cooling. When a properly developed procedure is fol- This can create stress concentrations and may affect serv-
j
lowed, the service life of the job will be predictable. ice life. In certain types of metal, peening is recommended
In many cases two separate materials may be re- but this is based on the metal. The manufacturer's instruc-
quired: the buildup alloy, which is used when the part is tions should be followed.
to be reclaimed or is excessively worn, and the hardfac- Hardfacing by welding is an excellent method of re-
Ing alloy. In general, more than three layers of hardfacing claiming parts and will save time and money. It is becoming
I
I
alloys are not deposited. The hard-surfacing alloys are popular for original equipment manufacturers to hardface
considerably more expensive than buildup alloys. The wear parts on new equipment to provide better service life.
hard surfacing should be replaced when the hardfaclng
alloy is worn away. When deposit exceeds three layers,
cracking and other problems may be encountered. Pickup and Dilution
A major consideration is the location of finished In any surfacing operation, be it for corrosion resistance,
surface with respect to the worn surface. In many cases, wear resistance, or whatever, the analysis of the exposed
the first layer of surfacing may have sufficie~lilutiOJ1 of deposit Is of major concern. The composition of the de-
base metal so that it is unsuitable for the desiree;, service. posit is designed to withstand the service environment
In this Ci!SC, the-worn surface should be further removed and be compatible with the base metal. The selection ·.of
so that there is $utfiientroom. for two layers of surfacing the overlay material must take into account the metallur-
metal, whtch will provide a better service life.Where the gical interrelationship between the, deposit and the base
part ts to be r machined after surfacing, the machining meta 1.The resulting deposi analysis depends on the dilu-
surface should not be at the interface between weld sur- non and pickup, which relate to the welding process and
faCing .meral and debase metal. Premachining may be. the welding procedure.
r,eq\Jire(l.11~is 1s important when the base metal is of Pickup aad dilution are terms used in analyZing sur-
,har<lenable.n;tatedal. facing of-overlay deposits.Their meanings ate different and.
. .
;'·r .636. 'CH~P,TErt 2:4

TABLE 24-2 HARDFACING,ALLOYS VERSUS SURFACE CONDITIONS
~~~--~~~,----~--~~--------~~
, Characterisita '
Rockwell
.;'Hardness, ,
Layers, anc
Process Finishing Applications
lA F Ex No No No No RC 30-40; two or Machinable, with Used as built up for hardfacing or by itself;

three layers; FCAW, carbide tools fair-to-good strength, toughness. and
SAW, SMAW moderate abrasion resistance
18 G F F No No RC 50-57: two layers; Use carbide tools or Hardfacing or heavy-duty built-up application
SAW, SMAW, FCAW grind involving heavy Impact
2A F-G F-G F F No No RC 50-55; two Use grinding practices High-strength I low-crack-sensitivity deposists
layers; SMAW, SAW for severe abrasion and compression.
moderate to heavy impact, good resistance
to erosion, and mild corrosion
28 Ex No RC 65; gas Use grinding practices Excellent for cold abrasive wear, also for
No Ex F No
metal-to-metal wear and mild impact
2C r: F G F F Ex RC 55-60; anneal to Machines if softened Hardness up to 11000P (593°C); gopd wear
resistance and toughness use for tools
RC 30
No F-G gas SMAW Use grinding practices Work hardness buildup and hard
20 F-G Ex F-G G-Ex
facing-austenitic manganese, steet
Machine if softened Holds hardness up to BOQoF (4¢rC) or
SA {Sx F...,Q·. No RC 47-62;
1 150"F (621 (0) dep~ndfng on aHoy. good
. SMAW, gas or grind
wear. and o"ldation reslstance, moderate
impact and sevete abrasion
··stir'" ,Use carbide tool or, Excellent abrasion resistance .nd metaH~
grind metal wear at moderate temperatures
3C' MachInable w th GOOdedge rength-use for tools
., carbide tools
Use~rpide tools or
grind
should not be confused. Pickup is defined as an addition or the measured cross-sectional area of weld bead is shown
increase in any alloying element in a weld deposit by virtue by the formula:
of melting and incorporating some of the base metal. The B
mixture of base metal with filler metal forms the deposit. % dilution = X 100
A+B
The first bead or layer in contact with the base metal has
the greatest amount of pickup or of alloying elements, de- The penetration or dilution percentage increases
pending on penetration. The second layer has much less with the penetration of the weld into the base metal. Min-
pickup and is more the analysis of the filler metal. A greater imum penetration is desired to reduce the amount of di-
depth of penetration has more effect on the alloy content lution; however, a penetration of 5% to 8% is required for
of the deposit weld. However, the pickup from the base a good quality weld. Uniform dilution is preferred. The
metal might reduce the alloy content of the deposit weld welding process and procedure controls penetration.
and reduce its ability to function as desired. Multipass buildup is required if the deposit is expected to
Dilution is the change in composition of a welding have zero pickup or dilution.
filler metal caused by the admixture of the base metal,
or previous weld metal, in the weld deposit. It is meas-
ured by the percentage of base metal or previous weld 24-6 SURFACING FOR
metal in the weld bead. Dilution is commonly consid-
ered a reduction in alloy content of the weld deposit by CORROSION RESISTANCE
virtue of melting and incorporating melted base metal of The corrosion of metals causes premature failures of
lower alloy content. It will reduce the effectiveness of many objects, from automobile bodies to chemical plant
the hardfacing or corrosion resistance of the overlay. It is equipment. Corrosion can be prevented, or at least sub-
measured as a percent of base metal that enters into the stantially reduced. One of the best ways to reduce corro-
weld deposit. If the composition of the filler metal is sion is to protect the metal with an overlay or surface of
known and the composition of base metal or previous a material less susceptible to corrosion in a specific envi-
metal is known, then by knowing the percent dilution ronment. Galvanized steel and clad metals with nonfer-
the weld deposit composition can be calculated. Dilu- rous facings have long been used to reduce corrosion.
tion or alloy pickup can change the composition of the The deterioration of metal surfaces is caused by a
weld deposit considerably. The amount of mixing or di- combination of factors, such as corrosion and oxidation,
lution is measured as the percentage of the entire cross corrosion and erosion, or cavitation. Before repairing
section of weld metal, as shown by a photomicrograph corroded or deteriorated surfaces, it is necessary to de-
of the cross section that shows the outlines of the determine the reason. These factors should be considered
posit and the base metal. The cross section is polished in selecting a material for overlays for speciflc types of
and etched to reveal the boundary of the deposit and the service.
junction between the weld and base material. This is Once the surfacing material or composition has
shown by Figure 24-15.The calculation of dilution from been selected, it is important to select the method of re-
pairing the corroded surface. There are two different
methods. One is to use corrosion-resistant filler metal and
FIGURE24-15 Dilution of weld deposit. deposit the desired analysis on the corroded surface.This
technique is also used to rebuild wall thickness to origi-
nal dimensions. The second method is known as wallpa-
pering. This is done by applying small thin pieces of the
corrosion-resistant material and welding them. to the cor-
roded surface. Each technique will be described briefly.
The selection of the overlay composition is based
on the service environment to which the surface is ex"
'posed, Many alloys are commonly used for corrosion and
oxidation resistance. They are summarized as follows:
• The-copper-base alloys, including the copper sili-
con alloys and the copper tin alloys, are used for
spe ific corrosion resistance requirements .
• The austenitic stainless steels, Including typ 5'308,
309, 310, 316, and 347, are used for corrosion"
resisrant surfaces. These alloys exhibit moderate re-
B .ststance to high-stress abrasion and have excellent
% ilution;:: A + B x 100 oxidation resistance with Impact properties,
• The nickel-base alloys, including 100% nickel, and PAW, the hot wire technique is often employed. Elec-
Monel, and Inconel, are frequently used for specific troslag welding is also used for surfacing.
applications. Normally, single layers of weld ,metal are used; how-
ever, where dilution is a problem or where thicker layers
• The high-cobalt chromium alloys are used where
are required, such as pump linings and high-wear areas, a
corrosion is a major problem. They are used in re-
second layer of surfacing is applied.The second layer can
fineries where high pressures and high tempera-
be made with an electrode of lower alloy content since
tures are encountered.
the dilution factor is reduced.
These and special alloys including titanium are applied as Much of this type of work is performed in situ (in
Weld surfacing deposits or using the wallpapering tech- the field). Special equipment has been developed to re-
nique. pair the inside diameter of round pressure vessels such as
The weld surfacing technique is used for new prod- paper mill digesters.The internal surface of digesters cor-
ucts as well as for resurfacing older items that have cor- rode at a high rate due to the chemical process and the
roded. In either case, the weld surface must be clean. high pressures and temperatures involved. Automatic
Normally, on corroded surfaces the base metal is pre- machines with one or two gas metal arc welding heads
pared for welding by grit blasting the entire surface. This deposit metal on the vertical inside surface of these di-
is followed by an acid wash and water rinse. Quite often gesters.The welding heads are mounted on a boom that
the inside diameter of tanks, vessels, digesters, and even rotates around the centerline of the tank and makes the
pipe is overlaid. New items that are being manufactured metal deposit on the ID or the corroded surface. These
are rotated so that welding processes are used, and it operations start at the bottom and automatically move
is economically important to use high deposition vertically at each revolution as they revolve around the
processes. Submerged arc welding is often used, and of- tank. The procedures have been developed so that a
ten multiple electrode wires are employed. The flux may smooth internal surface of the weld deposit results.
Contain metal additives that will enhance the composi- The second method of providing corrosion protec-
tion of the deposit. Strip overlay, shown in Figure 24-16, tion, known as wallpapert'ng,04) is done by applying
is a popular overlay method. GMAW is also used, as well small thin [usually 1/16-in. (1.6.mm)] pieces of
as gas tungsten arc and plasma arc. In the case of GTAW corrosion-resistant material and welding them to the cor-
roded surface. The corrosion-resistant sheets can be of
any material listed previously; however, high-nickel alloys
and titanium are popular. The problem of dilution and
FIGURE24-16 Submerged arc strip overlay.
pickup should be considered in selecting the filler mate-
rial. The material must be firmly attached with intimate
contact between the corrosion resistance sheets and the
corroded surface. The most popular welding proce s is
gas metal arc with the short-circuiting or pulse mode.A
special technique is used, starting with intermittent
welds. However, eventually a seal fillet weld is required
around the entire outer edge of the corrosion-resistant
thin sheet (see Figure 24-17; the reference provides de-
tails). For sheets larger than 1 ft. square, arc spot welds or
plug welds are recommended in the middle of the sheet.
Adjacent sheets should slightly overlap pr vious sheets,
and a fillet weld should be made between the new sheet
and the sheet previously ;nstalled. Ca~ltion$hould he'
exercised so that there is no possible leakage of the cor-
roding . material through the' thin sheet overlay. Wall·
papering is replacing nonmetallic linings in many
situations,
24~7 OTHER SURFACING

APPLICATIONS
There, areotll.ersutfacing requirements that
done by welding. .
Aluminum bronze overlays can be used for
INTERMITTENT plungers in pumps, rams in extrusion presses, and for
ALLETWELDS
rings on hydraulic rams. They will wear faster than the
hardened steel with which they make contact. It is ad-
vantageous to concentrate the wear on the bronze that
can be replaced rather than cause wear on the inside di-
I
6" CENTER TO CENTER
DISTANCE
APPROXIMATELY l' OIERLAP
OF SECOND SHEET OVER
FIRST SHEET
ameter of a hardened steel cylinder.
The aluminum bronzes can also be used for repair
l
C}f"RST SHEET CSECOND SHEET welding of worn bronze bearings used in heavy slow
moving machinery, and for overlaying worn cast iron
gears and sheaves. By overlaying with bronze and rema-
chining, the part can be made better than new.
Overlay of bronze is sometimes used for decorative
purposes, particularly for architectural metal application.
By judicious use of the bronze and stainless steel, the
color contrast can be made very attractive.
Another use for bronze surfacing is for projectiles
where a brass overlay is welded around the projectile.
THIRD SHEET
This causes it to fit the rifling of the gun barrel tightly to
avoid loss of pressure and also to give the desired spin to
FIGURE24-17 Wallpapering technique. the projectile.
TIle use of weld surfacing can be extended to pro-
vide safety surfaces. When metal flooring becomes
One popular use is the overlaying of metal parts with smooth from wear, it is advisable to run stringer beads on
bronze to provide wearing surfaces for metal-to-metal con- the smooth surface to produce a rougher surface. The
tact. This includes guides and ways for reciprocating and weld surface will be safer and eliminate slipping. This is
sliding motion. In order to avoid making a part completely used on treads of metal steps, walkways, and other places
of brass or bronze, it is possible that it can be made of steel where smooth metal surfaces can be hazardous. Un-
and then overlaid with bronze.The copper-base alloys pro- doubtedly, there are other applications for surfacing and
vide a relatively soft deposit for metal-to-metal wear. The overlays since it is an ideal method to use less expensive
AWSClass ECuAl types, which are the aluminum bronzes, materials and provide specialized materials for specific
are well suited for overlay for bearing surfaces. The differ- surfaces.
ent classes such as ECuAl,A-2, B, C, D, and E can all be
used.The hardness is greater with the higher suffix letters.
QUESTIONS -
24·1. \Vh<ltare the four areas of interest when making a fail- 24-11. What is the best process to use to rebuild small shafts?
ure analysis? 24·12. Define and give an example of impact wear.
24·2. .What is a monolithic structure? Is a weldment a 24·13. Deflne and give an example of abrasion wear. How is
monolithic structure? it different from erostonr
24.;l. What are. the four points of a failure analysis? 24·14. Define and l~ive an example of orrosion wear. HoW
24·4. When should repair welding not be performed? is it diff rent from oxidation?
24,5. Approv~l of a repair pro iedure is re.~red on what 24·1;, Wllat is th basis for selecting hardfacing alloys?
type of products? . '" 24-~6. What is a buildup surfacing material?Where is it used?
Why is it wise to prepare a written procedure for reo 24·17. What is a corrosion-resistant weld-overlay cladding?
pair welds? Where Is it 1;Jsed?
24·7~ List the factors involved In preparation for repair Whflt is the advanta~ of stainless steel cladding over
welding. arbon ste I?
24·8. List the fa tors Involved In r pair welding. 24·19. Why are wear parts surfac d with bronze or b1"dss?
34·9. List th factors involved in repair posrweld treatment. :H·20. How Is weld surfacfng used to provide a safetY
24~l(). Explatp rehttlldj:ng, overlaying, andsurfacing. How do surfac ?
they dlf~r?· , : .
REFERENCES
1. "Civil Aircraft Accident Report of the Court of Inquiry 8. N. Shute, No Highway (London: Pan Books, 1948).
into the Accidents to the Comet G," Her Majesty's Sta- 9. "Acceptable Methods, Techniques and Practices-Air-
tionery Office, London, 1955. craft Inspection and Repair," AC43. 13 -1 A-1972, Federal
2. M. E. Shank, "Brittle Failure in Carbon Plate Steel Struc- Aviation Administration, U.S. Department ofTransporta-
tures Other Than Ships," Bulletin 19, Welding Research tion,Washington, D.C.
Council, New York, January 1954. 10. "Air Frame and Power Plant Mechanics Air Frame Hand-
3. A. C. Brooks, "Report of the Royal Commission into the book,"AC6S-15, Federal Aviation Administration, U.S. De-
Failure of Kings Bridge," Government Printer, Mel- partment of Transportation, Washington, D.C.
bourne, Australia. 11. "National Board Inspection Code," 12th ed., National
4. N. Smith and I. G. Hamilton, "Failures in Heavy Pressure Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors, Colum-
Vessels during Manufacture and Hydraulic Testing," bus, Ohio.
Journal of West Scotland Iron and Steel Institute 76 12. Metals Handbook, 8th ed., vol. 6, Welding and Brazing,
0968-1969),Glasgow, U.K. Metals Park, Ohio (Amercian Society for Metals).
S. "ConnectionCited in Hyatt CoJlapse," Bngineering 13. L. F. Spencer, "Hardfacing,
Picking the Proper Alloy,"
News Record, March 4, 1982, McGraw-Hill, New York. Welding Engineer (November 1970).
6. S.]. Garwood and J. D. Harrison, "The Use of Yielding 14. B. Irving, "Wallpapering: Another Growth Market for
Fracture Mechanics in Post Failure Analysis "The Welding Welding Fabricators," Welding journal (Iuly 1991).
Institute, Cambridge, England.
7. "The Design and Methods of Construction of Welded
Steel Merchant Vessels," First Report of a Board of Inves-
tigation, Welding Journal (Iuly 1974).
1
I
I
OUTLINE
4. Pressure tubing: used to transmit fluids or gases at
, 25-11\lbl.JlafProducts elevated temperatures or pressures or both.
'25 '2 Pipe and Tube Welding 5. Mechanical tubing: used to manufacture indus-
25 3 Manual and Semiautomatic Pipe Welding trial, construction, and agricultural equipment.
~5,..4 Mecballi~ed Pipe and lUbe Welditlg 6. Structural pipe and tube: used for structural, load-
.~5~5 ....'"Autci1u~ted Pipe Welding . bearing, or architectural purposes; can be of differ-I
~5.,;,6'fube to Sheet Welding ent shapes.
7. Thin-wall tubing: used for instrument tubing, air-
craft control tubing, air conditioning, and miscella-
neous applications; can be of different sizes and of
25-1 TUBULAR PRODUCTS stainless steels and nonferrous metals.
Tubular products, known as pipe or tubing, are hollow Each classification can be made of different materi-
items, normally circular, used for transmitting gases or liq- als. Standard pipe is normally made of carbon steel. It may
uids, or for structural, mechanical, or decorative func- be uncoated, galvanized, or plastic coated, and is made in
tions. They can range from the smal1est to more than 60 different wall thicknesses, known as standard, extra-
in. in diameter with wall thicknesses from very thin to strong, double-extra strong, and others. Wall thickness
thick.Tubular products are manufactured as seamless or may be indicated by schedule number (Table 25-1).
welded. Welded tubular products are the most popular Schedule 40 is standard-weight pipe.
and are the only ones considered here. There are many tine pipe is usually made of carbon steel or of low-
different ways of classifying pipe and tubing, usually alloy, high-strength steel. These pipes are made of weld-
based on shape and intended use. General classit1cations able steels since line pipe is joined by welding. Special
are as follows: pipelines have been made of corrosion-resistant steels and
stainless steels. Line pipe is made to API specifications.
1. Standard pipe: used for transmission of low- Oil country goods are made of carbon steel and al-
pressure air, steam, other ga es, water, oil, and/or loy steels, and some items are made of extremely high-
'other fluids. Used primarily in buildings, sprinkler alloy, high-strength materials.
,systems, irrigation systems, and machinery. Pressure tubing, which is made to exact dimensions
2. line pipe: used for the transportation \!
gas, otl, of outside diameter and wall thickness.Is made of cat bon
oandwater in cross-country pipelines and forutillty steels, alloy steels.ccreep-resistlng steels, heat-resisting .
dlstrtbutton systems. steels, and stainless steels of different types.
3. Ott country goods; tubular products used by the Structural steel pipe and tube is made of low-
oll and gas industries with three subdivisions: cas- carbon weldabl . steels. The analysis of th ste 1used jor
ings for well walls, tubing used within the aslngs, making the pipe is normally specified by the producer or
and drill pipe used to carry rotary drilling tools. by specifications for- the material.
j,
TABLE25-1 STANDARD PIPE SIZE AND WALL THICKNESS
Nominal Wall Thickness for:
Sched. Schad.
80 100
i 0.405 0.068 0.068 0.095 0.095

0.540 0.088 0.088 0.119 0.119
0.675 0.091 0.091 0.126 0.126
0.840 0.109 0.109 0.147 0.147 0.187 0.294
1.050 0.065 0.113 0.113 0.154 0.154 0.218 0.308
1,315 0.065 0.133 0.133 0.179 0.179 0.250 0.358
1.660 0,065 0.140 0.140 0.191 0.191 0.250 0.382
1.900 0.065 0.145 0.145 0.200 0.200 0.281 0.400,
2,;375 0.065 0.154 0.154 0.218 0.218 0.343 0.436
2.875 0.063 0,203 0.203 0.276 0.276 0.376 0.552
'3,5 0.083 0.216 0.216 0.300 0.300 0.438 0.600
4.0 0,083 0.226 0.266 0.318 0.318 - 0.674
4,5 0.OS3 0.237,' 0.237 0.337 0.337 0.438 0,531
5.56~ o.ios 0.258 0.258 0.375 0.375 0.500 0.625 0.750
6,P2;i
·.8,625;:
0.109
'0.109 0.250
-
0.277
0.280
0.322
0.280
0.322 ~ 0.40(;
0.432
0.500
0.432
0.500 0.593
0.562'
0.7lS 0.812
0.718
0.906
0.864
0.875
10./5 . 0.134 0.307' 0.365 0.365 0.500 0,500 0.593 0.718 0.843 1,000 1.125
iitS QJ,5fS 0,;330 .0.375 ,00400 0.562 0.500 0.687 0,843 ' 1.000 L12,:) U3l2
"14.,0"
1\:,;
. 0.975 0.438 0.593 0.500 0.750 0.937 0.093 L250 1,400
:0.375 .-
1.031 1,218 1.43S 1,593
'. ,16,0' 0.375 0.500 0.656 0.500 0.843
1$.0 " 0.4.36 0.562 0,750 0.500 0.937 l. 6e ]..,'375 1.562 1,7S1 <l"'-
1.150 1.9
0.'500 O. 93 0.B12 .O~500
o.sng
0.50 .
1.031 1.281
-
1.500
-- -- --
Thin-wall tubing is made of low-alloy steels and stain- welding mill, to make a forge weld.This process is used to
less steels. Stainless steel tubing is available in almost any manufacture standard pipe of 1/8 in. to 4 in. nominal di-
alloy of stainless available. In addition to steels, tubing is ameter at a high rate of speed on a continuous welded
available in aluminum, copper, titanium, and nickel alloys. pipe mill.
The dimensions used for pipe and tubing depend Three different electric resistance welding processes
on product classification and country of origin. See stan- are employed for continuous mill welding. The choice of
dard pipe sizes already mentioned and metric sizes the welding process variation depends on the diameter of
shown in Table 25-2. the tubular product, the wall thickness, and the produc-
In specifying pipe and tubing, it is necessary to pro- tion rate. In all three methods the power for welding is
vide exact dimensions and the material classification or provided either by low-frequency current through revolv-
composition to obtain the type requested. ing electrode wheels, or by radio-frequency current
through sliding contacts or induction coils.
Methods for Manufacturing GTAW is popular for thin-wall stainless steel tubing
and tubing made of nonferrous alloys. Plasma arc welding
Welded tubing is preferred over seamless tubing since it
is flnding increased use for stainless steel tube mills. Gas
has more uniform wall thickness and is less expensive.
metal arc welding is often employed where thickness is
The following welding processes are used:
greater and filler metal is required. For thick-wall pipe, flux-
1. Continuous butt welding process cored arc welding or submerged arc welding can be used.
2. Resistance welding processes These processes are also used for making spiral joint pipe.
3. Arc welding processes The GTAW process produces high-quality welds in
tube mills in square groove welds from 0.020 in. (0.5
4. High-energy beam (electron and laser) processes
mm) to 0.118 in. (3 mm) thick without the addition of
Two types of weld joints are used.The most common filler wire. The wall thickness of the tubing and the
is the straight, longitudinal joint from end to end of pipe, metal composition greatly influence the welding pa-
used for aUsizes from smallest to largest.The spiral joint is rameters. Most procedure tables for mechanized weld-
used for medium- and larger-sized tubular products. ing relate to average conditions. Tubular product mills
The continuous mill for making tubular products, use welding conditions modified for maximum travel
when the weld joint is longitudinal, is similar for all weld- speed. The welding parameters must be analyzed and
ing processes. (1) A continuous mill (Figure 25-1) consists each adjusted to provide the maximum travel speed.The
of the following: following suggestions are made to speed up the welding
station of the mill.
1. Coil of strip or skelp
The primary variables with the arc processes are
2. Splicmg operation for the skelp
travel speed, welding current, and arc voltage. This is the
3. Strip flattening and trimming station (optional) heat input into the weld. The secondary adjustable vari-
4~ Multiple forming rolls, including closing rolls ables include the torch travel angle and the arc direction
5. Welding station, including the squeeze or pressure when a magnetic arc deflecting system is used. The dis-
roIls tinct level variables include the electrode size, type and
6. Sizing rolls, or die point geometry, the composition of the shielding gas (and
trailing gas shield if used), the use of more than one torch
7. Cutoffoperatton
and their spacing, and the use of oscillation, either me-
The number and size of rolls, number of stations, and chanical or magnetic.
so on, will vary depending on the manufacturer of the mill The fixed conditions include thickness and com-
and the size and type of tubular products being produced. position of the metal. Increasing productivity means in-
The welding station produces a high-quality weld creasmg the speed of the tube, which can be done by .
with full penetration, minimum root and f e reinforce- increasing the energy employed in making the weld. j,.
ment, and minimum bead widths. The wel(l\ must be combination of improvements can increase the welding
'.smoota-unttonn, and clean Without cracks and Without speed of the tube mill. Revise the welding procedure by
undercujttag, and the reinforcement of the weld should examining each variable and adjusting them indepen-
not exceed 10%of the wall thickness. dently until the tight eomblnatton bas been obtained.
The so-called butt welding process, commonly Table 25-3 gives parameters for single-arc gas tungsten
called the CW continuous welding) process, is the old- arc welding for stainless steel of the wall thicknesses
est welding process for weldmg pipe. It is forge welding shown,
in wlli:chthe flat stock! known as skelp, is formed 111tO a Adjust .the primary variables. As the welding cur-
hibulm'shape while very hot and pul1e J through a cij~. rent increases, the travel speed must increase to a'Void
. -This auses the abutnng edges to come together under burn-through. The travel speed must be continuously
.- -' l'ressureand
bjgh ""
htSh temperatures in' a contlnucus-
.-_
.adjustable so that it can
j ,.
be changed as the current is
-"
'" '
CHA~TER 25
, I .
TABLE 25-2 METRIC PIPE SIZE AND WALL THICKNESS
Nominal Outside Wall

Pipe Size Diameter Thickness
Schedule
in. mm. Number in. mm. in. mm.
1
8 3 10 0.405 10.3 0.049 1.2
40 0.068 1.7
80 0.095 2.4
1
4 6 10 0.540 13,7 0.065 1.7
40 0.088 1.2
80 0.119 3.0
i 10 10 0.675 17.1 0.065 1.7
40 0.091 2.3
80 0.126 3.2
1
"2 13 5 0.840 21.3 0.065 1.7
10 0.083 2.1
40 0.109 2.8
80 0.147 3.7
1
4 19 5 1.050 26.7 0.065 1.7
10 0.083 2.1
40 0.113 2.9
80 0.154 3.9
1 25 5 1.315 33.4 0.065 1.7
10 0.109 2.8
40 0.133 3.4
80 0.179 4.5
H 32 5 1.660 42.2 0.065 1.7
10 0.109 2.8
40 0.140 3.6
80 0.191 4.9
Ii 38 5 1.900 48.3 0.065 1.7
10 0.109 2.8
40 0.145 3.7
80 0.200 5.1
2 51 5 2.375 60.3 0.065 1,7
10 0.109 2.8
40 0.154 3.9
80 0.218 5.5
2i 64 5 2.875 13.0 0.083 2.1
10 Ool20 3.0 ,J
76
40
5, 3.500 88.9
0.203
0,083
5.2
2.1
j
3
3.0
10
40
0.120
0.216 5.5 I
3i 89 5 4.000 101.6 0.083 2.1
10 0.120 3.0
40 0.226 5.7
4 102 5 4.500. ',114;3 0.083 2,1
10 0.120 3;0
40 0.237 6.0
6 152 5 6.625 168.3 0.109 2.8
10 0.134 3.4·
8 203 5 8.625 219.1 0.109 2'.8
10 0.148 a.a
10 254 5
10
10.750 .
273.1 0.134
0.165
3.4,'
4.2
12 305 5 ' 12.750 323.9 0.156 4.0
- .{
" '"
10 0.180 ..
',4.8
14 356 5 14.000 355.6 O.15q 4.0
10 o.iss 4.8
increased. The top limit of current with the GTAW adjusted to cause the arc to lead, which preheats the weld
process seems to be 250 to 300 A. area and allows higher travel speeds before undercutting
Arc voltage relates to arc length; it can be varied be- occurs.
tween narrow limits.The minimum arc length should not The optimum arc length is 1)1times the electrode
be less than one diameter of the electrode.The maximum diameter, which provides optimum arc Voltage. Torch po-
arc length should not be more than twice the diameter of sition and angle adjustment is required for the best weld-
the electrode. Many GTAW mills use automatic arc length ing conditions.
control, which allows setting the torch to a specific arc Another way to increase the heat input in the arc is
voltage. to use helium shielding gas. Helium provides more heat
The practical maximum travel speed [approximately in the arc; hence travel speed can be increased. Increased
1 m (39 in.) per minute] is limited by the quality of the production must be related to the higher cost and greater
weld. As travel speed increases beyond this rate, undercut- flow rate of helium gas.A mixture of 50:50 argon-helium
ting will occur. The weld bead may be high and crowned, can be used to reduce gas cost. Another way to increase
and a depression in the center of the bead reduces the the heat of the arc is to use hydrogen in the argon shield-
cross section along the weld centerline (Figure 25-2). ing gas. Up to 10% hydrogen can be used for welding
These defects occur because of a lagging arc nickel and nickel alloys and some stainless steels. In gen-
(Figure 25-3). This makes the arc longer as travel speed eral, hydrogen mixtures should not be used for welding
increases.As the arc length increases it flares, is less con- carbon and low-alloy steels.
centrated, and has a higher Voltage. Giving the torch a The use of helium or hydrogen mixtures will in-:
lead angle overcomes the lagging arc, reduces the arc crease travel speed up to 50%. Special nozzles are re-
length, and generally allows travel speed to be increased quired to shield the longer molten weld pool. Heavy-duty,
without undercutting. A push angle of up to 20° will water-cooled, automatic torches should be used. The
move the undercutting occurrence to a higher speed and torch rating should be at least 50% greater than the weld-
tends to flatten the weld bead. This can also be accom- ing current.
plished by a magnetic arc deflection system, which cor- For welding ferrous metals, DC electrode negative
rects for the arc lag and reduces arc length.This system is is used. The 2% thoria type (EWTh2) tungsten electrode
should be used. The ground finish should be specified
since this improves heat transfer and increases electrode
FIGURE 25-1 Continuous mill for making tubular life and time between regrinding the point.The size of the
products. electrode should be the largest for the welding current to
be used. The electrode should be precision ground to a
point of 30° included angle, but the end of the point
should be flattened.
FIGURE 25-2 Undesirable weld cross section.
UNDERCUT UNDERCUT AND

CENTERLINE NOTCH
TABLE 25,....3 WELDING SCHEDULE FOR GTAW WELDING STAINLESS STEEL TUBING
0.078 1.98 12 305 180 Argon Square butt

0.078 1.98 20 508 200 Argon + 5% H2 Square butt
0.109 2.77 16 406 .220 Argon Square butt
0.126 3.18 10 254 230 Argon Square butt
0..154
:,.<
3.91 12 305 2~5 9{)% argon + 5% H2 60" V-groove
0;216' 5.4B 8 205 260 95% argon + 6% H2 60° V~groove
0.;226 5.74 7 178 240 95% argon ,. 5% H2 60° V-groove
0.237 6.02' 6 167 280 95% argon. + 5% Ha 60° V~groqye
TIle use of an additional GTAW torch ahead of the In submerged arc, gas metal, or'flux-cored arc weld-
~elding arc will allow increased speed since more energy ing applications.multiple torches can be used. Submerged
IS being put into the material to preheat it.The use of an ad- arc welding usingAC and three torches is often used. Elec-
ditional torch following the welding torch will reduce the tron beam and laser beam welding processes are both
undercut problem. The use of three torches will increase used for welding specialty-type tubular products.
tube travel speed by up to 100% while producing a good-
quality weld.The leading (preheat) torch should operate at
about 50% of the current of the welding torch.The trailing 25-2 PIPEAND TUBE WELDING
torch will operate at about 33% of the welding torch. TIle
In the United States, approximately 10% of the steel pro-
spacing between the torches should be the minimum.
duced is made into tubular products, essentially pipe. Ex-
The plasma arc welding keyhole process can be
cept for the small size, the majority of pipe is installed by
used in place of the GTAW to increase the production
welding.
rate. Speed increase of from 33% to 100% is possible, with
The piping industry is roughly divided into three
the greatest improvement on thicker metal. Increased
major categories:
production is due to the higher temperature plasma and
the constricted stiffer arc, which improves heat transfer • Pressure 01' power piping
to the work.The welding schedule shown in Table 25-4 • Transmission and distribution piping
~hows the productivity improvement. Analysis and ad-
• Noncritical piping
Justment of all variables would be similar to that de-
scribed for GTAW The welding of pressure piping used in thermal
and nuclear power stations, refineries, chemical plants,
ships, and so on is done in accordance with the ASME
code for pressure piping.(2) All of the ASME piping codes
FIGURE25-3 Arc length factors. of B31 are shown in Figure 25-4.The pipe employed nor-
mally has a medium to thick wall thickness in medium to
I
~ large sizes. Welding procedures and qualifications are
largely in accordance with Section IX of the ASME pres-
sure vessel code.
Transmission and distribution pipelines transmit
gas and petroleum products from the producing fields to
the consumers.Welding this typ of pipe necessitates spe-
cial techniques and procedures, which are governed by
API Standard 1104.(3) This specification is in general
agreement with B31.8, "Gas Transmission and Distribu-
tion Piping Systems." The pipe employed is usually of
medium to high strength and has relatively thin walls in
medium to large diameters. Distribution piping is nor-
TUBE TRAVEL TUBE TRAVEL mallycarbon steel standard-sizepipe of smallersize.
The noncritical piping field includes many differ nt
(II) LAGGING ARC - LONGER (b) TORCH WITH PUSHANGLE
systems: domestic bot water. supply; sprinkler, sal-ptary, gas
and air lines, and many other applications. Welding has
not been universally adopted. Screw-thread conn ctions,
soldered copper tubing, and plastic pipe ar used for
many applicauons.The steel pipe is usualfy standard wall '
thicknesses in the small and medium sizes. Quallfjc~ltion
tests may not be required, althOllgh qllalifted welder and
,-q\.lal1fiedprocedures are oftell used, -.-, ''
'Welding pipe and tubing is notrrrally done in. accor-
dance with established writtcll procedures, The specitlc
ode Involved must be con$u]ted.Weldblg pl'pcedtlt' sat'
based on the pip. material, pipe diameter, and wall thick-
ness. Welding posttion del,ends on tbe Job .aond the ,code;
but the procedure lll11sHndioate:th~ w~ldi11i'_pttj(:e.~,s:mt\
TU8~ TRAV~ I- ptogresslonof tl~vel The ttl rhoeto! application d,pends '
on th process and equtpmenr aVflilabJe.Tb ruler '1 retal
(e) WITH MAGNETICS PROVIDING
LEADlNG ARC, - is selected b,as d 9D tbec;om,PQsltion Q.,f tlie 'Pip~e::t'l'ijlterl~l
_ '.. _. :. .r " ,..: ' _. -. • '. ",' - - ," . ",., ~ - - • ~- ,.'
TABLE25-4 WELDINGSCHEDULEFORPLASMAARCWELDINGSTAINLESSSTEELTUBING
Wall Thickness Travel Speed Orifice Size

Current Gas Shield
in. mm (in./min.) mm/min. (A DCEN) in. mm and Plasma Type
0.062 1.57 14 355 65 0.081 2.05 A + 5% H2

0.078 1.98 14 355 70 0.081 2.05 A + 5% H2
0.093 2.36 12 305 85 0.081 2.05 A
0.109 2.77 16 406 85 0.081 2.05 A + 5% H2
0.126 3.18 10 254 100 0.081 2.05 A + 5% H2
0.154 3.91 16 406 100 0.081 2.05 A + 5% H2
0.187 4.75 7 178 100 0.081 2.05 A + 5% H2
831.1 Power piping thickness increases, the joint design will change so that
831.2 Fuel gas piping less weld meta] will be required. The included angle
831.3 Chemical plant and petroleum refinery piping changes to a narrower angle partially up the joint. These
831.4 Liquid transportation systems for hydrocarbons, joint designs are commonly used in power plant piping,
liquid petroleum gas, anhydrous ammonia, and where heavy wall thickness pipe is used. Other variations
alcohols in joint design depend on the composition of the pipe.
831.5 Refrigeration piping Some automatic procedures require special joint designs.
831.8 Gas transmission and distribution piping systems For aluminum pipe special joint details have been devel-
831.9 Building services piping oped, and these are normally welded with combination
831.11 Slurry transportation piping systems process procedures.This allows a root weld to be made in
831G Manual for determining the remaining strength of much the same manner as the weld on thin-wall tubing.
corroded pipelines
Consumable insert rings are often used for making
FIGURE25-4 ASME code for pressure piping. critical welds in pipe and tubing. There are five classes of
rings called consumable inserts and specified by AWS
AS.30, Consumable Inserts.They are shown in Figure 25-6.
They are given class numbers. Class 1 is called Ashapcd or
and the mechanical properties requirement. A listing of
invertedT.Class 2 is calledj-shaped.classes 3 and 5 are rec-
pipe welding procedure schedules is given in Table 25-5.
tangular and sometimes called K-shaped, and class 4 is
This list is based on the pipe or tubing size, which is cat-
called Yshaped. They are placed in the root of the weld
egorlzed as small [4 in. (100 mm) and smaller], medium
joint when the joint is tacked up. GTAWis used for the root
[4 in. (1.00 mm) to 12 in. (300 mmjj.and large [12 in. (300
pass, and the rings are fused into the root of the joint. A.
mm) and larger] .The wall thickness is categorized as thin
skilled welder can make a very smooth root that gives a
(l S8 than standard), standard (Schedule 40), and heavier
smooth inside diameter of the pipe.The rings are available
(greater than standard). This is followed by the welding
in different sizes and of different analysis so that they can
position, the welding process, and the method of appli-
match the pipe composition and size.The composition of
cation. In. some as s, combinations ofwelcling processes
the consumable insert is covered by the specification.
and methods of application are used.
Rectangular backing rings are rarely used when gas
With these data, welding procedures can be de-
01' fluids are transmitted in the piping system, since the
sign d to meet the job requirements based on the speci-
rings reduce th tnslde diameter of the pipe.They may be
fication involved. Welding procedure specifications must
used for structural applications where tubular members
be qua Itfled to meet the code requirement .
"- are used to transmit loads rather than materials. They arc
\ usetul in helping altgnthe pipe assembly.
Joint Design For critical pipe welding, internal gas purging is of .
Th joint designs for pipe welding have been fairly well ten used. Special dams of soluble paper or balloons are
tandardlzed and are shown in Figure 25-5. For thinner- used to contain the purge gas in the area of the pipe joint.
wall pipe the joint d sign Is the square-groove weld.as The purge gas is argon, but nitrogen may be used for stain-
tht ikness tncreases..a single-v-plpe joint i'i used. TIl m- less steel tubing.
,dm;leda,J.lgle.of the V-groove has been standardized at 60 Internally clad pipe is being 1.1sed increasingly.ThiS
and iSP:The 75)tllcluded angle is more ommon in pres- Is normally carbon steel plpe clad on the inside With
sure piping, an trhe 60" Included angle is common 'in stainless steel.The internal clad thickness usually is on tbe
ross-country transmlsstor» ..line ptpmg.The root face and order of 1/8 in. (3 mm) thick wh re the carbon steel pip
tootop' '1;li.ug,'are~tppro:x:itnatelythe same. As the wall' is of normal dlamett11(and wall thickness. Internally claP "
TABLE25-5 PIPEWELDINGPROCEDURE
SCHEDULES
Welding Welding Method of
TUbe and Pipe Diameter and Waif Thickness Position Process Applying
Small tubing, thin wall All position GTAW MA

All position PAW MA
All position GTAW, no FM AU
Small pipe, standard wall All position OFG MA
All position GTAW with FM AU
Small to medium pipe, standard wall All position GMAW SA
All position SMAW MA
Medium pipe, standard and heavy wall All position Comb. GTAW and SMAW MA
Medium and large pipe, thin and standard wall All downhill SMAW MA
All up or down GMAW SA
All up or down FCAW SA
Medium and large pipe, all wall All uphill SMAW MA
Flat roll (IG) SAW AU
Flat roll (IG) Comb. GMAW and SAW SA or AU and AU
Flat roll (IG) Comb. GMAW and FCAW SA or AU and AU
Small, medium, and large pipe, standard to thick wall All position FCAW SA
All position Comb. GTAW and FCAW MA and SA
All position Comb. GTAW and GMAW MA and SA
~1--3/32
3/32 t 1/32 -~ ~-
(A) THIN WALL (S) THICKER WALL (e) STD WALL-OOWNHILL
75°
\ Y,/2.
(0) HEAVIER WALL-AUTO GTAW IE) STPWALL-UP HILL
--..37·112
(F) HEAVY WALL-E Lt:ClRO(lEPR.Qce:sses
~E 25-5 :ipe welding joint designs.

CLASS 1 CLASS 2 CLASS 4 CLASSES 3 AND 5
FIGURE 25-6 Consumable insert rings per AWS A5.30.
FIGURE 25-7 Flame-cutting bevel on pipe.
pipe is used for carrying corrosive materials, usually oil volve around the pipe are widely used and are shown in
and gas products with corrosive characteristics or ac- Figure 25-7. Complex joints require detailed layout and
companying gases. Special precautions are used to weld accurate cutting. Up to five-axis computer-controlled
clad pipe, in that the internal clad must be welded with a machine tool machines are used in shops. The operator
filler metal of approximately the same composttion as the uses dedicated software that calculates the bevel angle
clad material and the remainder of the pipe welded with of Intersections. These, coupled with critical weld
filler metals comparable to those of the pipe. preparation angles, provide nearly perfect fitup. Flame-
cutting torches, rotary cutters, abrasive wheels, and
grinders can all be used.
Joint Alignment and Fitup Pipe received from the steel mill usually has a stan-
An Important requirement in obtaining a high-quality dard end preparation used for butt joints. Forged pip fit-
pipe joint is to make sure that the fitup of the jotnt prior rings commonly used in complex assemblies have joint
to welding Is as good as possible. It 11l11st~eet the joint preparation prepared at the manufacturer's plant.
design detail and be uniform around the circumference . Fitting the pipe is the most difficult part of piping
of the joint. Tt1.ls is sometimes difficult to obtain because tnstallations, Fo,r' small assemblies, this is relatively easY
pipe is not always xactly round and the diameter; may -and much of this work is done in pipe-fabricating shops-
vary withih the limit of the pipe stze. Tubing is manufac- Setup and welding subassemblies with different kinds of
tured closer to size and is easl r to fltup. The nonround- fittings and pipe sections are welded there under ideal
ness or ovality of pipe can present a welding problem, condttions.A typi .al shop fabrication welded with semi-
. ,.', especially with large-diameter pipe, automatic equipment is shown in Fjgure 25 ..8. These as-
'" .• , .. - - 'I- _,'. ,- - _ ,
. Pipe joints,. particularly for: structural applications, semblies are then. transporred to the erection site for
at' vatled and' omplex.Th« most simple type is the butt fieldwelding.Assembly in the field is usually mote diffir
joint, which requires square cutoffs and single bev Is. cult since dimensional variations are more' difficult t<,
POl'm.btemachin'es
. .r--~;,-,- - -/' . -',' '
" _''', . '-tt ~." ,-
wlth.mechantzed
' _,,'. .
torches ,- that re-,
-
contrOL.,
clamp is released and removed. In welding large-diameter
pipes one welding crew makes the root pass and second
pass, commonly known as the stringer and bot pass.They
move on with the lineup clamp crew and work on the
next pipe joint, and other welding crews come in to finish
the weld. These crews make the filler passes, which are
those that.fill the weld joint; the stripper passes, which are
usually made in the vertical portion of the pipe joint; and
the last pass, known as the cap pass.The stringer crew and
other crews represent three or four pipe welding groups
that are progressing along the pipeline during its con-
struction. However, the production fate is determined by
the front-end crew depositing the root and hot pass.
When semiautomatic welding GMAW is used for
cross-country pipe welding, the welding equipment is
FIGURE25-8 Shop fabrication of pipe subassembly. placed on a flatbed truck or a tractor with a boom sup-
porting the welding cables and guns over the pipe to be
welded. This technique has almost doubled the produc-
A variety of alignment devices are used for pipe in- tion rates over manual SMAWand has become popular in
Stallations. For small-diameter pipe, external-type clamps many parts of the world. Figure 25-12 shows the semiau-
are normally employed. Figure 25-9 shows an assort- tomatic welding of a large cross-country pipe.
ment of these. Some of these clamps have sufficient GMAW will meet the requirements of the API 1104
force to re-form the pipe into a perfect circle to facili- specification for medium and large pipe with relatively
tate fitup, This is possible on the thin-wall pipe, but be- thin wall.
~omes increasingly difficult as the pipe wall thickness The construction of offshore pipelines differs con-
tncreases. siderably from that of cross-country pipelines.The girth
welding of a 40-ft. length of pipe (80 ft. if double-
jointed) is done on lay barges such as the one shown in
Cross..Country Pipelines Figure 25-13. Lay barges are 400 to 500ft.long,Welding
T~e cross-country transmission pipeline welding tech- stations are located 40 ft. apart along the centerline of
tUques have become extremely sophisticated. Normally, the vessel.
the "stove pipe" method of installing pipe is used. This The welding, inspection, and field coating of the
means that each'S ction or length of pipe is added on to weld joint area are carded .out simultaneously at these
the eXisting pipe Installation. The crew for doing this workstations. Station 1 is the head station, where the root
moves along the right-of-way from the beginning to the and hot passes are deposited. Subsequent weld passes are
end of the pipeline. Welding procedures and techniques made at later stations. Each welder deposits the same
vary based on the diameter of the pipe. weld pass in each joint and does not make the entire
The SMA stick electrode process has been used and weld.The welding procedure and the welder have. been
still is the predominant welding process for .field girth qualified, and each welder uses the same welding vari-
Welding, However, the use of semiautomatic and auto- abies for a particular operation. Weld Inspe tton (usually
matic GMAW is increasing steadily. Self-shielding FCAWis radiographic) is done ill the station following the. cap.
also used. AU procedures use the downhill technique. pass. Any weld repairs are made .at this or the n~t s.ta-
Figure 25-10 shows a field welding spread for welding tion. Fin:111y, the weld area ts canted at the last statiCi1l,A.tt
l~lrgC.diallleter pipe with automatic equipment in hilly ter ea h station has completed Its parti ular task, til'
OUntry. . barge is advanced 0 ft. by wenches taking ':lP cables at+
l~orthe large-diameter pipe welds aninternal lineup . tached to anchors.The completed sectlonls then low~red
cial11pis used (Figure 2S...11).The damp is inserted in the into tile water.The r'titebfpipe l~yitig d.e. ,'the produ¢tiV:
end of the last section of the pipeline and is operated teo ity) to; determined by the speed of the slowest ~tatiqn',...
~. . .
,Otely by air pres ure.The alr pressure 'lamps the inter-

.1~1lineup clamp to the secrion already welded to the
PIPCJJne.Then as the new sectlonrs betnc placed in posi- Quality Assurance
t' ~
IOn,it CJamps,locates.anq spaces the new section. It helps
tOlllld Out the pipe dueto the strength of the .clamp; SOlue'
~f these Clamps include a copper backing ri.ng.The clamps
are lett ill the pipe joint until th first 01" st1inger pass is .
. Inade. US~laUy,. tile second pass is :1180 luade b fote the
f
I
!
!
FIGURE 25-9 Variety of external clamps.
tnvolved.Acctdents or any failure of a pipehne must be re- was excessive. However, welding of 2 in, and smaller stan-
ported to the Office of Pipeline Safety in Washingtoll,D.C. dard wall pipe is done by oxyacetylene welding. It is used
for radiant heating systems, cooling systems for ice rinks,
and similar applicati ns. Figure 25·14 shows the oxy-
acetylene welding of small-diameter pipe.
'25..3 MAN;UAL AND Electric arc welding has been used for pipe jOinUlg .
fur many years. InitiAlly, bare or lightly coated electrodes
,,'SEMIAUTOMATIC PIPE WELDING were used, and the welds developed the full strength of
N tther screw-thread joints nor mechanical joints de- the pipe. Recently, pip lines welded with bare electrodes J
velop the full strength of pipe; hence one of the earliest
.appUcaticmsofWeldlng was to join pipe. The oxyacety-
lcne w:eldirlg process was·used·for many years to make,'
OVi t 50 years ago have been un overed, and inspectiOn
indicated that the welds were still goo l.Thecovered e1ec' I
, 'pip'e welds, O:xyaeetylcnc welds develop the full strength
trode. made.manual shieldedmetal arc welding of pipe ~
very popular proces . 1
, of the pipe. Oxyacetylene welding is slow, so the time In-
;VQIVcdJQ,f)tuiJdng lui}tvy;.wall hu:ge-atameterpipe welds
For medium- ltameter, heavy-wall pressure Pipit1g,
the uphill technique i~l.lSed.:rhit' technique ~eets the re I
1
position (5G) welding at construction sites. Figure 25-16
shows semiautomatic GMAW in a factory installation.
Both the small wire short-circuiting technique and the
spray technique are employed, Electrode wire composi-
tions must match the composition of the base metal,
Flux-cored electrode wires are available to match the
composition of pressure piping.
This work is governed by codes and specifica-
tions.A summary of pipe welding schedules is given in
Table 25-6. Recommended practices are given in Fig-
ure 2S-17.These are available fromAWS,Miami,Florida.
A high level of skill is required to make pipe welds man-
ually or with semiautomatic equipment either uphill or
downhill. Stringent qualification tests apply to pipe work.
25-4 MECHANIZED PIPE

AND TUBE WELDING
Mechanized welding systems are used for welding pipe
and tubing.Two basic types of procedures are used. One is
roll welding pipe in the flat or downhand position.This is
the IG position when the joint is rotated under the weld-
ing head. The second, known as orbitat welding, is used
when the pipe is in a fixed position and the machine
rotates around the pipe to make the weld. A further sub-
division is for thin- or heavy-wall pipe, 01'for small- or large-
diameter pipe Or tubing. A further subdivision relates to
the weld process. Submerged arc welding (SAW) is us d
for roll welding only; other processes-GMA\'Q, Faw; and
GTAW-are used for making pipe welds tn any position.
FIGURE25-10 Pipeline spread-large pipe. Roll welding was an early application of machin OJ'
automatic welding. In the f 'Jd this i' known as double
jointing (Figure 25-18). This refers to the welding to-
qUiremems of the ASME piping codes, and literally thou- gether of two sections of straight pipe t61" cross-country
Sands of procedures have been qualified using E6010 pip lines, Double jointing is done at the pipe storage yard
electrodes. where standard lengths of ,pipe. are welded and then
With low-alloy, high-strength steels for powerhouse transported to. the construction site, Roll-welding is 11101"e
cOnstruction, a new type of electrode is used. These are productive than flxed position welding and reduc s the
low.hydrogen types with low-alloy deposited metal welding hours to construct a pipeliJW. .'
matching the analysis of the pipe. An illustration' showing' , SAWhas histortcallybe .n usedfor'rollwldil1g.Ail.
this type of application Is shown in Figure 25-15. internal lineup damp. containing a backup bar, is used,
For critical piping the root pass is made with the Roll welding is also done in the fabrication shop on sub-
gas tungsten arc wIding process.This is done using an assemblies. Normally stralght. pipes ecttons are jolnet;! to
open root or using consumable insert rings and fusing ells, flanges, and so on' (FJgllre 25-1.9 . This pt;ovids
them to the roof of the joint. A second pass Isusually higher efuCiencysince welds can be'made lJ101.erapldly
lnacle with GTAW and the remaining weld by SMAW. in the flat at' roll positfon.lnstitne cases the robt:pass., «lid
This produces an excellent weld joint with an ex- even the S .ond pass,is·mild.e b}7 GMA\V or FCAWF(~\V·
tremely smooth inner surface. Procedures have been 0,1' GMAW can be used for subseqn nt pas: " aJong Wi.tl1
() veloped for most low-alloy steels, including the chrome- submerg ed ar welding. .
molybd mun steels. Orbttal wel<Ull,g of thill·w~H t~lbing all<ltancl~ d
. GTAW and SMAW· applied n1anuallyare relatively; ..wall l)ii)e is being done with the G1~W,p'ro~~s$.M~'ha·
10w,"Ptoductlon welding methods. When GMAW was de- 'nj~ed ol'bital tube'" and pjp~ >welCling' SY$t~llihre:tlSci
~eloped, it was soon applied to pipe welding. It W~isused (Figure 25-20). They ~lXe availabl as, ~QJ,')1pJ "t, $ ist ms
fOl'roll W -kUng (l ,)with the 1 andhe1d gun, and for fixed onsi ting of the pow~r sQpr~e}prog ..a~,nnle:r"afld W' Jding
-' , . . ;.;_-_-""-",. --- •...
" '< "
FIGURE25-11 Pneumatic internal lineup clamps .
....,
head (figure ~")""21).Remote control pen~its or con- orbital heads are compact and rugged and clamp on tile
troIs on the h ad allow operation at the point of weld- pipe or tube. A family of heads is required to weld tbe
iug.This equipment can weld tubes with an outside
diameter front 1/2 in. (6.35 .mm) to over 8 in. (200 nun),
.wtth wall thicknesses from 0.015 in. (0.35 mm) up to
smallest to the larger tubes; The welding torch rotates
around the pipe and carries the tungsten electrode. 10
some designs, Slip rings are used to avoid rotating Of !
l
1
1/2 in, (6.35 tum). Exact capabtlltles depend au the twisting cables and bose. Other heads, which do not in-
w:elding",head design as well as the pipe material. The clude slip rings, allow the cable and hose to W~lP.
h¢ad, shown In) Fig1.1re25-22 is designed with a mlni- aroundthe pipe, Three revolunons are usually the :tl1a~·
mumradial clearan e of 1 13/16 In. (46 mm), so that it imum used. A clamshell head design (Figure 25 ...23) 15
can be used to. weJA.pipe in clusters. These mechanized
-'>'-'-, ",'" • '.' _, • •
used for smaller tub ,~.
FIGURE25-12 Semiautomatic welding of a large-
diameter pipeline.
FIGURE25-14 Oxyacetylene welding of small pipe.
FIGURE25-13 Air view of .pipe-Iaying barge.
The three joint types commonly used are shown in

Fig-ul'e 25-24. This includes the square-groove joinr,
SOCketjotnt, and U-groove joint. The square groove joint is
~sed fo~ thtn-wall tubing andonly a single pass ~ used ..
.ocketJ0ints provide easy fitup and a fillet weld rs used.
Groove joint , U and V; are used for thicker-wall tubing
Whet" full-penetration w Ids are required. Multiple
Passes WIth filler metal are used.
Specialized programmers having upslope and down-
slope of welding current plus control of rotation ~peed;pre-
flQ': .and pestnow of gas, and high frequency for a1X:
Ulitiatioll are-all included. Pulsing is used for most mecha-
l).ized'Welding procedur '5.
GMAW welding process.These are large machines that fit
around the circumference of the pipe and will make gas
metal arc welds in the field, on lay barges, or in the shop
Different types are available that use different weld joint
details. In some cases, automatic welds are made on the
inside diameter of the pipe as well as the outside diame-
ter.A special joint design is used.The inside welding head
is combined with a lineup clamp and is shown in Figure
25-27.The equipment for the outside weld is also shown.
25-5 AUTOMATED
PIPEWELDING
Efforts to reduce the time of pipe installation have re-
sulted in fully automated pipe welding systems that are
computer driven. Figure 25-28 shows the system for mak-
FIGURE25-16 Semiautomatic welding of power plant
ing all-position GTAWs on small-diameter pipe. The cabi-
piping.
net includes the microprocessor controller; computer '
keyboard and display screen, and a 150-A inverter power
source. This equipment includes a remote teaching pen-
010.4 Austenitic chromium-nickel, stainless steel pip- dant,shown with the automatic head in Figure 25-29.The
ing and tubing welding head on the pipe is shown in Figure 25-30.ThiS
010.6 Gas tungsten arc welding of titanium piping and
head weighs approximately 251b. and will weld pipe sizes
tubing
010.7 Gas shielded arc welding of aluminum and alu- from 1 3/4 to 2 1/2 in. standard wall to the heaviest pipe
minum alloy pipe available.This head has minimum radical clearance so that
010.8 Chromium-molybdenum steel piping and tubing welds can be made when the pipe is separated by only
010.9 Qualification of welding procedures and welding 2 1/2 in..The head hinges in the middle in a clamshell fash-
for piping and tubing
ion. Slip rings are used for welding current, control sig-
010.10 Local heating of welds in piping and tubing
010.11 Root-pass welding without bracing nals, and shielding gas so that cables and hose do not
010.12 Welding low-carbon steel pipe wrap around the pipe during operation. Functional mo-
tors for torch rotation, oscillation, tungsten-to-work dis·
FIGURE25-17 AWS recommended practices for pipe
ranee, and cold wire feeder are all built into the housing
welding.
of the head.
The heart of this automated welding system is the
microprocessor controller. The input is by means of the
For larger-diameter pipe with thicker wall, a dlffer- keyboard, and the readout is on the monitor screen. The
ent type of welding head is used.This type rotates around microprocessor controls all functtons.The heart of the op-
the plpe but is held to the pipe by means of a spllt-rlng or eration is the extremely complex software program, which
cbaitN;irlve assembty (Figure 25-25). Some units have a is user friendly. The initial readout is the mode of operation
low. profile and can weld pipe with minimum clear- and menu (Figure 25-31). The operate r selects the teach
ance. This machine includes a wire feeder and various mode, which is the next display. Specific tnstructions for
collets to weld differ nt sizes Of pipe. It can also be used welding are given. The operator will then key in the weld-
ror w lding pipe when it is in the vertic ~position (Pig- ing parameters as requested and they will appear 011 the
\lt~25 -e 26 . Groove joiats are normally emPlQ,yed. next display, which is the operating mode. This input 1'1'0"
. Similar machrnes have been developed \thatuse a vides Welding parameters for making the weld using a spe-
combination of welding processes. The first pass will use ,mc procedure based on pipe size, wall thickness, joWt
:rJJ\.W and subsequent passes may use the GMAW. details, and pipe analysis.This procedure call be modified
Tol'chcs are changed for making the total weld. This and the procedure call be recorded by means of a hard·
equipment is becoming increasingly popular for welding copy printout at any step. WekJ,ing operators learned to
pr ssure ptptng. Compl x controllers and inverter pow r program this equipment in a 'Very short time.
.sources with CC and CV characteristics are used with . In operation, the head is clamped on the pipe atld,
pulsio.g. ~. lined up with the joint. The root pass does not requite
As mechanized welding machines for welding osctllation: subsequent passes use oscillation. Oscilb1:
l:J,tge~di.aJlleter pil?,~, cross-country pipelines use the tion .i8 programmed, with the exact .dimensions, which
TABLE 25-6 PIPE WELD SCHEDULES
Shielding
111m Amperes DC Details Travel Other jntormatton
GTAW A 1 Te 1.6 35-45 10-12 EN Argon at 12-15 ft3/hr Downhill Use purge gas inside for high
quality ,
PAW Aor D MA 1 None None 60-70 9-10 EP Argon at 12-15 ft3/hr 10 in./min Plasma gas is 95% argon +
5% H2 at 1 ft3/hr
GTAW A or D AU 1 None None 40 10 EN Argon at20 tt3/hr 4i- in.zrnin i1J-in. Tungsten use purge gas
either
OFG B or E MA ~ t 3,2 Product of Combustion 3 in.zrnin Forehand-oxygen and
2 acetylene
'GTAW E MA 1 Use purge gas
No purge gas
GMAW Cor E SA Travel 1 in.lmln.
.Travel 4 in.lmln.
SMAW' C E6010
£6010
SMAW '~,E' £6010
"
E6010
_·c:::C_-_ ,
GTAW '/ Alt. use Insert
'f,MAW' low tlydro-gen
,SMAW' E6010 or 7016
E60109r E1016
, l6$$ passes Ter downhm
Us purge for high qualIty

FIGURE25-20 Orbital head welding tubing.
FIGURE25-18 Double joining pipe by roll welding.
FIGURE25-21 Complete system for welding small-

FI'GURE,25-19 . Roll weldiJigin pipe fabrication shop. diameter tubing, ..' .'
, ,.
~'
(e) SQUARE GROOVE - BUTT JOINT
(b) SOCKET WELD.- BUTT JOINT
FIGURE25-22 Tube-to-tube orbital head for GTAW.
(el U GROOVE WELD - BUTT JOINT
FIGURE25-24 Three weld or joint types.
FIGURE25-23 Clamshell orbital head.
Change for each layer. Dwell time is programmed for

each end of the stroke, and for each layer the speed of
as illation is also programmed and welding current
P\115ingis synchronized with oscillation. When the sec-
ond pass is completed, the programmer automattcally
~al1ges to the third pass wlrhour.sropplng the weld. FIGURE25-25 Mechanized pipe welding head for
elding parameters can be changed ach 101l around heavy·wall pipe. .
thepipe.The welding is uniuterrupted from root to final
pass and provides 100% arc time. When the final pass-is
cQUlpleted, the controller turnS off the machine. Welds
Produced by thts automated system meet the require-
nlents of the most stringent codes. Radiographs are wa-
tel"lear. . the cenrerltne of the weld J0intpri,or tosqjkins.an acc,The .
. The teach.pendant is 'used to input Informs tion to the ~U'C will sense thejoint at each end pfthe o~cillatl.q~ stroke.
llUcroproessor roestabllsh the t tal welding procedure, The ccntrollecwill reverse the s~Qkean(i kp the weld
~c SenSing Is used to control os illation. Th;i.sallows the bead cel1teredQn thcjoint:-rhi~ can be rnodtfiedtqbi$pilt.
ead to mechanicatly oscillate during setup to detertni~e weave technique and can be different for each layer.
FIGURE 25-26 Mechanized pipe welding with
mechanized GMAW equipment.
Practical application in a fabrication shop employs

two heads with one controller power source panel.
While one head is making a weld, the other head is being
FIGURE 25-27 GMAW automatic welding machine for
attached and aligned to another joint.When the first joint
cross-country pipe.
is completed, the controller switches to the second head
and mal es the weld. Meanwhile the first head is re-
moved and attached to a new joint.
This machine can be used for remote welding in
dangerous or radioactive atmospheres. The controllers
can also collect data during welding. This Includes all pa-
rarneters.It can select data when the parameters are out-
side d fined Ilmlts, It can also transfer data .
.Automated welding has been applied to the plasma
arc welding; keyhole mode process for roll welding. In
this case the torch is stationary, but adjustable, while the
pipe joint rotates under the arc.The welding head has au-
tomatic X,Y, and Z adjustments. The angle of the torch is
preset. Tbe microprocessor initiates the plft~maarc and
aU other functiOns, including torch adjustmeht, pipe ro-
tation, an,dgascoverage.Welding parameters. are pro-
grammed to initial the keyhole and to provide filler .
metal.This equipment is designed for high-alloy steel pip-
ing and is normally used with single-pass operation .
.UPQU completioJl of the weld, the computer programs
tl'te·clqsiilg of the keyhole, which involves simultaneous
changing oftQUf variables. Tbis equipment Is-shown in FIGURE 25-29 Automated pipe welding system .
,
.Figure ~5..3~.
,
I
, 1
FIGURE25-29 Automated head and remote pendant.
FIGURE25-32 Roll pipe welding equipment: plasma.
25-6 TUBE TO SHEETWELDING

Mechanized equipment is widely used for welding tubes
to tube sheets or heads. This equipment is popular in the
heat-exchanger industry. A heat exchanger consists of
many tubes between two headers, where the tubes are at-
tached to the headers with perfect, leakproof connec-
FIGURE25-30 Welding head on pipe. tions. A heat exchanger may have hundreds of tube-to-
header joints. Previously, these were me hanically con-
nected or manually welded with GTAW,which was a te-
dious job. The change from manual to machine welding
has improved quality and reduced the cost per weld.(4)
Complete welding systems are available, includlng
the mechanized orbital welding head, the welding power
source, and the ,programmer, which completely mecha-
nize the welding operation ..
.The welding head is a compact, lightweight deVice
that rotates the gas tungsten arc welding torch around
the periphery of the tube to sheet joint. The head In-
eludes a mandrel, which fits inside the tube to be welded
Q
and locates the torch. The head will rotate the tOt h'360
FIGURE25-31 Program menu.

so that rhe hoseandcables do nQt'twt~t.!F.ig1.~
shows this equipment In use welding ij$1liall .be:lt '@
2'...
plus overlap Ineach direction. Slip 1:lngsare incorporated
33
changen'lfus photograph snows the tube sheet ill the ver··
deal position; however, tl;1e~quipnl.ent C,IUl be used if the
tube sheet is horizontal and th weld is flat or even if the
wekifs overhead. , .', .! " ..
Heads' pftl'lis type, cari'~eld tubes

witll,()u'tsickLCtl .. ".. ~
ameter from 3/8 in. (9S~ rom) to 6 in. 150 mm) with a
FLUSH TUBE WELD
FIGURE 25-33 Tube-to-sheet mechanized welding

machine.
EXTENDED TUBE WELD
FIGURE 25-35 Tungsten electrode position for welds.
1
The programmer is the same as used with mecha-
nized tube-to-tube welding heads. It starts the gas pre-
flow, torch rotation, high frequency, and welding current,
which changes during the weld cycle. Pulsing is normally
used for making tube-to-tube sheet welds.The controller
has various delays and ends with postflow of shielding
25-34
FIGUR.E Tube-to-tube sheet welding head. gas.The equipment may also include a weld control pen- ;
dant, which is used when remote welding is required.
The joint detail used for this type of welding is
shown in Figure 25-36. The three most common joint
designs are the extended tube, flush tube, and recessed
tube wall thickness of 0.015 in. (0.4 mm) and larger. With tube. There are variations of each design. Some applica-
the proper attachments the head can also make welds in tions require only a seal bead between the tube and the
the internal surface or bore. These are used for retubing tube sheet. Filler metal is normally added for the e:x:-
heat exchangers. tended tube or the recessed tube joint design. Nuclear
A close-up of the welding head is shown in Fig- specifications require that the weld. metal thickness be
ure 25~34.The headincludes the GTAW torch, rotation equal to the thickness of the tube. The fillet weld design
motor and filler wire, and drive motec The tungsten will not produce the desired cross-section dlmenston
electrode is the 2% thoriared type and 3/32\10. diameter since th throat dimension Is less than the thickness of
is normally us d. Filler metal can be added for' some the tube. The design selected must have sUfficient fiHer
types of joints. When fill r metal is added, the arc length metal so that the weld is stronger through its shortest di·
should be slightly greater than the electrode diameter. menslon than the thickness of the wall of the tube. Joint
'Vhe.n fill rmetal is not added, the arc length is slightly design is based on the specifications involved. The weld· I
less than the electrode diameter. ing procedure shown. is With the tube sheet vertical.
The tungsten electrod position is adjustable and Wltl.l the tube sheet flat.higher currents can be used.AnY
critical fot. tube-to-header welds. Figure 25-35 sh.QWS metal welded by the gas tungstenarc process can. be
the elect.rode POSition. f01' the most common joint welded with mechanized GTAW tube-to-tube sheet weld-
.<.1 signs. ing heads .
~~6=6=~~A. Extended Tube
Tube Wall
B. Flush Tube
Joint Weld
C. RecessedTube
Filler Rod Weld

Thickness Type Current Type Time
0.0.
(Amperes) (sec)
in. I mm in. I mm
Stainl~Sssteel tube.to.stai~less steel tube sheet
19.1 0.062 1.6 A 140 E304 18

0.75
0.080 2.0 A 130 None 18

0.75 19.1
19.1 0.090 2.3 A 140 E304 31

0.75
Mild steel to mild steel
19.1 0.062 1.6 B 140 E705-3 28

0.75
25 0.125 3.2 B 140 E705-3 184

1.00
1.00 25" 0.125 3.2 C 180 E705-3 49
2.50 62 0.187 4.7 B 175 E705-3 245
Stainless steel to mild steel
0.62 15.7 0.062 1.6 A 120 E309 14
1.00 25 0.083 2.1 A 155 E309 40

..
-
~~,
CUNi-ICUNi
0.75 19.1 0.062 1.6 A 160 ERCuNi 28
I
cUNi1miid steel
0.75 19.1 0.062 1.6 A 160 ERNiCrFe-6 28
I
cu-mfld steel
0.62 15.7 0.025 0.6 A 140 ERCuSi-A 16
"2 passes
FIGURE25-36 Tube-to-tube sheet welding schedule.
QUESTIONS )i r ,-_~IP ~ _.
25-l. 25-8. Why are different. pip weld joint designs used]
What are the seven different classifications of pipe
Wh re is ach used?
and tubing?
25-2. 25·9. Explain the difference betweeninternal and este 'Il~l
What schedul number pertains to standard wall pipe?
lineup c;:la11lps,What.determines the typ~,tobe,uscd?
25-3. Briefly describe a. continuous pipe mtll.
25-10. 'ExpJ«in the differenc¢ between uphill and downhlll
25-4. What arc welding process is used to make spiral
pipe welding.
joint pipe?
25·11. What type of covered electrod wid iy used on '
What percentage of steel produced is made into tu-
ross-country pipe w Jdh)g?
bular products?
25·12. What is stov pip .welding?
25-6. What code applies to most high-pressure pipe weld-
25·13· Whatls doublejoiilting? ",
iAg?Cross-country pipe?
25-14. .,Wllfltis th . "dlffer ilc 'b<,tweel1 1'b!Iwelditig t~'d
Can more than one welding process be usedto make
flxed.position welding?
a pipe weld? Explain.
25-15. Can submerged arc welding be used for fixed- 25-18. Can gas metal arc welding be used on pipelines?
position welding? For roll welding? 25-19. What is the advantage of mechanized orbital welding
25-16. Are low-hydrogen welding electrodes used for pres- of tubes?
sure piping? 25-20. What are the three joint types for tube-to-tube sheet
25-17. What is the advantage of consumable inserts for pipe welds?
welding?
REFERENCES
1. H. E. McGannon, ed., "The Making, Shaping and Treating 3. "Standard for Welding Pipe Lines and Related Facilities,"
of Steel."(pittsburgh, Pa. :Association of Iron and Steel En- API Standard l104,American Petroleum Institute,Wash·
gineers,1995). ington, D.C.
2. "Power Piping," ASME Code for Pressure Piping B31, 4. W. Hebert, "Mechanized 1\tbe Welding Speeds Heat Ex-
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York. changer Fabrication," Welding Journal (May 1986).
66.4· CHAPTER 25
OUTLINE the two parts are held tightly together. The heat of the
26-1 . Arc Spot Welding arc melts the surface of the top member, and the depth
26-2 Sheet Metalwel(ling of melting is dependent on the welding process, the
26-3 Qne-Sid_eWei~tng electrode size and type, the welding current and the
26-4 time, and, in the case of gas metal arc welding, the shield-
Narrow Gap Welding
ing gas employed. Timing is done automatically by
26 .., Underwater Welding
means of a timer. With the exception of the timer and
26-6 Wi ldingtn Space special electrode holder or gun, the process uses the
26...7 Microjoining same equipment that is normally used for that
process.
Arc spot welding offers many metal jotnlng advan-
tages. One advantage is that it can be used without ma-
26 .., ARC SPOT WELDING nipulative skills. The training required to make arc spot
An arc Spot weld is a spot weld made by an arc welding welds is .01.i1101'. In addition, the welder making arc spot
process. A spot weld is a weld made between or upon welds need notuse a welding helmet because the arc is
Overlapping members in which coalescence may start contained within a gun nozzle. Arc spot welding is ex-
anet Occur on the faying surfaces or may proceed from the tremely fast, can be used for a varietyof joining require-
OUtersurface of one member. The weld cross section is ments, and can be fully automated.
approximately circular. Figure 26-1 shows the different Ar'C spot welds can be made in: the flat position and
arc Spot welds, An arc spot weld differs from a resistance in the horizontal position, but ate almost Imposaible to
SPOtweld since in resistance welding coalescence is lo- make in the overhead posltton. The reaS011 is that the
cated at the faying surfaces of the parts being joined, (l) member closest to the welding gun must melt completely
'fhe arc spot weld does not require a hole in either mem- through and results in nfairly large 1ID\SS of molten metal
~er, It differs from the plug weld, which requires a hole to that falls away from the weld.
e prepHred for the weld. The metals normally welded with arc spot welding
Arc spot welding is performed by melting through are the mlld, low-alloy; and talnless steels, With special.
::lC. t.op member. The thickness of this member is ~he precautions other metals can be welded.Alumtnum can
Ul1ttng facto!, which also depends on the welding be are spot-welded lf a clean interface Qctweentbe:partS·
process used, to be joined is matntained, .,'
. Th .. gas tungsten arc and the gas metal arc welding The thtckness range of metals that Co. t;l be wclde(i
process are most commonly employed for making arc by the different arc processes is shown In. the selu eluleS
SPOtWelds. Flux-cored arc welding, shielded metal arc for GTAWand GMAWwelding. This involves~h tW k; ,
'VelA!. ness of the tOP member that must b melted through,the
C\.lUlg using covered electrodes, and the plasma arc pro-
ess .an also be used. . . thiclroe,~s' of th other ·';rtember JS l1Ot, ,im.PQrtwt: lAp',.:
. "The principal operation of arc spot welding ts to' joints are th~ most COn'lllu)tJ;·types ofjOiUts;u;sed.f6r ~t~.
stl'lk a!'ld hold an arc without. travel at a point whet spot welding; however; T-joints .analso, . h mal. .,
Material Mild Stoel Mild Steel Mild Steel Stainless Aluminum
Thickness 20 ga (0.0359 in.) 11 ga (0.1196 in.) 3/16 in. 22 ga (0.0299 in.) 11 ga (0.0907 in.)
Process GMAW (CO2) GMAW (CO2) FCAW (CO2) GTAW (Argon) GMAW (Argon)
Electrode
0.035 in.-.9 mm 1/16 in.-1.6 mm 7/64 in.-2.8 mm 3/64 in.-1.2 mm
size
Electrode
E70S-3 E70S-3 E70T -1 5356
type
Top
side
Bottom
side
Cross
section
FIGURE 26-1 Spot welds: top, bottom, and cross section.
tungsten arc spot welding is shown in Figure 26-2. The

gun nozzle is made of copper or stainless steel and is nor-
mally water cooled since the arc is contained entirely
within the nozzle.The nozzle design controls the distance
between the tungsten electrode and the surface of the
work; it should have ports for the shielding gas to escape.
The inside diameter should be related to the size of the
tungsten electrode being used. The O.500-in. (12-mm) in-
side diameter is most common. The nozzles can also be
designed to help locate the arc spot weld, especially with
respect to corners or edges of the top sheet. Arc spot
welding equipment can be used to make tack welds at in-
side or outside corner joints. The gas tungsten arc spot
gun includes a trigger switch that will actuate the arc spot
FIGURE 26-2 Making a GTAWspot weld. operation.
A timer on troller is required. Some gas tungsten
arc power sources include timers. However, a separate
timer can be used, provided that the power source in-
Gas.Tungsten Arc Spot Welding. cludes a'contactor.The timer should have the capabiltry
Arc spot welding with GTAW is an extrem~lY efficient of being adjusted from 0.5 second up to 5·seconds.
and simple way to make weld joints. The process is lim- The tungsten electrode type would be the same as
Ired to a maximum thlckness of 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) of the used for the material to be welded. The 1/8 -In. (3.2-nun)
sheet closest to the arc. Gas tungsten arc welding can be electrode diameter is recommended for all work. The
used for mild steels, low-alley steel ! stainless ste Is, and point of the' 'tungsten should be the standard ground
aluminum alloys. point but then squared off or blunted on the end. ThiS
A tip. cial welding gun, designed for arc spot weld- tends to tmprove the depth of penetration.An ate length
ing, m\lSf be u ed.The nozzle of th gun is used to apply of 1/16 In. (1.6 mm) is recommended.If the arc length is
pressure to hold the parts in close contact. A gun for gas too short, the weld area or spot weld size Will be small,
666 CHAPTER 26
As the arc length increases, the size of this arc spot weld rent and short time cycle rather than lower currents with
W~l be larger. If the arc length is too long, an unstable arc longer time period. The amount of current increases the
will result and there will be a lack of uniformity. size of the nuggets and the thickness of the materials that
The normal sequence of events is: The nozzle of the can be welded. Nugget diameter affects strength. The
g~n is placed on the joint and sufficient pressure is ap- time factor tends to increase penetration but to a much
phed to bring the parts in intimate contact.The trigger is lesser degree than the current. If too much current is
depressed, which starts the welding cycle. Gas flow is ini- used, it can cause splashing. This splashing of the molten
tiated to purge the area within the gun nozzle. If water metal from the top member may contaminate the tung-
COoling is employed, the cooling water will also start to sten and will result in an unsatisfactory weld. If the cur-
flow. The arc will be initiated by the high-frequency current is too low, the nugget may not penetrate completely
rent supplied by the power source.The arc will continue through the top sheet to the bottom sheet.
for the period of time established and will be extin- The shielding gas will be either argon or helium
guished as the contactor opens. The shielding gas will with a flow rate of from 6 to 10 ft3jhr. (2.5 to 4.5 liters/
Continue to flow for a predetermined post-flow time.This min.). Helium will provide a smaller weld nugget with a
completes the cycle. greater depth of penetration. Argon produces a larger
Normally, the thinnest metals joined are 24 gauge, weld nugget with penetration not quite so deep.
which is 0.022 in. (0.56 rom). If both top and bottom Direct current should be used for all materials,
Sheets are of the same thickness, it is best to use a copper except aluminum, with the electrode negative (straight
backup to prevent the weld from falling through the joint polarity). Alternating current with continuous high fre-
and having a depression on the top and excessive pene- quency should be employed on aluminum. If aluminum is
tration on the bottom. A schedule for gas tungsten arc well cleaned, the electrode negative (straight polarity)
Welding is shown in Table 26-1. It is best to use high cur- can be used. Parts to be welded should be clean of oil,
TABLE26-1 SCHEDULE OF ARC SPOT WELDS USING GTAW
,
Material Type Gauge In,
0.64 125 175 1.0 10 4.5
Stainless steel 24 0.025
0.64 110 175 1.25 10 4.5
24 0.025
0.64 100 150 1.5 10 4.5
24 0.025
0.79 125 175 1.5 10 4.5
22 0.031
0.031 0.79 100 175 1.75 10 4.5
22
IS 0.050 1.27 140 200 1.5 12 5.6
18 0.050 1.27 110 150 2.5 12 5.6
16 0.062 1.57 170 250 3.0 12 5.6
16 0.062 1.57 140 3.25 12 5:6
0.062 1.57 115 5.25 12 5.6
16
0.064 1.62 160 250 2.25 12 5.6
Mild steel 22 d.031 0·79 170 250 1.5 8 3.6
0.79 140 200 2.0 8 3.6 '
22 0.031
0.79 120 175 2.25 8 3,6
22 0.031
0.050 1.27 170 250 1.75 10 4.5
18
1.27 140 200 2.0 10 4.5
18 0.050
18 0.050 1.27 135 200 2.5 10 4.6
0.062 1.57 170 250 3:0 12 ·5.6:
16
1.57 155 225 3.2 12 6.6:
16 0.062
Aluminum 0.022 . 0.56 170 1.1 8 ' '3.6
0.032 0.81 200 15 8 3.6
0.048 1.21 220 1.7 a 3.6
-:-- 0.064 1.63 - 2.50 2,2 8 3:6
Notes: 1. T~e electrode is 2% thorlated tungsten, except for alumInum. Pure tungsten ~lectrodel;! are used, i in. 1~ ~"lalmiter...
2. High-frequency is used to start the arc when using PC and AC.·
3. Arc-length electrode to
work ;\ in. .
dirt, grease, and scale. This is especially true at the inter-
face and absolutely necessary when welding aluminum.
The weld diameter is the basis for the shear strength of
arc spot welds. The shear strength will be similar to re-
sistance spot welds made in the same material.
Gas tungsten arc spot welding is widely used in the
manufacture of automotive parts, appliances, precision
metal parts, and parts for electronic components. It is
normally applied as a semiautomatic process; however, it
can be mechanized and used for high-volume produc-
tion work.
Gas Metal and Flux-Cored

Arc Spot Welding
The gas metal arc and flux-cored arc welding processes
can both be used for making arc spot welds. The equip-
ment used is identical. The difference is in the electrode FIGURE 26-3 Making a GMAW or FCAW spot weld.
wire employed.
The arc welding equipment used for normal semi-
automatic welding can be used for gas metal and flux- all the weld thicknesses shown.The larger-diameter wires
cored arc spot welding by the addition of a timer and a provide higher strength per arc spot weld, since they pro-
special torch nozzle. Time range for the timer should be duce larger nuggets at the interface.
the same as used for gas tungsten arc spot welding. The When welding thin materials, a backup bar should
nozzle and torch should be sufficiently strong so that they be used behind the second sheet. It is also possible to
can transmit the force to hold the parts together in inti- make arc spot welds through more than two sheets, pro-
mate contact. vided that the combined thickness of the top two sheets
The sequence of events to produce an arc spot is within the range of the welding schedule. Intimate con-
weld is almost the same as used for gas tungsten arc weld- tact is required. The same equipment with timers can be
ing. The only difference is that when the arc starts, the used for tack welds and for plug welds when the top
wire feeder will feed electrode wire into the arc. sheet is too thick.
The gas meta] and flux-cored arc processes can The advantages of arc spot welds over resistance
weld greater thicknesses of metal than gas tungsten arc spot welds are as follows:
spot welding. With proper conditions, welds can be rou- 1. Access is required to the top or front side of the joint.
tinely made through the top plate of 114 in. (6.4 mm)
2. The amount of pressure is not excessive, assuming
thickness. At the other en.d of the scale, welds can be
that the parts are fitted properly.
made in 24-gauge material 0.022 in. (0.56 mm) thick.
Welding is done primarily on the mild steels and low-alloy 3. Operator skill is minimum, and a welder's helmet is
steels. Figure 26-3 shows an arc spot weld being made.
CO2 shielding gas is normally used. Carbon dioxide
is selected since it has the highest penetrating qualities of
not required.
4. The consistency
welds are excellent.
and reproducibility of arc spot I
'
any shielding gas. If high penetration is not required, the 5. The amount of weld spatter, smoke, and flash is min-
75% argon-25% CO2 mixture can be used. imal, and metal finishing can be eliminated for many
"file size and type of electrode wire have a large ef· products.
feet on the depth of penetration and on the diameter of the 6. Distortion is minimal.
weld nugget at the interface. For maxim~ strength it is 7. Close cost control is obtained using arc spot welding.
desirable. to have a large nugget at the il1terfa~e. The elec-
8. It is readily adaptable to designs originally used for
trode wire should be a deoxidized type; normally, the
bolting or riveting.
E705 ..4 or 5 electrede wire is used With solid wires or the
E70'I~1 electrode wire is used for the flux-cored arc weld- Arc Spot welding is being used in automobile body
Ing process. assemblies, the attachment of brackets to body ass mbUes,
The w ld schedule for making GMAW and FCAW frame assemblies, the assembly of industrial products, the
arc spot welds is shown in Tnble 26-2.The electrode wire . assembly of lattice structural beams, and innumerable
changes from. a small diameter of O,Q30·in. (0 .8~mm) solid other applications. The strengthsal'e in the sante relation-
.wire up through 1I16in. (1.6-tnm) solid wire a.nd to 3/32· ship as resistance spot welds on the same materials in the
in. (2.4~ri:Ull}(Hamete.rflux-cored wire to accommodate same thlcl neeses,
...,
668 '. CHAPTER 26
TABLE26-2 SCHEDULE OF ARC SPOT WELDS USING FCAW OR GMAW
E,1ectrode . Wire Oonsumed

Wire' Plameter . Arc Arc Spot per Spot
Electrode' Current Voltage lime
in, mm Type (A OC) (EP V) (seconds) In. lb. kg
0.022 0.030 24 1'.0 41 115 625 283.60
0.032 0.030 27 1.2 5 1~5 730 331.13
,0.037 0.030 27 1.2 10k 253 1,337 606.46
0.032 0.035 26 1.0 6 150 800 362.88
0.037 0.036 26 1.0 6 150 1,147 520.33
0.033 0.035 27 1.0 8i 212 1,507 683.58
0.069 0.0$5 28 2.0 17* 431 . 1,434 641.46
6.072 '0.035 28 5.0 4m 1,006 2,600 1.179.96
O.03Q 0.0415 27 0~7 4 100 1,4.14 641.39
0.059 0.045 29 1.0 6 150 2.070 938.95
0,Oi2 .0.045 30 1.5 12. 319 3,224 1,462.4l
'0,110 0,045 SO 3.5 28; 712 41300 1,950.48
O~:t.24;·. ,0.046: 30 4.2 3A. 850 4,114 1,866.1:1
.' ,
·1.0 2i ··69. 1,654 750.2:>
··:O;95~. '>"nf 29
3,;340 l,5Ut02
,0.072, ' 31 1.0 5f 137
~.
.'\ 5,000 2.268.00
o.i 10. .jl. 32 .0 7t 181
i l\. 32 1.0 m 212 5.634 2.556.5.8
9 225 5,441 2.460.76
I·... . -'32., 1.5
6)834 3,179,90
'"
32 \ . 2.0 lGi 419
$4 ' t 3.5 281 1&3 8,661 4;721~3S
30 0,6 "li' a4 2}5'50 ,Ll66.68 .
34 0.8 3 "76 .3f~OO 1.442,24
38 1.6 8t '201;) 7,050 a.1 7,88
40 2.2 6t a94 10,300 rzes
steel applications and for joining copper alloys. The sin-
gle carbon arc method and the gas torch method are both
One variation would be more accurately described as a used but are losing popularity.
plug weld. It is used to join dissimilar metals. It has been The problem of burn-through occurs with all of the
used for joining aluminum to copper and galvanized steel processes, and steps to avoid burn-through include the
to aluminum. Aluminum filler wire is used with inert gas use of close-tolerance cutting to provide tight, even firup
through a hole in the copper or galvanized part. Copper between parts. The preparation of sheet metal for weld-
terminals can be joined to aluminum cables, and galva- ing is normally by shearing, which produces straight
nized steel brackets can be joined to aluminum pans.F' In edges that can easily be aligned properly. A backup bar of
plug welding it is important to establish the arc on the copper and the ample use of clamps to hold the sheet
bottom piece for a good-quality weld. metal in alignment and against the backing bar will aid in
Another variation of arc spot welding is done with making good-quality weld joints. The travel speed should
the shielded metal arc welding process using covered be as high as possible; this is a matter of welder skill and
electrodes. Special spot welding guns or holders are used. practice.The welder should try to travel at a uniform high
Small-diameter electrodes are used. The special holder speed but must be able to follow the joint accurately.
causes the arc to strike and holds a short arc for several Fitup and distortion are closely related since distor-
seconds without manual assistance. An arc shield sur- tion ahead of the arc will cause the fitup to vary and cause
rounds the arc area, and a welding helmet is not required. burn-through. A large number of small tack welds should
This process variation will weld through 16-gauge steel in be used. They should be relatively short but closely
the flat, horizontal, and vertical positions. It is used in auto spaced.This will help maintain tight fitup and will reduce
body repair shops. weld distortion. It is also helpful to use the push-travel an-
gle. Another assist is to make the weld in a downhill posi-
tion. If the work can be tilted so that welding can be done
downhill, approximately 45°, a flatter bead will result,
26-2 SHEETMETAL WELDING travel speed will be higher, and distortion will be reduced.
Sheet metal is metal with a thickness of 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) When using the gas metal arc welding process, the
or less. This means that it has a gauge number of 11 and argon-Co, mixture (75% argon and 25% C00 helps im-
higher, the higher numbers indicating thinner thicknesses prove the welding operation because it tends to reduce
of metal. The thickness and gauge number relationship is penetration into the joint, reduces the spatter level, and
shown in Table 26-3. Welding can be performed on the produces a smoother weld bead. The fine wire variation
thinnest metal produced, but special fixturing and auto- can be used at extremely low currents and should match
marie travel are required. Under normal conditions using the thickness of the metal. FCA W with very small elec-
a manual or semiautomatic process, sheet metal approxi- trode wire can be used on the heavier gauges.
mately 0.035 in. (0.9 mm) in thickness or roughly 20 When using the shielded metal arc welding process,
gauge can be welded. use the smallest size electrodes possible.This is the 3/32-in.
Thin sheets of stainless steels, aluminum alloys, and diameter size or, for heavier sheet metal, the liS-in. diame-
nickel alloys are also welded. The processes most com- ter size. EitherAC or DC can be used; however, this will dic-
monly used are gas metal arc welding for thin sections tate the electrode type that should be selected. If AC it
and gas tungsten arc and plasma arc welding for the equipment is available, the E6013 electrodes should be
thinnest metals. used. AC is preferred over the direct current for welding
There are two major problems involved with weld- thinner sheet metal. If DC equipment is to be used, the se-
ing sheet metal: (1) minimizing the distortion and (2) lection would be E6012 electrodes. When using the elec-
avoiding burn-through. trode negative (straight polarity), penetration is reduced
The problems of burn-through and distortion can and the metal transfer is more of a spray type.A short arc
be minimized by the use of tight fitup, clamping, fixtures, length should be used, with the arc length equal to the core .
and backup. bars.,.These are all recommended.for produ. c- wire. diameter. The pull travel angle is preferred, and the
tton welding; however, for maintenance and re\>air weld- weld joint should be positioned at approximately 45'1 so
ins accuratefitup, clamping, and the use of backup bars that the welding can be done in the downhill direction. '
may not be possible. When plasma arc welding or gas tungsten arc weld-
Th GMAW process, using the short-circuiting arc ing is employed, use high current and maximum travel
transfer, is the 1110St suitable, This process has replaced speed. The gas tungsten arc process has the slowest travel
shielded metal arc welding for almost all sh et metal ap- speed of the arc processes, which tends to increase diS-
pltcauons.Tbematn reason is its ability to operate at a tortion, The plasma proc 58 can be used at abigher
W,i.dt!range of current levels. Its relatively high-speed speed.which will reduce distortion.
tra,vel, which balances the heatbuildup problem, greatly When using the oxymel gas welding process, the
reduces weld dtstortton, Brazing is used for galvanized forehand technique Q1' forward pushing travel angle should
.J ..
TABLE 26-3 SHEETMETALGAUGES
Steel Strip and
Aluminum Sheets Tubing and
Mfrs. Copper Nearest . Stress
and Brass
Std.a Birmingham Metric Wire
Gauge Brown and
Sharp (in.) (ln.) or Stubs (in.) Thicknessb Gauge"
Number
0.4615
6/05 0.5800
0.500 0.4305
5/05 0.5165
0.454 0.3938
4/05 0.4600
0.425 0.3625
4/05 0.4096
0.380 10.0 0.3310
3/05 0.3648
0.340 9.0 0.3065
2/05 0.3249
0.300 8.0 0.2830
1 0.2893
0.284 7.0 0.2625
2 0.2576
0.2391 0.259 6.0 0.2437
3 0.2294
0.2043 0.2242 0.238 5.5 0.2253
4
0.1819 0.2092 0.220 5.0 0.2070
5
0.1620 0.1943 0.203 4.8 0.1920
6
0.1443 0.1793 0.180 4.5 0.1770
7
0.1285 0.1644 0.165 4.2 0.1620
8
0.1144 0.1495 0.148 3.8 0.1483
9
0.1019 0.1345 0.134 3.5 0.1350
10
0.0907 0.1196 0.120 3.0 0.1205
11
0.0808 0.1046 0.109 2.8 0.1055
12
0.0720 0.0897 0.095 2.2 0.0915
13
0.0641 0.0747 0.083 2.0 0.0800
14
0.0571 0.0673 0.072 1.8 0.0720
15
0.0508 0.0598 0.065 1.6 0,0625
16
0.0453 0.0538 0.058 1.4 0.0540
17
0.0478 0.049 1.2 0.0475
18 0.0403
0.0418 0.042 1.1 0.0410
19 0.0359
0.0320 0.0359 0.035 1.0 0.0348
20
0.0285 0.0329 0.032 0.090 0.0317
21
0.0299 0.028 0.080 ,0.0286
22 0.0253
0.0226 0.0269 0.025 0.070 0.0258
23
0.0201 0.0239 0.022 0.060 0,0230
24
0.0179 0.0209 0.020 0.055 0.0204
25
0.0159 0.0179 0.018 0.045 0.0181
26
0.0142 0.0164 0.016 0.040 0.0173
27
0.0126 0.0149 0.014 0.035 0.0162
28
0.0113 0.0135 0,013 .0.0150
29
0.0100 0.0120 0.012 0.0140
30
0.0089 0.0105 0.010 0.0132
31
0.0097 0.009 0,0128
32 0.0080
0.0071 0.0090 0.008 0.0118
33
0.0063 0.0082 0.007 0.0104
34
0.0056 0.0075 0.005 0.OO9~
35
0.0067 0.004 0.0090 .
36 0.0050
0.0064 0.0085
37 0.0045
0.0060 0.0080
38 0.0040
8Replaces U.S. standard (revised) gauge.
bANSI 63Z.3. '
,CReplaceswashb\Jrn and Moen gauge..
\
TABLE 26-4 SHEETMETAl.WELDINGSCHEDULES
Filler Rod or
Electrode
Sheet Metal Gauge" Diameter Shielding Travel Speed
Gas and
Process Gauge in. mm in. mm Volt A DC Flow in.lmin. mm/rnin.
PAW 25 0.020 0.5 18 12 20 21 533

20 0.303 0.8 18 34 20 17 432
16 0.062 1.6 20 65 20 14 355
12 in. 0.093 2.4 17 85 20 16 406
i in. 0.125 3.2 18 100 20 16 406
GTAW 20 0.032 0.8 fa 1.6 11 75-100 10 13 330
18 0.040 1.0 fa 1.6 12 90-120 10 15 380
16 0.063 1.6 -rn
1
1.6 11 95-135 10 15 380
~ in. 0.094 2.4 3
n 2.4 12 135-175 10 14 355
tin. 0.125 3.2 t 3.2 12 145-205 12 11 280
GMAW 24 0.025 0.6 0.030 0.8 16 30-50 20 16 406
22 0.031 0.8 0.030 0.8 16 40-60 20 19 482
20 0.037 0.9 0.035 0.9 17 55-85 20 37 940
18 0.050 1.3 0.035 0.9 18 70-100 20 37 940
16 0.063 1.6 0.035 0.9 18 80-110 20 32 813
14 in. 0.078 1.9 0.035 0.9 19 100-130 20 27 686
i in. 0.125 3.2 0.035 0.9 20 120-160 20 20 508
SMAW 24 0.025 0.1 12 2.4 25 40 20 508
3
22 0.031 0.8 n 2.4 25 40 21 533
20 0.038 0.9 ~ 2.4 25 50 28 711
18 0.050 1.3 ~ 2.4 27 65 30 762
16 0.063 1.6 ~ 2.4 27 75 30 762
14 in. 0.078 1.9 ~ 2.4 28 100 35 889
tin. 0.125 3.2 t 3.2 26 120 40 1,016
CAWb 24 0.025 0.1 '1\ 4.8 18 25 8 203
22 0.031 0.8 fa 4.8 18 35 8 203
20 0.038 0.9 fa 4.8 18 45 10 255
18 0.050 1.3 fa 4.8 19 50 10 255
16 0.062 1.6 '1\ 4.8 20 50 12 305
f4 in. 0.078 1.9 1 6.4 20 80 13 330
tin. 0.125 3.2 t 6.4 19 95 15 380
aparameters are suitable for square-groove butt or for fillet welds.
PBronzecold wire [i in. (3.2 mm)] used with carbon arc welding.
be used.When using the single carbon arc process and a weld from one side of the joint that achieves a 100% ef
bronze rod, the arc is played on the rod and allowed to ficiency and produces a back side of the joint that is ac-
m it onto the sheet metal [olnt.This reduces heat into the ceptable from an appearance and quality viewpoint.
joint, reduces distortion, and allows f01"~~id travel All welds made on medium- and small-diameter
- speed. The electrode or filler rod must be sO}ected to pipe and tubes are one-side welds, since the back side of
match the base metal. Procedure information using these the weld is inaccessible. During the early days of sub-
. processes is given in Table 26-4. . merged arc welding 1 techniques for backing the joint
with flux were developed that produced welds made en- .
tirely from the top side of the joint.
In the shipbuilding iildustry,it is customary to handle
26 ..3 ONE..SIDE WELDING very large welded subassemblies. 'Previously, automatic
"The term one·si(le welding is not newbut it has been' welding was don by a pass from each side of me joint.This
. ;'
popularized and gfven a high degree of importance in the required the assemblies to be turned over to complete the
shlpyards, One-side-welding is the production of a. butt weld. Turning large assemblies involved extremely hea-v)'
~
f'
- CHAPTER 26
work on nonferrous metals using gas metal arc welding,
capacity overhead cranes with sufficient height. Heavy-
backing gas is introduced into the recessed groove.
capacity cranes and high bays in buildings are extremely
Both of these methods have proven highly success-
expensive. The elimination of the turning-over operation
ful for thinner materials or for relatively short welds. For
represented a substantial cost savings when building ships.
heavier plates or for long joints, neither of these methods
One-side welding C,Ul be divided into two different
are entirely satisfactory. A development combining the
methods of operation. The first method uses a weld-
advantages of both while eliminating their disadvantages
backing apparatus. Flat plates are set on this apparatus
is known as flux-copper backing method, abbreviated
and long straight joints are automatically welded in the
FCB (Figure 26-6). This backing method uses a layer of
flat position. The second method uses portable backing
granulated flux of consistent thickness in contact with
materials that are taken to and applied to the back side of
the underside of both workpieces and in contact with the
the weld joint, wherever it is Iocared.r"
upper side of a copper backing bar. The copper backing
With one-side welding it is difficult to obtain a 100%
bar helps control the uniform size of the reinforcement
jOint efficiency over the entire length of the joint. Welds
bead. The Japanese word uranami describes the root
made from both sides usually have an overlap of penetra-
bead viewed from the back side of the joint. The width of
~ion.The extent of this overlap is not important as long as
the flux layer is approximately 4 in. (100 mm), which will
It occurs.The problem of joining large assemblies is com-
accommodate variation of the joint.The copper bar is ap-
plicated by the material preparation tolerances.The align-
proximately 1/2 in. (12.5 mm) thick and 5 in. (125 mm)
ment and flatness and warpage inherent in any welding
operation create fitup problems of large subassemblies. wide and as long as the joint. The thickness of the back-
ing flux is about 1/4 in. (6 111111). The backing flux is nor-
The variations of fitup rapidly change the penetration of
the weld and the reinforcement on the back side of the mally the same as the welding flux. Special backing flux
may be used.The back pressure keeps the flux in intimate
Weld joinr.
Another problem of welding large structures is the contact with the parts being welded.
Straightness or fairness of the parts at the joint. Misalign- There are variations to all three of these methods.
~ent is common and complicates the problem of weld- For example, with the FB method, sometimes the flux is
Ing. These problems can be elimlnated with one-side encased in a paper container, which is burned during the
welding operation. This makes fltup quicker. In the case
welding.
One method of making one-side welds was devel- of the CB method, different kinds of coatings are placed
oped during the early use of submerged arc welding. This on the copper bar. Some users place fiberglass tape or
other inorganic fibers on the copper bar to maintain pres-
method used submerged arc flux on the underside of the
'Weld joint. The flux was brought into intimate contact sure against the back side of the weld. In the FCB method,
with the back of the joint by means of air pressure in a different systems are used to keep the backing against the
~ose. This system has been called the BF method, which work and different types of flux are used.
lndicates flux backing (Figure 26-4).
Another method used in seam welding machines is
known as the copper backing method, indicated by the FIGURE 26-5 Copper b?lcking,(CB) method.
letters CB (Figure 26-5). The copper backing method
llses heavy copper bars brought into intimate contact
'With the back side .of the weld joint. often a recessed
~roove is placed in the copper bar immediately below the
'Weld joint to allow for root penetration. For heavy-duty
'welding the copper bar is water cooled. For high·quality
FIGURE26-4 Backing flux (SF) method.

FIGURE 26-6 Flux-copper backing(FCB} method .
• WEl.DING FLUX
BACKING FI.UX "fa" METHOD

An improvement of the FB method uses special the parts. The flux will help form the backing bead. Tape
backing flux, called RF for refractory flux. This flux helps is being used with the consumable electrode arc welding
to form a uniform backing or uranami bead.The flux con- process. When using submerged arc welding, sufficient
tains phenol resin binders, which undergo thermal hard- root face must be provided so that the welding arc does
ening from the heat of the arc. not come in contact with the backing flux in the tape.
The second type of one-side welding uses portable Figure 26-9 shows this tape with the flux. Figure 26-10
backing material applied to the back side of the joint. shows the tape in use joining cylindrical members. The
The portable system uses short lengths of assemblies tape is on the outside of the structure, which is the root
containing the backing materials. One of these, known side of the joint (Figure 26-11).The weld is made from in-. I
as the KL method, is shown in Figure 26-7. This backing side with a mechanized submerged arc welding head. f
assembly is approximately 2 ft. long. The top layer of This tape is helpful for welding vertical joints using I,•
flux is the beadforming type; underneath is a refractory the gas metal arc process.The tape eliminates the draft of
material. Both are enclosed in a thin sheet metal trough.
This steel trough is sufficiently flexible so that it can be
air blowing through the root opening, which reduces the
efficiency of the shielding gas.
I
formed to fit the changing contour of a ship hull. Another portable backing method uses short ce-
Another portable method uses the FABbacking as- ramic tiles (approximately 2 inch long) against the l'
sembly (Figure 26-8). This assembly is composed of sev- backside of the joint. This is known as ceramic weld
eral layers of fiberglass tape; under this is a layer of backing (KATBAK).The tiles do not melt under the heat
insulating material, and below this is a corrugated card- of the arc. The tiles are available with different cross-
board pad.This entire assembly is enclosed in a cardboard sectional profiles, with a groove allowing penetration of
container. Double-coated adhesive tape is used to keep the the root to provide a uranami bead. The tiles are at-
backing assembly in intimate contact with the underside tached to an adhesive-coated flexible aluminum tape,
of the weld joint. This assembly is relatively flexible and shown in Figure 26-12.The pressure-sensitive adhesive
can be formed to the contour of the part being welded. is heat resistant and allows the backing material to be at-
There are several other configurations of portable tached to the joint in any position. Semiautomatic gas
backing devices. One of particular interest is known as a metal arc welding with solid or cored wires can be used.
CRB method, for coated rod backing. It is similar to a
large covered electrode except that the flux covering on
the rod does not melt. When the root opening is exces- FIGURE 26-9 Backing tape with flux.
sive, two rods may be used. Magnetic clamps are used to
hold the backing assembly in place.
A popular portable backing system uses an adhe-
sive tape that carries a layer of backing flux along with
several layers of aluminum foil.This backing tape can be
placed against the backside of the joint and will adhere to
FIGURE 26-7 Portable (KL) backing method.

BACKING FLI,JX
THIN GAUGE
STeEL
"KL." BACKING PORTABLE METHOD
: Q (>
FI~lJRE26-a Portable flexible (FAB) backing\method.

00U81..E COATED ADHESIVE TAPE GLASS TAPE
SOLIDIFIED
BACKING F!.:UX
Fl.EX,'a~~"FAa" BACKING PORTABLE METHOD

FIGURE26-11 Making the submerged arc weld.
FIGURE26-10 Backing tape in use, back side.
26-4 NARROW GAP WELDING

Narrow gap welding (NGW) , officially called narrow
groove welding, is a term applied to arc welds made in
thick materials using a square-groove weld joint or a V-
groove weld joint with a groove angle of not over 10° and
a root opening or gap between the parts 1/4 in. (6.4 nun)
to 3/8 in. (9.5 nun) wide.(4) Narrow gap weldlnghas been
USed on material from 2 in. (50 mm) thick up through 12
!n. (300 mm) thlck, A backing system o.r a V-groove design
is required at the root,
for economic reasons, international attention is be-
ing directed toward narrow gap welding. Heavier plates
FIGURt26-12 ,Backing tape in US~l b~ck side ..
ate being used for pressure vessels, nuclear reactors, pen
'stocks, and ship decking. As the thickness increases, the
amount of weld metal in the joint increases at a much
greater rate. Figure 26-13 shows the cross-sectional area biting the pipe in the 5 G pOSitio~.The cross-section \riW
of narrow gap square-groove design versus the smgle-v- of a narrow gap weld is shown in Figur 26 ...1 .,' "
The conorni advantage.is obtain d when welding
Sl'oovedesign with an-Included groove' angle of 30°, 4S '"
I
Or 60° .The narrow gap welding concept can also be used

platethiGknesses- 0,[ ll·f Jn..-.k3Etl11~.aAd'aboye:tt:tlct i.5.
for welding heavy-wall pipe and tubing. This can be ac- ' .based on using less weld metQlito. prOdll e tll~J.0intl ;
complished by rolling the pipe ill the 1 G position or or- which in turn decreases til laborcos ,(Ii) "
, l
2. High productivity as a result of smaller cross sec-
tion of the weld. This uses less weld metal and less
labor for joint preparation and welding operations.
3. All-position capability, due to the small volume of
the molten weld pool and low heat input.
4. Lower residual stresses, due to the smaller number
of weld passes to produce the joint.
Narrow gap welding is not a welding process; it is a

technique or procedure. It can use several arc welding
THICK
processes. The most popular is gas metal arc welding us-
PLATE ing spray transfer. Narrow gap welds can also be made
with flux-cored arc welding using special electrodes. Sub-
merged arc welding has also been used, as can gas tung-
sten arc welding with the "hot wire."
It is possible to consider electrogas and electroslag
welding as narrow gap welding since they both employ
square-groove welds with a relatively small root opening
FIGURE 26-13 Comparison of cross-sectional area. on heavy plate materials. However, these are not included
in this section. .
Narrow gap welding can be done on carbon steels
and on low-alloy high-strength steels. The low heat input
makes it particularly advantageous for welding quenched
and tempered steels.
The disadvantages of narrow gap welding include:
1. Repair welding is difficult and must be done by

conventional techniques.
2. The welding head and control are relatively com-
plex and expensive.
3. Joint fitup must be accurate to have consistent re-
sults the entire length of the joint.
4. Magnetic arc blow can be a problem with gas metal
arc welding.
5. Technology is more demanding, which requires
better-trained operators.
6. Filler metals required are special and may be more
expensive.
Most of the work on narrow groove welding has

been done with gas metal arc welding.Avariety of tech-
niques has been developed.
TIle original narrow gap work involved two welding
arcs, two electrode wires, and two contact tubes. One is dt-
rected toward one sidewall and the other toward the op-
fiGURE 26-14 Cross section of narrow ga-p vzeld. posite Sidewall. The wire feeders and contact tubes are
mounted on a special carriage with a fixed distance be-
tween them. and the sidewalls. This ensures proper side-
Tbe advantages of narrow gap welding over con-
wall fusion, regardless of minor variations in the roar
opening. The shielding gas Is introduced into th joint by
venttcnalweldmg include the following:
special nozzles that extend to the bottom of the groove.
1. Higll·q1.1aUty welds, the result of low hat input and A backing strip is used for making the first, and usually the
" the multipass technlque, which .provides an ex- second, pass. Subsequent passes are deposited onprevi-
tremely narrow hat-affe<;ted zone and fine-grained ollslayets.Appro:Ximately 10 weld passes are requit:edfor .
weld: met~tl~rhe rnechanical properties of the weld each inch (25 nun of joint thickness.Typical welding con-
joint are excel! nt, ditions would use all electrode diameter Of either 0.035
CHAPTER26
'-. ~
~. (0.9 rnm) or 0.045 in. (1.1 mm). The current would be
opening,within broad limits, are accommodated.The spe-
in the neighborhood of 225 to 250 A DC electrode posi- cial feature is the use of two power sources using pulsed
tive at 25 to 26 V. Constant-voltage power sources are current. The peak current pulse alternates from one elec-
Used.The travel speed would be from 40 to 50 in./min. trode to the other and avoids the arc disturbance that
(1,000 to 1,200 mm/min.), and the shielding gas could be
normally occurs when two arcs are feeding the same
weld pool. The control circuit automatically changes
75% argon plus 25% CO2 or 95% argon and 5% oxygen.The
head is arranged so that the contact tubes are approxi- welding parameters to accommodate variations in the
mately 1/2 in. above the arc. Contact tubes are retracted as root opening.
One of the problems with gas metal arc welding
the weld is made.The major factor of this technique is the
and narrow gap welding is arc blow and the loss of arc
necessity to direct the electrode wire to the joint sidewall.
stability. The Canadian system overcomes this problem.
:his is done by introducing "cast" into the electrode wire
Special flux-cored or metal-cored electrode wires
Immediately before it goes into the contact tube. This en-
have been developed for narrow gap welding. These are
sures that as the electrode wire leaves the contact tube it
will travel to the side to which it is directed. In this way used in the same manner as solid wires with gas metal arc
sidewall penetration is maintained and undercut is avoided. welding.
The entire head assembly must be accurately built, prop- The submerged arc welding process can be used for
narrow gap welding. Submerged arc welding employs AC
erly Insutated, and adjustable for variations in gap and al-
lOWances made as the weld builds up.The control system current, which avoids the magnetic arc blow problem,
is designed to provide an automatic sequence to start and Larger electrode wires are normally used. Higher heat In-
stop the electrodes at the same location in the joint. The put and greater deposition rates are also employed. Spe-
major problem is directing the electrode wires into the cial submerged arc flux is used to avoid slag entrapment.
Sidewall to avoid undercutting and potential defects. The gas tungsten arc welding process with a hot
Another system using gas metal arc welding is the wire filler is used for narrow gap welding. This version
twist wire technique. The electrode is actually two wires provides good arc stability, good out-of-position capabil-
twisted together.This system uses a straight contact tube, ity, good side-wall penetration, and no spatter and slag.
and as the electrode melts, two arcs are generated from The deposition rates are lower, but multiple heads are
the tips of the two wires. They have a straight transfer used. A special head containing the tungsten electrode
mode into the sidewall and provide continuous rotational provides for arc oscillation and carries the filler wire to
movement. The rate of arc rotation depends on the pitch the arc. Undoubtedly, additional variations of the arc
of the twtsted electrode wires and on the arc length. This welding processes will be developed to provide the eco-
nomic and quality advantages of narrow groove welding .
technique achieves good sidewall penetration.
. Another gas arc metal variation uses an oscillating
or SWinging torch or a swiveling torch, Another method
llses a contact tip bent at the end. One of the most novel 26-5 UNDERWATER WELDING f
systems uses a rotating contact tip where the electrode is
Off center of the axis of rotation. This is known as the" ro- Underwater welding began during World War 1, when the
tating arc" technique. Other systems use preformed wire British Navy used it to make temporary repairs on battle-
and bent wire. ships.The repairs consisted of welding around leaking rlv-
Another slightly different system uses a wider root ets on the ships' hulls. The, introduction of covered.
gap, 1.l1 times larger, and uses a larger electrode wire, nor- electrodes made it possibl to weld under water and to
mall:y 1/8 in. (3.2 rnm) in diameter. The welding current produce welds having approximately 80% of th stn ngth
.ranges from 400 to 450 A, and the voltage ranges from 30 arid 40% of the ductilfty of weldamade in air; Underwater
to 37V with electrode negative. Shielding gas composed welding was originally restricted to salvageopcl,"'ations
of one-third CO2• one-third argon, and one-third helium is and emergency repair work, and was limited to depths be-
used. The contact tube is farther away from. the arc and, low the surface of not over 30 ft. (10 m), Maj01·advll1l es
~th straight polarity, seems to help direct the electrode. have been made in underwater w ldlngin r cent y: ars..
Wtte to the Sidewalls for complete fusion. A backing strip Underwater welding can. be divlded'into two' cat •
~Sllsed for the first pass. Metal transfer is globular, but the ,gories: welding in the wet enVtroll.mcntand,welcUllg 1n
pread of the arc is sufficient to make a pass as wide as the dry el1vironment.WekUngin the wet is. \;}sed ptinmnly
the groov-e. A drag angle of the electrode wire is used. for emergency repairs or salvage operations in r 'lattvely
lie'lt inpl.lt is greater With this method. shallow water.' .
New variations of gas metal arc welding are still ap-
Pcaritlg for narrow groove welding.The bl.testsystem was Welcjing in the 'Wet
~.ev-elopedhl. Canada.It uses two electrode wires fe~ding
~~rnUltal1eoUSlybut directly to oppostte sides of the joint. .:
1clewau .ruston is excellenr and variations 'of the root
of hydrogen in the arc atmosphere. When the base metal The knife switch in the electrode circuit must be capable
and the arc area are surrounded by water, there is no tem- of breaking the full welding current. It is required for
perature or heat buildup of the base metal at the weld.This safety reasons. The welding power should be connected
creates a high-temperature gradient or quench effect, to the electrode holder only while the welder is welding.
which reduces the ductility of the weld metal.The arc area Direct current with electrode negative (straight polarity)
is composed of a high concentration of water vapor. TIle is used. Special electrode holders with insulation against
arc atmosphere of hydrogen and oxygen of the water va- water are employed (Figure 26-16). The underwater
por is absorbed in the molten weld metal and contributes welding electrode holder will accommodate two sizes of
to porosity and hydrogen cracking. In addition, welders
working under water are restricted in their efforts to see
and manipulate the welding arc. Under ideal conditions,
the welds produced in the wet with covered electrodes FIGURE26-16 Underwater electrode holders.
are marginal. They may be used for short periods but
should be replaced as quickly as possible. Improvements
in underwater welding electrodes are helping in-the-wet
weld quality.
Efforts have been made to produce a bubble of gas
in which the weld can be made. This technique has not
been able to ensure good-quality welds made with cov-
ered electrodes in-the-wet.
The general arrangements for underwater in-the-
wet welding are shown in Figure 26-15. The power
source for underwater welding should always be a DC
machine rated at 300 or 400 A. Generator welding ma-
chines are often employed for underwater welding in-
the-wet. The frame of the welding machine must be
connected to the ship. The welding circuit must include
a positive switch, usually a knife switch that is operated
on the surface upon the command of the welder-diver.
FIGURE26-15 Arrangements for underwater welding in-the-wet.

OXYGEN SUPPLY
POWE R sou RCE
."",",-,,_
, I
CHAPTERQ6,
electrodes, normally 3/16 in. (4.8 mm) and 5/32 in. (4 recently, was in water ranging from 30 to 50 ft. (10 to 16 m)
tnrn).The electrode types normally used meet the E6013 deep.When a pipeline needs to be repaired.It is raised to
classification and must be waterproofed. This is done by the surface, repaired, and lowered back to the ocean
wrapping them with waterproof tape or by dipping floor. Exploration, drilling, and production are moving
them in a sodium silicate mix or other waterproofing ma- into deeper water, up to the 1,000 ft. (305 m) depth. Mod-
terial. Electrodes for underwater welding are available ifications and work must be done on the ocean floor.
commercially. More pipelines are damaged and there is a necessity for
The welding lead and work lead should be at least making tie-ins of pipelines on the ocean floor. The repairs
2/0 size, and the insulation must be perfect. If the total and tie-ins must be high-quality welds to prohibit the pos-
length of the lead exceeds 300 ft. (100 m), they should be sibility of leaks or oil spills. This type of work is now be-
paralleled. With paralleled leads to the electrode holder ing done in depths of 200 to 600 ft. (61 to 182 m).
the last 3 ft. (1 m) should be a single cable.All connections
mUst be thoroughly insulated so that the water cannot
come in contact with the metal parts. If the insulation
Welding in-the-Dry
breaks, the seawater will contact the copper conductor The development of welding in-the-dry or in a dry envi-
and part of the current will leak away and will not be ronment makes it possible to produce high-quality weld
aVailable at the arc. In addition, there will be rapid deteri- joints that meet x-ray code requirements, A number of
Oration of the copper cable at the break. The workpiece welding processes are used for welding in-the-dry: tile
lead should be connected to the work being welded shielded metal arc, the gas tungsten are, the plasma are,
Within 3 ft. (1 m) of the point of welding. Welding in-the- the gas metal are, and the flux-cored arc welding process.
Wet is shown in Figure 26-17. The shielded metal arc welding process is rarely used for
A special underwater cutting torch that uses the welding in-the-dry environment, because of the large
oxygen arc cutting process with a tubular steel covered amount of smoke and fumes produced. The gas tungsten
~lectrOde is also shown in Figure 26-16.This torch is fully arc welding process is being used to produce welds that
Insulated and uses a twist-type coUet for gripping the meet the quality requirements of API standard 1104. It is
:lectrode. It includes an oxygen valve and connections being used at depths of over 300 ft. (91 mj.The gas tung-
for attaching the welding lead and an oxygen hose. It is sten arc welding process is relatively slow, but is accept-
eqUipped to handle up to a 5/16-in. C7.9-mm) tubular able since the welding operation is a small part of the total
electrode. In this process the arc is struck in tile normal repair operation.
fashion and oxygen is fed through the center hole of the Efforts are ongoing to develop plasma arc welding
electrode to provide the cutting action. The normal elec- more fully for deep-water operations. Successful applica-
trical connections are employed. tion of gas meta] arc welding in-the-dry ha been made to
. Complete information concerning underwater cut- depths as great as 180ft. (51 m).
t~g and welding in-the-wet with covered electrodes is There are two basic types of in-the-dry underwater
gIVen in the u.s. Navy's "Underwater Cutting and Weld· weldmg, One involves a welding chamber or habitat and is
ing" technical manual.P' known as hyPfJl'ba1'ic welding.The habitat orIargeweld-
The need to produce high-quality welds under wa- ing chamber provides the welder-diver with all the neces-
r r has increased as oil and gas are found in deep water. sary equipment for welding and related work in a dry
Most Offshore exploration, drilling, and production, until environment-The weld chamber is made so that it can be
sealed to the part to be welded. Since most work is on
pipe.arrangements are made to seal the habitat to the pipe.
The bottom of the chamber is exposed to 6~en water and
FIGURE26-17 Welding in-the-wet. is covered by a grating.The pressure of the atmosphere in-
Side the chamber is qual to the water pressu .e at theop-
crating d pth, Figur 26-18 shows a weJdint(hahitat.
Life-support equipment tnvofves a two-way. tel
phone and vid Q camera for co,otUl\.}OUSobsel·viltiol~llife·
support atmosphere-for the welder.divcl' (which'muY,be
different from the welding atnlos:ph~ie),J)owe!fot toO]s' ,
.and for welding, and the gasstlpply for 'tile ,wc1diOgat: '
mosphere. Habitats tlsuallyindud<:) an atll1o'Sphcte~
ccndttionlng syst 111, used to beth cool and ftlter the '
atmosphere in the chamber, Filtering. is ittlpoxtant'sil1ce
metal vapor is rele~sedrttlrlngweldit:rg ...Al;P, CQt)iliti<Uli1;lg' "
is employed since heat isgene:rate(J by welding,' ~()rgas., .
metal arc welding-the weldl11g power satll:cc.is l1,oth1,all
_r· .;,'
FIGURE 26-19 Welder in-the-wet welding in-the-dry
with small gas-filled enclosure.
about 4 atmospheres (approximately 50 psi gauge). The

weld metal quality is essentially the same as surface-made
welds; however, the welding voltage increases and the
FIGURE 26-18 Underwater pressurized habitat for weld bead penetration increases. As the depth is in-
pipe welding. creased, the atmospheric pressure Increases and the arc be-
comes more constricted, and this leads to increased arc
voltage and increased penetration and higher burnoff rates.
This makes the weld PQQIdifficult to. handle. At depths be-
on the surface. Welding cables are lowered to. the habitat yond 125 ft. (35 m) the weld PQQlbecomes increasingly dif-
to. provide power for the arc. The electrode wire, wire ficult to. control and an increased amount of smoke is
feeder, and control unit are located ill the habitat, The generated. Special welding power sources are required.
wire feeder must be protected from the high-pressure
and high-humidity conditions in the chamber. The elec-
trode wire must also be protected from the humidity. Wet -Dry Welding
The gas for breathing and for welding is designed for Improvements have been made to. provide more flexibil-
use at the high pressures involved. The pressure In the ity for gas metal arc welding when welding underwater. (9)
habitat increases 1 atmosphere or 14.71b/in.2 (1 kg/ern') The dry hyperbaric chambers or habitats ate extremely
for each 33 ft. (10 m) of depth.The water pressure must be expensive and must be designed for specific applicattone
equalized by the pressure of the atmosphere within the It is now possible to take gas metal arc welding outside
habitat. This high pressure creates probl uns for the crew the habitat by the use of special nozzles or chambers that
and for welding. With shielded metal arc welding, the surround the torch. In using this apparatus the welder-
problem involves the removal and filterin-g of the atmos- diver is in-the-wet or in the water, but the nozzle of the t
phere in the habitat. With gas tungsten arc w~ding, very welding gun and material to. be welded is In the dry at-
llttlesmoke and, fumes are generated, but the" inert gas mosphere (Figure 26-19).The gun and nozzle are in this
u ed for welding disrupts the breathing atmosphere. For small chamber; but the wire feeder and the lectrode wh'e
. .saturated dlvtng work the breathing atmo phere of the supply are in another watertight pressurized enclosure-
welder-diver is based on the working depth. Premixed gas The pressure of the shielding gas comlng through the sys-
Is used and the oxygen cop-tent is based on the depth, (7) tem Is greater than the pres ure of the water at the 01'"
<. ,Weldingwitl1 the gas m tal arc in a habitat presents etatlng 1 vel. The gas flows through the wire feeder
specific problems, (8) In .shallow depths the weldtng In the . enclosure through the electrode conduit.ro the tOrc)i,
habitat is essenrt .iy the arne as welding on the surface. where it provide th shieldiqg atmosphere for weldit1g·
Wben welding at depths of 125 ft. (35 m), the pressure is It also provides the pressure toevacuate the water to pto'
. ,I
·---- ~-----
vide a dry atmosphere. The dry gas environment cham- (50 m), but is related to water temperature. The most ver-
bers are relatively inexpensive, small, and lightweight. satile fuel gas is hydrogen, which can be used for most un-
They are provided with flexible seals to be used against derwater working depths. Gasoline is even used as a fuel
th~ part being welded. They can be handheld or made for some underwater cutting applications.
With clamps for quick attachment to the part to be It is important that the proper type of torch be em-
Welded. The gun is hand manipulated inside the small ployed for the working depth and fuel gas involved.Torch
chamber, in the same way as on the surface. The cham- ignition is somewhat involved. For shallow depths, the
bers are made of transparent material or have a sufficient torch is ignited before it is taken underwater and then ad-
nUmber of windows so that the welder can see inside to justed for the particular depth involved. For deeper work-
properly manipulate and direct the welding arc.This tech- ing depths a pilot flame, or "match," is involved. This tiny
nique can be used for welding with gas metal arc up to flame burns continuously before the torch is ignited at
125 ft. (35 m) below the surface. High-quality welds that the working depth. It is a part of the underwater torch
meet code requirements can be produced. mechanism.
Special safety precautions must be followed when Constant communication is required between the
dOing underwater welding. These include all precautions diver-cutter and the above-water surface handlers. Pres-
nOrmally employed by divers, plus those required for sure must be adjusted for the fuel gas and the oxygen to
Welding.Welders-divers must be aware of the possibilities maintain the proper operation. The oxyfuel gas systems
of entrapped gases in parts being welded or cut. These will cut up to 2 in. (50 mm) of steel. Considerable skill and
gases are usually rich in hydrogen and oxygen and may good visibility arc required for oxyfuel gas cutting. The
explode when ignited. Only experienced, well-trained quality of the cut depends on the skill of the diver-cutter.
Personnel should do underwater welding. Mild and low-alloy steels can be cut underwater using the
special air-modified cutting torch.
Oxyarc cutting was developed to reduce some of
Underwater Cutting in-the- Wet the safety hazards inherent with the oxyfuel gas systems.
Dnclerwater cutting may be more important than under- Much of the development work was done during World
Water welding. Cutting is required to prepare for repair War II by the U.S. Navy. Initially, coated electrodes with a
welding of underwater structures. It is also used for sal- hollow core wire were used. These were Similar to those
vage and demolition work of submersed structures. used for cutting stainless and nonferrous metals.The out-
There are two basic methods of underwater cutting: side of the electrode coating was covered with a water-
the OXyfllelgas methods and the oxyarc cutting methods, proofing material, and a jet of pure oxyg. n ran down the
With many variations. These are similar to above-water ap- hollow tubular electrode to the arc. 111e arc heat d the
Plications, but with specialized equipment, and should metal to be cut to its kindling temperature, and the oxy-
Onlybe performed by skilled welders-divers who have nec- gen through the tubular electrode caused rapld oxidation
essary training in the particular operation.This is due to the (cutting) of the metal and helped carry the molten metal
safety hazards and the precautions necessary to guard away from the cut. Special insulated waterproof electrode
a~ainst tniurles. The oxyfuel gas techniques all involve holders with oxygen.valves were employed. 'nlis· system
high-pressure gases, which can be dangerous. The oxyarc used a regular welding power source.
methods involve electrical circuits that require protection. Variations to this process involve different types of
O:xyfllel gas underwater cutting was perfected by electrodes with different types of coatings/fhe basics are
the U.S, Navy.The Navy developed a special torch with an the same-that i , a tubular electrode with an oxygen'
CXtranozzle that fed compressed air into the cutting area, stream through the center' using a conventional power
prOViding a bubble of air that displaced the watel- and en" source.The arc provides the necessary heat {(tthem $1
~bled the cut to be made in an atmosphere of air.The un- to be cut to raise it to its kindling temperature, andthe
twater oxyfuel gas cutting process is essentially the oxygen displaces the water in t11 cutting at a and also
sam as in air wherein the metal is heated to its kindling promotes r-apid oxidatton of the metal beil:l~ ut.The ba-
tOmperature and then a jet of oxygen is introduced, sic hollow electrode with protective coating is used.
~hiCh: o1tidizes (cuts) the steel. Excess oxygen is used to However" different. types of' materials' a~.\1s~cl -f0t .th'.·
elP. blow away the molten 111Ctal.This extra shroud or core, itlChlding nonferrous inetijs,'Carbol1, and ceramic"
llOZZle is used with all oxyfuel gas cutting methods. materials wtth high electrtcal cOj'1ducttvity..
1 Oxyacetylene gas is used for cutting. in shallow The latest development is-the hollow stc'l rod
.~.epths'l1SUallYto about 15 ft. (3.5 m) in depth. This cut- known as "ex(.)tl!Jet'rJ#c rcactiQnelecff'odes. 'ThIs i$ also
a~g depth limit is due to the fact tilat high-pressure called thermal lance cutimg, cd,es9l'ibed 'it} Sc 'tion ,
'. etylelle is VenT dang·erous:The gas pressures req~lited 9-2),These to~~t!lay o1'-m'nynot have a CQa~iQ~.Of~~tl·,
Ul,cr .·1.. . . ...
terproofcQv rJn~. They requi~~t\l\ inst\Jatet'twa tttptbof,'
Wa ease rapidly as tne operation is perfor.rned in: deeper
() t v; Propane, a liquefied petroleum gas, :is used witO ele 'trode hold r tbat illClud,¢s 'nn.QXygb s~~pp=ly,val~~
~:ygen for ullderW~lt t cutting in depths dow!\ to 150 ft. shown.
In Fignre 2 )~20, Mostjlnpon:mtly,
'.
th ~~r d,o'..not
t
t.
will be used in the space station. Piping subassemblies
will be welded on earth, but the method of joining them
in space will probably be welding. The space station will
have a design life of at least 30 years. Undoubtedly, the
maintenance and repair of the structure and piping will
involve welding. In addition to welding, thermal cutting,
brazing, and thermal spraying will be required in space.
There are many difficulties to welding in space.
Conditions in space differ greatly from those on earth.
This includes a high-vacuum atmosphere. Gravity would
be minimal, and weightlessness is a problem. Tempera-
tures will range from almost absolute zero to high tem-
peratures resulting from solar radiation. There will be
other radiation-electrical and magnetic fields-that
may affect welding. In addition, it is not expected that as-
tronauts and cosmonauts would possess welding skills.
This would indicate that fully automatic mechanisrns
FIGURE26-20 Electrode holder for arc cutting. would be required for welding.
To weld in space successfully, a variety of scientific
research and development projects need to be solved. >
The Paton Welding Institute in Kiev, Ukraine, in coopera-

tion with the Russian Space Administration, has devel-
oped welding equipment for space research/"? ScientistS
at the institute have done work on earth using vacuum -
chambers and low temperatures. They have experi-
mented with several processes. Electron beam welding
showed promise, as well as plasma welding, gas metal arc
welding, and brazing. They also did experimental work in
flying laboratories where weightlessness could be SiIllU'
lated for short periods of time.
FIGURE26-21 Striker.
The first record of space welding was done in OC'
tober 1969 in the spacecraft Soyuz 6. The welding unit
was named Vulkin, which weighed approximately 50 k
requite a welding machine. They can be started by a
(110 lb.) and was battery powered. Cosmonauts G. S.
spark supplied by two 12·voH batteries and a special
striker, shown in Figure 26- 21. They generate high tem-
Shonin and V. N. Kubaslov did manual electron beam f
welding, plasma welding, and gas metal arc welding. 't
peratures, which will cut metals and nonmetals, includ-
ing reinforced concrete. Gutting is terminated when the
In 1979 an improved power source known as Is- ;
I
I
parital was aboard orbital station Salyut-6, and additional
oxygen flow stops.
experiments were performed, including electron beam
Several other oxyarc processes can be used, includ-
cutting. In. 1983 the power source was again improved,
lug GMAW with a water jet and plasma arc, with water-
and adcJiti01~atexperiments were performed on orbital
proof torches for underwater cutting.
station Salytlt-7,
In 1984 an improved power source known as the
versatile hand tool (VHT) was on board orbital stati0l1
Salyut·7. During this flight, cosmonauts Svetlana Savtskeya I
26 ..6 WELDING IN SPACEc
""-
. and Vladimir Dzhanibekov made welds outside the space f
In the not-too-distant future, a space staUdt;t like the capsule, shown in Figure 26..,23.This included additiotlid .. t.
arttst's conception ill Figure 26-2,~ will' be orbiting the welding experiments plus a thermal spray experiment bY
. arth.lt'wUl be so-large that it cannot be launched 'from cosmonauts who learned w elding in special Iaboratorict t
the earth.Iobulld it, a large numb r of subassemblies will on the ground. One of the most significant space welding
be carded into space by th orbiter or similar vehicle, activitieli was performed In 1986 using theV:HTmachine
where .they will be ass mbled, There are ieveral possible when cosmonauts Kizin and Solovyer welded a 39.f trUSS'
method Jbt'jo),ningthe subassemblies. The Russians ex- type girder in space ,This Was an experiment to determIne
pe~t tq. weld· the.' subassembltes together, whereas the the feasibility of 'using welding to construct a space veb.i·
. U.S. space agency prefers to use mechanicat fasteners de. Figure 26-24 shows the latest VlIT and power source
plus weldillg,An.esti~ated
_-., " -
100 miles of pipe and tubing with cO~Ulonatn Vladimir Dzhanihekov;
. "
"
. ,
FIGURE26-22 International spacestation now under construction.
FIGURE26-24 Vladimir DZhanibekov'withwelqing.'

equipment.
FIGURE26-23 Making the welds outside the space
capsule.
every reason to believe that. weWulgWUl be u~ed to as-

semble the space station in the not·too~distantfutUre ..
gres In the United srates.space experiments have pro-
. sed as well. (ll,U) These include weightlessness exper-
Inlent .
in J . S 1Il an airplane and welding in a vacuum chamber;
1. ~ne ,1973 welding experiments took place on Sk~lab 26 ..7 MICROJOINfN.G
. sp elds have been made with orbital tube heads Ul a
. e~:~e'SltnuI~ted environment. Iaser wetdmgwas c~nsid.
l'he bllt rejected, .due to its low electrical effiCIency.
in s Be ClCperirnenrs have proven the feasibility of welding
pa ..i\dditioJ:'talexperiments are ongoing.and there is
diameter. Microjoining is most widely used by the elec-
tronics, instrument, and packaging industries. Some of
the common applications are attaching leads to mi-
crochips, attaching leads to electronic devices, packag-
ing microchips, making medical instruments and devices
such as heart pacers, and packaging these devices and
other miniaturized welding applications.
Many of the welding and joining processes are used
for microjoining. This includes gas tungsten arc, plasma
arc, and stud welding. It also includes laser beam and elec-
tron beam welding and the resistance welding processes.
The solid state processes are employed, including ultra-
sonic, pressure welding, and diffusion bonding. Soldering
and brazing are both widely used. In addition, for certain
applications adhesive bonding is employed.
The objective of microjolning is to produce a strong FIGURE26-25 Miero welds.
metallurgical joint between the parts being welded with
good electrical conductivity.
The materials being microjoined include all the 111earc welding processes mentioned previously use
common metals plus exotic and precious metals used by miniaturized equipment, sometimes called micro plasma .
the electronics industry. The most common metals or micro TIG.Welding currents range from 1/2 to lOA, and
welded are copper, aluminum, beryllium copper, stainless pulsed current is normally used. Precision motion and
steel, titanium, gold, and silver. The nonmetals include ce- holding devices must be employed, as well as automatic
ramics and plastics. control systems, which are driven by a microprocessor.
Microjoining is normally done automatically or The high-energy beam processes, EB and laser
with automated equipment. For the larger parts, manual beam welding, are commonly used with lower-powered
01' semiautomatic welding may be used, usually under a equipment. Precision motion devices, focusing equip'
magnifying glass with micrometer adjustments for loca- rnent, and computer controls are required. Special minia-
tion or movement of parts. turized resistance welding equipment is widely used.Thie
Microjoining requires miniaturized, specialized includes spot welding, projection welding, roll seam and
equipment. High-quality welds are demanded of micro- intermittent welding, and ultrasonic welding done with
joining since the weld is a part of life-support equipment precision motion devices and accurate control systems.
and delicate computer equipment. Brazing and soldering use capillary attraction but
One of the major applications for mlcrojoining is have precision holding devices and preciston methods
known as wire bonding.This is the joining of small wires for introducing fluxes and filler material. The method of
in electro connections between chips and lead frames. heating is essentially the same as with large applications.
Wires as small as the human hair ae joined for this appli- Electric radiant lamps and the flame are often used. SOil1C
cation. Components of this type are subject to vibration, work is done in a vacuum 01' with protective gases. Iron
shock loading, low temperatures, and high temperatures. soldering is not practiced.
Stresses due to Vibrations, shock, and temperature For adhesive bonding, miniaturized adhesive appli-
changes of different materials require good-quality welds caters are required. Microjoinlng is a rapidly changing
that are strong and have conductivity. Figure 26-25 technology driven primarily by the electronics industry
shows the joining of small parts. and medical devices.
,-
26-1. Why is a timer used for arc spot welding? 26·6. Why is good flxturing needed for thin she t nletlll
26·2 •. Is it nee ssary to wear a welding helmet when arc welding?
spot welding? 26·7. What is one-sid welding?
~6·3. rut arc spot welding be 'U ed to join alumlnumj 26.8. Describe two different ba king methods,
_ 26·4. Can fjtui:..cored ar - welding be used fof. nrc spot 26·9. Why is one- ide welding important in shipbuildirll;~?
'wclcliti ?"- 26,10. What is the primary advnntagefOJ: narrow gap weJd1ll1i
26·S. What ocess is recommended for steel sheet metal - 26-11. What design of weld [oint is used for narrow gal'
W'elc.Ung?
. )
welding?
26-12. What welding processes are used for narrow gap 26-17. What determines the pressure of the atmosphere in
welding? the habitat?
26-13. What is special about an underwater welding elec- 26-18. What industries use microjoinlng?
trode? 26-19. The Russians made the first weld in space in what
26-14. Explain the difference between underwater wet year?
welding and dry welding. 26-20. What welding processes have been used in space?
26-15. Can pipe welds be made under water to meet code
requirements?
26-16. What is welding in a habitat?
REFERENCES
1. T. W Shearer, "Arc Spot Welding," Bulletin 105, Welding 7. P. T. Del.aune.jr., "Offshore Structural Repair Using Spec-
Rese<lrch Council, New York, May 1965. ification for Underwater Welding, AWS D5.6," Welding
2. R.A. Stoehr and F. R. Collins, "Gas Metal Arc Spot Welding Journal (February 1987).
Joins Aluminum to Other Metals," Welding Journal 8. "Specifications for Underwater Welding," ANSI/AWS
(Apri11963). D3.6,American Welding Society, Miami, Fla.
3. J T. Biskup, "One Side Welding Is Strong in Japan," 9. "Underwater Welding," Proceedings of International Con-
Canadian Machinery and MetalWorking (May 1970). ference, Trondham, Norway, June 27-28, 1983, Interna-
4. C. A. Butler, F. P. Meister, and M. D. RandaU, "Narrow Gap tional Institute of Welding, Pergamon Press, Elmsford, N.Y
Welding, A Process for All positions," Welding Journal 10. B. E. Paton, "Welding in Space," Welding Engineer (Ianu-
(February 1969). ary 1972).
5. V Malin, "Monograph on Narrow-Gap Welding Technol- ] 1. B. Irving, "Electron Beam Welding, Soviet Style: A Front
ogy," Bulletin 323,Welding Research Council, New York, Runner for Space," Welding Journal (July 1991).
May 1987. 12. B. Irving, "Joining Experts Meet to Exchange Ideas about
6. "Underwater Cutting and Welding," Navships 0929-000- Welding in Space," W'elding Journal (lanuary 1992).
08010, U.S. Navy Supervisor of Welding, Naval Ship Sys-
tems Command, Washington, D.C.
Backing A material or device placed against the back side of
OUTLINE the joint, or at both sides of a weld in electroslag and electrogas
welding, to support and retain molten weld metal. The material
A-I Glossary of Welding Terms
may be partially fused or remain unfused during welding and
A-2 Organizations Involved with Welding may be either metal or nonmetal.
A..3 Computer Software Backstep Sequence A longitudinal sequence in which weld
A-4 Information Sources Using a Computer passes are made in the direction opposite to the progress of
A-5 Conversion Information welding.
A-6 Weights and Measures Base Material The material to be welded, brazed, soldered, or
cut. (See also Substrate.)
Bell Hole Welding* A pipeline term whereby the pipe sec-
A ..1 GLOSSARY OF tions are Welded together to the end of the transmission line in
position.
WELDING TERMS Bevel An angular type of edge preparation,
Air'" Slang for oxygen, should not use. Blacksmith Welding See the preferred term, Forge We.Jding.
~l-Weld-Metal-Test-Specimen. A test specimen with are-
Bottle" See the preferred term, Cylinder,
.lleed section composed wholly of weld metal.
Boxing The continuation of a fillet weld around a corner of a
~tel'nating Current or AC* Electricity that reverses its direc-
member as an extension of the principal weld.
t~OI1periodically. For cycle current, the current goes in one dtrec-
110n and then in the other direction 60 times in the same second, Braze A weld produced by heating an ass mbly to suitable
So that the current changes its direction 120 times in 1 second. temperatures and by using a filler metal, having liquids above
Altltneter* An instrument for measuring either direct or al- 450"C (842°F) and below the solidus of the base materials. The
ternating electric current (depending on its construction). Its filler metal is distributed between the closely fitted surfaces of
the joint by capillary attraction.
scale is usually graduated in amperes and milliamperes.
Anode'" The positive terminal of an electrical source. Buckling" Distortion of sheet metal due to the forces of ex.
pansion and contraction caused by the applicatton of heat, '
Arc Blow The deflection of an electric arc from its normal
Path because of magnetic forces. Burner See the preferred term, Oxygen Cutter.
Arc Length'" The distance fro~ the end of the electrode to Butt Joint A joint between two me~bers aJigi1.cd appi'O,p-
the ,point where the arc makes contact with, the work surface. mately ill the same place, . .'
At, S Butt We14 An erroneous term for ;\.weld In a butt joint -(Se(J
C pot Weld A spot weld made by an arc welding proc ss.
c
A.t- Voltage The voltage across the welding arc, also Butt JOint.) .
.Arc Wande~ Wander or drifting of arc in various directions, Buttoll Weld~ See A:r . Spot Weld,
(See alsoAn:. Blow.) . _ Cap Pass" A pipeline term tha,t·1"(lfers to the ftna.}ol're.lnfuro.·".
:'Welded The condition of weld metal; welded joints, and ing pass of the weld Joint. . '. ..' cc
elclmeutsaiter welding but prior to any suIJsequent thermal Carbon SteeI~ Carbon' se el iSH'. term appli~(j toa broad
Illecilanlcal at chemical treatments.' - range of material contatntng: arbon 1.7%' max., fllanganes.(~
~UtoQenO'l1S Weld A fusion weld made with th addition of 1.65% max., silicon 0.60% max, arbon t oj is subdtvtd d 1$
Uer metal. follows:
8ack:tlr . .
'W .: e The momentllry recession of the flam into the l.Qw·wbon st~els
. etding tip or cuttillg tip followed by immediate reappearance
,Milct·catl:>oll steels -,
-or conlpl te ex~.inction of dIe flame. - . -
Medil1l11-\:at'PQ,ft
steels
~k·.···:' . - High:carQotl. steel"
_ 18 II lPdkare tbaNhe term Is not the officialAWS te.l'1l1, ~ ~, '< • -
Cast Iron" A wide variety of iron-base materials containing Alloying materials may be included in the core. External shield-
carbon 1.7 to 4.5%; silicon 0.5 to 3%; phosphorus 0.8% max.; sul- ing mayor may not be used.
fur 0.2% max.; molybdenum, nickel, chromium, and copper can Forge Welding A solid-state welding process that produces
be added to produce alloyed cast irons. coalescence of metals by heating them in air in a forge and by
Chamfer See the preferred term, Bevel. applying pressure or blows sufficient to cause permanent de-
Covered Electrode A composite filler metal electrode con- formation at the interface.
sisting of a core of a bare electrode or metal cored electrode to Friction Welding A solid-state welding process that pro-
which a covering sufficient to provide a slag layer on the weld duces coalescence of materials by the heat obtained from a me-
metal has been applied. The converging may contain materials chanically induced sliding motion between rubbing surfaces.
providing such functions as shielding from the atmosphere, de- The work parts are held together under pressure.
oxidation, and arc stabilization, and can serve as a source of Furnace Brazing (FB) A brazing process in which the
metallic additions to the weld. work-pieces are placed in a furnace and heated to the brazing
Crater A depression at the termination of a weld bead. temperature.
Cup See the preferred term, Nozzle. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) An arc welding procesS
Cylinder" A portable container used for transportation and that produces coalescence of metals by heating them with an
arc between a continuous filler metal electrode and the work-
storage of a compressed gas.
pieces. Shielding is obtained entirely from an externally sup-
Depth of Fusion The distance that fusion extends into the
plied gas or gas mixture. Some methods of this process arc
base metal or previous pass from the surface melted during
called MIG or CO2 welding.
welding.
Gas Pocket" Pipeline term for porosity;
Direct Current or DC· Electric current that flows in only
one direction. It is measured by an ammeter. Gas Shielded Metal Arc Welding A general term used to de-
scribe gas metal arc welding, gas tungsten arc welding, and flu"-
Double Ending" A pipeline term meaning welding two
cored arc welding when gas shielding is employed.
lengths of pipes together, usually roll welding in the flat position.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) An arc welding
Downhand See the preferred term, Flat Position.
process that produces coalescence of metals by heating them
Downhill Welding" A pipe welding term indicating that the with an arc between a tungsten (nonconsumable) electrode
weld progresses from the top of the pipe to the bottom of the and the work. Shielding is obtained from a gas or gas mixture-
pipe.The pipe is not rotated. Pressure mayor may not be used, and filler metal mayor may
Electrode: Tungsten Electrode A nonfiller metal electrode not be used, (This process has sometimes been called TlO
used in arc welding or cutting, made principally of tungsten. welding.)
Elongation" Extension produced between two gauge marks Groove Weld A weld made in the groove between two mem-
during a tensile test. Expressed as a percentage of the original bers to be joined. The standard types of groove welds are as fol-
gauge length. lows: double-bevel-groove weld, double-flare-bevel-groove weld,
FabCo Welding'" Trade name; see Flux-Cored Arc Welding. double-flare-V-groove weld, double-l-groove weld, double-l-"
Face of Weld The exposed surface of a weld on the side from groove weld, double-V-groove weld, single-bevel-groove weld,
which welding was done. single-flare-bevel-groove weld, stngle-ffare-V-groove weld, single-
j-groove weld, single-V-groove weld, slngle-V-groove weld, and
Piller Bead" A pipeline term referring to the passes laid over
the hot pass but not the next to last or final pass. square-groove weld.
Ground Connection An electrical connection of the weld-
Fillet Weld A weld of approximately triangular cross s ction
ing machine frame to the earth for safety. (See also W01'kpiecC
joining two surfaces approximately at right angles to each other
Connection and Workpiece Lead.)
in a lap jotnt.Tjotnr, or corner joint.
Ground Lead See the preferred term, Workpiece Lead.
Firing tine Welder" A pipeline welder Inthe hot pass crew.
Heat.Affected Zone That portion of the base metal that ha~
Flat Posidon The welding position used to weld from the
not been melted, but whose mechanical properties or tni-
upper side of the joint; the face of the weld is approximately
crostructure have been altered by the heat of welding, brazing.
horizontal.
soldering, or cutting.
Flux Material used to prevent, dissolve, or facilitate removal of
oxides and other undesirable surface substances. Hellarc" Trade name; See Gas Tungsten Arc Welding.
Hollow Bead" Pipeline term tor porosity in the root rcillo
. Phrx-Oored Arc Welding (VCAW) An arc we II(lngprocess
that produces oalescence of metals by heating th'em wnh an forcement.
arc between ~I continuous filler metal (consumable) electrode Horizontal Position Fillet weld: the position in which weJ~'
and th 'work. Shielding is provided by a flux contained within ingIs performed on tho upper Ide of an approxtmarely hori-
the tubular electrode, Additional shielding mayor may not be zontal surface and against an approximately vertical' surface.
obtained from .an ext roally supplied gas or gas mixture. (See Groove weld: the position of Welding in which the axis of tbe,
also Flux, ored Electrodc.) weld lies ill an approximately horizontal plane and the f'lce. oj
Flux,.C(Jr~d ElectrQ(ie A composite ruler metal electrode the weld lies in an approximately vertical plane.
consisting of ameta! tube Of other hollow configuration con- Hot Pass·' A pipeline term thar refers to t\le second pass ot
taining ingredi nrs to provtd such fun nons as shielding-at- the pass over the stringer bead.The hot pass is usually made fit
mosphere, d oxiclati0h, l\fC stablllzatioll, and slag formation. high currents to practically remelt the entir stringer bead-
>'
~r
ltnpact Resistance" Energy absorbed during breakage by im- Preheating The application of heat to the base metal imme-
pact of specially prepared notched specimen, the result being diately before welding, brazing, soldering, or cutting.
commonly expressed in foot-pounds. Procedure Qualification The demonstration that welds
Induction Brazing A brazing process in which the heat remade by a specific procedure can meet prescribed standards.
quired is obtained from the resistance of the work to induced Procedure Specification" A complete and formal welding
electric current. procedure written in accordance with code.
Inertia Friction Welding A variation of friction welding in Psi" Pounds per square inch.
which the energy required to make the weld is supplied pri- Puddle See the preferred term,Weld Pool.
marily by the stored rotational kinetic energy of the welding Quarter Weld'" Pipe welding making the joint in four seg-
machine. ments rotating the pipe 90° between each segment.
Joint Penetration The depth of weld extends from its face QWP* Qualified welding procedure.
into a joint, exclusive of reinforcement. Radiography" The use of radiant energy in the form of x-rays
JOint Welding Procedure" The materials, detailed methods, 01' gamma rays for the nondestructive examination of metals.
and practices employed in the welding of a particular joint. Reduction of Area" The difference between the original
{(erf The width of the cut produced during a cutting process. cross-sectional area and that of the smallest area at the point of
Land A nonstandard term for root face. rupture; usually stated as a percentage of the original area.
Lap Joint A joint between two overlapping members in par- Returning (Boxing)" The practice of continuing a weld
allel planes. around a corner as an extension of the principal weld.
Lead Burning An erroneous term used to denote the weld- Reverse Polarity A nonstandard term for direct current elec-
ing of lead. trode positive.
low-Alloy Steel" Low-alloy steels are those containing low Rheostat" A variable resistor that has one fixed terminal and
percentages of alloying elements. a movable contact (often erroneously referred to as a "two-
Melting Rate The weight or length of electrode melted in a terminal potentiometer"). Potentiometers may be used as
rheostats, but a rheostat cannot be used as a potentiometer, be-
Unit of time.
cause connections cannot be made to both ends of the resis-
Micro-Wire Welding'" Trade name; see Gas Metal Arc Welding.
tance element.
MIG Welding'" See the preferred terms, Gas Metal Arc Welding
Root Face That portion of the groove face adjacent to the
and Flux-Cored Arc Welding. root of the joint.
MOlten Weld Pool See the preferred term, Weld Pool. Root Gap See the preferred term, Root Opening.
Nose'" See Root Face. Root of Weld See Weld Root.
NOZzle A device that directs shielding media. Root Opening The separation at the joint root between the
Off-Center Coating. When flux coating on a covered elec- workpieces.
trOde is thicker on one side than the opposite side. Root Penetration The depth that a weld extends into the root
Open-Circuit Voltage The voltage between th~ outp~t t~r- of a jomt measured on the centerline of the root cross section.
minals of the welding machine when no current 1S flowing m Seal Weld Any weld designed primarily to provide a sp We
the Welding circuit. degree of tightness against leakage.
OVerWl'" Excessive reinforcement. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) An arc welding proc .ss
Overhead Position The position in which welding is per- that produc s coalescence of metals by heating them with an arc
fOrm.eel from the underside of the joint. between a covered metal electrode and th \ workptece, Shielding
Overlap The protrusion of weld metal beyond the toe, face, is obtained from decomposition of the electrode covering, Pres-
Or root of the weld. sure is not used and flUer metal is obtain d frornth electrode,
O~gen Cutter One who performs a manual oxygen cutting Shoulder See the preferred term, Root Face.
oPeration. Silver S()ld.erlng Nonpreferr >d terrn.usedto dellQtbrazH1S .:
:Parent Metal See the preferred terms, Base Material and with a sUver-base fillet metal, (See also tIl preferred terms , Fur-
Substrate. . nace Brazing, Induction Brazing, and Torch DI(IZillg.
:9ass See Weld Pass. Singe.r* Electrode holder,
Peenlng The mechanical working of metals using impact Size of Weld'" Groove weld: the jolnt .p~net.mtlon (depth. of
blows. bevel plustn(;} root penetrationwhellsJ,?<.fCitled). Tqe~ .ofQ·
groove .weldan(IJt$ effective thrEt)atJl:r~ ~ ·and tll . S~Jl'll!.Fille,t·
Penetration See the pft;ferred terms, Joint Penetmtion and
weld: for qual-leg tIll t weld$,the leg lengths. of. t\1e lar~~t
Root Penetration. . .
Performance Qualification'" Methods, tests, and acceptable
j osceles right trian.gle that C~ID h' ..in.s rib d wiUrln th t :tm·
weld cross s ~tion. For unequal·leg lUiet weld. , th' 1 g·le,rtgths
Staudnrds used to qualify a welding procedure. . of th large$t light triangl tlHlt can be inscrlb ct Within th Jil-
POt
I'll! ()Sity CaVity-type dIscontinuities formed '1 t
Y gas en rap- let w Id Cro8,Ss cUon.\V.h n Qne member m;tlkes.iul m1g1" With
elnctutin~ solidification.. . the otl:ier 11l'ember 8te~J;tt!'r:tllf!O,.lQ.5a;.vbe le~t~ .~ize).~ql'~Ar~
l.>oSth
p eatlQg .. Sec Postweld HeHtTreatrl1cnt. slgnifican tllan the ct1ectlve thl'oaptoat i$ih.e oorittouthg ~~c-
()stweld Heat Treatment Any heat treatm nt after wel~Hng.
todor the strength. {) a wId. " ,'. .' . . , '
Slag Inclusion Nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld Weaving" A technique of depositing weld metal in which the
metal or between weld metal and base metal. electrode is oscillated.
Slugging The act of adding a separate piece or pieces of ma- Weld A localized coalescence of metals or nonmetals pro-
terial in a joint before or during welding that results in a duced either by heating the materials to welding tempera-
welded joint, not complying with design, drawing, or specifica- tures, with or without the application or pressure, or by the
tion requirements. application of pressure alone, and with or without the use of
Spatter The metal particles expelled during fusion welding filler material.
and that do not form a part of the weld. Weld Metal That portion of a weld that has been melted dur-
Squirt Welding· Semiautomatic and submerged arc welding. ing welding.
Stick Weldinw Welding using shielded metal arc welding. Weld Pass A single progression of welding along a joint. The
result of a pass is a weld bead or layer.
Stove Pipe Welding· A pipeline term whereby each length
of pipe is joined to the transmission line in a progressive fash- Weld Pool The localized volume of molten metal in a weld
ion with each joint made in position. prior to its solidification as weld metal.
Straight Polarity A standard term for direct current elec- Weld Puddle" A nonstandard term for weld pool.
trode negative. Weld Root The points, as shown in cross section, at which the
Stress Relief Heat Treatment Uniform heating of a structure back of the weld intersects the base metal surfaces.
or a portion thereof to a sufficient temperature to relieve the ma- Weld Toe The junction of the weld face and the base metal.
jor portion of the residual stresses, followed by uniform cooling. Welder One who performs a manual or semiautomatic weld-
Stringer Bead A type of weld bead made without apprecia- ing operation. (Sometimes erroneously used to denote a weld-
ble weaving motion. (See also Weave Bead.) ing machine.)
Stripper" A pipeline term referring to the pass that brings the Welding Ground See the preferred term, Workpiece Con-
weld groove flush with the surface of the pipe. nection.
Substrate Any base material to which a thermal sprayed coat- Welding Procedure The detailed methods and practices in-
ing or surfacing weld is applied. cluding all joint welding procedures involved in the production
Tack Weld A weld made to hold parts of a weldment in of a weldment. (See also Joint Welding Procedure.)
p1'Oper alignment until the final welds are made. Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) A document pro-
Tensile Strength" The maximum load per unit of original viding in detail the requited variables for specific application to
cross-sectional area obtained before rupture of a tensile speci- assure repeatability by properly trained welders and welding
men. Measured in pounds per square inch. operators.
Theoretical Throat The distance from the beginning of the Welding Process A joining process that produces coales-
root of the joint perpendicular to the hypotenuse of the largest cence of materials by heating them to the welding tempera-
right triangle that can be inscribed within the fillet weld cross ture, with or without the application of pressure ~r by the
section. Actual throat: the shortest distance from the root of a application of pressure alone, and with or without the use of
fillet weld to its face. Effective throat: the minimum distance mi- filler metal. See also the master chart of welding and allied
nus any reinforcement from the toot of a weld to its face. processes.
TIG Wcl,ding'" See Gas Tungsten Atc Welding. Welding Rod A form of welding filler metal, normally pack-
aged in straight lengths, that does not conduct electrical current.
Toe of Weld See Weld Toe.
Weldment An assembly whose component parts are joined
Torch Brazing A brazing process in which the heat required
by welding.
is furnished by a fuel gas flame.
Whipping· A term applied to an inward and upward move-
Tungsten Electrode See Blecrrode.Tungsten Electrode.
rnent of the electrode that is employed in vertical welding to
Ultimate Tenslle Strength'" The maximum tensile stress that
avoid undercut.
will cause a material to break (usually expressed in pounds per
Wire Welding'" See Gas Metal Arc Welding.
square inch).
Workpiece Connection The connection of the work lead to
Unde.rbead Crack A era k in the heat-affected zone gener-
ally not extending to the surface of the base metal. the work.
WorJ(piece Lead the electrical conductor between the .
Undercut A groove melted into tb base l'lll~l adjacent to
source of arc welding current and the work.
the toe Orroot or.a weld and left unfilled by weld metal.
tinde:rfill A depresstcn on the face of the weld dr
root sur-
face extended below the surface of the adjacent base metal.
UpWU Welding· A pipe welding term indicating that the
welds are made ftom the bottom of the pipe to the top of the
A-2.0RGANIZATIONS
j pipe/fhe pipe is not rotated. INVOLVED WITH WELDING
VA-E'" YVlUallyacceptable external inspection of a weld. AA .(\lumln.umAssoclatiou, 900 19th St. N.W., Sui.te300,Wash-
.,Vertical J,»ositio:n "The position of welding in whicb the axis tngton, DC 20006.Ao industry asseclation of producers of alu'
Of tllcweld Js app oxinHltely vertical. rnmum.The association'S aim is to increase understanding of the .
Weave nead' A type of weld bead made with transverse os- aluminum industry and to provide technlca l,statistical, and mat-
dlll!~ion. , '. ketlng Information,
APPENDIX
AAR Association of American Railroads, 1920 L Street, N. W, org. An engineering society that, among other things, publishes
Washington, DC 20036. An industry association of railroads. the boiler and pressure vessel code. Section IX is the welding
Among other things, it publishes specifications for rolling stock qualification section of this code.
and welding qualifications. ASM International American Society for Metals, Materials
AAsHTO American Association of State Highway Transporta- Park,OH 44073.(216) 338-5151;www.asm-intl.org.A technical
tion Offictats, Suite 341, National Press Building,Washington, DC society that seeks to advance the knowledge of metals and ma-
20045. An association of state transportation officiids.AASHTO terials, their engineering, design, processing, and fabricating
through research, education, and dissemination of information.
iSsues various standards and speciJications.
ABET Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, ASQC American Society for Quality Control, Inc., 161 West
345 East 47th Street, NewYork,NY 10017.The official board that Wisconsin Avenue, Milwaukee, WI 53203. An engineering soci-
accreditates college and university engineering programs. ety that seeks to create, promote, and stimulate interest in the
advancement and diffusion of knowledge of the science of con-
ABS American Bureau of Shipping, 45 Eisenhower Drive, Para-
trol and its application to the quality of industrial products,
mus, NJ 07653. (201) 368-9110.A nonprofit classification soci-
ety. Classificatton is a service for shipowners to establish that ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials, 1916 Race
the ship has been built to recognized standards. ABS provides Street, Philadelphia, PA 19103; www.astm.org. A scientific and
nlles for building ships and issues approvals for welding filler technical organization for standards, materials, products, and
systems. It is the world's largest source of voluntary consensus
1l1etals.
standards.
AFS American Foundrymen's Society, Golf and Wolf Roads,
Des Plaines, IL 60016. A technical society devoted to the ad- AWl American Welding Institute, 10628 Dutchtown Road,
vancement of manufacture and use of castings through re- Knoxville,TN 37932.(61.5) 675-2150.A nonprofit development
and technology transfer organization devoted to welding.
search, education, and dissemination of technology.
AWl Australian Welding Institute, Eagle House, 118 Alfred
t\IA Aerospace Industries Association of America, 1725 De
Sales Street, N.W,Washington, DC 20036.A national indu try as- Street, Milson's Point, N.S.W,AustraJia 2061.The national weld-
SOciation of companies engaged in the research, development, ing society of Australia.
and manufacture of aerospace systems, missiles, and astronauti- AWS American Welding Society, 550 N.W. Lejeune Road, P.O.
cal vehicles, and their propulsion of control units or associated Box 351040, Miami, FL 33126. (305) 443-9353; www.amweld.
equipment. org. A nonprofit technical society organized and founded for
AlSC American Institute of Steel Construction, No.1, East the purpose of advancing the art and science of welding. The
Wacker Drive, Suite 3100, Chicago, IL 60601.(312) 670-2400. AWS publishes codes and standards concerning all phases of
An industry association of fabricated structural steel producers. welding and the Welding fournal; www.aws.org.
NsC provides design information and standards pertaining to AWWA American WaterWorks Association, 6666 West Quincy
strUctunll steel. Avenue, Denver, CO 80235. An industry association of water
companies and companies serving the water supply industry; It
AlSI American lron and Steel Institute, 1101 17 Street, N.W,
publishes numerous standards, several in cooperation witl.. AWS.
Washington, DC 20036.www.steel.org.Anindustry association
of the iron and steel producers. It provides statistics on steel pro- BSI British Standard lnstitutlon, 2 Park Street, London, Bngland.
dUction and use, and publishes the steel products manuals. A nonprofit concern.The principal object Is-to coordlnat the ef..
forts of producers andusers for-the improvement, standardiza-
~SI American National Standards Institute, 1430 Broadway,
tion, and simplification of engineering and industrial material;
N"ewYork,NY 10018;www.ansLorg.ANSI is f()rmerly the United
States of America Standards Insnrute (USASl), formerly the CDA Copper Development Association, 260 MadisonAvenue,
American StandardAssociation (ASA).ANSI is the U.S.represen- New York, NY 10016. (800) 232-3282. A trade asso ·jation of
tative to ISO. This nonprofit corporation publishes National copper producers, Publishes standards of commercial and cop:
Standards in cooperation with technical and engineering soci- per mill products and standard d slgnations for copper and
eties, trade associations, and government agencies. copper alloys. , .
~ST American Society for Nondestructive Testillg~ 4153 Ax·' eGA·' Compressed Gas ASsociatiO~1)500FI:ftbAvenlJe, New
hngate Plaza, Caller #28519, Columbus, OH 43~28. (614) York, NY 10036.1\ nonprofit membership asso tat on and tech-
274-6003. The purpose of this engineering society js SCientific nlcal organization interested in both adequate data and sound
and ecltlcational, directed toward the advancement of theory utilization for gases.
and Pr'<lctice of nondestructive test :methods for tmproved prod- CSA anadtan 'tandurds Assoctauon, J 78 Rexdale 13ou1vartl,
llct qUality and reliability. Rexdale, Ontario, Canada M9W lR"A National Asso illti,on Qf·
Technical emrnittees to~proVjd"a natj()ri~tl stalldardi~ing body
~l .. American Petroleum Institute, 1801 K Str~et,Wash~ngton,
C 20006. An association of the petroleum Industry; it pub- for Canada. It publishes many standards Involving we}(;ling. ,'. ,',
Ush . . .. .. CWBCaMdian Welding Bureau, 25 ' Merton St.reet./{'Qrnt , .
CS various standards involved with welding inducting cross-
Oll~try pip line welding, stora.ge tanks, and line pip , Ontario, Cl!t1<ldaM S 1J\9.A dlvision ()f the C A, its ptir.,pos ls
i\ll.llA Amedcan Railway EllgineeringAss()Ci~ttion, 59 East Van to p.rovide the.o essary codes and standHfds oy ring- aU ..
Ihll'n Street, Chicago, It 60605, An engine ring society dla.t, phases of weldi ng, ,and til gu{dan e of fabrlcatorS d sign'r,S,ll:r.
J
~~OUgh C01Tlmittees,develops standards applicable to railroads." .

chitects, co.tlslllting~ngilleer6i~ and{torel'u,m .ntru depat'tm~nts •.
eral of these l.twolve welding. !
DVS DeutscherVerJjandftttScll'w!'els~te'~tiil.ik e.V:: 4aclietlel' "
~Mn American Society of Mechan.ical Engine rs) 345 'East Stl,158ft 172; Po 'I;fach27 '2', D-4000 D,~sseltlorf 1.'I'h Gel'nnm
th Street.,NewYork,NY 10017.(212) 705-7740; www.asolc. Welding So iCty,
EWI Edison Welding Institute, 1250 Arthur E. Adams Dr., chinery. Publishes standards and industry statistics including
Columbus,OH 43221. (614) 688-5000; www.ewi.org.A non- welding.
profit applied engineering center dedicated to welding and re- NFPA National Fire Protection Association, 470 Atlantic AV-
lated joining technologies. enue, Boston, MA 02210. An organization dedicated to pro-
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission, 3 rue de moting the science and improving the methods of fire
Varernbe (or PO Box 131),1211 Geneva, 20, Switzerland.Inter- protection. NFPA publishes the National Electrical Code.®
national organization that writes specifications for electrical The code provides safety installation information for welding
machinery that are adopted as national standards by various machines.
countries. NiDI Nickel Development Institute, 214 King Street West,
IIW International Institute of Welding. Contact your local Suite 51O,Toronto, M5H 356. Onto Canada. (416) 591-7999.An
welding society. An international society of national associa- organization of nickel producers that provides technical infor-
tions to promote the development of welding and assist in the mation concerning nickel and metals containing nickel corro-
international standards for welding in collaboration with the sion resistance and welding.
ISO. Contact CSA (Canada) or AWS (US). NWSA NationalWelding Supply Association, 1900Arch Street,
ILZRO International Lead Zinc Research Organization, 2525 Philadelphia, PA 19103. (215) 264-3484. An industry associa-
Meridian Parkway, Durham, NC 27713. (919) 361-4647. Inter- tion of welding supply distributors.
national organization that promotes the use of lead and zinc PFI Pipe Fabrication Institute, 1326 Freeport Road, Pittsburgh,
through research and technical information. PA 15238. An association of the pipe-fabricating industry.
IMA International MagnesiumAssociation, 1303 Vincent Place, PLCA Pipe Line Contractors Association, 2800 Republic Na-
Suite 1, McLean,VA 22101-3615. (703) 442-8888. International tional Bank Building, Dallas, TX 75201. An industry association
organization of magnesium producers that promotes the use of of contractors that builds underground pipelines, especially
magnesium. Provides technical information about magnesium. cross-country pipelines.
ISO International Organization for Standardization, Paris, RWMA Resistance Welder Manufacturers Association, 1900
France, is a worldwide federation of national standards insti- Arch Street, Philadelphia, PA 19103. www.rwma.org.An asso-
tutes, Contact CSA (Canada) or AWS (US). ciation of manufacturers of resistance welding equipment. Es-
ITA International Titanium Association, 1871 Folsom St, Suite tablishes standards for welding equipment and procedure
100, Boulder, CO 80302-5791. (303) 443-7515; www.titanium. information.
mg. Formerly the Titanium DevelopmentAssociation. Promotes SAE Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., 400 Common-
the use of titanium. Provides technical information concerning wealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15086. An engineering society
welding. with the objective of promoting the arts, sciences, standards,
}IS Japanese Industrial Standards, 1-24 Akasaka, 4-chome, Mi- and engineering practices connected with the design, con-
natoku, Tokyo 107, Japan. The Japanese Standards Association struction, and utilization of self-propelled mechanisms, prime
publishes standards, including metals and welding filler metals. movers, components thereof, and related equipment.
Lloyd's Register of Shipping Trust Corp., Inc . SFSA Steel Founders' Society of America, 20611 Center Ridge
71 Fenchurch Street, London EC3M 4BS, England. This society Road, Rocky River, OH 44116.The Steel Founders' Society is an
was established to obtain for the use of merchants, shipowners, assoctatlon of companies engaged in the manufacture of steel
and underwriters a faithful and accurate classification of mer- castings. It publishes technical bulletins, the Steel Castings
cantile shopping, The society approves design, surveys, appara- Handbook and the Journal Of Steel Castings Research.
tus, and material. SPFA Steel Plate Pabricators Association, 2400 South Downing
MCAA Mechanical Contractors Association of America, 5530 Avenue, Westchester, IL 60154. (708) 562-8750.A nonprofit in-
Wisconsin Avenue, N.W"Washington, DC 20015. Formerly Heat- dustry association of metal plate fabricators.
ing, Piping and Air-Condltiontng Contractors National Associa- TWI The Welding Institute, Abington HaU, Cambridge, En-
tion. A trade association of contractors in the piping, heating, gland CBI 6AL UK. A professional institute to further the ex"
and air-conditioning business. It sponsors the National Certified change of technical knowledge through meetings, publications,
Pipe WeldJng Bureau, a library and information service, and courses in its School of
NllBPVl National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspec- Welding Technology Its research diviston provides research 011
tors, 1055 rupper Drive, Columbus, OH 43229. An organiza- welding.
,tion of chief boiler inspectors of the states ..a~, cities in the UL Underwriters' Laborarones, Inc., 207 East Ohio Street,
United Stares and provinces of Canada. The natioh(Q board en- Chicago, IL 60611.The Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc., is a 11011-
forces the various sections of the ASME boiler code. profit organizatlon that operareslaboratorles for the examina'
NCIJWB .Natlonal Certified Pipe Welding Bur au, 5530 Wis- tion and testing of devices, systems, and materials. It publfshee
ccnslnAvenue, S'IJite7501 Washington, DC 20015.A division of standards for safety for oxyfuel gas torches, regulators, gauges,
.the Mechanical Contractors Asso tatton of America, Inc. Its pur- acetylene generators, transformer-type arc wel~11g machines,
pose is to develop and test procedures and, through its local and many other items.
hapter .to stabltsh. pools of workers qualified to weld 1111det WPM< Welding Des;tgn and Fabdcatio11, Penton PubJishitlg,
th~scpr9cedure~. I1POSupedor Avemle,Cleveland .OH 441l4~2543. 016)
..NE.~ NationE.1ectrical Manufacturers Association, 1300 696-7000.A monthlymagazlne devoted to welding and 'associ-
N.17th. sr., Rosl'tyn, VA 22209. (70,) 841~,200; www.nema. ated processes. The January issue each year contains a buyer'S
org. An inc;lustry association of ,mannfacturers of eJectrl al rna- guide of welding equipment, mgtertals, and supplies.
.'<-- :
APPENDIX
WRc Welding Research Council, 345 East 47th Street, New parameters for automatic welding machines, and others
York, NY 10017. (212) 705-7080. A nonprofit association or- program welding robots.
ganized to provide a mechanism for conducting cooperative re-
search work in the welding field. Expert Systems
A variety of expert systems are available to help establish
welding parameters for different situations. These are
A-3 COMPUTER SOFTWARE based on the needs for the particular weld joint. The in-
In order for a computer to perform any calculations or do formation is stored to establish the parameters for mak-
any work, it must be programmed. To accomplish this a ing such a weld.
computer must be loaded with software or a program.
This is usually accomplished by loading a CD-ROM into
the computer. CD stands for compact disc and ROM
Calculations
means read-only memory. The disc programs the com- Numerous programs provide calculations for determin-
puter memory to produce the type of data requested.The ing the weld metal required for a particular joint or total
programs must be compatible with the hardware, with weldment.With the input of cost information they can ac-
the operating system, and with each other. Once the soft- tually calculate the cost for each joint or weldment.
Ware is installed and operating properly, it does the job
for which the computer was designed. Software that pro-
Vides a multitude of jobs are available from many differ-
Welding Procedure Programs
ent sources. Different software packages can be designed These software packages provide methods for making dif-
for a variety of tasks that relate to welding. ferent welds and also record the different welding proce-
Some of the many different programs of interest to dures available as well as their requirements and their
the welding industry are: tests. Welding procedures can be completely docu-
mented and stored according to a type of metal and the
Design Programs
particular code involved.These are then matched to indi-
Structural Design-related to AWS structural code
vidual welders who have taken qualification tests at
Pressure Vessel Design-related to ASMESection IX different times.This ellmtnates the duplication of proce-
Pressure Piping Design-related to ASME codes dures and keeps track of welders and when they should
Design to Transfer Loads Effectively update their test program.
Weld Details for All Joints
Base Metal Specifications for All Pieces Ava ilable Programs
Many programs are available from the different .ompa-
Design Analysis Software nies that produce welding software. Some of the more
Many programs allow the designer to analyze the design. popular welding programs are as follows:
These are caUed Finite Element Analysis (FEA) programs. Arc Line Welclbcst
Some of them look at the design from all points of view, Ar~Works We1dcost
to find a better way of designing the part, eliminate
Auto CAD Welderqual
pieces, and reduce the number of thicknesses of material.
Some of the programs impose theoretical stresses to re- FFWeld Weldgen
veal stress concentrations and overloaded joints. Other Filler Metal Data Manager Welding'co-ordinator.
programs may apply hydraulic loads or fatigue or re- NDTSpec Welding Pro-writer
Peated loads. Many different programs can be applied to Turbo WeJdoUar
reveal welding design weaknesses to obtain the optimum WddSpec WeJdpec Plus
deSign.
Weld·it
Ulldoubtedly other programs not melitjOtied be~e
Computer ..Assisted could be extremely useful and ttme sa,vu,lS:l tor the avt;:rage
Manufacturing (CAM) welding operation. '. -
Marry programs ar available to help provid input into
different manufacturing tools. The program for nesting
Pat:ts fora\ltQmatic shape cutting is very popular. These
Programs go so far as to set conditions such as travel
speeds and gas pressures based on type and thickness of
rnaterJal betngcut. Some programs establish the welding
Applied Production, Inc. 200 Technical Center Drive, Suite of technical information. The Internet is a vast store of in-
202, Milford Center, OH 45150. (513) 831-8800; www. formation available 24 hours a day anywhere in the
appliedproduction.corn
world. To take advantage of this information it is neces-
Baysinger Engineered Software Technology 11660 N. Placita sary to have a computer with a high-speed Internet con-
Marcela,Marana,AZ 85653. (520) 682-6383
nection and knowledge of how to use the Internet. The
CanadianWelding Bureau 7250 West CreditAvenue, Mississauga, Internet is a network of millions of computers linked by
ON L5N 5Nl, Canada. (905) 542-1312; fax (905) 542-1318; the world's telecommunication system.The following is a
www.cwbgroup.com
brief description of how it can be used to connect you to
Codeware 11221 Richmond, Suite C-103, Houston, TX 77082.
the worldwide source of welding information.
(713) 497-5705;www.codeware.com
Those computers that are set up to supply informa-
Computer Engineering, Inc. PO. Box 1657, Blue Springs, MO tion are called servers. Servers connect to each other to
64013. (800) 473-1976; fax (816) 228-0680; www.
form networks. The client is a computer that allows con-
computereng.com
nections to information services over the network. The
Computers Unlimited 2407 Montana Avenue, Billings, MT
World Wide Web (WWW) is a collection of protocols
59101-2336. (406) 255-9500; fax (406) 255-9595
(rules) and standards used to access the information avail-
C-spec (TWI) 1855 Gateway Boulevard, Suite 700, Concord, CA
able. Each Web site has a unique address, such as http://
94520. (925) 930-8223; fax (925) 930-8223; www.cspec.com
www.AWS.org,which is the address of the American Weld-
EdisonWelding Institute 1250 Arthur E.Adams Dr., Columbus,
ing Society. The specific address is called a uniform re-
OH 43221. (614) 486-9400; fax (614) 486-9258; www.ewi.org
source locator (URL). It typically starts as httpv'/www.
Engineering Systems Int'l. Corporation 570 Kirts Boulevard,Suite
plus the URi. For example http.z/www.weldlng.org is the
231,Troy,MI48084. (248) 362-4466;www.esi-group.com
Web site or address of the Hobart Institute of Welding
Genesis Systems Group 8900 Harrison Street, Davenport, IA
Technology. This site offers extensive information regard-
52806. (563) 445-5600; www.genesis-systems.com
ing its welding skill training classes, technical programs,
The Lincoln Electric Company, Cleveland, OR 44117-1199.
certification, and more.
(216) 481-8100; fax (216) 486-1751; www.Iincolnelectric.com
An extension to the URL provides additional infor-
Measurement Masters,Inc. 711 West 17th Street, Building E-l1,
mation. For example" .edu" indicates an educational insti-
Costa Mesa,CA92627. (714) 631-6950.
tution, ".org" stands for a nonprofit organization, ".gov"
Microcomputer'Iechnology Consultants Ltd.PO. Box 467,Bew-
stands for a government department, and" .corn" is a com-
ley Building, Suite 342, Lockport, NY 14095-0467. (716)
433-7722; fax (716) 433-1554. mercial site. The www protocol covers most types of in-
formation, including multimedia, and the method of
Miller Electric Manufacturing Co. 1535 West Spencer Street,
communication. To enable a user (you) to gain access to
Appleton, WI 45912-1079. (404) 735-4055; www.
millerwelcls.com the Internet, an account is required with a service
Penton Education Division 1100 Superior Avenue, Cleveland, provider. WIlen you log onto the provider's server, its soft-
OR 441.14. (800) 321-7003; fax (216) 696-4369; www. ware will allow you to browse the Internet, accessing and
penton. com retrieving information from various servers at Web sites.
SDRC,2000 Eastman Drive, Milford,OH 45150. (513) 576-2400; The amount of information on the Web is virtually
www.ugs.com limitless. Finding what you are seeking can be clifficuJt
Servo-Robot Inc. 1380 Graham Bell, Boucherville, PQJ4B 61-15 and time consuming. Search engines create a Web site
Canada. (514) 655-4223; fax (514) 655-4963 database of key words that is indexed and continually up-
Weaver Engineering (Weldment Design Engineering) 1219West dated. There are many search engines. Most provide ser-
Gate Avenue North, #210, Seattle,WA 98109. (206) 352-8027; vice free. Some popular ones are:
www.weavereng.com www.yahoo.com
For more information on this subject contact www.lycos.com
Chri Pollack at AWS headquarters. He is the Secretary www.Infoseek.com
of the Committee on Computerization ofW~ldillg Infor- wwwwebmasteresaws.org
<,
rnation, '\ www.altavtsta.corn
www.excite.com
www.hotbot.com
A..4 INFORMATION SOURCES www.googlc.com
USING A COMPUTER www.dogplle.corn
Recent innovations have opened up a vast storehouse of
infQt'mation for the welding industry. Gettii1g on the. In-
ternet is like tapping Into the 'world's biggest +ibrary, the,
world's bisgest catalog, and the world's largest collection
Once in the search engine Site, type in the key word or
name of inform~ltionyou are seeking. With a little exper,l:
ence you will soon be able to find much more il1forn:tw
tion on welding than you requlre.
I
1
694 .' APPENDIX

The following search categories are used in the The American Welder-www.aws.org
welding industry: The Fabricator-www.fmanetfab.org
Gases and Welding Distributor-wwwpenton.com
1. Associations, societies, and institutes
Practical Welding Toaay-www.fmanetfab.org
2. Education and training
3. Welding publications The list of materials-joining software, category 4, is
4. Materials-joining software similar to the companies shown in Appendix A- 3. They
5. Materials-joining standards should all be checked in order to make your best selec-
6. Commercial companies that sell welding equip- tion.Again, a search engine will be helpful.
Category 5 is a list of standards produced by differ-
ment and services
ent engineering and technical societies relating to weld-
Dnder category 1, the following are some of those listed: ing. A handy search engine is available here: www.
AWS.org-American Welding Society cssinfo.com. Documents can be ordered online in print
ASTM.org-American Society for Testing and Mate- format, and many are available for downloading.
Category 6 is a listing of companies with Web sites
rials
that provide a catalog of the products of that particular
ANS1.org-National Standards Institute
company. In many cases the URLis www.,followed by the
NWSA.com-National Welding Supply Association company name, followed by .com.These addresses are for
EWI.org-Edison Welding Institute some of the larger welding companies:
iiw-iis.org- International Institute of Welding
www.esab.com
TWI.co.uk- The Welding Institute (United King-
www.hobartwelders.com
dom)
www.jetline.com
See Appendix A- 2 for names of other organizations and
www.lincoinelectric.com
their Internet addresses. You can also use a search engine
such as www.ewi.org/resources to locate organizations. www.millerwelds.com
Under category 2, education and training, use a www.nationalstandard.com
search engine to find the institution in which you are in- www.thermadyne.com
terested. www.webmaster@aws.org
Under category 3 are the following journals pub-
lished in the United States (and there are others): Use one of the search engines and click on
"general sites" to find welding machines, sites such as
Welding }ournal-www.aws.org
suppliersonline.com, or whatever you are looking f01'.
Welding Design and Fabrication-www.penton.com
A-5 CONVERSION INFORMATION
Length, or Distance Speed Conversion Flow Rate-Liquid Measure

Approximate Conversion Approximate Conversion
Travel Distance Gas Flow Liquid Measure

mm Inch/Min mm/Min Miles km Cu. ftlHr. Liters/Min Gal. Liters
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0
10 5 1 5
5 10
2 25 500 2
10 15 5
1000 20 3 50
15 25
50 4
30 10
2 1500 20 5
35
75 25 40 6 100
2000 45
3 30 15 7
50
100 2500 55 8
35
60 9 150
4 3000 40 65
125 10
70
3500 45 75 - 11
5 150 50 80 25 12
4000 85
14 55 90 13
6 175 4500 60 95 14
15 (4~~lG)
16 1/4 100 15
5000 65 105
17 10 250 200 110 16
70 35
18 300 115 - 17
19 350 75 120 18
125
20 16 400 80 40 19
130
21 18 450 135 20
85
22 20 500 140 21
23 90 145 45
22 550 22
150
24 24 600 95 155 23
25 100 160 50
Exact Conversion Exact Conversion
For use with electronic

25.40 [8J _ in El_mrn For use with electronic 0.4719 [8]- cu ftlhr [§]_Umin
calculators. First enter
304.8 [8]- ft El_mm calculators. First enter 2.119 [8J _ Urnin §]_ cu ftlhr
the conversion constant the conversion constant
. number. Press the [8J
.0393 [8]- mm 0- in number. Press the [8]
.00328 f&I- mm EJ- ft 3.785L81_ gal/min 0- Um;n
button. Enter the button. Enter the
known quantity of the 0.264 [8J ~ Umln §] _ gal/min
.0621 L81_ km known quantity of the
El_mi
dimension. Press the 0.
The desired value of the
1.609 a.,
mi El_km dirnensi~n. Press the 0. 645.2 [8] in2 @]_ mm2
T.he de~lred ~alue of the 0.00155 [8]_ mm2 0 _ inZ
dimension will appear dimenslon will appear
on the display.
.4233 181-- in/min §] _ mm
2.362 [8J _ mm/s [§] _ in/min on the display.
"\
'.; ,
Weight-Pressure-Load
Approximate Conversion
Weight Pressure Load Load

Ibs. KG Ib./in.2 KG/CM2 o Ib.lin.2 KG/MM2 ksi MPa
1 0 1 0 1,000 1 0
5 5,000 100
10,000
5 200
10
Pressure
300
Ib./in.2 kPa 10
50 400
100 15 500
150
600
200
250 700
40
300
50 800
350 120
60 65,000 130
70 70,000 140
70
75 75,000 150
75
80 80 80,000 160
80
85 85,000 170
90 85
90 90,000 180
90
100 95,000 190
95 95
100 100,000 200
100
Exact Conversion Metric Prefixes

2 2 Exponential
For use with electronic 000703181- Ib.lln. @]_ kg/mm
calculators. First enter 6.8947181- Ib.lin. 2 0- Kilopascal (kPa) Expression Multiplication Factor Prefix Symbol
the Conversion constant 0.006695 181- Ib.lin.2 §J- Megapascal (MPa) 1012 . . tara T
10 ...................... 1000000000000
nUmber. Press the 1&1 0.07030181- Ib.lin.2 0- kg/cm22 10 9 ..................... ,...... 1000000000 glga G
button. Enter the 14.2234181_ kg/cm2 0- Ib.lin.2 10 6 .................................. 1000000 mega M
k~own quantity of the 1422.34 181_ kg/mm2 0- Ib.lln. (PSI) 103 .................................. ,..... 1000 kilo k
dimension. Press the 0. 181_ kg/mm2 § - Pascal (Pa) 102 ............. ,............................. 100 hecto' h
10- ..... ,...................................... 10 deka~ de
T~e desired value of the 181_ kg/mm2 0 - Kilopascal (kPa) 1
dimension will appear 0.00145 18l- kPa 0- Ib.lin.2 (PSI) 10- .......................................... 0.1 dec!* d
2
10- .........................................0.01 cent!" c
On the display. 0.145 181- kPa @)- Ib./in.2 (PSI)
[8)_ kPa S_ kg/mm2 10-3 ...................................... 0.001 milli m
181- Pa [§] _ kg/mm2 10-6 ................................ 0.000001 micro IJ·
912 ........................... 0.000000001 nano n
4.448 18l- Ib EJ_ Newton (N) 10- 15' .................... 0.000000000001 pico P
9.807 181- kg §_ Newton (N) 10-
1 .18· ..............0.000000000000001 . femto f
•2248 18J _ N §J - lb. 0- ........., 0.000000000000000001 a.tto a
.1009 [81- N §_ kg· ,Rarely
0.4536 181- lb. a., kg
Used in Weldings
2.205 181- kg § - lb.
Temperature-Impact Values
Approximate Conversion
Impact Values Impact Values Impact Values
Temperature Temperature Charpy V-Notch Charpy V-Notch Charpy V-Notch
of °C °C ft.-lb. Joule ft.-lb. kg m ft.-lb. kg m/cm
-40 0 -0
500
300 -30 10 1 1
600 10 10 10
0 -20 2
700 20 2
400 -10 3
800 20 20 20
32 0 30 3
900 4
500 50 10
1,000 30 40 30 4 30 5
20
600 30 6
50 5
1,200 100 40 40 40 40 7
700 50 60 6 8
1,400 60 50 50 50
150 70 7 9
800 70 10
1,600 80 60 80 60 8
900 11
200 90 9
90 70 12
1,800 1,000 212 100 70 70
110 100 10 13
2,000 250 120 80 14
- 1,100 80 80 11
130 110 15
140 12 90
2,200 1,200 90 120 90 16
300 150 17
13 100
1,300 160 130
2,400 100 100 18
170 14
350 - 180 140 110 19
1,400
2,600 110 110 15
190 150 20
1,500 200 16 120 21
2,800 400 120 160 120
210 22
1,600 17 130
220 170 23
3,000 130 130
450 230 18 24
180 140
240
140 140 19 25
250 190 150 26
500 260 20
270 150 200 150 27
21 160 28
280 210
550 160 160 22 29
170
220 30
170 23
170
Exact Conversion _oFB 32 [§] r&l .555@l_oC

_oCr&l 1.8 @l 1±1 32 @l_oF
For use with electronic
calculators. First enter
0.1383 r&l-ft.-Ib. @l - kg-m
the conversion constant 7.233 r&l - kg·m @l _ ft.-lbs,
number. Press the r&l
button. Enter the
known quantity of the
1.356 r&l-ft.-Ib. 0_ Joule
.7376 r&l- Joule @l _ ft.-Ibs .
dimension. Press the @J.
The desired value of the .8 lEl-kg-m @)-kg-m/cm
dimension will appear 0.1728 r&l_ft.-Ib. @] _ kg-m/cm2
on the display. 5.787 I&l_. kg-m/cm2@l_ft.-lb.
A-6 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
Impact Values. Sometimes metric values are kg-m/cm2; if so, multiply by 0.8 (area under notch).
-
Foot- Kilogram- Foot- Kilqgram- Fobt- Kilogram-
Pounds Pounds Meters Joules Pounds Meters Joules
~ Meters Joules
35 4.84 47.46 69 9.54 93.56
1 0.14 1.36
36 4.98 48.82 70 9.68 94.92
2 0.28 2.71
37 5.12 50.17 71 9.82 96.28
3 0.42 4.07
38 5.25 51.53 72 9.95 97.63
4 0.55 5.42
39 5.39 52.88 73 10.09 98.99
5 0.69 6.78
40 5.53 54.24 74 10.23 100.34
6 0.83 8.14
41 5.67 55.60 75 10.37 101.70
7 0.97 9.49
42 5.81 56.95 76 10.51 103.06
8 1.11 10.85
43 5.95 58.31 77 10.65 104.41
9 1.24 12.20
44 6.08 59.66 78 10.78 105.77
10 1.38 13.56
45 6.22 61.02 79 10.92 107.12
11 1.52 14.92
16.27 46 6.36 62.38 80 11.06 108.48
12 1.66
17.63 47 6.50 63.73 81 .11.20 109.84
13 1.80
18.98 48 6.64 65.09 82 11.34 111.19
14 1.94
20.34 49 6.78 66.44 83 11.48 112.55
15 2.07
21.70 50 6.91 67.80 84 11.61 113.90
16 2.21
23.05 51 7.05 69.16 85 11.75 115.26
17 2.35
24.41 52 7.19 70.51 86 11.89 116.62
18 2.49
25.76 53 7.33 71.87 87 12.03 117.97
19 2.63
27.12 54 7.47 73.22 88 12.17 119.33
20 2.77
55 7.60 74.58 89 12.31 120.68
21 2.90 28.48
56 7.74 75.94 90 12.44 122.04
22 3.04 29.83
57 7.88 77.29 91 12.58 123.40
23 3.18 31.19
58 8.02 78.65 92 12.72 124.75
24 3.32 32.54
59 8.16 80.00 93 12.86 126.11
25 3.46 33.90
60 8.30 81.36 94 13,00 127.46
26 3.60 35.26
61 8.43 82.72 95 13.13 128.82
27 3.73 36.61
62 8.57 84.07 96 13.27 130.18
28 3.87 37.97
63 8.71 85.43 97 13.41 131.53
29 4.01 39.32
64 8.85 86.78 98 13.55 132.89
30 4.15 40.68
65 8.99 88,14 99 13.69 134.24
31 4.29 42.04
66 9.13 89.50 100 13.83 135.60
32 4.42 43.39
67 9.26 90.85
33 4.56 44.75
34 68 9.40 92.21
4,70 46.10
Wire Gauge Diameter
U.S. Steel Diameter .. U.S, Steel Diameter U.S. Steel Diameter

Wire Wire Wire
Gauge No. in. mm Gauge No. in. mm Gauge No. in. mm
7/05 0.4900 12.447 11 0.1205 3.0607 28 0.0162 0.4115
6/05 0.4615 11.7221 12 0.1055 2.6797 29 0.0150 0.381
5/05 0.4305 10.9347 13 0.0915 2.3241 30 0.0140 0.3556
4/05 0.3938 10.0025 14 0.0800 2.032 31 0.0132 0.3353
3/05 0.3625 9.2075 15 0.0720 1.8389 32 0.0128 0.3251
2/05 0.3310 8.4074 16 0.0625 1.5875 33 0.0118 0.2997
0 0.3065 7.7851 17 0.0540 1.3716 34 0.0104 0.2642
1 0.2830 7.1882 18 0.0475 1.2065 35 0.0095 0.2413
2 0.2625 6.6675 19 0.0410 1.0414 36 0.0090 0.2286
3 0.2437 6.1899 20 0.0348 0.8839 37 0.0085 0.2159
4 0.2253 5.7226 21 0.0317 0.8052 38 0.0080 0.2032
5 0.2070 5.2578 22 0.0286 0.7264 39 0.0075 0.1905
6 0.1920 4.8768 23 0.0258 0.6553 40 0.0070 0.1778
7 0.1770 4.4958 24 0.0230 0.5842 41 0.0066 0.1678
8 0.1620 4.1148 25 0.0204 0.5182 42 0.0062 0.1575
9 0.1483 3.7668 26 0.0181 0.4597 43 0.0060 0.1524
10 0.1350 3.429 27 0.0173 0.4394 44 0.0058 0.1473
Metric Conversion
',';; ','
...
Inch: Inch: , Inch: Inch: Inch: Inch:
Fra~tidn Oeci ml':lI , , Millimeter Fraction Decimal ' Millimeter Fraction Millimeter
- ~
.'
0.0158 0.3969 it 0.3437 8.7312 t!
Decimal
0.6719 17.0656
-
~ 0.0312 0.7937 H 0.3594 9.1281 17.4625
i4
~
0.0469
0.0625
1.1906
1.5875 H
i 0.375
0.3906
9.525
9.9219 ~
*H 0.6875
0.7031
0.7187
17.8594
18.2562
/;. 0.0781 1.9844 H 0.4062 10.3187
~
7
iii
0.0937
0.1094
2.3812
2.7781
it
7
TlJ
0.4219
0.4375
10.7156
11.1125
*ai 0.7344
0.750
0.7656
18.6532
19.050
19.4469
iT 0.125 3.175 H 0.4531 11.5094 H 0.7812 19.8433
14 0.1406 3.5719 H 0.4687 11.9062 t1 0.7969 20.2402
~ 0.1562 3.9687 it 0.4844 12.3031 ii 0.8125 20.6375
t! 0.1719 4.3656 t 0.500 12.700 H 0.8281 21.0344
1\ 0.1875 4.7625 H 0.5156 13.0968 if 0.8437 21.4312
~ 0.2031 5.1594 H 0.5312 13.4937 if 0.8594 21.8281
H
*
ii
0.2187
0.2344
5.5562
5.9531
~
0.5469
0.5625
13.8906
14.2875 H
t 0.875
0.8906
22.2250
22.6219
0.25 6.35 ~
HI 0.5781 14.6844 I 0.9062 23.0187
if* 0.2656 6.7469 i& 0.5937 15.0812 I 0.92-19 23.4156
*
fl
f6
0.2812
0.2969
0.3125
7.1437
7.5406
7.9375
*
i
0.6094
0.625
0.6406
15.4781
15.875
16.2719
ti
tl-
i!
0.9375
0.9531
23.8125
24.2094
24.6062
it. 0.3281 8.3344 *
i! 0.6562 16.6687 H
0.9687
0.9844 25.0031
-
I
~)
Geometric Formula
Areas
Parallelogram;:::: base x altitude.
Triangle;:::: half base x altitude.
Trapezoid;:::: half the sum of the two parallel sides x the perpendicular distance between them.
Regular polygon r= half of perimeter x the perpendicular distance from the center to anyone side.
Circle;:::: square of the diameter x 0.7854.
Sector of circle = number of degrees in arc x square of radius x 0.008727.
Segment of circle = area of sector with same arc minus area of triangle formed by radii of the arc and chord of the segment.
Octagon;:::: square of diameter of inscribed circle x 0.828.
Hexagon = square of diameter of inscribed circle x 0.866.
Sphere;:::: area of its great circle x 4; or square of diameter x 3.1416 (1t).
Volumes
Prism = area of base x altitude.
Wedge = length of edge plus twice length of base x one-sixth of the product of the height of the wedge and the breadth of
Its base.
Cylinder;:::: area of base x altitude.
Cone = area of base x one-third of altitude.
Sphere = cube of diameter x 0.5236.
Miscellaneous
Diameter of circle= circumference x 0.31831.
Circumference of circle > diameter x 3.1416 (rt).
low-alloy chromium steels, 409-410 Arc cutting
A low-alloy high-strength steels, 409 air carbon arc cutting, 218-220
low alloy steels, 407, 409-410, 411, carbon arc cutting, 220
Abrasion, 633 gas tungsten ar cutting, 220
413
AbraSion-resisting steel, 475 oxygen arc cutting, 218
low-manganese steels, 409
Abrasive water jet cutting, 224 plasma arc cutting, 220- 222
low-nickel chrome steels, 409
AccessibiUty, 490-494 shielded metal arc cutting, 220
low-nickel steels, 409
Acetylene, 361 Arc flash, 51
mecUwl1-alloyhardenable steels,
Acetylene feather, 166 MC length control, 330
424-426
ACidic substances, 28-29 Arc motion devices, 292
medium-carbon, low-alloy hardenable
Adaptive control welding, 23, 290, 291 all-position welding carriage, 295
steels,424
Adhesive bonding, 230-232 gantry welding machines,
quenched and tempered
epoxy adhesives, 232 constructional steels, 411 293-294
resin adhesives, 231-232 manipulator, 292-293
steel castings, 415
rubber-base adhesives, 231 super alloys, 42],424-427 side boon carriage, 293
Solvent joining of plastics, 232 welding tractor, 294
ultrahigh-strength steels, 421,
Advanced welders, 37 Arc radiation hazard, 9
424-427
Advantage of welded construction, chemical-degreasing tanks, 51-52
weatheling steels, 410
484-485 contact lenses, 49
welding, 10-415
Agglomerated method,350 eye protection, 9~51
All-position welding carriage, 295
Air acetylene welding, 22 transparent welding curtains, 51
Alpha iron, 396
Air arc cutting and gouging, 268 warning Signs, 52
Alternator-type generator, 252
Air carbon arc cutting. 218-220 Altlminum and aluminum alloys, 3, welding helmets, 49
Air Contamination hazard, 52 Arc shield, 85
429-430
enclosed areas, 54-55 aluminum-casting alloys, composition Arc spot welding, 116,665
gasses, 53-54 flux-cored ar spot welding, 668
of,434- 35
particulate matter, 52-53 al1.uninuD1~wroughtalloys, gas metal arc spot welding, 668
. Ventilation, 55-57 composition of, 432-433 gas tungsten arc spot welding,
Aircraft 666~668 .
cIlss.imilarmetals, welding to,
<':Odespecifications, 571 481-482 plug weldius,670 .
high-qUality steel, 425 filler metal choice, 437-438 shielded metal arc welding, 610 <
Air CUttime, 315 filler metal composition, 436 Arc spt"ayi.ug,228~229

Allene, 362 gas metal arc welding, 436, 441, 442 Me voltage control system, 30
AJl()trOpicchange, 39 gas tungsten arc welding, 436, 4,39, Arc weavers, 28S-2~6
AllOtropic transformation, 395~396 Arc weldlng, 21",22,
4 0
Allowable unit stress, 486 temper <i signation system, 430 activiti,esJnvqlved in. 23 ..2"
Alloy eqltilibrium diagrams, 396 welding allOYS,430,..442' it1.1tomaredweld~g; $I$e Automatic arc
Alloy steels, 3, 382-385 Alt,uninUIDbronzes, 445 welding
clll'Omlum-molybdemun steels, Amm ter,242 automatic weld,ing torches, 271
15~ ,16 carbon ar ~ lding; see urb()n at
Annealing, 238 <
high-alloy hardenable steels, 426 weldtng

Anode drop, 91
high-njckeluHtraging steels, 426 Application methods,22-24 cast irons, 46"". 6 ,
h.igh-njckel steels, 413-4.1 constant eurreet svst¢tW2,6-~ 7
Arc blow, 27, 5.95~597J
higq-sttength,low.alloy-steels, 411,
Arc bU111, 51 constMtvC?It~g $ystI:!m,2: '7~a,O'
413
consumable welding arc; see Argon, 356 Bench positioners, 296
Consumable welding arc argon plus carbon dioxide, 358 Bend, twist and tilt, 315
dissimilar metals, 481 argon plus helium, 358 Beryllium, 459
distinct level variables, 161-162 argon plus hydrogen, 358 BF method, 673
electrical circuitry, 242-246 argon plus nitrogen, 358 Blow holes, 553
electrical requirements, 245-250 argon plus oxygen, 357-358 Blowpipe, 166
electrodes, 352 plasma arc welding, 80 Boat building, 11
electrogas welding; see Electrogas Atmosphere gasses, 363-364 Boilers
welding Atomic hydrogen welding process, 7 code specifications, 570
electroslag welding; see Electroslag Atoms, 27-28 code symbol stamps, 570
welding Austenite, 398 code welding, 572-573
flux-cored arc welding; see Flux- Austenitic manganese steel, 475-476 Bonded method, 350
cored arc welding Austenitic stainless steels, 416 Brasses, 445
gas metal arc welding; see Gas metal Autogenous welding, 19,69 Brazing, 22,171
arc welding Automated welding, 23, 289-292 aluminum and aluminum alloys, 442
gas tungsten arc welding; see Gas adaptive control, 327-329 cast irons, 466
tungsten arc welding arc welding; see Automatic arc copper and copper-base alloys, 446
guns and torches, 268-271 welding dip brazing, 172
hidden arc welding, 156-157 contact sensors, 329-330 disadvantages, 179
historical development, 156 defined,291 exothermic brazing, 174
inverter welding machines, 261-264 fixtures and tooling, 333-335 filler metals, 174,353
machine installation, 265-266 flexible automation, 310-312 fluxes, 174-175,353
machine maintenance, 266 historical development, 7 furnace brazing, 172
machine selection, 264-265 noncontact sensor systems, 330-333 induction brazing, 172-173
machine specification, 265 pipe welding, 656, 659-660 infrared brazing, 174
machine types, 250-252 Automatic-adaptive control arc Welding, joint cleanliness, 179
magnetic rotating arc welding, 87, 88 291 joint designs, 175, 178
nonconsumable electrodes, 352 Automatic arc welding quality, 179
nonconsumable welding arc, 66-69 controls for, 323-327 resistance brazing, 174
plasma arc welding; see Plasma arc dedicated equipment, 304-310 torch brazing, 174-175,474
welding robots; see Arc welding robots uses, 179
primary adjustable variables, 157-159 standardized machines, 301-304 zinc-coated sheet steel, 474
process selection, 162-163 Automatic horizontal fillet welding Bridges, code specifications, 571
rectifier welding machines, 257-261 carriage, 294 Brinell hardness number, 375-376
repairing machines, 267 Automatic shape cutting, 224-227 Brittle fracture, 612-613
robots; see Arc welding robots Automatic welding; see Automated Bronze welding, 466
rotating welding machines, 252-253 welding Buildings, cocle specifications, 570
safety precautions, 42-43 Automatic welding torches, 271 Built-in brake, 113
secondary adjustable variables, Automobiles, code specifications, 571 Bulk welding, 146
159-161 Auxiliary equipment, 284 Buried are, 98
shielded metal arc welding; see arc weavers, 285-286 Burn-off rate, 93
Shielded metal arc welding nozzle cleaners, 285 Burn-through welds, 503
spot welding; see Arc spot welding portable boons, 286 Butt joints, 19, 494
stud welding; see Stud welding smoke exhaust systems, 285 Butt welding process, 644
submerged arc welding; see water coolers/circulators, 285
Submerged arc welding welding oscillators, 208,285-286
training programs, 36
transformer welding machines,
wire straighteners, 284
Axial spray, 96
c
253-257 Cables and clamps, 280-281
troubleshooting machines, 267 cable size, 281-283
variables, 157-162 power cable, 283
zinc-coated sheet steel, 474 safety considerations, 284
Arc welding robots, 312-313 Background current, 100,260 termination technique, 283
buying, 319-321 Backing materials, 352 CAD design, 510-512
controllers, 325 Back or backing welds, 18,494, 504, 543 Carbide precipitation, 415
execution of welds, 327 Base metals, 19; see also specific base arbon arc cutting, 220
manipulator ccnflguradon, 313- 316 metal. Carbon arc welding, 81-82
. memoty, 3~7 defects, 543' advantages, 82
safety consld.~tioris,321-322 welding procedure specifications, electrode holders, 82-83
teaching, 326-321 573 ' electrodes, 83
we.lding appUcatioJls, 316, 318...319 BasIc substances, 28- 29 major USeS, 82,
INDEX
Concentric wire feeders, 276 deposition rates, 343
metals weldable, 82
Concrete reinforcing bars, 470-473 flngernailing, 344
principles of operation, 82
Confined areas, 54-55 manufacture of, 340-341
twin carbon arc welding, 83
Consensus standards, 569 quality control, 343
welding circuit and current, 82
Constant current, 250 reconditioning, 342-343
Carbon dioxide, 356-357, 358
Constant potential, 250 storage of, 341
flux-cored arc welding, 132
Constant voltage, 250 Cracking, 611-612
historical development of welding,
Constitution diagrams, 396 corrosion cracking, 616
8-9 in-service cracking, 612-616
Carbon steels, 3, 381-382, 407 Construction equipment, code
specifications, 571 Cracks, 552-553
high-carbon steels, 408-409 Cradle center positioner, 299
low-carbon steels, 408 Construction industry, 10
Consumable guide tube, 151 CRE method, 674
medium-carbon steels, 408 Cross-country pipelines, 582,651
Cast irons, 463-464 Consumable inserts, 648
Consumable welding arc, 90-95 Crystals, 393
arc welding, 465-466 Cylinders; see Gas cylinders
brazing, 466 globular transfer, 97 -98
filler metals, 464 metal transfer across, 95-101
pulsed-spray transfer, 98-100
flux-cored arc welding, 467
gas metal arc welding, 466 short-circuiting transfer, 98 o
oxyfueJ gas welding, 466 spray transfer, 96-97
weld pool, 101-102 Dabber welding, 76-77
preparation for welding, 465 Dedicated automatic arc welding
Cast steels, 3 Contact atmosphere mode, 96
equipment, 304-310
Cathode drop, 91 Contact lenses, 49
Containers Defects, 550, 552-553
Cathode jet, 98
shipping containers, 572 cavities, 553-554
Cathodic etching, 67 cracks; see Cracking; Cracks
Caustic embrittlement, 616 welding on, 60-61
Continuous construction, 490 fusions, incomplete, 555-557
Cavitation wear, 633
ContinuouS welding process, 644 inclusions, 554-555
Cavities, 553-554 miscellaneous defects,558-559
Copper and copper-base alloys, 3,
Cementite, 396 shapes, imperfect, 557-558
Cer-amic ferrules, 352 442-445
Deformed steell'einforcing bars,
Ceramics, 236-237 copper, 445
copper-aluminum alloys, 445 470-473
Ceramic weld backing, 674 rigid-frame structures, 90
Certification; see Qualifying and copper-nickel aUoys,445-446
copper-nickel-zinc alloys, 446 Delta iron, 396
certifying personnel
copper-silicon alloys, 445 Dendrites, 394
. Chain cutting, 224 Deposition efficlcl:lCY,526
Chernical-degreasing tanks, 51- 52 copper-tin alloys, 445
copper-zinc alloys, 445 Design
Chemistry, 27 - 29 computer-aid d design, 51O~5l2
Chrome-nickel stainless steels, 415 copper-zinc-.lead alloys, 445
copper-zinc-tin alloys, 445 direct copy red sigo,507-510
Chromlum-molybdemun steels,
dissimilar metals, welding to, 482 factors, 485-490
415-416 fatigue of welded structur 5, 490
filler metals, composition of, 444
Clad metals, 477 -479 joints, 494, 496- 97,505-506,
gas m tal arc welding, 448
Clad steels, 477-479 648-650
gas tungsten arc welding, 4.47
Clamps; see Cables and clamps pipe welding joints, 64-8~650
welditlg,445-449
Clean flnish, 72 redesign from oth {"methods to
Cored wir welding, 127
Cleavage fracture, 623 . weldrnents, ;06-51.0 ...
Closed loop, 24, 290 Corner joints, 19,494
redesign~ro reduc ~ ,ost,5l2~51$.,
Corrosion cracking, 616
Clothing, protective, 42 rigid-,t':ramestru rures, 90
Coalescenc ,18,21 corroston wear, 633
specifications, influence of. 504-506
Coated rod backing, 674 Costs, 520-521
stress concentration, '87... 90
calclllatJon of,531-533
Coat d steels, 473 weld joints, 49 ,49 -97. 98
electrodes, 525-528
tern plate, 474 welda~·9 -496, 98-50. .'.
ftller metals, 521-525
zinc-coated sheet steel, 473-474 Design· r respoP.SiojJiry, .,50.
Code specifications, 569 ...582 fluxes, 528
labor costs, S28~530, 532
.p stt'uctive't . ring, 536",538 .
COde symbol stamps, 570 Differ nee tn porential,2 ~ ...
material costs, 528, 531
Cold shut, 545 Diffusioow Idtng,185
overhead costs, 530, 532
Cold welding, 184,-185 Dilution, 638
aluminum and aluminum alloys, 442 power costs, 531
redesign to r duce cost, 512~513 DipP-t"iI.ting;' 172
copper-and copper.b(lse alloys, 449 Djpol~bupd,23Q
sample cal<;;l1la~on:!;53il~;33 '
Composites, 236
silleldtng gasses, 528
DiP" soTCterirtj/'lSO "
Compte sed gasses. hazard, 61-62 Pip tran$~ fj 98 .
Covered el' tro tes, 104-108,339-3·0
Compression, 633 . 011' tr.ltlsfer 'W l~ling,9 .
cnr . of,341 .
Computer-aide.d design. 510- 512
,.
Direct copy redesign, 507-510 nickel-manganese electrode, 476 electroslag cladding, 152 -15 3
Direct drive, 186 nonconsumable electrodes, 352 equipment required, 150
Discontinuity, 550 shielded metal arc welding, 104-108 historical development, 9,147-148
Distortion and warpage, 543, 597-606 strip electrodes, 353 industrial use, 153
Double jointing, 653 submerged arc welding, 140-141 joint design, 149-150
Downhand,490 tandem electrode position, 146 limitations, 152
Drag angle, 125 transverse electrode position, 146 major uses, 148
Drop center positioner, 299 tungsten electrode, 80 materials used, 150-151
Drop center type, 301 welding electrode, 344 metals weldable, 148
Drop transfer, 97 wires; see Electrode wires position capabilities, 148
Dualshield, 9 Electrode stickout, 143 principles of operation, 148
Ductile-brittle transition, 454 Electrode wires safety considerations, 152
Ductile cast iron, 463 cast and helix, 349 thickness range, 149
Ductile iron, 463 cored wires, 346-347 typical applications, 153
Duplex stainless steels, 418-419 drums, 349 welding circuit and current, 150
Duty cycle, 24 electrogas welding, 155 welding variables, 152
package selection, 349 weld quality, 151
packaging of,347-349 weld schedules, 151-152
E payoff tax, 349 Employment, 33
reels, 348 outlook, 33
Eddy currents, 597 small coils, 348 statistics, 13-14,34-35
Edge distance, 197 solid wires, 344-346 Enclosed area air contamination hazard,
Edge joints, 19,494 spools, 347-348 54-55
Educator certification, 39 Electrogas welding, 9,153 Engine drives, 19
Electrical equipment, 11 application, method of, 154 Engineer certification, 38-39
Electrical shock hazard, 45-46 deposition rates, 155 Entry-level welders, 37
welding machine installation, 46-48 electrode wire, 155 Epoxy adhesives, 232
welding machine maintenance, equipment required, 154-155 Erosion, 633
48-49 industrial use, 156 Essential variables, 25
welding machine use, 48 joint design, 154 Examination of welds
Electrical steels, 476-477 limitations, 156 fluorescent-penetrant examination,
Electricity specifications, 575 metals weldable, 154 544-545
EI ctrode feed systems, 271 position capabilities, 154 magnetic particle examination,
cold wire feeder, 273-274 principles of operation, 153-154 545-546
control systems, 274 safety constderations, 156 penetrant examination, 544
planetary type wire feeders, 276-278 thickness range, 154 radiographic examination, 546-548
powder feeders, 278 tips for using, 155-156 ultrasonic examination, 548-550
spool guns, 272~273 typical applications, 156 visual examination; see Visual
wire drive mechanisms, 274-276 welding circuit and current, 154 inspections
wire feeder maintenance, 280 weld quality, 155 Exothermic brazing, 174
wire feeder systems, 271-272 weld schedules, 155 Exothermic electrodes, 218
wire handling and dispensing Electromagnetic frequency spectrum, Exothermic reaction electrodes, 681
systems, 278-280 26 Expert welders, 37
Electrode lead, 280 Electromagnetic welding, 233 Explosion hazard; see Fire and
Electrodes Electromotive force, 242 explosion hazard
arc welding, 352 Electron beam cutting, 210 Explosion welding, 185-186
carbon arc welding, 83 Electron beam gun column, 202 Eye protection, 49-51
costs, 525-528 Electron beam welding, 202
covered electrodes; see Covered aluminum and aluminum alloys, 442
electrodes -''Zoppe.l' and copper-base alloys, 449 F
electrode feed systems; see Electrode equtpment, 203 ..207 , .
feed systems historical development, 9, 202 Fabricated metal products, 10
lectrogas welding, 154-155 principles of operation, 202~203 Failure analysis, 619-625
electroslag welding, 151 Blectroslag cladding. 152-153 l~atiglle faflur ,613-614
exothermic electrod 1i,218 Electroslag fluxes, 351-352 Fatigue of welded structur s, 490
exothermfc rea tion ele trod s,681 Elecrroslag guide tubes, 352 Ferrite, 396
!I~:x.cored a..·c welding, lZ8-132 Blectroslag welding, 147-148 Ferriticsta!.ole s steels, 416 ...419
gas meeal.arc welding, 119-120 advantages, 148 Ferrules, 85,352
.KjeUberg covered ~ electrode, 6 aluminum andaluminum alloys, 442 Filler m tats, 4, 336~338
low-alley ste 1 electrode suffixes, 408 applicatio.n, method of, 148 aluminum and aluminum aUoys,36,
metal cOl'edelcqtt des, 347 deposition rates, 151 437-438
principle of operation, 127 Gantry welding machines, 293-294
brazing, 174,353 Gas cylinders
safety considerations, 134
cast irons, 464 adapters, 62
certification of, 338-339 shielding gas, 132
spot welding, 668 fuel gasses, 62
copper and copper-base alloys, 444
thickness range, 128 oxygen, 62
costs, 521-525 shooting gasses, 62
defined, 19 tips for using, 134
typical applications, 134-136 storage, 62
magnesium-base aUoys, 450, 452-453 treatment of,61-62
welding circuit and current, 128
nickel-base alloys, 456, 457 Gas metal arc spot welding, 668
plasma arc welding, 80 welding variables, 134
weld quality, 132 Gas metal arc welding, 116
powder feeders, 278 advantages, 117
weld schedules, 133-134
powders, 353 aluminum and aluminum alloys, 436,
stud welding, 85 Flux cutting, 217
441,442
welding procedure specifications, Fluxes, 349-350
brazing, 174-175,353 application, method of, 118
573 cast irons, 466
Filler metal yield, 526 costs, 528
e1ectroslag fluxes, 351-352 copper and copper-base alloys, 448
Fillet welds, 18,494,498-499 deposition rates, 120-121
horizontal welding position, 490 electroslag welding, 151
soldering, 181-182 electrodes, 119-120
positions for, 490, 492 equipment required, 119
Pingernailing, 344 stud weldi.ng, 85
submerged arc flux, 140-141, gas-shielded metal arc welding; see
Fire and explosion hazard, 57-58 Gas-shielded metal arc welding
apparatuses, 58 350-351
submerged arc flux additi.ves, 352 guns or torches, 268
containers, welding on, 60-61 historical development, 116
fire extinguishers, 58, 59 Flux injection cutting, 217
industrial use, 126
fuel gasses, 58 Force, 26
Forge welding, 186 joint design, 118
hot tapping, 61 limitations, 126
Forming and straightening, 606-609
hot work permits, 58, 60 magnestum-base alloys, 450, 454
work area, 58 Freedom of motion, 313
Free-flight transfer mode, 96 major uses, 117-118
Firecracker welding, 116 metals weldable, 118
Free-machining steels, 475
Fire extinguishers, 58, 59 nickel-base alloys, 457
Fissures, 552 Frequency spectrum, 26
Friction, science of, 26-27 position capabilities, 118
Fitness for service, 569 principles of operation, 116-117
SCr-Mo-V aircraft quality steel, 425 Friction stir welding, 188
Friction welding, 186-188 safety considerations. 126
Flame spraying, 227-228 shieldiJlg gas, 120
aluminum and aluminum alloys, 442
Flange joints, 504 spot welding, 668
historical development, 9
Flange weld, 18 thickness range, 118
Flash point, 28 plastics, 233
Fuel gasses, 359-361 tips for using, 125-126
Flash welding, 200-201 typical applJcattons, 126
magnesium-base aUoys, 451 acetylene, 361
welding circuit and current, 118,..119
allene, 362
Flat reels, 348 weld quality, 1.21~122
fire and expl.osion hazard, 58
Flat welding position, 19,490 weld schedul 5, 122, 124~125 .
gas cylinders, 62
Flexible automation, 310-312 G'dS pockets, 553
Flexible manufacturing systems, 310 hydrogen, 361
liquefied petroleum gasses, 362 Gasses
Fluorescent-penetrant examination, air contamination hazard, -54
metb,Ule, 361
544-545 apparatuses, 367-368
methylacetylene plus propadiene,
Flux bath, 172 atmosphere gasses,363"'36
Flux-cored arc spot welding, 668 362
natural gas, 361-362 containers,364-367 .
Flux-cor d arc welding, 36, 126-127 flow rates, 368-369
s lection of, 362-363
advalltages, 127 fuel gass s;see Fuel gasse$
Full annealing, 238
application, method of, 127-128 shieldill,g gasses; see Sl1i Iding gasses
Furnace brazing, 112
cast irons, 467 Gas-shielded metal'arc weldillg : '
Furnace soldering, 180
deposition rates, 132 flux-cored arc we1diug,36 "
Fused fluxes, 350
electrodes, 128-132 historical developm . nt, 8.
Fusions, tncomplete, 555~55'7
equtpmenr required, 128 tn\lnlng programs, 3.6
Fusion welding, 21
guns or torch s, 268 Gas tungsten arc cutting, 'a20' .'
Puture ofwelding, 11, 15-16
Industrial use, 134 ...136 Ga:r tungsten ar '!:lpot we1cUng, (566... 68
iofnt design, 128 Gas tungsten arc weldJng " .',
limitations, 134 ~d antages, t>~ 70 '" .. .
major uses, 127 G ~lh.lmrl1tuirahl al~dth1uri,l,·ltlt·OySi"~~Y
metal core electrodes, ] 30-132 39,4.<0 .
GalvanJzed tlcks, 47 .
metals weldabl , 128 copper ~~)dtopp r·bs,
Gamma Iron, 396
POSition apabillties, 128
Dabber welding, 76- 77 servo guns, 196 Humping, 102
deposition rates, 73 stud welding, 84 HY 130/150,425
equipment required, 71-72 submerged arc welding, 139-140 Hydrogen, 361
guns or torches, 268 Hyperbaric welding, 679
historical development, 7-8
increased penetration GTAW;77 H
industrial use, 77
joint designs, 70 Hadfield manganese steel, 475-476
limitations, 75 Hammer welding, 186 Impact loads, 488
magnesium-base alloys, 450, 454 Hardfacing alloy selection, 633-636 Impact wear, 633
major uses, 70 Hazards, 41; see also Safety and health Implant welding, 234-235
materials used, 72- 73 air contamination hazard, 52-57 Importance of welding, 1-2
nickel-base alloys, 457 arc radiation hazard,49-52 Incandescent welding, 192; see also
principles of operation, 69 compressed gasses hazard, 61-62 Resistance welding
safety considerations, 75 electrical shock hazard, 45-49 Inclusions, 554-555
spot welding, 666-668 fire and explosion hazard, 57-61 Incomplete fusion, 555-557
training programs, 36 noise hazard, 63 Increased penetration GTAW;77
typical applications, 77 radioactive hot areas, 63 Induction brazing, 172-173
variations, 75-76 workplace hazards, 63 Induction principle, 597
welding circuit and current, 70-71 Head and tail stock positioners, 299 Induction soldering, 1.80
welding variables, 75 Health; see Safety and health Industrial groups, 10-11
weld metal porosity, 74-75 Heat, 389-393 Industrial machinery, code
weld quality, 74 forming and straightening, 606-609 specifications, 571-572
weld schedules, 75 postweld heating, 238-240 Industries, 1-2, 33
Gas welding and cutting postweld heat treatment, 574 Inertia friction welding, 186-187
aluminum and aluminum alloys, 442 preheat treatment, 237-238,574 Inertia welding, 9
gas metal m'c welding; see Gas metal Heat-affected zone, 401 Infrared brazing, 174
arc welding Heated bar welding, 234 Infrared soldering, 180
gas-shielded metal arc welding; see Heated surface welding, 234 Innershield,9
Gas-shielded metal arc welding Heated tool welding, 234 In-service cracking, 612-616
gas tungsten arc cutting, 220 Heat exposure, 42 Inspector certification, 38
gas tungsten arc welding; see Gas Heat sinks, 605 Integrated circuits, 259
tungsten arc welding Heavy construction, 10 Interstitial solid solution, 394
historical development, 6 Helium, 356 Inverter welding machines, 19,261-264
magnesium-base alloys, 451. Hidden arc welding, 156-157 Investigation before repair, 626-627
pressure gas welding, 22 High energy beam cutting, 210 Ion beam welding, 190
training programs, 36 electron beam cutting, 210 Iron carbide, 396
Gates, 258 Jaser beam cutting, 211- 212 Iron soldering, 180
Gauge steel, 3 High-frequency welding Isothermal transformation diagrams, 400
General mechanical ventilation, 55 copper and copper-base alloys, 449 Isotherms, 391
Globular transfer, 97-98 plastics, 234
Gnash seam welding, 199 resistance welding, 201-202
Gold,461
Graphitization, 616
seam welding, 201 J
upset welding, 201
Gravity welding, 115-116 High- powered plasma arc cutting, 222 Job outlook, 33
Gray iron, 463 High-velocity oxyfuel spraying, 228 Job shop production, 310-311
Groove welds, 18, 494, 499~502 High-yield steel, 425 Joint penetration, 555
horizontal welding position, 490 Historical developments Joints, 18
narrow groove welding, 675-677 generally, 4-10 butt joints, 19,494
overweldlng, 502-503
. positions for, 493
Ground finish; n.
~~~~:~fa::~:!
!~b~;,~;~
Horizontal welding position, 19,490
corner joints, 19,494
design, 494, 496-497, 648~650
design guidelines, 505-506
Guns and torches Hot gas welding, 234· details, 498
ar weJdJng, 268~27] Hot plate welding, 234 edge joints, 19,494
automatic tor hes, 271 Hot pressure welding, 188 ..189 flange joints, 504
flUX-C01'cdarc welding, 128 Hotrolled Wire rod, 340 lap joints, 19, 494
gas metal arc welding, 119 Hot tapping, 61 Up joints, 198
gas tungsten arcweJc:Ung;71-72 Hot-wire PA~81 pipe welding. 648-651'
oxyacetylen welding; 166-167 Hot-Wire TIG routing, 76 'Fjoints, 19,494,498
oxy:fu 1 gas utting, 214-215 HOT.work die steels, 425 welding procedure specifications,
p!asmaarc welqtng,79-BO
'"'_ ~<
Hot work permits, 58,60 573,
Magnetic pinch effect, 67 electrical conductivity, 373
weld [oint, 18 expansion, 373
Magnetic rotating arc welding, 87, 88
whip joints, 198 filler metals; see Hiler metals
Magnetic theory, 27
Magnitude, 26 flame test, 388
Manganese steel, 475-476 fracture test, 388
K . low-manganese steels, 409 gold,461
Manipulators hardness, 375-376
KAPBAK,674 hardness test, 386, 388
arc welding robots, 313-316
Keyhole, 78,210 identification of,386-389
Kjellberg covered electrode, 6 generally, 292- 293
Manual metal arc welding; see Shielded impact resistance, 376, 378
metal arc welding lead, 460
Manual programmed GTAW,76 magnesium-base alloys; see
L Manual welding, 22, 291
Magnesium-base alloys
Maraging steels, 426 magnetic test, 388
Labor costs, 528-530, 532 mass, 371
Larnanar tearing, 552 Martensite, 397
Martensitic stainless steels, 418, mechanical properties, 373-378
Lamellar tearing, 614-615 melting point, 371
Lap, 545 426-427
Massive electrode welding, 116 nickel and nickel alloys; see Nickel
Lap joints, 19,494 and nickel aUoys
Laser beam cutting, 211-212 Material costs, 528, 531
Material safety data sheets, 44-45 physical properties, 371-373
Laser beam welding, 207, 208- 21 0 platinum, 461
for flux cored electrode, 4·6,47
copper and copper-base alloys, 449 precious metals, 461
historical development, 207 Matter, 27 - 28
Mechanical stress relief, 240-241 properties of, 371-378
Laser types, 207-208 reactive and refractory metals,
Mechanics, science of, 26
Laser welding 452-454,459-460
Mechanized welding, 23,291
future of, 16 reduction of area, 374-375
historical development, 9-10 pipes and tubes, 653-656
Medium vacuum, 204 sheet metal; see Sheet metal
l.ead,460 sUver,461
Leaded brasses, 445 Melt-off rate, 93
Metal cored electrodes, 347 spark test, 388-389
Leak testing, 550 specific heat, 373
Metal inert gas welding; see Gas metal
Uberty ship, 624 steels; see Steel; Steels
Light, science of, 26 arc welding
Metalizing flame spraying, 227 strength,373-374
Linear feeders, 276 table 01',5
Linear friction Welding, 235 Metallic arc, 90
thermal conductivity, 371, 373
Liquefied petroleum gasses, 362 Metallurgy, 393-395
hardenabillty, 398-400 ntanlum. 459-460
Ltqutd nitrogen, 363 torch test, 388
iron-carbon dlagram, 396-398
Liquid oxygen, 363 wel<:!abilltyof, 40 - 05
phase transformation, 395-396
Loads, 486 wrought iron, 477
Local exhaust ventilation, 55-56 welds, 400-403
Metal-matrix composites; see also zinc, 460-461
Longitudinal seam welding machine, zirconium and zirconium-tin alloys,
Metals
199 459
compoSite, type of,236
Loudness, 26 Metal-to metal wear, 633
Metal powder cutting, 215'-216
Low current pulse, 100 Methane, 361
Metals, ~-4; see also specific metal
Low-level current, 99 Methylac tyl n plus propadiene,
alloy steels; see Alloy steels
Low-powered plasma MC cutting, 222 362
aluminum and aluminum alloys; see
Aluminttffi and aluminum alloys Microfissures,52
appearanc test, 386 MicrojOining, 683-68 , '
M ASTM sp cificatjons, 378-~79 Microplas1l1~llow·qlrrent pt" cision f
PAW,81
beryUJum,459
Machinery manufacturing, 11 Micro plasma welding, 68.
boiling point, :371
Machines; see Welding machines Micro TIG, 68
carbon steels; see Carbon steels
Magnesium,base allovs, 449 Micro ~eldingl 6S3 ...6tH
cast irons; see Cast items
composition of, 449 ~11crO'Wir~welding,9" .
chemical test, 389
filler metal choke, 452-453
chisel test, 388 ..
MIG welding; see Gas rnetlll arc
fUter metal composnton, 450 welding: ias-shieldellmehll arc
clad m tats, 477 ....
479
gas metal arc welding, 450, 454 welding ,
gas tungsten arc welding, 450, 454 c010r,371
copper and coppeobase alloys; see Mifiing,lO , .
platinum, 461 copper and ..oppef>'baSt¥alloy Modulus of elastiCity, 015 ,
welding, 449-451 dissimilar meta~5.wel{Ul1gof,· , ' MQ:(litodng' ~qll1p,mtnti:2~6.;;~~1;',
..
. Welding problems, 451
480-483
rcmof. monitoring l,tn~l1:Jurulty .j
MagneSium metal group, 3 cOfltl'ol,287~28.a .
74
Magnetic particle examination, 545-546
Motor vehicles, 11 Orbital welding, 653 Pencil torches, 71
Multiphase alloy, 394 Ordnance material, code specifications, Penetrant examination, 544
Multiple position, 491 572 Penetration, 555
Oscillators, 208, 285-286 Percussion welding, 189
Out-of-vacuum, 204 Percussive stud welding, 86
N Overhead costs, 530, 532 Performance qualification test record,
Overhead welding position, 19,490 568
Narrow gap welding, 675-677 Overlay welding, 630-632; see also Periodic table, 27, 28
Narrow groove welding, 675-677 Surfacing Person-machine relationship, 24
National skill standards, 36-37 Oxidation, 28,633 Phase change, 396
Natural gas, 361-362 Oxidizing atmosphere, 28 Phase diagrams, 396
Natural ventilation, 55 Oxyacetylene welding and cutting, 22, Phosphor bronzes, 445
Nickel and nickel alloys, 3, 4- 51 165-166 Photokeratitis,51
chrome-nickel stainless steels, 415 advantages, 166 Physics, 25-27
composition of alloys, 455 apparatuses, 166-169 Pickup,638
copper-nickel alloys, 445-446 flashback arresters, 169 Pipelines, cross-country, 582,651
copper-nickel-zinc alloys, 446 gas hose, 169 Pipes, 4
filler metal choice, 457 gas regulators, 168-169 metric size and wall thickness, 645
filler metal composition, 456 gas supply, 169-170 standard size and wall thickness, 643
gas metal arc welding, 457 limitations, 171 welding; see Pipe welding
gas tungsten arc weldi.ng, 457 major uses, 166 Pipe welding, 647 -648
high-nickel maraging steels, 426 safety considerations, 170 automated welding, 656, 659-660
high-nickel steels, 413-414- safety precautions, 43-44 cross-country pipelines, 651
low-nickel chrome steels, 409 variations, 171 joint alignment and fitup, 650-651
low-nickel steels, 4-09 welding rod, 170 joint design, 64-8-650
nickel-silver, 446 welding schedules, 170 manual and semiautomatic, 652-653
steels, welding to, 482 weld quality, 170 mechanized welding, 653-656
welding, 451-452 Oxyarc cutting processes, 218 quality control, 651-652
Nickel-manganese electrode, 476 Oxyfuel gas cutting, 214-215 Piping, 553
Nickel-silver, 446 Oxyfuel gas welding, 22,165; see also Pitch,26
Nitrogen, 363-364 Oxyacetylene welding Pitch, roll and yaw, 315
Nodular iron, 463 air acetylene welding, 22 Planetary type wire feeders, 276-278
Noise hazard, 63 cast irons, 466 Plasma, 77, 91
Nonactivated resin, 181 oxyacetylene welding, 22 Plasma arc cutting, 220-222
Nonconsumable electrodes, 352 oxyhydrogen welding, 22 high- powered plasma arc cutting,
Nonconsumable welding arc, 66-69 pressure gas welding, 22 222
Nondestructive testing, 543-544 Oxygen, 363-364 low-powered plasma arc cutting, 222
fluorescent-penetrant examination, Oxygen arc cutting, 218 safety considerations, 223
544-545 Oxygen cutting, 214 water injection variation, 222
guide to techniques, 550, 551 flux cutting, 217 Plasma arc welding, 36, 77
leak testing, 550 metal powder cutting, 215-216 advantages, 78- 79
magnetic particle examination, oxyfuel gas cutting, 214- 215 copper and copper-base alloys, 446
545-546 oxygen lance cutting, 217 deposition rates, 80
penetrant examination, 544 Oxygen lance cutting, 217 equipment required, 79-80
proof testing, 550 Oxygen lancing, 217 guns OJ: torches, 268
radiographic examination, 546-548 Oxyhydrogen welding, 22,165,171 historical development, 9, 77
symbols, 565·566 joint design, 79
ultrasoni examination, 548-550 limitations, 80-81
Nonessential variables, 25 p
--...._
major uS s, 79
Nozzl cleaners, 285 materials used, 80
Nuclear reactors, code specifications, ~~t plasma and shielding gas, 80
570 painting over welds, 617 plasma transferred are, 81
welding over paint, 616-617 principles of operation, 77-78
Parent metal, 19 quaUty,80
o Partial vacuum, 204-
Particulate matter, 52-53
tips [or using, 8Q
variables, 80
,Ohm'S law1243 Peak,260 variations, 81
Oil and gas esreacrton, to Peak current, ,99. 100 welding circuit and current, 79
One-side wtddir~g, 672 ...674 P aktlme, 99, 100 Plasma. drop, 91
p .rating poinf, U6 Pearlite plus ferrit ,396 Plasma flame spraying, 229
operaror factor, 24 i Peening, 577 Plasma. metaliztng, 229
710' IN[)EX
Programmed, plasma arc welding, 81 Reinforcing bars, 470-473
Plasma MIG welding, 189 Remote monitoring and quality control,
Plasma spraying, 229-230 Progressive manual casting, 116
Projection welds, 198-199,495 287-288
Plasma transferred arc, 81
Proof testing, 550 Remote welding, 630
Plasma welding Repair and maintenance, 11
arc welding; see Plasma arc welding Propane, 362
Propylene, 362 Repair welding, 629
magnesium-base alloys, 451 investigation before repair,
MIG welding, 189 Protective clothing, 4:2
Pulse amplitude, 100 626-·627
Plastics postweld operation, 629-630
composite, type of, 236 Pulsed-current GTAW,75- 76
Pulsed-current PAW,81 preparation for, 627 -629
electromagnetic welding, 233 remote welding, 630
friction welding, 233 Pulsed-spray transfer, 98-100
rework procedure, 625-627
heated surface welding, 234 Pulsed welding, 260
Pulsed-width, 99 Repelled transfer, 97
high-frequency welding, 234 Residual stresses, 609-610
hot gas welding, 234 Pulse frequency, 100
Pulse width, 100 Resin adhesives, 231-232
implant welding, 234-235 Resistance brazing, 174
joining of, 232-235 Pure water, 182
Push angle, 125 Resistance drop, 91
radiant welding, 235 Resistance seam welding, 199-200
solvent joining of,232 Resistance soldering, 180
ultrasonic welding, 235 Resistance welding, 22, 192
vibration welding, 235 Q aluminum and aluminum alloys,
weldability of, 232-233
Qualifying and certifying personnel, ·j42.
welding methods, 233-235
37-38 flash welding, 200-201
Platinum, 461 high-frequency resistance welding,
Plug welds, 18,494-495,503-504 robotic arc welding support
personnel,39 201-202
al"C spot welding, 670
welders, 39, 589-592 hlstortcal development, 6, 192
Pock marks, 143
welding educator, 39 joint types, 197 -198
Polar coordinate robot, 314 magnesium-base alloys, 451
Polymer-matrix composites; see Plastics welding engineer, 38-39
welding inspector, 38 metals weldable, 193-194
Porosity,553 principles of operation, 192-193
Portable boons, 286 welding supervisor, 39
welding technician, 39 projection welding, 198-199
Positions, 19,490-494 resistance seam welding, 199-200
electro gas welding, 154 Quality control
pipe welding, 651-652 resistance spot welding, 194
electroslag welding, 148 safety considerations, 200
flux-cored arc welding, 128 program, 534-536
Quality of sound, 26 spot welding, 194
gas metal arc welding, 118 spot welding machines, 194-197
Quenched and tempered constructional
shielded metal arc welding, 103 spot weld quality, 198
submerged arc welding, 137 steels, 411
upset welding, 201
welding procedure specifications, welding cont:rollers.191
574 Respons time, 249
Postweld heating, 238-240, 574 R Revolving field generator, 252
Powder feeders, 278 Rework procedure, 625-627
Powders, 353 Radiant welding, 235
Right-hand rule, 595
Power cable, 283 Radiation
arc radiation hazard, 49-52 Rigid-fmme stru turet 490
Power costs, 531 Robotic arc welding positioner-s,
sonic radiations, 26
POwer factor, 251 . 299-301
Radioactive hot areas, 63
Power flame spraying, 227 Robotic arc weldjQg SF(PPQtt P .tsonne~!
RadiographL examination, 546~548
Power sources; see Welding machines 39. ,.
Railroad rolling stock, 11
Precious metals, 461 Robotic welding, 11,15,16,23;$ o alllO
code specifications, 571
Precfpltatton-hardentng steels, 427
Reactive and refractory metals, 4utOll'utted wei UPS
Precoating, 181 arc :welding robots; $C~ Ai'C ",elding r·
.452-454,458
Preheat treatment, 237-238, 574 robotS ':
welding reactive Qlctals, 459~460
Pressure gas welding, 22 "defined,291
welding refractory metals, 458-459
Pressure vessels Ro'kwell hardness » $te~3'76
Rebuildlng, 630-632
code speciflcattons, 570 Rolling stock, 11
code symbol stamps, 570
Recovery tate, 526
Recovery voltage, 2 9
cod sp ci.fiCa'.mOIlS, 571
Primary metal manufacturing, 10 RoU resistance spot weh;ling, 1· :9.
Procedure qualification r cord, 25, 568, nectift rs, 19
Re~tifierwelQitlg machines, 2S1-~61. RolJwcl<iing, 18~ .e> ..
577 . ·Root'p¢l1~tratiO:n,5;5";.{· ...

Reduclngagcnts, 28 .
Proc dures, 24-25 .RotntillS wetdiflgm~ hin >,2;2-'?53
Reduciog attllosphere. 28
Process, 20 Rub~ei',base aclh slv s,'2~t ': '
ReductiOl1. 28
Pt"ofiling machines, 224
s limitations, 113, 115
major uses, 103
Soldering, 22, 179-180
copper and copper-base alloys, 446
Safety and health massive electrode welding, 116 dip soldering, ] 80
arc spraying, 230 metals weldable, 103 fluxes, 181-182
arc welding robots, 321-322 position capabilities, 103 furnace soldering, 180
arc welding safety precautions, 42-43 principles of operation, 102 induction soldering, ] 80
cable welding, 284 safety considerations, 113 infrared soldering, 180
electrogas welding, 156 tips for using, 109-110 iron soldering, 180
electroslag welding, 152 typical applications, 116 mechanism, 18]
flux-cored arc welding, 134 variations, 115-116 resistance soldering, 180
gas metal arc welding, 126 welding circuit, 103 solder, 182-183,353
heat exposure, 42 weld quality, 108 solder procedures, 182
material safety data sheets, 44-45 weld schedules, 108-109 sweat soldering, 181
oxyacetylene welding and cutting, Shielding gasses, 354-355 torch soldering, 180
43-44,170 argon, 356 ultrasonic soldering, 18]
plasma arc cutting, 223 argon plus carbon dioxide, 358 wave soldering, 180-181
protective clothing, 42 argon plus helium, 358 wipe soldering, 181
resistance welding, 200 argon plus hydrogen, 358 Soldering equipment, J 1,15
shielded metal arc welding, 113 argon plus nitrogen, 358 Solid-state welding, 22, 184
specific welding processes and argon plus oxygen, 357-358 aluminum and aluminum alloys, 442
occupations, 63-64 carbon dioxide, 356-357, 358 cold welding, 184-185
stud welding, 86 costs, 528 diffusion welding, 185
submerged arc welding, 146 electrogas welding, 155 explosion welding, 185-186
workplace safety, 41-42 flux-cored arc welding, 132 forge welding, 186
Schools, 33, 36 gas metal arc welding, 120 friction stir welding, 188
Seam welds, 18,495 gas shielding efficiency, 355-356 friction welding, 186-188
magnesium-base alloys, 451 gas tungsten arc welding, 73 hot pressure welding, 188-189
Selection compliance assembly robot helium, 356 roU welding, 189
arm, 314 mixtures of, 357-359 ultrasonic welding, 1.89
Sernlaustenitic precipitarion-hardenable ternary mixture, 358-359 Sonic radiations, 26
stainless steels, 427 welding procedure specifications, 574 Sonic welding, 235
Semiautomatic welding, 22, 291 Shipping containers, code Sound, science of, 26
Semlsteel,463 specifications, 572 Space, welding in, 682-683
Servo-driven spot weld gun, 196 Ships Spacecraft, code specifications, 571
Servo guns, 196 building, 11 Space lattices, 393
Shafts, salvaging of,632 code specifications, 571 Specifications
Shapes, imperfect, 557-558 Shooting gasses, 62 code specifications, 569-;82
Sheet metal, 504 Shop responsibility, 550 design, influence on, 504-506
uonstructural components and Shore scleroscope, 376 qualifying procedure specifications,
systems, 572 Short-arc transfer, 98 572-582
welding; see Sheet welding Short arc welding, 9 welding procedure; see Welding
Sheet steel, 3 Short-circuiting transfer, 98 procedure specifications
Zinc-coated; see Zinc-coated sheet Shrinkage voids, 553 Spin welding, 233
steel Side boon carriage, 293 Spool guns, 272-273
Sheet welding, 670, 672 Silicon bronzes, 445 Spot-adhesive welding, 190
tube to sheet welding, 661-663 Silicon steel, 476-477 Spot welding, 495, 503
Shielded metal arc cutting, 220 SUver,461 arc weldi ng; see Arc spot welding
Shielded metal arc welding, 102,670 Skate welder, 295 machines, 194-197
advantages, 102-103 Skelp, 644 magnesium-base alloys, 451 .
-..
.afummum and aluminum alloys, 442 s~<\w .. ed 'f.joitlts, 498 reslstan e welding, 194-198
application, rnethod of, 103 Ski~standat'ds, 36:"37 Spray transfer, 96-97
arc spot welding, 11.6 Slag inclusion, 554 8.S. Schene tady, 624
base metal thickness range, 103 SUck-up point, 230 Stainless steels, 3
breaking the arc, 110, 113 Sliding fd tion, 26~ 27 aust nitlc sralnlcss steels, 416
covered lectrod s, 104.108 Slope, 251 discoloration removal, 421
deposinon rates, 108 Slot welds, 18,494-495,503-504 dissimilar ste Is,welding to, 482
equlpm nt.requirect, l03~l04 Smoth red arc welding.see Submerged duplex stainless steels, 418-419
fitecracket welding, n6 arc welding territic stainless at els; 416-AJ9
gravity Weldi)J.S, i15-116 Solar energy welding, 190 martensitlc stainless steels,418,
industrial use, 116 Solder, 182-183,353 26-427
.JOUlt-' desigl1, 103. ,l proc dures, 182 problem at as ill welding, 419-421
---_,
i12 INDEX
principles of operation, 83-84 Tern plate, 474
semi austenitic precipitation-
safety considerations, 86 Testing of welds
hard en able stainless steels, 427
tips for using, 85-86 destructive testing, 536-538
welding, 415-421
typical applications, 86 nondestructive testing; see
Standard welding procedure
variations, 86 Nondestructive testing
specifications, 582-588
welding variables, 85 Thermal conductivity. 600
Steake welding, 189
Submerged arc flux, 350-351 Thermal joining, 233
Steel,3-4 Thermal lance cutting, 68]
abrasion-resisting steel, 475 Submerged arc flux additives, 352
Submerged arc welding, 136 Thermal shock, 633
AlSI-SAEnumerical designations,
advantages, 137 Thermal spraying, 227
381-385 arc spraying, 228-229
alloy steels; see Alloy steels application, method of, 137
copper and copper-base alloys, flame spraying, 227-228
carbon steels; see Carbon steels high-velocity oxyfuel spraying, 228
clad steels, 477 -479 446-447
deposition rates, 141-142 plasma spraying. 229-230
classifications and specifications,
electrodes, 140-141 safety constderatlons, 230
379-386 Thermionic emission, 67
coated steels; see Coated steels equipment required, 138-140
flux additives, 352 Thermite welding. 183-18
deformed steel reinforcing bars,
fluxes, 140-141,350-351 Thyristors, 258
470-473 TIG welding; see Gas tungsten arc
dissimilar steels, welding to, 482-483 flux wire combination, selection of,
141 welding
free-machining steels, 475
guns or torches, 268 Tin alloys
high-strength steel, 421
industrial use, 147 copper-tin alloys, 445
manganese steel, 475-476
joint design, 137-138 copper-zinc-tin alloys, 445
silicon steel, 476-477
UQutations, 146 zirconium and zirconium-tin alloys,
stainless steels; see Stainless steels
major uses, 137 459
tool steels, 467 -470
metals weldable, 137 Tin brasses, 445
zinc-coated sheet steel; see Zinc-
position capabilities, 137 Tinning, 181
coated sheet steel
principles of operation, 136-137 Titanium, 459-460
Steel bars, 4
safety considef"dtions, 146 T-joints, 19,494
Steel castings, 415
thickness range, 137 skewed T-joints, 498
Steel plates, 4
tips for using, 143, 145-146 Tool center point, 315
Stick electrode welding; see Shielded
typical applications, 147 Tool steels. 467-470
metal arc welding
variations, 146-147 Torch brazing, 174-175
Stickout, 125, 143 Zinc-coated sheet steel, 47
Stick welding; see Arc welding welding circuit and current, 138
welding variables, 143 Torches; see Guns and torches
Storage tanks, code specifications, 571
weld quality, 14:2~143 Torch soldering, 180
Stored energy system, 86
weld schedules. 143 Training prognul1s, 33, 36
Straightening, heat forming and,
Submerged welding; see also Transformets, 19
606-609 Transformer welding machines,
Straight-line torches, 71 Underwater welding
arc welding; see Submerged arc 253-257
Stresses Transition temperature, 376,61.3
allowable unit stress, 486 welding
Substitutional solid solution, 394 Transparent welding curtains, 51
corrosion cracking, 616 1ransverse electrode posWon,-146 ..
mechanical stress relief,240-241 Substrate, 19
Super aUoys,421. 424-427 Travel angle, 125
residual stresses, 609-610 Tf"clvelcarriage, 1:40
Supervisor certification. 39
stress concentrations, 487·490 'Irl-mfx gas, 358:
surfacing, 18.496,504,639-640
Stringer and hot pass, 651 Trucks, code 5p cificatiQ:QS,'71
for corrosion resistance. 638-639
Strip electrodes, 353 Tube to sheet welding, 661.,.663
tor wear resistance, 633-638
Strongbacks, 334 Tube welding, 647:..648 ,
Structural welding procedure Surveyor, 338
Sweat soldering,181
joint fllignment and DttJJ), 650.6', l
specification, 577, 580~582 JOint desfgn, 64~65Q .'
SymbolS
Stud welding, 83, 496
nondestructive testing; 565 566 .
e
. meClls.ntz¢{l we14IJli~'<"5~~:(I)56,',,
.~.
advantages, 84 quality ~ssuran~¢!6f51",6:S,2,- ,-
welding symbols, 513 ...518
application, method of, 84 TubLllar products, !64~-64:..se~ flJf, .0." '
Synergic pu1sed-sp~y metal transfer, 263
equipment required, 84~85 Pipe weidfng;1up wel4itti .
Synergic welding, 100
guns or torches, 268 mRtluf;tctllffugmethoQs,. ~J
historical development, 7 . 6 ,6~6 1..

Industrial use, 86
jOint desigo.B4 T
Iimitations, 86
Tandem electrode position, 146
magne turn-base alloys, 451
Tech:pician. certificatiOl'l, 39
materials used, 85
Turnaround, 300 Water coolers/circulators, 285 Welding oscillators, 208, 285-286
Turning rolls, 298-299 Water jet cutting, 224 Welding positioner, 296- 30 1; see also
Turnover unit, 301 Wave soldering, 180-181 Work motion devices
Turns ratio, 254 Wear, 633 Welding positions, 19,490-494
Twin carbon arc welding, 83 Weathering steels, 410 electro gas welding, 154
Twin-inverter system, 263 Weld,18 electroslag welding, 148
Twin-inverter welding machine, 264 Weldability, 403-405 flux-cored arc welding, 128
2X flame, 166 Weld accessibility, 490-494 gas metal arc welding, 118
Types of welds, 494-496 Weld bonding, 190 shielded metal arc welding, 103
Weld cracking; see Cracking submerged arc welding, 137
Welder qualifications, 39, 589-592 welding procedure specifications,
u Welder responsibility, 550
Welders, 22
574
Welding procedures, 24-25
Ultrahigh-strength steels, 421, 424-427 advanced welders, 37 Welding procedure speciflcations, 20,
Ultra pulse welding, 190 entry-level welders, 37 25
Ultrasonic examination, 548-550 expert welders, 37 qualifying procedures, 572-582
Ultrasonic soldering, 181 qualifying and certifying personnel, standard specifications, 582-588
Ultrasonic welding, 189 39,589-592 Welding rod, 19
aluminum and aluminum alloys, 442 Welders' work, 30-33 Welding supervisor, 39
plastics, 235 Weld failure analysis, 619-625 Welding symbols, 513-518
Underfill, 558 Welding, definition of, 18 Welding technician, 39
Under powder welding; see Submerged Welding design; see Design Welding tractor, 294
arc welding Welding educator, 39 Weld joint, 18
Underwater cutting in-the-wet, 681-682 Welding electrode, 344 Weldment, 18
Underwater welding, 677 Welding engineer, 38-39 Weld pool, 101-102
welding in-the-dry, 679-680 Welding equipment, 11, 15 Weld puddle, 101,117
welding in-the-wet, 677 -679 Welding flash, 51 Weld reliability, 568-569
wet-dry welding, 680-681 Welding generators, 19 Weld types, 494-496
Universal balanced positioners, 299 Welding helmets, 49 Whip joints, 198
Universal tilt-table posirioners, 296-298 Welding industry, 10-11 White cast iron, 463
Upset welding, 201 Welding inspector, 38 White resin, 181
Uranami, 673 Welding in-the-air, 204 WIG welding; see Gas tungsten arc
Uses of welding, 1-2 Welding machines welding
arc welding; see Arc welding Wipe soldering, 181
automatic arc welding machines, Wire bonding, 684
v standardized, 301-304 Wire drive mechanisms, 274-276
electrogas welding, 155 Wire feeders
van dec Wa.'llsbond, 230 electron beam welding, 202-207 cold wire feeder, 273-274
Variable-polarity plasma arc welding, 81 electroslag welding, 150 control systems, 274
Variable voltage, 250 gantry welding machines, 293-294 dispensing equipment, 278- 280
Ventilation, 55-57 gas metal arc welding, 119 . drive mechanisms, 274-276
smoke exhaust systems, 285 Installation of, 46-48, 265-266 gas metal arc welding, 119
Versarile hand too), 682 inverter welding machines, 261-264 maintenance of, 280
Vertical welding posttion, 19, 490 longitudinal seam welding machine, planetary type wire feeders, 276-278
Vessels, code specifications, 571 199 plasma arc welding, 80
Vibration welding, 235 maintenance of, 48-49, 266 spool guns, 272-273
Visual inspections, 538 rectifler welding machines, 257-261 types of, 271-272
lifter welding, 543-544 repair of, 267 Wire flame spraying, 227
nondestructive examination rotating welding machines, 252-253 Wire handling and dispensing systems,
recornmendanons, 543 selection of,264,.265 278-280
before welding, 538~539 telded metal arc welding, 103 Wires, electrode; see Electrode wires
during welding, 540-542 spedflcatjonof, 265 Wire straighteners, 284
Voltmeter, 242 spot welding machines, 194-197 Wire welding; see Gas-shielded metal
stud welding, 84-85 arc welding
submerged arc welding, 139 Wot'k, nature of,30-33
w transformer welding machines,
253-257
W01'k angle, 125
. Worker traits, 31
Wallpapering, 639 . of,48 .
I.}se Work lead,280
Warning ~igns,.-2 Welding metall urgy; see Metallurgy Workmanship specimens, 559-561.
Warpage and Clistortion, 543, 597-606 Welding operators, 22 WorJrnl<'Ll'lshipstandards, 561-565
IND X
,-"
Work motion devices, 296 Worm holes, 553
Wrought iron, 477
z
head and tail stock positioners, 299
Zinc, 460-461
robotic arc welding positioners,
Zinc-coated sheet steel, 473
299-301
turning rolls, 298- 299 v arc welding, 474
brazing, 474
universal balanced positioners, 299
Young's modulus, 375 repairing the coating, 474
universal tilt-table positioners,
weld quality, 473-474
296-298
Zinc sticks, 474
Workplace hazards, 63; see also Hazards
Zirconium and zirconium-tin alloys, 459
Workplace safety, 41-42; see also Safety
and health
90000>

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' '5 -

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey

TS227 . C37 2005

Executive Editor: Ed Francis

Pearson Prentice Hail™ is a trademark of Pearson Education, Inc.

1-5 The Future of Welding, 11

WELDING PERSONNEL, TRAINING, NONCONSUMABLE ELECTRODE, 66

6- 1 The Consumable Welding Arc, 90

11 13-7 Other Welding Materials, 352

MECHANIZED, AUTOMATED, AND

22 24-7 Other Surface Applications, 639

24.,1 W Id ailure Analysis, 619 INDEX, 703 <

office machinery, and furniture is sheet steel. It is also used

FIGURE 1-10 Resistance spot welding. Courtesy of

Meanwhile, the resistance welding processes

In 1920, automatic welding was introduced. It used

FIGURE 1-15 Gas metal arc welding.

Engineers of the Northrup Aircraft Company, with

UtiHty system ccnstruction 4,393 1.12 4,935 1.08 542 12~4

Projected 2012 Change,

1998- 1999- 2000-

2..1 WELDING BASICS • Butt joint, A: two parts in approximately the

There are approximately 50 distinct welding

FIGURE2-2 Welding positions for

QUEUE&. GAG WILDINg (gOO

FIGURE 2-4A Robotic (R). Courtesy of AWS Welding

FIGURE 2-4E Adaptive control (AD)

• Automatic welding (Al:D-welding with equip-

th w 1dlng , with the torch, gun, or electrode

controls the arc

FIGURE2-5 Person-machine relationship to applying and controlling welding.

TV 100 MHz 1011 Hz

0.01 Hz AM { 1 MHz 10'6 Hz

FIGURE2-6 Frequency spectrum for sonic and electromagnetic radiation.

FIGURE3-3 Welding on nuclear piping.

FrGURE3-6 Oxy fuel welding.

struction jobs. It shows that welders are exposed to cer-

Projected 2012 Change,

Projected 2012 Change,

~tes, tllepl'Ovisions of the Occupational Safety and Health

FUMES AND GASES can be dangerous to your health.

DO NOT REMOVE THIS LABEL

FUMES AND GASES can be dangerous to your health. . ,

DO NOf REMOVE THIS LABEL.

Each data sheet for welding products includes in-

Adel,... : MA~TReeT, US A £mllo"ncy NO: l.a25·6QO.OOOO

.feTION a - 'HVllCAUCHIMICALCHllfilACTf.R STle'

'!!a!IS!N I - 'UI!ACTIVI!! DATA

Hal.ra, createdl "It

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Maintenance of Welding Machines

M.I.G. T.I.G. on ARC/AIR Plasma

Contact Lenses FIGURE 4-9 Welding station using transparent

FUMES ARE POISONOUS AND CAN KILL.

DO NOT RHMOV THIS LAPEL.

DO NOT REMOVE THIS LABEL

HAZARD fire retardant, should be consider(:dco1l1bu~tible and han-

SPECIAL EXTINGUISHING AGENTS APPROVED BY RECOGNIZED TES'r'~G LABORATORIES

FIGURE4-14 Fire extinguisher data.

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