Chapter 5

Non - Literal Meaning

Idioms, Metaphor, Metonymy

This chapter covers figurative or non-literal meaning completed with some

exercises in order the students will get more understanding. In particular, they will
learn about idiomatic or fixed expresssions, metaphor, and metonymy. The study of this
kind of meaning has not traditionally been the focus of linguistic semantics, partially
because it is often difficult to distinguish it precisely from literal meaning, and also
because non-literal meaning has sometimes been regarded as largerly idiosyncratic and
therefore, as less principled and ruled govern than literal meaning. But the study of
non-literal meaning, especially metaphor, has become much more important in recent
years, partly because semanticists have begun to discover that much , if not all, of its use
is not totally haphazard or idiosyncratic, but subject to certain rules and principles that
can be discovered and described.
The learning objective of this chapter is to get more understanding on the
material discussed in this chapter. At the end of the lesson, the students, expectedly
could identify figure of speech in various kinds or authentic materials such as to analyze
metaphorial expressions found in the novel, literary works, song lyrics, etc.,.

5.1 Idioms
Idiomatic Expression (Idioms) are multi-word phrases whose overall meanings are
idiosyncratic and largerly unpredictable, reflecting speaker meanings that are not
derivable by combining the literal senses of the individual words since each phrase
according to the regular semantic rules typically of the language. (Hurford er.,al. ;
2007:328),

Examples :

Expressions such as let the cat out of the bag and take the bull by the horns
commonly used idioms whose usual meanings are not fully compositional, but have to
be learned as a whole . Any speaker of English knows, for example , that let the cat out
of the bag is usually used to mean something like ‘reveal a secret’, though it also has a

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possible, though rarely intended, literal compositional meaning something like ‘release
a small feline animal from a sack.’ Similarly, take the bull by horns typically evokes the
idea that someone ’takes charge of a situation’, though it could also have the more
literal compositional meaning ‘grab a (real) bull by its horns’. (Hurford et.,al.;2007:328).

Practice :
Those sentence below are ambiguous, containing a phrase that could be understood
either idiomatically (figuratively) or literally, that will be depended on the context in
which the sentence is used. For each sentence (a) give a paraphrase that correctly
evokes each sense and (b) suggest a context in which sense might be appropriately used .
(Hurford et., al. 2007 : 328)
(1) The people let their hair down (is done as an example).
a. Literal sense : someone who has long hair, she let her hair hang down to fall on
her shoulder.
Idiomatic sense : it means relax, and behave less carefully
b. Context for literal sense : it might be refer to a person who is getting ready to
wash her hair.
Context for idiomatic sense : it might be refer to a person who was in a good
mood and relax at a party, she/he also behaved in a free and natural manner.
(2) We hauled them over the coals
a. Literal sense :......................................................................
Idiomatic sense : .....................................................................
b. Context for literal sense : .............................................................................
Context for idiomatic sense : ..........................................................................
(3) He put his foot in his mouth
a. Literal sense : .............................................................................................
Idiomatic sense : .............................................................................................
b. Context for literal sense : ..............................................................................
Context for idiomatic sense : ..............................................................................

The difficulty appears which is due to the fact that not all figurative meaning
conveyed by idioms are often naturally metaphorical. Consider the following additional
examples of idiomatic expressions that emerge metaphors in order the students get
more understanding exactly what metaphors are and how they work in our daily use of
language.

Examples :
Some examples of figurative language in idioms that evoke metaphors may be
found in such sentences as His motorbike is a lemon and Dr Benjamin is a butcher. It is
clear if they are translated literally, though they would typically sound weird or
anomalous and non-sensical, unless special situation is under consideration. (For
example, Dr. Benjamin might indeed also work part of the time as a real butcher). It
does not seem to be immediately derivable from what is literally said. It is very
important in translation, the fact they cannot be translated literally.

Practice :

Get the meaning of these sentences below, then explain in brief what it is about
them that make those sentences seem to be anomalous when they are literally
translated. Describe the intended of non- literal meaning they convey.

1. Doni is a dog in the manger (is done as an example).

Anomaly : Doni is being categorized as a dog (which is of course, incorrect
literally).
Non-literal meaning : Something about Doni’s characteristics is not good, it
actually refers to a person who does not want to share what he has, even though
he does not use it himself.
2. Jane lives at the cottage at the foot of the mountain.
Anolmaly : .............................................................................................
Non-literal meaning : .......................................................................
3. Sam is a pig.
Anomaly : ...............................................................................................
Non-literal meaning : ........................................................................
 4. Mary is sitting at the head of the table.
Anomaly : ...............................................................................................
Non-literal meaning : ...........................................................(Hurford et.,al;2007:328-329).

5.2 Metaphor

Definition :
METAPHORS are conceptual (mental) operations reflected in human language that
eneble the speakers to structure and construct abstract areas of knowledge and
experience in more concrete experiential terms. (Hurford et.,al ; 2007:331).
According to the above definition, speakers make use of a familiar area of
knowledge, that is called the source domain , to understand the area that is less familiar,
that is the target domain. The source domain is typically understood through our
experience in and with the physical world around us. (Hurford et., al;2007:331).
Another definition of metaphor :
A metaphor is an analogy between two objects or ideas; the analogy is conveyed
by the use of a metaphorical word in place of some other words.

Example :
She fell in love to her boss in her office, we could see; that’s why my friend told me that
her eyes were glistening jewels

Another definition :
A metaphor is an implied similie in which two things are treated as one.
Examples :

- The camel is the ship of the desert

- Life is a dream
- The news was a dagger to his heart

Metaphor also denotes rhetorical figures of speech that achieve their effects via
association, comparison, or resemblance. There are several kinds of metaphor that will
be discussed below :
5.3 Similie
Definition 1 :
A figure of speech comparing two unlike things, often introduced with the words
“like”, “as”, or “than”, or “similar to”. While a metaphor without using the word “like”,
“as” or than.”

Examples :
1. The moon is like a balloon.
2. The soul was like a star, and dwelt a part.
3. Though had a voice whose sound was like the sea.
4. The righteous shall flourish as the palm tree

Definition 2 :
A figure of speeh which is used to compare two different things having a
common quality.

Example :
Simile : Chris was a record-setting runner and as fast as a speeding bullete
Metaphor : When Chris run, he was a speeding bullet racing along the track.

Definition 3:
Something is like something else

Example:
His hand was like the clasp of an iron gate.

Similes have been widely used in literature for their expressiveness as a figure of
speech.

Examples :
- Curley was flopping like a fish on a line
- The very mist on The Essex marshes was like a gauzy and radiant fabric.
- Why, man, he doth bestride the narrow world like a colossus
- The water is like the sun
 - The rain falls like the sun, rising upon the mountain
- The soul was like a star, and dwelt apart
- Though, he had voice whose sound was like the sea.
- The righteous shall flourish as the palm tree.

5.4 Personification

Definition 1 :
Personification is a particular subtype of ontological metaphor in which an abstract
entity construed as though it were physical object which is then further specified as
being a person.

Definition 2 :
Personification is a figure of speech which is used to believe in animate, lifeless objects
are and abstract ideas as if it were a living beings.

Definition 3 :

Personification is an ontological metaphor in which a thing or abstraction is

represented as a person.
Examples :

- The sun shone brightly down on me as if she were shining for me alone.

In this example the sun is depicted as if capable of intent, and is reference with the
pronoun “she” rather than “it”

- The theory explains everything you need to know about metaphor.

- I think that life has cheated me out of any hope of happiness.
- Cancer finally caught up with him.

Literally speaking, a theory cannot explain anything, only human can. Similarly
only people can literally cheat someone or catch up with someone. But conceiving non-
human entities as a theory, life and cancer as though they are human entities enables us
to attribute motivations and characteristics to them that would not be possible without
personofication. Conceptuaizing entities in human terms by means of personification
makes them more accessible to understanding.

5.5 Metonymy
Definition 1 :
Metonymy is a kind of non - literal language in which one entity is used to refer
to another entity that is associated with it in some way. In other words, metonimic
concepts allow us to conceptualize one thing by means of it relation to something
else’(Lakoff. 1980 :39) cited in Hurford et.,al ;.2007 : 338).

Definition 2 :
Metonymy is a figure of speech which is used to employ as particular object
which stands for a thing or a person associated with it.

Definition 3 :
Metonymy is the substitution of one word for another with which it is associated.

- The pen (writer) is mightier than a sword a (warrior).

The pen is a metonym for “discourse/negotiation/persuasion” and the sword is the

metonym for “war”

- I love Lollo from cradle to the grave.

Cradle is a metonym for infancy, while the grave is a metonym for death

- The Bench (judges) sent the case to the court.

Another example :

- The beef sandwich in the next booth is waiting for his bill.
 How can we understand the above sentence ? Unequivocally, it cannot be
translated literally, since we are not explaining that an actual sandwich is waiting to
get its bill. That kind of interpretation would lead to an anomaly. Therefore, the
meaning that we can imply is that the person who ordered the beef sandwich is waiting
for the bill.

Some other examples :

1. White House refers to the president of the united states.
2. Whitehall refers to the British government.
3. The Press refers to news media (especially newspaper).
4. A dish refers to an entree.
5. Hollywood refers to the American film industry.
6. A capital city refers to a government.

Practice 1 :
Explain the metonymy in the sentence below!
1. We enjoy watching Hanung Bramantyo rather than Ratna Sarumpaet
2. The Times asked a pertinent question at the news confrence
3. The White House refused to answer the question
4. The Tempo will give clarification about that news
5. Radar blew up the news about corruption
Practice 2 :
Each of the sentences given below exemplifies one of the following particular
subtypes of metonymy :THE PART OF THE HOLE, THE FACE for THE PERSON,
PRODUCER for PRODUCT, OBJECT USED for USER, CONTROLLER for CONTROLLED,
INSTITUTION for PEOPLE RESPONSIBLE, THE PLACE for THE INSTITUTION, THE
PLACE for THE EVENT, THE CASE for THE EVENT. Match each sentence with the kind
of metonymy that it represents.

1. Watergate was an important scandal in American politics.

2. The rancher needs some hands during roundup time
3. The buses are on strike today.
4. Hollywood keeps putting out mediocre movies.
5. The art collector bought an expensive Picasso
6. Hitler conquered Poland in just a few days.
7. The army needs many new soldiers
8. She’s just another pretty face. (Hurford et., al ; 2007 :339).
9. Cicak and Buaya was a very popular news a few months ago.

Based on the above examples, it can be seen that they are independetly unrelated
to each other. Taken as the example the metonymy : THE PLACE for THE EVENT. In this
case, Watergate is used referring to the place where the scandal took place during
Nixon’s administration era in 1970s. It does make sense and not arbitrary due to the
series of events that led to the scandal that started with a burglary in the apartment
complex in Washinton DC.

5.6 Exercises
After you have read unit 5, you should be able to answer the following questions to test
your understanding of the main ideas contained in this unit :

1. Explain the following terms :

a. the different between literal and non-literal language
b. idiomatic expression
c. metaphor
d. personification
e. metonymy
2. Find the metaphor in the following sentences,and explain the meaning as the
example !:
Dadan is a snake in the grass
Anomaly : Dadan is being equated with or classified as being a particular
kind of animal that is a snake
Non-literal Meaning: Something about Dadan’s behaviour is untrustworthy.
Metaphor : PEOPLE ARE ANIMALS
a. Jack pulled my leg when he told me that story
b. Jim painted the town red when he returned from college.
 c. The old horse finally kicked the bucket.
d. When we tried to solve that math problem we discovered that we were up the
creek (without a paddle).
e. The suggestion made by Mary makes me think that she has a bee in her bonnet.
f. Jerry sold me down the river
g. If you can figure out how to do that I’ll eat my hat
h. Fred always tried to throw his weight around.
i. Don’t say a word! Bite your tongue!
J. I gave them a piece of mind!
3. (Idioms with Colors) on the line to the right of each word, write the name of the
color usually associated with. Find the answers in the enclosures (p 162- 165).
a. mad ............................................................ f. promising ........................................................
b. afraid ............................................................... g. unexpectedly ........................................................
c. unhappy ................................................. h. jealous .......................................................
d. in debt ............................................................ i. harmless ........................................................
e. untruth…………………………………….. j. inexperience .....................................................
4. (Idioms with colors) Choose the best option which correctly explains the
meaning s of the idiom.
A. spill the beans a) turn over the can of beans
b) tell the secret
c) drops the bean on the floor
B. piece of cake a) a slice of chocolate layer cake
b) a portion of dessert
c) very simple
C. something’s fishy a) there are fresh fish
b) fish will be served for dinner
c) something seems to be wrong
D. easy as apple pie a) apple pie is fun to bake
b) very easy to do
c) apple pie is easy to eat
E. cry over the spilled milk a) complain about something in the past
b) cry because a glass of milk
c) the baby dropped milk on the floor
 F. hot potato a) a controversial topic
b) a potato which is too hot to eat
c) a potato that isn’t cold

G. sardines in a can a) these are sold in grocery stores

b) a very crowded situation
c) sardines packed with oil in a can
H. cream of the crop a) cream of mushroom soup
b) cream for coffee
c) the very best quality
I. It is a lemon a) a small yellow fruit
b) a sour fruit used for lemonade
c) a defective product
J. cool as a cucumber a) very self-assured
b) a cucumber which isn’t hot
c) the way you feef after a cool swim

5. Subsitute one of the following idioms for the italicized words in each sentence.
Be sure to use the correct grammatical form of each idiom.

a. put two and two together g. runs in the family

b.putting the cart before the horse h. pull some strings
c. under the weather i. squared away
d. get to the point j. to eat one’s words
e. make tracks k. threw in the towel
f. face the music l.eat one’s word

Example :
 I used my father’s boat without permission. Now I am ready to be
punished ( face the music)
A. The police solved the mystery and caught the thief (............................................................).
B. You don’t have much time, be specific and explain yourself clealy!
C. Carl called me a bad card player. He had to take back what he said when I won all the
game. (...........................................)
D. Helga was discourage and gave up. She dropped out of school.(.............................................).
E. The teacher told the class to work faster and finish their lesson. (.........................................).
F. Bill caught the flu. He is not feeling well. (............................................................).
G. All the problems with my new car have finally been taken care of. (....................................)
H. Blonde hair is a common trait in my family. My mothe r and three sisters are all
blondes. (....................................................).
I. I’d like to be an actress. Do you know anyone who could use their influence get me a
part in a movie? (...................................................................).
J. Elena planned a big party for Linda without knowing if Linda couldn’t come. Elena
always does things backwards. (......................................................................).

6. Match the idioms in the left hand column with their meanings in the right hand
column.

A butterflies in one’s stomach a. pay the cost

B. foot the bill b. to deceive someone
C. by heart c. to be uninterested
D. pull the wool over one’s eyes d. to feel very nervous
E. heart isn’t in it e. take a firm stand
F. lose one’s head f. space to move.
G. elbow room g. by memory
H. cross one’s fingers h. to act foolishly
I. lend a hand i. wish for goodluck
J. put one’s foot down j. to help out

7. Apply those idiomatic expressions above in sentences!

a. All ears : fully listening

b. Break a leg : good luck
c. Cold feet : Nervous just before a big event
d. Cost an arm and a leg : Be very expensive
 e. Cry over you heart out : cry very hard
f. Give a hand lend a hand : help (someone) do something.
g. Head over heel : deeply in love
h. Keep an eye on : tace care of, watch in order to protect.
i. Keep one’s chin up : Try to be cheerful

8.Match the idiomatic expression on the left with the right meaning on the right.

1. She’s burning the candle at both a. I want a word with you about the
ends. problem.
2. He’s pulling the wool over her eyes. b. It’s pouring with rain.
3. He’s leading you up the garden path. a. I suspect something is wrong.
4. It’s raining cats and dogs. b. He has made a fresh start.
5. I’ve got a bone to pick with you. c. He’s trying to fool you.
6. I can smell a rat. d. They paid too much money for it.
7. They paid through the nose e. She’s working day and night.
8. He has turned over a new leaf. f. He’s keeping a secret from her.
9. Lucy and Sheila like two peas in a g. It’s no longer important
pod.
10. She told me : “ It was just water h. Cannot be separated; always
under the bridge, forget it!” come together.