SUEZ OIL COMPANY

Petroleum Engineering Department

Competency Assurance
Program

Module

PE – 12
Well Stimulation
and Clean Up

April 2012
SUCO Competency Assurance Program PED

DEPARTMENT: PED
MODULE NO.: PE – 12
MODULE SUBJECT: WELL STIMULATION AND CLEAN UP

Tasks:

12. WELL STIMULATION AND CLEAN UP

12.1 Reasons for Stimulation

12.1.1 Causes of Damage

12.2 Acidizing
12.2.1 Acid and Acid Additives
12.2.2 Matrix Acidizing in Carbonate Reservoirs
12.2.3 Matrix Acidizing in Sandstone Reservoirs

12.3 Hydraulic Fracturing

12.4 Clean-Up

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MODULE N O.: PE-12 W ELL STIMULATION AND CLEAN U P

TASK N O.: 12.1 REASONS FOR STIMULATION

REFERENCE: SUCO Operations Manual and PE Handbooks

TRAINEE Trainee must become familiar with the principles of

REQUIREMENT: Stimulation

12.1 REASONS FOR STIMULATION

There are two main reasons for stimulation in wells, namely:

 to restore damaged permeability

 to improve low natural permeability.

RESTORING DAMAGED PERMEABILITY

All production and injection wells are susceptible to formation damage, and this can seriously
restrict their productivity or injectivity. The main causes of damage are contact, in the
formation, with foreign fluids and plugging of the formation by solid particles. The presence of
skin damage can be identified from well test analysis. Damage will also be indicated by a larger
than normal pressure drop around the wellbore and across the perforations. In most cases
damage is limited to the immediate wellbore area and seldom exceeds a depth of more than
approximately one metre into the formation. The reduction in permeability in this damaged
zone has the greatest influence on the productivity (or injectivity) of the well. Damage which is
deep, eg several hundred metres into the reservoir, has less effect. Treatments to remove
damage include specially formulated chemical or acid treatments to clean the perforations and
damaged zone.

IMPROVING LOW NATURAL PERMEABILITY

Low natural permeability is more difficult to deal with than localised wellbore damage. In
carbonate reservoirs additional flow capacity can be created by acidizing to increase the size of
the pore spaces, or by using the acid fracturing technique to create new flow capacity.
Hydraulic fracturing, using a propping agent to keep the fracture open, is the only applicable
technique for increasing the flow capacity in sandstone reservoirs.

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12.1.1 Causes of Damage

Damage is normally caused by the invasion of the formation by another fluid or plugging of the
formation by solid or semi-solid material. It can result from either a physical process — such as
a change in fluid saturation and relative permeability, or a chemical process — for example
forming a precipitate as a result of contact between the formation fluids and acid reaction
products. The most common causes of damage are listed below:

 drilling fluid
 cement
 emulsion
 scale
 water block
 wettability change
 silt or clay migration
 paraffin/wax (organic deposits)
 perforating damage.

DRILLING FLUID

Most drilling fluids contain potentially damaging solids, such as weighting material (eg barite),
clays (eg bentonite), cuttings and lost circulation material (eg mica). Normal overbalance
pressures are sufficient to cause the drilling fluid to be filtered against the formation face, and
this filtrate can damage the reservoir, especially where sensitive or swelling clays are present.

CEMENT

Cement slurry is similar to drilling fluid in terms of formation damage. While the cement slurry
is being circulated in the annulus the overbalance pressure is considerably higher than for the
drilling fluid. This can cause both particle and filtrate invasion.

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EMULSION

Emulsions are mixtures of oil and water which are created under high shear conditions. Fine
particles, solids and natural surfactants in the formation tend to stabilise emulsions. The
viscosity of an emulsion can be much higher than either of the oil or water phases which created
the emulsion. Drilling fluid and cement filtrates both have a high pH and can form stable
emulsions with many formation crudes. Spent acid and other water based treatment fluids also
form emulsions. Emulsion problems can be treated using surfactants and demulsifiers.

SCALE

Scales are mineral deposits which are precipitated when two incompatible fluids mix. They can
be found anywhere from the formation right through to the final production and export stages.
Scaling problems are normally more severe closer to surface, where pressure is lower. Calcium
carbonate is the most common type of scale and can easily be removed by hydrochloric acid.
Other scales such as gypsum are sulphate based and can be much more difficult to remove.
This type of scale often results from mixing injected seawater and formation fluids. Sulphate
based scales can be dissolved by complex multi stage chemical treatments or by mechanical
methods such as drilling or underreaming.

WATERBLOCK

Waterblock occurs when an increased water saturation results in a reduction in relative

permeability to oil or gas. This is often the result of water coning, water breakthrough from an
injection well, or filtrate invasion while drilling or cementing. Waterblocks can normally be
treated by surfactants and/or alcohols.

WETTABILITY CHANGE

Most formations are naturally water wet and this is the most efficient production mechanism.
Either partially or totally changing wettability to oil wet the formation will reduce the relative
permeability to oil. This problem can occur when drilling with oil based muds. Wettability can
usually be reversed by a combination of solvents or mutual solvents, and a strong surfactant to
return the rock to a water wet condition.

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SILT OR CLAY MIGRATION

Damage due to silt or clay migration can take place due to filtrate invasion from the drilling
fluid, and as a result of destabilisation and/or movement of formation fines. Silt and clay
damage can be removed by dissolving the materials with specially formulated clay or mud acid
(HCl-HF), dissolving the rock around the damage with HCl in carbonate formations, and by
suspending and transporting the clays from the wellbore (or pushing them deep into the
formation).

PARAFFIN OR WAX DEPOSITION

Heavy hydrocarbons such as paraffin, wax or asphaltines can be deposited anywhere from the
perforations up to surface. Deposition is more likely closer to surface and in surface lines, since
temperatures are lower. The deposits can be removed by dissolving them using solvents,
circulating hot oil or by mechanical means such as wireline.

PERFORATING DAMAGE

The high energy blast zone created by the shaped charge when perforating can create local
damage in the perforation tunnel. Drilling mud, steel, cement and the formation rock are all
subject to extremely high temperature and pressure when the charge is fired. This can produce a
blast damaged zone of compacted debris, and the efficiency of the perforation may be restricted.
Perforation washing using a high pressure hydraulic jet system or acid washing can help to
remove the damage.

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MODULE N O.: PE-12 W ELL STIMULATION AND CLEAN U P

TASK N O.: 12.2 ACIDIZING

REFERENCE: SUCO Operations Manual and PE Handbooks

TRAINEE Trainee must become familiar with the principles of Acid

REQUIREMENT: Stimulation

12.2 ACIDIZING

It is believed that the use of acid to improve productivity in oil wells started as early as 11295 in
Lima, Ohio — USA. The process of acidizing was first patented by Herman Frasch, who was
employed as Chief Chemist by Standard Oil. This original application provided the foundation
for many of the acidizing techniques which are in use today. It addressed problems such as acid
penetration, reaction products and corrosion protection. Since then, the chemistry, techniques
and mathematics of acidizing have been developed, but the original concept remains valid.
Three main techniques are commonly used in acidizing; however, it is necessary indicate that
the first two are the ones used in SUCO, namely:

Acid Washing: where the purpose of the acid is to remove damage or dissolve scale
from the tubing and casing. The acid formulation is often left to soak, before being
circulated out of the well. Although the acid may be rocked backwards and forwards
across the perforations, this is only to clean the perforations and there is no attempt to
clean the matrix of the formation outside of the wellbore.

Matrix Acidizing: in which acid is injected radially into the formation at pressures
below the fracture gradient of the rock. The objective in this case is to dissolve
minerals and remove damage from the near wellbore area, thus restoring or increasing
productivity.

Acid Fracturing: where the acid is injected into the formation at pressures above the
fracture gradient. This normally creates two vertical fractures, extending deep into the
reservoir. The acid etches the fracture face, creating small channels which maintain a
high conductivity path to the wellbore once the fracture has closed. Further details of
this technique are given in Section 12.3.3.

12.2.1 Acid and Acid Additives

Although there are many different types of acid and acid formulations, only two are routinely
used. These are:

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Hydrochloric Acid which is used in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs to
dissolve or disperse some types of damage, and to dissolve carbonates.

Hydrochloric Hydrofluoric Acid which is used to dissolve clays and silicate materials
in sandstone reservoirs.

Acids which are used in well stimulation require additives to protect the tubular goods, and to
help avoid adverse reactions with the formation rocks and fluids. Acid additives help to
maximise penetration and ensure an even zone coverage. Laboratory tests are an essential part
of designing an efficient stimulation treatment. Simple tests can be used to check the solubility
of the rock and minerals in different types and strengths of acid. Other tests allow the
performance of different additives to be evaluated and the optimum additive concentration
selected. Final testing should be made with the treatment fluid containing all of the additives
for the job. The main groups of additives are listed below.

Corrosion inhibitors are required in all acid formulations to protect the tubular goods
both during the treatment and for the flowback period. Most inhibitors work by
forming a protective film on the surface of the metal. The main factors which influence
the selection of an inhibitor are the acid type and strength, bottom hole temperature,
contact time and the metal type. The efficiency of an inhibitor can be affected by the
presence of other additives.

Surfactants are used in all treatments to reduce surface tension between the fluids, to
improve recovery of the spent acid and to leave the formation water wet. They help
prevent emulsions and sludge forming. Demulsifiers are a specific group of surfactants
designed to prevent emulsions forming between the acid and crude oil. Anti sludge
agents are another group of surfactants which are designed to prevent sludge forming
with spent acid and crude oils with a high asphaltene content.

Iron stabilisers help prevent the formation of damaging precipitates between spent
acid and iron in solution. Iron is often present as rust or corrosion products in the
tubulars, from pipe scale, and in the formation rocks. Iron can be present in ferric
(Fe+++) or ferrous (Fe++) states. Precipitates which can damage and plug the
formation can form with spent acid as the pH decreases. These precipitates form at pH
values of approximately 2.2 and 7.0 for ferric and ferrous iron respectively. Since the
spent acid returning from the wellbore normally has a pH of approximately 5.0pH, the
problem normally only occurs with ferric iron. Iron stabilisers include complexing
agents such as EDTA and citric acid. It is extremely important that spent acid is
returned from the wellbore immediately after the treatment. Leaving the acid in contact
with the formation for extended periods would allow the pH of the acid to drop,
encouraging precipitates to form.

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Clay stabilisers are used in sandstone reservoirs to help prevent the migration of clays
which have been disturbed by the acid. Clay stabilisers help to bond the clays to the
rock and prevent the structure of the clay from breaking up.

Mutual solvents are surfactant type materials which are soluble in both oil and water
(or acid). They improve the performance of other additives such as surfactants,
demulsifiers and corrosion inhibitors by preventing them from being adsorbed on the
formation rock. They also lower surface tension and greatly improve the cleanup
efficiency. They are mostly used in sandstone acidizing, but can be used in carbonates.

Diverting agents help ensure a uniform zone coverage by diverting the flow of acid
from the zones with the highest permeability to other zones. Different forms of
diverting agent are available. These include chemicals such as oil soluble resins and
polymers, which are added to the acid and function similar to fluid loss additives. Ball
sealers are small rubber balls which have a density matched to the acid density and are
pumped during the acid treatment. The balls seal on the perforation face, diverting the
flow to other perforations. The balls are recovered on surface after the job when the
well is flowed back.

Injection wells use water soluble diverting agents only, since the direction of flow
cannot be reversed after the job to recover ball sealers.

Other additives. There is a wide range of acid additives available for specific well
conditions. Silt suspending agents are designed to hold silt or fine clay particles in
suspension in the spent acid, allowing them to be recovered from the wellbore. Friction
reducers are polymers which minimise the internal resistance of acid during pumping
and significantly reduce friction pressures. These are commonly used in acid fracturing
or when pumping acid through coiled tubing at high rates. Acid retarders are used to
delay the acid reaction rate and prevent the acid from spending too quickly. This helps
the live acid to penetrate deeply into the formation.

12.2.2 Matrix Acidizing in Carbonate Reservoirs

Matrix acidizing in carbonate reservoirs involves injecting acid into the formation below the
fracture pressure of the rock. The main objective of the treatment is to remove damage from
drilling mud, scale, clay, etc, in order to restore or increase the original permeability. Since the
carbonate rock is highly soluble in hydrochloric acid, it is often easier to dissolve the rock
around the damage than to dissolve the material causing the damage. Hydrochloric acid is
normally used in either 15 percent or 212 percent strength.

Typical treatment volumes would be in the order of between 40 - 150 gallons per foot of
formation (500 - 1,1200 ltr/m). Minimum acid additives would include corrosion inhibitor and

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surfactant. Other additives would be added depending on well condition, eg demulsifier,
antisludge agent, iron stabiliser, silt suspending agent. A suitable diverting agent, or mechanical
means of diversion such as ball sealers would be required to achieve uniform zone coverage.
Maximum benefit for the treatment can be obtained by using a non damaging overflush, such as
a brine compatible with the formation fluids, or light oil. The overflush would also contain
additives such as a surfactant and or mutual solvent. These additives are designed to improve
the recovery efficiency and leave the formation water wet.

12.2.3 Matrix Acidizing in Sandstone Reservoirs

Matrix acidizing in sandstone reservoirs is more complex than with carbonate reservoirs.
Sandstones are mostly composed of quartz grains, which are essentially not affected by acid.
The objective of acidizing in sandstone reservoirs is to dissolve the damaging material causing
the reduction in permeability.

Although sandstone consists predominately of quartz grains, it frequently contains other

minerals such as clays, carbonates, metallic oxides, sulphates and chlorides. Since hydrochloric
acid has little effect on silicate materials, hydrofluoric acid is used in sandstone acidizing. This
acid is normally added with hydrochloric acid, and the resulting mixture is often referred to as
mud acid. The most common mud acid concentration is 12 - 3 HCl HF, ie 12 percent
hydrochloric acid and 3 percent hydrofluoric acid. There are some disadvantages of using mud
acid, including:

 Mud acid must be retarded to prevent it from spending too close to the wellbore,
especially if carbonates are present.

 Chemical reactions between the mud acid, clay minerals and other compounds, and
the formation brine can form damaging precipitates.

 Care must be taken to avoid dissolving the cementing matrix of the sandstone, which
could lead to deconsolidation around the wellbore.

 Any clays or fine particles which are dissolved must be suspended to allow them to
be either recovered from the well or flushed deep into the formation where
damaging effects are minimised.

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Matrix acidizing treatments for sandstone reservoirs involve pumping several fluid stages. The
preflush is essential to prevent direct contact between the formation brine, carbonates and the
mud acid stage. Hydrochloric acid (15 percent) is normally used as a preflush since it acts as a
spacer and dissolves any carbonates present.

Direct contact between the carbonates and mud acid would cause the mud acid to spend before
it could dissolve the damage, and could lead to the precipitation of calcium fluoride CaF2.
Typical volumes for the preflush stage would be in the order of 50 - 100gal/ft (600 -
1,200ltr/m). The mud acid stage carries the hydrofluoric acid which is required to dissolve the
damaging material. Typical volumes for this stage should be 150 - 200gal/ft (1,1200 -
2,500ltr/m). The overflush stage is required to fully displace the mud acid treatment into the
formation and to displace any damaging precipitates which may have formed. The overflush
would typically be a non damaging brine or light oil. Typical volumes for the overflush vary
from 50 - 200gal/ft (600 - 2,500ltr/m). Acid additives for matrix acidizing in sandstones include
corrosion inhibitor and surfactant for all acid stages. Depending on well conditions, other
additives may be required, eg demulsifier, anti sludge agent, clay stabiliser, iron stabiliser, silt
suspending agent, mutual solvent. A suitable diverting agent or mechanical means of diversion
such as ball sealers would also be required. The overflush should also contain a suitable
surfactant and mutual solvent to help recovery of the treatment fluids. The well should be
flowed back immediately.

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MODULE N O.: PE-12 W ELL STIMULATION AND CLEAN U P

TASK N O.: 12.3 HYDRAULIC FRACTURING

REFERENCE: SUCO Operations Manual and PE Handbooks

TRAINEE Trainee should understand the principles of Hydraulic

REQUIREMENT: Fracturing

12.3 HYDRAULIC FRACTURING

The technique of hydraulically fracturing wells to increase production was first developed in the
1920s; however the first commercial fracturing operation was not performed until 1949. The
technique is applicable to wells which have a low natural permeability. Fracturing can also be
used to bypass damage around the wellbore which cannot be removed by matrix acidizing or
other treatments. Hydraulic fracturing involves pumping fluid at sufficient rates and pressures
to break the rock. In most wells this results in two vertical fractures of equal length extending
deep into the reservoir. When pumping stops, the fracturing fluid leaks into the formation,
pressure in the fracture decreases and the fracture closes. If the fracture was allowed to close
completely there would be no increase in productivity.

This technique is not being used in SUCO operations.

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MODULE N O.: PE-12 W ELL STIMULATION AND CLEAN U P

TASK N O.: 12.4 CLEAN-UP

REFERENCE: SUCO Operations Manual and PE Handbooks

TRAINEE Trainee should understand the principles of Clean-up

REQUIREMENT:

12.4 CLEAN-UP

The purpose of the clean-up period is to eliminate all foreign fluids such as mud
filtrate, completion fluids, etc., contained in the invaded zone and the well bore so that
representative reservoir fluids may be produced during the test. The flow rate during
clean-up should be the highest rate compatible with well equipment and reservoir
characteristics. Sand breakthrough, water coning, etc. should be avoided.
In the case of a gas well, the drawdown normally should not exceed 25% of the static
well head pressure.
Furthermore, gas velocity in the well head should not exceed 50 ft/sec.
In practice, the formation productivity is rarely known before the test but a first
estimation may be obtained during the clean-up period by means of a choke
performance chart.
Choke performance charts for oil and gas are available in the practical tables book.
Although assumptions are necessary, these estimated flow rates can be helpful when
planning the flow rates for the actual test sequence.

If no better information is available, assume the following:

If GOR is unknown in an oil well: GOR (scf/Bbl) 0.1 x Depth (ft)
If GOR is greater than 5000 scf/Bbl: This is a Gas well
A well testing program should then be established in accordance with:
- The nature of fluids produced (oil or gas),
- The reservoir characteristics (high, low productivity).

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Estimation of the duration of the CLEAN-UP period: The following criteria should be used to
estimate if the well is producing clean hydrocarbons and if the clean-up may be ended.

1. Basic Sediment and Water measurement.

 BSW is less than 1 % if solids are still present.

2. Salinity measurement on produced water or BSW.

 Salinity is equal to the salinity of the formation water - otherwise, there is still
filtrate in the produced fluid.

3. After acid job, pH measurement on produced water or BSW water.

 pH should be neutral (pH 7) - otherwise, there is still acid in the produced

fluids.

4. Stabilization of well head pressure.

 This condition is especially important for Gas wells to make sure that wellbore
is free of any liquid.

5. Stabilization of downhole pressure.

 When surface read-out is available.

6. Visual examination of the flare

 White or Grey smoke may indicate the presence of water in the well effluent.
Fast changes at the flare indicates the venue of surges of water.

7. Minimum amount of fluids has been produced.

 In all cases, it is necessary to produce a volume of fluid at least equal to the well
bore volume.

8. Surface flow rate stabilization.

 This is a good indication that near borehole part of the reservoir and perforations
have been cleaned of foreign solids.

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