5-1-2018

Quotient Rings of Polynomial Rings

In this section, I’ll look at quotient rings of polynomial rings.
Let F be a field, and suppose p(x) ∈ F [x]. hp(x)i is the set of all multiples (by polynomials) of p(x),
F [x]
the (principal) ideal generated by p(x). When you form the quotient ring , it is as if you’ve set
hp(x)i
multiples of p(x) equal to 0.
If a(x) ∈ F [x], then a(x) + hp(x)i is the coset of hp(x)i represented by a(x).
Define a(x) = b(x) (mod p(x)) (a(x) is congruent to b(x) mod p(x)) to mean that

p(x) | a(x) − b(x).

In words, this means that a(x) and b(x) are congruent mod p(x) if they differ by a multiple of p(x). In
equation form, this says a(x) − b(x) = k(x) · p(x) for some k(x) ∈ F [x], or a(x) = b(x) + k(x) · p(x) for some
k(x) ∈ F [x].
Lemma. Let R be a commutative ring, and suppose a(x), b(x), p(x) ∈ R[x]. Then a(x) = b(x) (mod p(x))
if and only if a(x) + hp(x)i = b(x) + hp(x)i.

Proof. Suppose a(x) = b(x) (mod p(x)). Then a(x) = b(x) + k(x) · p(x) for some k(x) ∈ R[x]. Hence,

a(x) + hp(x)i = b(x) + k(x) · p(x) + hp(x)i = b(x) + hp(x)i.

Conversely, suppose a(x) + hp(x)i = b(x) + hp(x)i. Then

a(x) ∈ a(x) + hp(x)i = b(x) + hp(x)i.

Hence,
a(x) = b(x) + k(x) · p(x) for some k(x) ∈ R[x].
This means that a(x) = b(x) (mod p(x)).

Depending on the situation, I may write a(x) = b(x) (mod p(x)) or a(x) + hp(x)i = b(x) + hp(x)i.

Example. (A quotient ring of the rational polynomial ring) Take p(x) = x − 2 in Q[x]. Then two
polynomials are congruent mod x − 2 if they differ by a multiple of x − 2.

(a) Show that 2x2 + 3x + 5 = x2 + 4x + 7 (mod x − 2).

(b) Find a rational number r such that x3 − 4x2 + x + 6 = r (mod x − 2).

Q[x]
(c) Prove that ≈ Q.
hx − 2i
(a)

(2x2 + 3x + 5) − (x2 + 4x + 7) = x2 − x − 2 = (x + 1)(x − 2), so 2x2 + 3x + 5 = x2 + 4x + 7 (mod x − 2) .

(b) By the Remainder Theorem, when f (x) = x3 − 4x2 + x + 11 is divided by x − 2, the remainder is

f (2) = 23 − 4 · 22 + 2 + 11 = 5.

Thus,
x3 − 4x2 + x + 11 = (x − 2)q(x) + 5
x3 − 4x2 + x + 11 = 5 (mod x − 2)

1
(c) I’ll use the First Isomorphism Theorem. Define φ : Q[x] → Q by
φ (f (x)) = f (2).
That is, φ evaluates a polynomial at x = 2. Note that
φ (f (x) + g(x)) = f (2) + g(2) = φ (f (x)) + φ (g(x)) and φ (f (x)g(x)) = f (2)g(2) = φ (f (x)) φ (g(x)) ,
It follows that φ is a ring map.
I claim that ker φ = hx − 2i. Now f (x) ∈ ker φ if and only if
f (2) = φ (f (x)) = 0.
That is, f (x) ∈ ker φ if and only if 2 is a root of f . By the Root Theorem, this is equivalent to
x − 2 | f (x), which is equivalent to f (x) ∈ hx − 2i.
Next, I’ll show that φ is surjective. Let q ∈ Q. I can think of q as a constant polynomial, and doing so,
φ(q) = q. Therefore, φ is surjective.
Using these results,
Q[x] Q[x]
= ≈ im φ = Q.
hx − 2i ker φ
The first equality follows from the fact that hx − 2i = ker φ. The isomorphism follows from the First
Isomorphism Theorem. The second equality follows from the fact that φ is surjective.

F [x]
In the last example, was a field. The next result says that this is the case exactly when p(x) is
hp(x)i
irreducible.
F [x]
Theorem. is a field if and only if p(x) is irreducible.
hp(x)i
F [x]
Proof. Since F [x] is a commutative ring with identity, so is .
hp(x)i
F [x]
Suppose p(x) is irreducible. I need to show that is a field. I need to show that nonzero elements
hp(x)i
are invertible.
F [x]
Take a nonzero element of — say a(x) + hp(x)i, for a(x) ∈ F [x]. What does it mean for
hp(x)i
a(x) + hp(x)i to be nonzero? It means that a(x) ∈ / hp(x)i, so p(x) 6 | a(x).
Now what is the greatest common divisor of a(x) and p(x)? Well, (a(x), p(x)) | p(x), but p(x) is
irreducible — its only factors are units and unit multiples of p(x).
Suppose (a(x), p(x)) = k · p(x), where k ∈ F and k 6= 0. Then k · p(x) | a(x), i.e. k · p(x)b(x) = a(x) for
some b(x). But then p(x)[k · b(x)] = a(x) shows that p(x) | a(x), contrary to assumption.
The only other possibility is that (a(x), p(x)) = k, where k ∈ F and k 6= 0. So I can find polynomials
m(x), n(x), such that
a(x)m(x) + p(x)n(x) = k.
Then    
1 1
a(x) · m(x) + p(x) · n(x) = 1.
k k
Hence,    
1 1
a(x) · m(x) + p(x) · n(x) + hp(x)i = 1 + hp(x)i
k k
 
1
a(x) · m(x) + hp(x)i = 1 + hp(x)i
k
 
1
(a(x) + hp(x)i) m(x) + hp(x)i = 1 + hp(x)i
k

2
 1
This shows that m(x) + hp(x)i is the multiplicative inverse of a(x) + hp(x)i. Therefore, a(x) + hp(x)i
k
F [x]
is invertible, and is a field.
hp(x)i
Going the other way, suppose that p(x) is not irreducible. Then I can find polynomials c(x), d(x) such
that p(x) = c(x)d(x), where c(x) and d(x) both have smaller degree than p(x).
Because c(x) and d(x) have smaller degree than p(x), they’re not divisible by p(x). In particular,

c(x) + hp(x)i =
6 0 and d(x) + hp(x)i =
6 0.

But p(x) = c(x)d(x) gives

p(x) + hp(x)i = c(x)d(x) + hp(x)i

0 = (c(x) + hp(x)i) (d(x) + hp(x)i)

F [x]
This shows that has zero divisors. Therefore, it’s not an integral domain — and since fields are
hp(x)i
integral domains, it can’t be a field, either.

Q[x]
Example. (A quotient ring which is not an integral domain) Prove that is not an integral
hx2 − 1i
domain by exhibiting a pair of zero divisors.

(x − 1) + hx2 − 1i and (x + 1) + hx2 − 1i are zero divisors, because

(x − 1)(x + 1) = x2 − 1 = 0 mod x2 − 1 .

Q[x]
Example. (A quotient ring which is a field) (a) Show that is a field.
hx2 + 2x + 2i
Q[x]
(b) Find the inverse of (x3 + 1) + hx2 + 2x + 2i in .
hx2 + 2x + 2i
(a) Since x2 + 2x + 2 = (x + 1)2 + 1 > 0 for all x ∈ Q, it follows that x2 + 2x + 2 has no rational roots.
Hence, it’s irreducible, and the quotient ring is a field.

(b) Apply the Extended Euclidean algorithm to x3 + 1 and x2 + 2x + 2:

x2 5x 3
x3 + 1 - − +
2 4 2
x 1
x2 + 2x + 2 x−2 −
2 4
x 1
2x + 5 − 1
2 4
13 8x 20
+ 0
4 13 13

Therefore,
x2
   
13 5x 3 x 1
= − + (x2 + 2x + 2) − − (x3 + 1).
4 2 4 2 2 4

3
 Hence,
x2
   
4 5x 3 4 x 1
1= − + (x2 + 2x + 2) − − (x3 + 1).
13 2 4 2 13 2 4
Reducing mod x2 + 2x + 2, I get
 
4 x 1
1 + hx2 + 2x + 2i = − − (x3 + 1) + hx2 + 2x + 2i
13 2 4
   
4 x 1
1 + hx2 + 2x + 2i = − + hx2 + 2x + 2i (x3 + 1) + hx2 + 2x + 2i


−
13 2 4
 
4 x 1
Thus, − − + hx2 + 2x + 2i is the inverse of (x3 + 1) + hx2 + 2x + 2i.
13 2 4

Z2 [x]
Example. (A field with 4 elements) (a) Prove that is a field.
hx2 + x + 1i
(b) Find ax + b ∈ Z2 [x] so that

(x4 + x3 + 1) + hx2 + x + 1i = (ax + b) + hx2 + x + 1i.

Z2 [x]
(c) Construct addition and multiplication tables for .
hx2 + x + 1i
(a) Let f (x) = x2 + x + 1. Then f (0) = 1 and f (1) = 1. Since f has no roots in Z2 , it’s irreducible. Hence,
Z2 [x]
2
is a field.
hx + x + 1i
(b) By the Division Algorithm,

x4 + x3 + 1 = (x2 + x + 1)(x2 + 1) + x.

This equation says that x4 + x3 + 1 and x differ by a multiple of x2 + x + 1, so they represent the same
coset mod x2 + x + 1.
Therefore,
(x4 + x3 + 1) + hx2 + x + 1i = x + hx2 + x + 1i.
(c) By the Division Algorithm, if f (x) ∈ Z2 [x], then

f (x) = (x2 + x + 1)q(x) + (ax + b), where a, b ∈ Z2 .

Z2 [x]
There are two possibilities for a and two for b, a total of 4. It follows that is a field with
hx2 + x + 1i
4 elements. The elements are

0 + hx2 + x + 1i, 1 + hx2 + x + 1i, x + hx2 + x + 1i, (x + 1) + hx2 + x + 1i.

Z2 [x]
Here are the addition and multiplication tables for :
hx2 + x + 1i

+ 0 1 x x+1
0 0 1 x x+1
1 1 0 x+1 x
x x x+1 0 1
x+1 x+1 x 1 0

4
 · 0 1 x x+1
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 x x+1
x 0 x x+1 1
x+1 0 x+1 1 x

The addition table is fairly easy to understand: For example, x + (x + 1) = 1, because 2x = 0 (mod 2).
For the multiplication table, take x · x as an example. x · x = x2 ; I apply the Division Algorithm to get

x2 = 1 · (x2 + x + 1) + (x + 1).


So x · x = x + 1 mod x2 + x + 1 .
Alternatively, you can use the fact that in the quotient ring x2 + x + 1 = 0 (omitting the coset notation),
2
so x = x + 1 (remember that −1 = 1 in Zs ).

Remark. In the same way, you can construct a field of order pn for any prime n and any n ≥ 1. Just take
Zp [x]
Zp [x] and form the quotient ring , where f (x) is an irreducible polynomial of degree n.
hf (x)i
Z3 [x]
Example. (Computations in a quotient ring) (a) Show that is a field.
hx3 + 2x + 1i
Z3 [x]
(b) How many elements are there in ?
hx3 + 2x + 1i
(c) Compute
(x2 + x + 2) + hx3 + 2x + 1i (2x2 + 1) + hx3 + 2x + 1i .
  

Express your answer in the form (ax2 + bx + c) + hx3 + 2x + 1i, where a, b, c ∈ Z3 .

 −1
(d) Find (x2 + 1) + hx3 + 2x + 1i .

(a) x3 + 2x + 1 has no roots in Z3 :

x 0 1 2
x3 + 2x + 1 (mod 3) 1 1 1

Z3 [x]
Since x3 + 2x + 1 is a cubic, it follows that it’s irreducible. Hence, is a field.
hx3 + 2x + 1i
Z3 [x]
(b) By the Division Algorithm, every element of can be written in the form
hx3 + 2x + 1i

(ax2 + bx + c) + hx3 + 2x + 1i, where a, b, c ∈ Z3 .

Z3 [x]
There are 3 choices each for a, b, and c. Therefore, has 33 = 27 elements.
hx3 + 2x + 1i
(c)

(x2 + x + 2) + hx3 + 2x + 1i (2x2 + 1) + hx3 + 2x + 1i = (2x4 + 2x3 + 2x2 + x + 2) + hx3 + 2x + 1i.

  

By the Division Algorithm,

2x4 + 2x3 + 2x2 + x + 2 = (2x + 2)(x3 + 2x + 1) + x2 .

5
 Therefore,
(2x4 + 2x3 + 2x2 + x + 2) + hx3 + 2x + 1i = x2 + hx3 + 2x + 1i.
(d) Apply the Extended Euclidean algorithm:

x3 + 2x + 1 - x2 + 2x + 1
x2 + 1 x x+2
x+1 x+2 1
2 2x + 2 0

(x2 + 2x + 1)(x2 + 1) − (x + 2)(x3 + 2x + 1) = 2

(2x2 + x + 2)(x2 + 1) − (2x + 1)(x3 + 2x + 1) = 1
Therefore,

(2x2 + x + 2) + hx3 + 2x + 1i (x2 + 1) + hx3 + 2x + 1i = 1 + hx3 + 2x + 1i.

  

Hence,
(x2 + 1) + hx3 + 2x + 1i = (2x2 + x + 2) + hx3 + 2x + 1i.
 −1

c 2018 by Bruce Ikenaga 6