The document discusses quotient rings of polynomial rings. It defines what it means for two polynomials to be congruent modulo a polynomial p(x). Specifically, a(x) is congruent to b(x) modulo p(x) if a(x) - b(x) is a multiple of p(x). It then proves that this is equivalent to a(x) and b(x) having the same coset in the quotient ring. It provides an example showing two polynomials are congruent modulo x - 2. It also proves the quotient ring is a field if and only if the polynomial p(x) is irreducible.
The document discusses quotient rings of polynomial rings. It defines what it means for two polynomials to be congruent modulo a polynomial p(x). Specifically, a(x) is congruent to b(x) modulo p(x) if a(x) - b(x) is a multiple of p(x). It then proves that this is equivalent to a(x) and b(x) having the same coset in the quotient ring. It provides an example showing two polynomials are congruent modulo x - 2. It also proves the quotient ring is a field if and only if the polynomial p(x) is irreducible.
The document discusses quotient rings of polynomial rings. It defines what it means for two polynomials to be congruent modulo a polynomial p(x). Specifically, a(x) is congruent to b(x) modulo p(x) if a(x) - b(x) is a multiple of p(x). It then proves that this is equivalent to a(x) and b(x) having the same coset in the quotient ring. It provides an example showing two polynomials are congruent modulo x - 2. It also proves the quotient ring is a field if and only if the polynomial p(x) is irreducible.
The document discusses quotient rings of polynomial rings. It defines what it means for two polynomials to be congruent modulo a polynomial p(x). Specifically, a(x) is congruent to b(x) modulo p(x) if a(x) - b(x) is a multiple of p(x). It then proves that this is equivalent to a(x) and b(x) having the same coset in the quotient ring. It provides an example showing two polynomials are congruent modulo x - 2. It also proves the quotient ring is a field if and only if the polynomial p(x) is irreducible.
In this section, I’ll look at quotient rings of polynomial rings. Let F be a field, and suppose p(x) ∈ F [x]. hp(x)i is the set of all multiples (by polynomials) of p(x), F [x] the (principal) ideal generated by p(x). When you form the quotient ring , it is as if you’ve set hp(x)i multiples of p(x) equal to 0. If a(x) ∈ F [x], then a(x) + hp(x)i is the coset of hp(x)i represented by a(x). Define a(x) = b(x) (mod p(x)) (a(x) is congruent to b(x) mod p(x)) to mean that
p(x) | a(x) − b(x).
In words, this means that a(x) and b(x) are congruent mod p(x) if they differ by a multiple of p(x). In equation form, this says a(x) − b(x) = k(x) · p(x) for some k(x) ∈ F [x], or a(x) = b(x) + k(x) · p(x) for some k(x) ∈ F [x]. Lemma. Let R be a commutative ring, and suppose a(x), b(x), p(x) ∈ R[x]. Then a(x) = b(x) (mod p(x)) if and only if a(x) + hp(x)i = b(x) + hp(x)i.
Proof. Suppose a(x) = b(x) (mod p(x)). Then a(x) = b(x) + k(x) · p(x) for some k(x) ∈ R[x]. Hence,
Conversely, suppose a(x) + hp(x)i = b(x) + hp(x)i. Then
a(x) ∈ a(x) + hp(x)i = b(x) + hp(x)i.
Hence, a(x) = b(x) + k(x) · p(x) for some k(x) ∈ R[x]. This means that a(x) = b(x) (mod p(x)).
Depending on the situation, I may write a(x) = b(x) (mod p(x)) or a(x) + hp(x)i = b(x) + hp(x)i.
Example. (A quotient ring of the rational polynomial ring) Take p(x) = x − 2 in Q[x]. Then two polynomials are congruent mod x − 2 if they differ by a multiple of x − 2.
(a) Show that 2x2 + 3x + 5 = x2 + 4x + 7 (mod x − 2).
(b) Find a rational number r such that x3 − 4x2 + x + 6 = r (mod x − 2).
(b) By the Remainder Theorem, when f (x) = x3 − 4x2 + x + 11 is divided by x − 2, the remainder is
f (2) = 23 − 4 · 22 + 2 + 11 = 5.
Thus, x3 − 4x2 + x + 11 = (x − 2)q(x) + 5 x3 − 4x2 + x + 11 = 5 (mod x − 2)
1 (c) I’ll use the First Isomorphism Theorem. Define φ : Q[x] → Q by φ (f (x)) = f (2). That is, φ evaluates a polynomial at x = 2. Note that φ (f (x) + g(x)) = f (2) + g(2) = φ (f (x)) + φ (g(x)) and φ (f (x)g(x)) = f (2)g(2) = φ (f (x)) φ (g(x)) , It follows that φ is a ring map. I claim that ker φ = hx − 2i. Now f (x) ∈ ker φ if and only if f (2) = φ (f (x)) = 0. That is, f (x) ∈ ker φ if and only if 2 is a root of f . By the Root Theorem, this is equivalent to x − 2 | f (x), which is equivalent to f (x) ∈ hx − 2i. Next, I’ll show that φ is surjective. Let q ∈ Q. I can think of q as a constant polynomial, and doing so, φ(q) = q. Therefore, φ is surjective. Using these results, Q[x] Q[x] = ≈ im φ = Q. hx − 2i ker φ The first equality follows from the fact that hx − 2i = ker φ. The isomorphism follows from the First Isomorphism Theorem. The second equality follows from the fact that φ is surjective.
F [x] In the last example, was a field. The next result says that this is the case exactly when p(x) is hp(x)i irreducible. F [x] Theorem. is a field if and only if p(x) is irreducible. hp(x)i F [x] Proof. Since F [x] is a commutative ring with identity, so is . hp(x)i F [x] Suppose p(x) is irreducible. I need to show that is a field. I need to show that nonzero elements hp(x)i are invertible. F [x] Take a nonzero element of — say a(x) + hp(x)i, for a(x) ∈ F [x]. What does it mean for hp(x)i a(x) + hp(x)i to be nonzero? It means that a(x) ∈ / hp(x)i, so p(x) 6 | a(x). Now what is the greatest common divisor of a(x) and p(x)? Well, (a(x), p(x)) | p(x), but p(x) is irreducible — its only factors are units and unit multiples of p(x). Suppose (a(x), p(x)) = k · p(x), where k ∈ F and k 6= 0. Then k · p(x) | a(x), i.e. k · p(x)b(x) = a(x) for some b(x). But then p(x)[k · b(x)] = a(x) shows that p(x) | a(x), contrary to assumption. The only other possibility is that (a(x), p(x)) = k, where k ∈ F and k 6= 0. So I can find polynomials m(x), n(x), such that a(x)m(x) + p(x)n(x) = k. Then 1 1 a(x) · m(x) + p(x) · n(x) = 1. k k Hence, 1 1 a(x) · m(x) + p(x) · n(x) + hp(x)i = 1 + hp(x)i k k
1 a(x) · m(x) + hp(x)i = 1 + hp(x)i k
1 (a(x) + hp(x)i) m(x) + hp(x)i = 1 + hp(x)i k
2 1 This shows that m(x) + hp(x)i is the multiplicative inverse of a(x) + hp(x)i. Therefore, a(x) + hp(x)i k F [x] is invertible, and is a field. hp(x)i Going the other way, suppose that p(x) is not irreducible. Then I can find polynomials c(x), d(x) such that p(x) = c(x)d(x), where c(x) and d(x) both have smaller degree than p(x). Because c(x) and d(x) have smaller degree than p(x), they’re not divisible by p(x). In particular,
c(x) + hp(x)i = 6 0 and d(x) + hp(x)i = 6 0.
But p(x) = c(x)d(x) gives
p(x) + hp(x)i = c(x)d(x) + hp(x)i
0 = (c(x) + hp(x)i) (d(x) + hp(x)i)
F [x] This shows that has zero divisors. Therefore, it’s not an integral domain — and since fields are hp(x)i integral domains, it can’t be a field, either.
Q[x] Example. (A quotient ring which is not an integral domain) Prove that is not an integral hx2 − 1i domain by exhibiting a pair of zero divisors.
(x − 1) + hx2 − 1i and (x + 1) + hx2 − 1i are zero divisors, because
(x − 1)(x + 1) = x2 − 1 = 0 mod x2 − 1 .
Q[x] Example. (A quotient ring which is a field) (a) Show that is a field. hx2 + 2x + 2i Q[x] (b) Find the inverse of (x3 + 1) + hx2 + 2x + 2i in . hx2 + 2x + 2i (a) Since x2 + 2x + 2 = (x + 1)2 + 1 > 0 for all x ∈ Q, it follows that x2 + 2x + 2 has no rational roots. Hence, it’s irreducible, and the quotient ring is a field.
(b) Apply the Extended Euclidean algorithm to x3 + 1 and x2 + 2x + 2:
4 x 1 Thus, − − + hx2 + 2x + 2i is the inverse of (x3 + 1) + hx2 + 2x + 2i. 13 2 4
Z2 [x] Example. (A field with 4 elements) (a) Prove that is a field. hx2 + x + 1i (b) Find ax + b ∈ Z2 [x] so that
(x4 + x3 + 1) + hx2 + x + 1i = (ax + b) + hx2 + x + 1i.
Z2 [x] (c) Construct addition and multiplication tables for . hx2 + x + 1i (a) Let f (x) = x2 + x + 1. Then f (0) = 1 and f (1) = 1. Since f has no roots in Z2 , it’s irreducible. Hence, Z2 [x] 2 is a field. hx + x + 1i (b) By the Division Algorithm,
x4 + x3 + 1 = (x2 + x + 1)(x2 + 1) + x.
This equation says that x4 + x3 + 1 and x differ by a multiple of x2 + x + 1, so they represent the same coset mod x2 + x + 1. Therefore, (x4 + x3 + 1) + hx2 + x + 1i = x + hx2 + x + 1i. (c) By the Division Algorithm, if f (x) ∈ Z2 [x], then
f (x) = (x2 + x + 1)q(x) + (ax + b), where a, b ∈ Z2 .
Z2 [x] There are two possibilities for a and two for b, a total of 4. It follows that is a field with hx2 + x + 1i 4 elements. The elements are
0 + hx2 + x + 1i, 1 + hx2 + x + 1i, x + hx2 + x + 1i, (x + 1) + hx2 + x + 1i.
Z2 [x] Here are the addition and multiplication tables for : hx2 + x + 1i
+ 0 1 x x+1 0 0 1 x x+1 1 1 0 x+1 x x x x+1 0 1 x+1 x+1 x 1 0
4 · 0 1 x x+1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 x x+1 x 0 x x+1 1 x+1 0 x+1 1 x
The addition table is fairly easy to understand: For example, x + (x + 1) = 1, because 2x = 0 (mod 2). For the multiplication table, take x · x as an example. x · x = x2 ; I apply the Division Algorithm to get
x2 = 1 · (x2 + x + 1) + (x + 1).
So x · x = x + 1 mod x2 + x + 1 . Alternatively, you can use the fact that in the quotient ring x2 + x + 1 = 0 (omitting the coset notation), 2 so x = x + 1 (remember that −1 = 1 in Zs ).
Remark. In the same way, you can construct a field of order pn for any prime n and any n ≥ 1. Just take Zp [x] Zp [x] and form the quotient ring , where f (x) is an irreducible polynomial of degree n. hf (x)i Z3 [x] Example. (Computations in a quotient ring) (a) Show that is a field. hx3 + 2x + 1i Z3 [x] (b) How many elements are there in ? hx3 + 2x + 1i (c) Compute (x2 + x + 2) + hx3 + 2x + 1i (2x2 + 1) + hx3 + 2x + 1i .
Express your answer in the form (ax2 + bx + c) + hx3 + 2x + 1i, where a, b, c ∈ Z3 .
−1 (d) Find (x2 + 1) + hx3 + 2x + 1i .
(a) x3 + 2x + 1 has no roots in Z3 :
x 0 1 2 x3 + 2x + 1 (mod 3) 1 1 1
Z3 [x] Since x3 + 2x + 1 is a cubic, it follows that it’s irreducible. Hence, is a field. hx3 + 2x + 1i Z3 [x] (b) By the Division Algorithm, every element of can be written in the form hx3 + 2x + 1i
(ax2 + bx + c) + hx3 + 2x + 1i, where a, b, c ∈ Z3 .
Z3 [x] There are 3 choices each for a, b, and c. Therefore, has 33 = 27 elements. hx3 + 2x + 1i (c)
