SUBSONIC AERODYNAMICS ASPECT RATIO

Vortex generators transfer energy from the free airflow High Aspect Ratio
into the boundary layer. Reduced drag
Vortex generators change laminar flow into turbulent Increased lift
flow.
Reduced critical alpha
Transferring energy from free airflow into boundary
layer delays the forward movement of the separation Reduced downwash behind trailing edge
point with increasing alpha. Increased effective alpha
Turbulent flow is thicker than laminar flow. Reduced induced angle?
Lift and drag forces acting on a wing cross section
depend on the pressure distribution about the wing GROUND EFFECT
cross section.
Entering Ground Effect
The mean aerodynamic chord for a given wing of
any planform is thre chord of an equivalent untwisted, Decreased downwash & downwash angle
rectangular wing with the same pitching moment and Decreased induced alpha & induced drag.
lift characteristics as the actual wing. Increased CL & lift
The greater the downwash, the greater the lift being
generated by the aerofoil.
Leaving Ground Effect
Geometric “Washout” describes twisting of the wing
along its length, so that the angle of attack at the tip is Increased downwash & downwash angle.
less than at the root. Increased induced alpha & induced drag.
Friction drag is lower in the laminar layer. Decrease CL & lift.
The turbulent layer is ticker, has more kinetic energy
and is better able to resist separation. A large reduction in CDI will occur when the aircraft is
Increased speed = Decreased alpha and decreased half a wingspan above the ground.
induced drag.
Induced drag varies with the square of the increased FLAPS
in lift.
Fowler flap increases the wing area and the wing
CDI varies with CL2 camber. CD will also increase.
Elliptical wing planform most efficient but most Any amount of flap will increase drag
expensive to build.
An increase of TE flap will increase CLMax
Induced drag is not significantly changed by flap
extension. Large TE flap angles are used for landing

The strength of wing tip vortices increase as the aspect Fowler flap is the most efficient TE flap
ratio is decreased Flap deployment results in a most down moment from
the wing and a nose up moment from the tail. TUCK UNDER
A high tail produces a reduced nose up moment than Tuck under is the tendency for the nose of the aircraft
a low tail. to drop at high Mach numbers.
Slotted flap directs high energy airflow from the lower Tuck under is cause by the aft movement of the CP
surface of the wing to the upper surface of the flap. and as a result of reduced downwash angle at the
Slotted flap gives a greater increase in CLMax with a horizontal stabiliser.
lower increase in drag.
Normal Shockwave – (More Change)
HIGH SPEED AERODYNAMICS Decrease in velocity to subsonic.
The speed of pressure wave propagation is called the Great decrease in airflow energy
Local Speed of Sound.
Increase in pressure, density, temperature and local
Local Mach number will always be higher than speed of sound.
freestream Mach number.
Increasing mass increases shockwave intensity.
A shockwave will form as soon as MCRIT is exceeded.
Increase alpha, increase shockwave intensity.
There is no shockwave at MCRIT.
MCRIT is inversely proportional to mass.
Oblique Shockwave – (Less Change)
Increase Alpha = Decrease MCRIT.
Airflow changes direction
Mach tuck can be prevented by using Mach trim.
Decrease in Velocity but remain supersonic.
Subsonic range ends at MCRIT
Decrease in airflow energy.
The supercritical wing characteristics include large
nose radius, flatter upper surface and negative & Increase in pressure, density, temperature and local
positive camber. speed of sound.

The supercritical shape delays the formation of large When Mach number increases (towards drag
shockwaves above Mcrit divergence Mach number) the normal shockwave
moves aft and the coefficient of lift increases.
Vortex generators energise the boundary layer and
decrease shockwave induced flow separation. In the transonic speed region the Lift/Drag ratio will
decrease.
A Mach trimmer corrects insufficient stick force stability
at high Mach numbers. Increase alpha, increase shockwave intensity.

Exceeding MCRIT in a swept wing aircraft may result in

buffeting and a tendency to pitch down. EXPANSION WAVE
The increase in stall speed with increasing altitude is Increase in velocity
due to compressibility effects. Decrease in pressure, density, temperature and local
When shock stall occurs there will be flow separation. speed of sound.
The bow wave will first appear at a speed just below
M1.0. WING SWEEPBACK
In supersonic flight a straight wing has a lower DC than Increasing wing sweepback increases MCRIT.
a swept wing.
Increasing wing sweepback increase drag divergence
A thinner wing will give an increased MCRIT number.
Wave drag above MCRIT consists of energy drag and Drag divergence is the speed at which the coefficient
boundary layer separation. of drag rises rapidly.
MCRIT is reduced by wing sweepback, decreased
mass, thin aerofoils & area ruling.
BUFFET
Shock stall occurs because of flow separation at any
angle of attack. During a push over manoeuvre the buffet free range
increases.
Shock stall occurs when the lift coefficient reaches its
maximum value. Buffet free range decreases with increasing mass.
PROPELLERS on the take off run. Eg. RH prop: left roll…. Left yaw
when in the climb.
Asymmetric Blade Effect
Asymmetric blade effect is mainly induced by the
inclination of the propeller axis to the relative airflow. THRUST
It occurs when the propeller axis is not in line with the Thrust increases away from the root but return to zero
airflow through the propeller. The down going blade at the tip.
has a higher blade alpha and produces more thrust.
Asymmetric blade effect on a CW propeller causes GYROSCOPIC EFFECT
left yaw.
URRD: Pitch Up : Right Yaw, Right Yaw, Pitch Down
Asymmetric blade effect increases with increasing
engine power. Propeller gyroscopic effects occurs during pitch and
yaw changes.
Asymmetric blade effect increases when the angle
between the propeller axis and the airflow through the Propeller gyroscopic effects are created at high
propeller increases. propeller RPM. (Even higher is the plane is moving
slowly at high RPM eg Take Off)
Propeller angle of attack increase with increasing RPM.
Propeller noise increases with increasing tips speed.
PROPELLER ANGLES
Propeller noise decreases with an increasing number
of propeller blades. Blade alpha of a fixed pitch propeller is increase when
the TAS decreases.
At a given TAS, blade alpha increase with RPM.
GEOMETRIC PITCH
A feathered propeller blade angle is 90 degrees.
Geometric pitch is the theoretical distance a propeller
would advance in one revolution at zero blade angle Blade angle reduces from root to tip.
of attack. (How much it would move forward through
a solid instead of air). FLIGHT MECHANICS
Geometric pitch is a distance not an angle. Rate of turn varies with TAS and bank angle.
A coarser pitch has a greater geometric pitch. To fly a particular rate of turn at a higher TAS, the bank
Effective pitch is how much the propeller actually angle must be increased.
advances in air with slippage. As AoA increases the CP moves forward
CG moves forward as fuel is used.
PROPELLER EFFICIENCY Weight acts through the CG.
Increasing propeller blade chord length increases the If the CP is behind the CG, in straight and level flight the
power absorption and thrust but decreases aspect tailplane must provide a downforce. Lift must equal
ratio and efficiency. the lift + the downforce of the tailplane.
Propeller icing increases blade element drag and
reduces blade element lift.
LIFT
Propeller Efficiency is defined as usable power
available of the propeller and shaft power. Lift and WeightxCosGamma act perpendicular to the
flight path.
Variable pitch prop improves its efficiency over a wide
speed range. Lift acts through the CP.
Fine pitch is for lower airspeeds. Coarse pitch is for Lift drag ratio is between 10:1 and 20:1.
higher airspeeds. During a steady climb lift is less than weight and load
Propeller gyroscopic effects occurs during pitch and factor is less than 1.
yaw changes. In descent lift is less than weight and thrust is less than
Propeller gyroscopic effects are created at high drag.
propeller RPM. (Even higher is the plane is moving Lift in climb or descent = Weight x CosGamma.
slowly at high RPM eg Take Off) Lift in a turn = Load Factor x Weight.
The torque effect make the a/c roll in the opposite Lift in a Turn = 1 / Cos Bank Angle x Weight
direction to the propeller when viewed from behind
In a turn at 45 degree bank angle, the lift and
centripetal force are equal. Angle of bank required = TAS/10 +7.
If lift doubles, load factor doubles. A steeper bank angle reduces the radius of the turn
and increases the rate of turn.
DRAG A given TAS will give a specific rate of turn in any a/c.
Drag, thrust and WeightSinGamma act parallel to the If TAS is doubled, radius is x4
flight path. If TAS is doubled rate of turn is halved.
Increasing drag increases the glide angle and Load factor is a factor only of bank angle.
decreases glide range. Induced drag increases in a turn.

CLIMB ANGLE ENGINE FAILURE

Sin Gamma = Gradient /100 Uncoordinated flight is caused by adverse aileron yaw,
The best angle of climb is where the difference engine torque, gyro precessions, asymmetric flight.
between excess thrust available and drag is the VMC varies with temperature and density.
greatest.
The two most important parameters to determine
Climb angle reduces with increasing weight, altitude the value of VMCG are engine thrust and rudder
and temperature. deflection.
VMCG reduces with an increase in field elevation and
DESCENT temperature as the thrust developed by the operating
Weight x SinGamma = Weight Apparent Thrust engine is less.
Weight apparent thrust acts parallel to the flight path. VMCL is the minimum control speed for approach
and landing.
Weight x Cos Gamma acts perpendicular to the flight
path. VMCL is determined with landing flap extended and
trimmed for all engines operating.
IAS is the vital element in the control of the aircraft with
GLIDE asymmetric thrust.
In a glide there is no thrust. The forward component of If the critical engine fails a higher IAS is required to
of weights drives the descent. maintain control.
Glide distance = height change x LD ratio On a 4-engine jet, either outboard wing will be a critical
The forward component of weight increases with engine.
increasing descent angle. Banking towards the live engine is limited to 5 degrees.
At a higher weight the a/c will glide the same distance Yawing to counter the failed engine increases parasite
but ROC will be higher. drag.
High rate of descent can be achieved by closing the Banking method gives less parasite drag and greater
throttles and lowering the nose and increase drag rudder authority and allows a lower VMCA.
(spoilers).
Asymmetic rolling is greater if flaps are extended.
Min rate of descent of the glide is at VMP but will not
give the best range. Ability to climb can be reduced by 80% with a failed
engine.
The descent angle of a given aeroplane in a steady
wings level glide has a fixed value for a certain Factors affecting roll and yaw moments on asymmetric
combination of configuration and angle of attack. thrust:

TURNING VMCG
Centripetal force causes the aircraft to turn. During determination of VMCG, the aircraft may not
deviate more than 30ft from the runway centre line.
As angle of bank increase the AoA must also increase
to maintain level flight. VMCG is only considered for take off.
Radius of turn in independent of weight and a/c type. VMCG determination permits rudder control only – no
nose wheel steering.
Rate 1 turn is 180 degrees per minute or 3 degrees
per second. During VMCG determination the CG should be on the
aft limit. Longitudinal static stability is created by the CG being
located in from of the neutral point.
LOAD FACTOR The fuselage has a negative contribution to the static
longitudinal stability of a conventional jet transport
Load factor limits: aircraft.
Aerobatic: 6g A statically unstable aircraft can never be dynamically
Utility: 4.4g stable.
Light: 3.8g Static longitudinal stability exists when the change in
Transport: 2.5g total aircraft lift acts aft of the centre of gravity.
Transport with Flaps Extended: 2.0g The tail plane generates positive longitudinal static
stability.
Load Factor in a Turn = 1 / Cos Bank Angle
A statically stable aircraft has its neutral point aft of its
CG.
GUST LOAD FACTOR The wings contribution to static longitudinal stability
Gust Load Factor is a measure of how much the value depends on CG location relative the wing’s
of lift changes in turbulence. aerodynamic centre.
A high gust load factor = bumpy ride, a low gust load A forward CG gives more longitudinal static stability.
factor = smooth ride. An aft CG gives less longitudinal static stability.
When the wing area increases the gust load factor A CG location beyond the aft limit can cause an
increases. unacceptably low value of the manouvere stability.
An aircraft travelling at a lower alpha will experience a The neutral point is the CG location that gives the
higher gust load factor than an aircraft travelling at a aircraft neutral longitudinal stability.
higher alpha.
The aft CG limit is the lowest amount of static
When the EAS increases the gust load factor increases. longitudinal stability acceptable.
Gust load factor increases with wing area. The foreword CG limit is the lowest amount of
Wing loading is the ratio of Weight/Wing Area manoeuvrability acceptable.
A smaller wing area, gives a higher wing loading. Engines mounted underwing will produce an
A high wing loading gives a smaller increase in load destabilising effect.
factor.
The greater the side slip, the greater the fin angle of STATIC LATERAL STABILITY
attack. Positive static lateral stability is the tendency of an
Excessive side slip can cause fin stall. aeroplane to roll to the left in the case of a side slip.
Following an engine failure, increasing side slip gives Wing sweepback provides a positive contribution to
decreasing rudder effectiveness. static lateral stability.
Anhedral wing design decreases lateral static stability
STABILITY Stock Position Stability
Lateral stability is motion about the longitudinal axis. A decrease in IAS requires a pitch up input from pilot.
Directional stability is motion about the normal axis. A high wing configuration produces more lateral
Longitudinal stability is motion about the lateral axis. stability than a low wing.
A ventral fin reduces static lateral stability.
SLATS Dutch rolls occur when lateral stability is strong and
Slats are the most effect leading edge devices. directional stability is weak.
Slats delay the stall until a higher angle of attack. Spiral dives occur when static directional stability is
strong and static lateral stability is weak.
Slats are normally installed at the wing tips and LE flaps
installed at the wing roots. Static lateral stability increases with increasing altitude.

STATIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY STATIC DIRECTIONAL STABILITY

Static directional stability is the tendency for an aircraft
to recover from a skid without input from the pilot. TRIMMABLE STABILISER
Aspect ratio does not influence directional stability. THS is capable of enabling much large CG range.
Excessive directional static stability makes aircraft THS is less sensitive to flutter.
prone to spiral dive (spiral instability).
THS cope better with the use of high lift devices.
A dorsal fin provides positive contribution to directional
stability. THS trim runaway is more serious than elevator trim
THS is able to compensate larger changes in pitching
moments.
STICK FORCE STABILITY
Stick forces vary with stability.
ARTIFICIAL FEEL SYSTEM
High stability = high stick forces.
The primary input for an AFS is IAS.
Moving CG aft decreases the amount of stick force
required.
Stick forces per g decrease with altitude because ADVERSE YAW
there is less aerodynamic damping. Adverse Yaw is the tendency of the aircraft yawing in
Installing a bob weight on the front of the control the opposite direction to the roll due to the different in
column will pull the stick forward. The force it creates induced drag on each wing.
at 1g will double at 2g. Frise ailerons reduce adverse yaw.
A bob weight and a down sprint both increase stick The leading edge of the up going frise aileron protrudes
forces when the stick position is aft. from the underneath of the wing to cause extra drag.
Differential ailerons reduce adverse yaw.
The up going differential aileron travels further than the
CONTROL down going aileron.
Servo tabs, horn balances and spring tabs all reduce
stick forces.
The purpose of a trim tab is to reduce stick forces to CONTROL
zero in steady flight. VB Design Gust Speed (66ft/sec gust load allowance)
The stick is not connected to the control surface. Stick VA Design Manouvering Speed (VS1 x Square root of
movement moves the tab, and the forces created the limiting load factor)
move the control surface.
VC Design Cruise Speed (50ft/sec gust load allowance)
VD Dive speed (25ft/sec gust load allowance)
ELEVATOR
If a servo-tab elevator jams in flight, the pitch control
sense will be reversed. “Wing Loading = Weight / Wing Area
Elevator trim systems are more sensitive to flutter. Small wing area = smaller increase in lift & smaller
increase in load factor.
Elevator trim tabs create more drag than stabilisers.
Higher airspeed = larger gust load factor
Aircraft manoeuvrability increases with increasing IAS.
Decrease in wing loading gives an increase in gust
In differential aileron control systems, the up going load factor.
aileron has larger deflection that the down going
aileron. Decrease in altitude will increase gust load factor.
At high IAS a spring tab acts like a servo tab. Resistance to wing flutter increases with increasing
wing stiffness.
Take-off stabiliser trim setting is affected by flap setting;
CG position & actual TOM. Excessive free place reduces the speed at which
control surface will occur.
Mass Balancing prevents flutter.
There is a min and max speed to fly in turbulence. VRA
A horn balance decreases stick forces and helps the is the speed to fly at in turbulence.
pilot to move the control surface.
Flaps deployed the aerodynamic efficiency of the
wing is achieved.
Lowering flaps increases stall margin but decreases
max strength margin.
At higher airspeed the aerodynamic forces will be
greater.
Structural failure speed must be higher than VD
Wings will oscillate slightly in turbulence.
Control surface flutter can be prevented by moving
the CG of the control surface to the control surface
hinge line. This can be done by placing a mass
balance ahead of the hinge line.
At low speed, wing twist from aileron displacement will
have a negligible effect.
At high speed, wing twist from aileron displacement
will have a significant effect.
High speed aileron reversal occurs when the wing twist
has a greater effect than the aileron input.
The wing tip is most sensitive to high speed aileron
reversal.
Outer ailerons only work when the flaps are down.
Inner ailerons always work.
VMCG decreases with increasing airfield elevation.

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