Multivector Review and Training Center

ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC) CIRCUITS

PART 1 – SINGLE PHASE (1) SYSTEM

An alternating quantity either current or voltage is that which acts in alternate

direction and whose magnitude undergoes a definite cycle of change in a definite
interval of time.

Sine Wave/Sinusoidal Wave

Positive peak

Peak to peak
0  2
value

Negative peak
alternation

1 cycle
(360)

Cycle – a complete change in value and direction of an alternating quantity. A

cycle of alternating voltage and current completes in 360 electrical degrees. There
are two (2) alternations per cycle.

Frequency (f) – the number of cycles per second expressed in hertz (HZ).
PxN
f
120
where: f – frequency, hertz (HZ) or cps
P – no. of poles
N – speed, rpm

Period (T) – the time it takes to complete one cycle.

1
T
f
Wave length () – the length of one complete wave or cycle or the distance
traveled by the wave in one cycle.

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velocity v
 
frequency f

Notes: 1. For electromagnetic waves, the velocity (v) in air or vacuum is 186,000
mi/s or 3 x 1010 cm/s, which is the speed of light.
2. For sound waves, the velocity (v) in air is 1,130 ft/s.

v(t)

Vm

0  2

From the above figure,

v(t) = Vm sin t volts

where: v(t) – instantaneous value of voltage, volts

Vm – maximum value of voltage, volts
 – angular frequency, rad/sec
t – time, seconds
t – radian
 – 2f

Similarly, if the above voltage wave is a current wave, then the equation is:

i(t) = Im sin t Amp

where: i(t) – instantaneous value of current, amperes

Im – maximum value of current, amperes

Note: t whose unit is radian can be replaced by  expressed in degrees.

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v1(t) v3(t)
v2(t)

Vm
 
0  2
 

From the above figure,

v1(t) = Vm sin t volts
v2(t) = Vm sin (t + ) volts
v3(t) = Vm sin (t - ) volts

where: +  – leading or ahead

-  – lagging or behind
 – phase angle or angle of displacement

Instantaneous Value – the value of alternating quantity at any instant.

Maximum Value – the maximum value attained by an alternating quantity during

positive or negative half cycle. This is also called the peak value, or amplitude of
alternating quantity.

Average Value – the average of all the instantaneous values of half (either positive
or negative) cycle of alternating quantity.

For sinusoidal voltage wave, Vave = 0.636 Vm

For sinusoidal current wave, Iave = 0.636 Im

Effective Value – the value of alternating quantity which when applied to a given
circuit for a given time produces the same expenditure of energy as when d.c. is
applied to the same circuit for the same interval of time. The effective value is also
called as the “root-mean-square” (rms) value.

For sinusoidal voltage wave, Vrms = 0.707 Vm

For sinusoidal current wave, Irms = 0.707 Im

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For other waves, average value of voltage and current is given by

1 T 1 T
T 0 T 0
Vave  v (t ) dt I ave  i(t ) dt

and for RMS of Effective value

1 T 2 1 T 2
T 0 T 0
Vrms  v (t ) dt I rms  i (t ) dt

Effective Value
Form Factor 
Average Value

For sine wave, Form factor = 1.11

Maximum Value
Crest or Peak Factor 
Effective Value

For sine wave, Crest or peak factor = 1.414

Pure Resistance
I
V = IR
where:
V, f R V – effective or RMS voltage
I – effective or RMS current
R – effective or ac resistance

For sinusoidal voltage supply,

Vm Im
V  0.707 Vm I  0.707I m
2 2

Vm = ImR

Phasor diagram

0 I V

 = 0
I is in phase with V

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1. Real or True or Active or Average Power

P  VI cos  watts
V I
P  m m cos  watts
2
P  I 2R watts

2. Reactive Power

Q  VI sin  volt  ampere reactives (var s)

V I
Q  m m sin  var s
2

3. Apparent Power

S  VI volt  ampere ( va)

V I
S  m m va
2

Power Triangle

S
Q

o P
 – power factor (p.f.) angle or phase angle
P
pf = power factor = cos  =
S
Q
rf = reactive factor = sin  =
S
Q
tan  =
P

For Pure R, since  = 0

pf = cos 0 = 1 or unity
rf = sin 0 = 0
P=S
Q=0

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Energy expended

W  Pt joules or watt  sec

Pure Inductance
I V = IXL
where:
XL – inductive reactance in ohms
V, f L
XL = L = 2fL 
f – frequency, Hz
L – inductance, henry (H)

For sinusoidal voltage supply,

Vm Im
V  0.707 Vm I  0.707I m
2 2
Vm = ImXL

Phasor diagram

o
V
 = 90

I
I lags V by 90

For Pure L, since  = 90

P = VI cos 90 = 0
Q = VI sin 90
Q = VI
S = VI = Q

Energy stored

2
I 2L Im L
WL  joules WL  joules
2 4

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Pure Capacitance

I V = IXC
where:
XC = capacitive reactance in ohms
V, f C 1 1
XC  
C 2fC
C = capacitance, farad (F)

For sinusoidal voltage supply,

Vm Im
V  0.707 Vm I  0.707I m
2 2
Vm = ImXC

Phasor diagram

 = 90
o V

I leads V by 90

For Pure C, since  = 90

P = 0; Q = VI, S = VI
S=Q

Energy stored

V 2C Vm2 C
WC  joules WC  joules
2 4

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R and L in Series

R VR
Note: I is constant
V, f XL = L = 2fL 

L VL

Phasor diagram

VL = IXL
V = IZ


I
o VR = IR

V  VR2  VL2 volts

V  I R 2  X 2L volts
V  IZ volts

where: Z = impedance in ohms

Z  R 2  X 2L
VR R
pf = cos  = 
V Z
VL X L
rf = sin  = 
V Z
VL X L
tan  = 
VR R

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Impedance Triangle

Z
XL

o R
VR2
P  VI (pf )  I 2 R  watts
R
V2
Q  VI (rf )  I 2 X L  L var s
XL
V2
S  VI  I 2 Z  va
Z

Also,
S  P2  Q2 va

R and C in Series

R VR

V, f

C VC

Phasor Diagram

o VR = IR
I


Vc = IXC V = IZ

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V  VR2  VC2 volts

V  I R 2  X C2 volts
V  IZ volts

where: Z  R 2  X C2
VR R
pf  cos   
V Z
VC X C
rf  sin   
V Z
VC X C
tan   
VR R

Impedance Triangle

o R

XC
Z

VR2
P  VI (pf )  I 2 R  watts
R
V2
Q  VI (rf )  I 2 X C  C var s
XC
V2
S  VI  I 2 Z  va
Z
Also,
S  P2  Q2 va

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RLC in Series
I

R VR

V, f VL X L  L  2fL ohms
L
1 1
XC   ohms
C 2fC

C VC

V  VR2  VL  VC 
2
volts

V  I R 2  X L  X C 
2
volts
V  IZ volts

Z  R 2  X L  X C 
2
where:
VR R
pf  cos   
V Z
VL  VC X L  X C
rf  sin   
V Z
VL  VC X L  X C
tan   
VR R

Note: Transpose XL and XC if XC >XL

VR2
P  VI pf   I 2 R  watts
R
Q  VI rf   I 2 X L  X C 
V2
S  VI  I 2 Z  VA
Z
Also, S  P2  Q2 VA

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R and L in Parallel

IT

V, f R L

IR IL

Note: V is constant.
XL = L = 2fL 
V V
IR  ; IL 
R XL

Phasor diagram
IR
o
V


IL IT

R 2  X 2L
I T  I 2R  I 2L  V
RX L
V
IT  amperes
Z

where: Z – impedance in ohms

RX L
Z
R 2  X 2L
IR Z
pf  cos   
IT R
I Z
rf  sin   L 
IT XL

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IL Z
tan   
IR R
V2
P  VI pf   I 2R R  watts
R
V2
Q  VI rf   I 2L X L  vars
XL
V2
S  VI T  I T2 Z  volt  amperes
Z
Also,
S  P2  Q2 va

R and C in Parallel

IT

V, f R C

IR IC

1 1
XC  
C 2  f C
V V
IR  R ; IC  C
R XC

Phasor diagram

IC IT


o V
IR

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I T  I 2R  I C2
RX C
IT  V
R 2  X C2
V
IT  amperes
Z

RX C
where: Z
R 2  X C2
IR Z
pf  cos   
IT R
I Z
rf  sin   C 
IT XC
I R
tan   C 
IR XC
V2
P  VI pf   I 2R R  watts
R
V2
Q  VI rf   I C2 X C  var s
XC
V2
S  VI T  I T2 Z  volt  amperes
Z
Also,
S  P2  Q2 va

RLC in Parallel

IT

V, f R L C

IR IL IC

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X L  L  2  f L
1 1
XC  
C 2  f C
V V V
IR  ; IL  ; IC 
R XL XC

I T  I 2R  I L  I C 
2

X 2L X C2  R 2 X C  X L 
2
V
IT  V
Z RX L X C

RX L X C
where: Z
 R 2 X C  X L 
2
X 2L X C2
IR Z
pf  cos   
IT R
I  I C  ZX C  X L 
rf  sin   L 
IT XLXC
I  I C  R X C  X L 
tan   L 
IR XCXL

Note: Transpose IL and IC if IL > IC

Impedance in Complex Form

1. For Pure R
Z = R + j0 
Z = R0 

2. For Pure L
Z = 0 + jXL 
Z = XL90 

3. For Pure C
Z = 0 – jXC 
Z = XC-90 

4. For Series RL
Z = R + jXL 

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Z  R 2  X 2L    
Z = Z+ 
where: 0 <  < 90

5. For Series RC
Z = R – jXC 
Z  R 2  X C2    
Z = Z- 
where: 0 <  < 90

6. For Series RLC

Z = R + j (XL – XC) 
Z  R 2  X L  X C     
2

Z = Z  

Note: + , if XL > XC
- , if XC > XL

In general, Z = R  jX
where: + jX = inductive reactance
- jX = capacitive reactance

For the complex expression of an impedance, its angle ranges from 0 to 90 only
either positive or negative.

Mathematically, 0    90.

Impedances in Series

ZT = Z1+ Z2 + Z3 + …… + Zn

Impedances in Parallel

1 1 1 1 1
    ...... 
Z T Z1 Z 2 Z 3 Zn

For two (2) impedances in parallel,

Z1 Z 2
ZT 
Z1  Z 2
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Note : In the above equations, impedances must be in complex form.

Admittance (Y) – is the reciprocal of impedance (Z).

1
Y mho or siemen
Z

Conductance (G) – is the reciprocal of resistance(R).

1
G mho or siemen
R

Susceptance (B) – is the reciprocal of reactance (X).

1
B mho or siemen
X

1
Inductive susceptance. BL 
XL

1
Capacitive susceptance. BC 
XC

In complex form, Y = G  jB

where + jB – capacitive susceptance BC

- jB – inductive susceptance BL

Admittances in Series

1 1 1 1 1
    ...... 
YT Y1 Y2 Y3 Yn

For two (2) admittances in series,

Y1 Y2
YT 
Y1  Y2

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Admittances in Parallel

YT = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + …… + Yn

Note: In the above equations, admittances must be expressed in complex from.

Power in Complex Form

1. Voltage Conjugate Method

S = I x Conjugate of V with respect to the horizontal axis

*
S = IV
S = P + jQ
S  P 2  Q2    va
where: S – apparent power, va
P – real or true or average power, watts
Q – reactive power, vars
I – current, amperes
V – voltage, volts
*
V – conjugate of the voltage
θ – power factor angle

Note: +j – Q is capacitive (power factor is leading)

-j – Q is inductive (power factor is lagging)

2. Current Conjugate Method

S = V x Conjugate of I with respect to the horizontal axis

*
S = VI
S = P  jQ
S  P 2  Q2    va
*
where: I = conjugate of the current, amperes

Note: +j – Q is capacitive (power factor is leading)

-j – Q is inductive (power factor is lagging)

Resonance. A circuit is said to be in resonance when the applied voltage V and the
resulting current I are in phase. Thus at resonance, the equivalent complex
impedance of the circuit consists of only resistance R. Since V and I are in phase,
the power factor of a resonant circuit is unity.

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Series Resonance (For RLC in Series)

At resonance,
1. VL  VC
2. X L  X C
1
3. L
 o2 C
1
4. C
 o2 L
1
5. o  , where o = the angular frequency at resonance, rad/sec
LC
1
6. fR  , where fR = resonant frequency, hertz (Hz)
2  LC
7. Supply Voltage, V = VR
8. Z = R → a pure resistance, therefore, Z is minimum.
9. Total Reactance, XT = 0
V V
10. I   , therefore, I is maximum.
Z R
11. Power factor = 1.0 or unity
12. S = P = VI
13. Q=0

Parallel Resonance/Antiresonance (For RLC in Parallel)

At resonance,
1. IL = IC
2. XL = XC
1
3. L  2
o C
1
4. C
 o2 L
1
5. o  , where o = the angular frequency at resonance, rad/sec
LC
1
6. fR  , where fR = resonant frequency, hertz (Hz)
2  LC
7. Supply Voltage, V = VR
8. Z = R → a pure resistance, therefore, Z is maximum.
9. Total reactance, XT = 0

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V V
10. IT = IR =  , therefore, I is minimum.
Z R
11. Power factor = 1.0 or unity
12. S = P = VI
13. Q = 0

Parallel Resonance. Two-Branch Circuit

DRAWING HERE

At resonance,
B L  BC
XL XC

R L2  X L2 R C2  X C2

1 R L2  L
o  C
LC R C2  L
C

1 R L2 L
fr  C
2  LC R C2  L
C

Quality Factor, Q
The quality factor of coils, capacitors and circuits is defined by

max imum stored energy

Q  2
energy dissipated per cycle

1. For Series RL,

X L 2f L
Q L  
R R R
2. Fore Series RC,
X 1 1
Q C  
R  CR 2 f CR
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3. For Series RLC, at resonance

 L 1
Qo  o 
R o C R
fr f
Qo   r
f 2  f1 BW

where: f1 and f2 are the frequencies corresponding to half-power points

BW – bandwidth which is the distance between half-power
points, measured in hertz (HZ)

o  1 2
1  2 f1 ;  2  2 f 2
f r  f1 f 2
4. For Parallel RLC,
R
Qo   o C R
o L
This is the reciprocal of Qo for series RLC.

Effective Value of Non-sinusoidal Current or Voltage Wave

I m12 I m 22 I m32 I 2
I  I dc2       mn
2 2 2 2
Vm12 Vm 22 Vm32 V 2
V  Vdc 2       mn
2 2 2 2
where: I – effective value of current
V – effective value of voltage
Idc – dc component of current
Vdc – dc component of voltage
Im – maximum value of the ac component of the current,
subscript indicates the degree of the harmonic, (i. e., 1 for
the fundamental or predominant sinusoidal component, 2 for
second harmonic, 3 for third harmonic and so on)
Vm – maximum value of the ac component of the voltage,
subscript indicates the degree of the harmonic

Harmonics – components of the current or voltage in which the frequencies are

multiples of the fundamental.

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Note: f – fundamental frequency

2f – 2nd harmonic frequency
3f – 3rd harmonic frequency

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