POLIECO Stiglitz
POLIECO Stiglitz
POLIECO Stiglitz
Lucero
Globalization by Joseph E. Stiglitz
Year of Publication: 2003
and its Discontents Publisher: W.W. Norton & Co., Inc.
1. Introduction
The first of two book reviews assigned in this course provided a choice between
Amartya Sen’s Development as Freedom and Joseph Stiglitz’es Globalization and its
Discontents. I chose Stiglitz for two reasons. The first reason is a rather practical one; I have
reviewed Sen before. For sure, it remains worthwhile and useful to revisit Sen given the
fundamentality and universality of his core proposition of development being about “larger
freedoms”, to borrow an overarching term used by the UN to describe every person’s range
of political, civic, economic, social and cultural rights (PCESCR) enshrined in its Charter, and
the ubiquitous imperative to test the validity of this proposition against emerging theoretical
perspectives and empirical developments. In fact, it is because Stiglitz’es key argument
resonates not only with Sen, but also a number of authors I have been keeping an on‐going
conversation with to inform my development praxis, that I chose his book. Reviewing Stiglitz
allowed me not only to revisit Sen, but to re‐open this conversation, and in the process
subject my own beliefs to another validity check.
In this review, I shall thus bring in a number of other authors with whom I share
many strong views about globalisation and development, using three core themes I have
abstracted from Stiglitz as organising pulpit for voicing these views. These three core themes
are: (i) that the interpretations by ideologues of the basic premises of neo‐liberalism’s
underlying theoretical framework are at best, unconsciously flawed; at worst, selectively,
incompletely and improperly deployed with purposeful deliberation, to malevolently
advance the new right agenda of corporatocracy; (ii) that ultimately, it is the retreat of
individuals from political dialogue, contestation and struggle which enable ideologues to
turn the theoretical framework that props the project of neo‐liberalism into a hegemonic
discourse allowing the reification of theoretical premises to serve vested interests and wall‐
off oppositional thinking; and (iii) that therefore, academics, thinkers, practitioners and
advisers/consultants such as Stiglitz and Sen, and you and I, have a particular responsibility
to speak out whereof we know otherwise, to educate others and give them the opportunity
to make informed choices about the development paths they can be mobilised behind.
It is because Stiglitz’es book is precisely the story of a person accepting and acting
upon the responsibility I talk of in (iii) above that is the second reason I chose it. When we
are young, we all articulate ambitions about who we want to be when we grow up. I doubt
that we development practitioners were aware that such a career as ours existed when we
were really young. However, at the height of frustration going about our entry‐level jobs, I
Lucero, Ma. Susan J. Globalization and Its Discontents: A Book Review 1
am sure that each one of us has aspired that when we finally occupy offices of consequence,
i.e., offices imbued with enough power so that the decisions we make are defining for the
quality of other people’s lives, we will make a positive difference. Stiglitz at one time
became economic adviser to the most powerful office in the world, the US Presidency. He
also became head of the World Bank (WB) that together with the International Monetary
Fund (IMF), could dictate the development trajectories of developing nation‐states. His is
thus an immensely practical and credible story from which we can all learn, although I had to
overcome a lot of scepticism to get to the point of saying that.
This review is divided into three main sections, the first being this introduction. This
is followed with a section outlining the contents of the book being reviewed. Three sub‐
sections appropriated for each core theme constitute the review itself. Necessarily, a sub‐
section within the discussion of the first core theme is devoted to a review of the theories
and theoretical antecedents upon which neo‐liberalism rests, as prefatory to the critique of
the reified constructions of their key premises by neo‐liberal ideologues. This is then
followed by another sub‐section condensing cases from Stiglitz’es account that empirically
instantiate the core points of the critique. Why I chose to overcome my scepticism of Stiglitz
is explained in the discussion of the second and third core themes; the response to this self‐
inquiry also constitutes my concluding statement.
2. A Summary of the Chapters Under Review
Globalization and its Discontents consists of 9 chapters. The first two chapters (The
Promise of Global Institutions and Broken Promises) introduce the stakeholders of
globalisation, as well as describe their competing interests in it, and the differential ways
they are impacted by it. Winners are separated from the losers, and a balance sheet of the
gains and losses from globalisation is presented. It is pointed out that globalisation and its
purveyors are under attack everywhere because globalisation has been unjust, inequitable
and unclean, and favoured mainly the already rich and powerful individuals, corporations
and nation states. Be that as it may, Stiglitz argues it is not wise to throw the baby out with
the bathwater, so to speak, and globalisation can be re‐worked so that it serves the
substantive ends of democracy, the elimination of poverty and inequality all over the world,
and the securing of all people’s larger freedoms through a process where all participate in
defining what these freedoms are. Thus, the book is aptly entitled, Globalization and its
Discontents, suggesting the system is imperfect but still given to reform.
The book zeroes in on the role of blind ideology in the coercive perpetuation of this
malevolent variant of globalisation. In the first two chapters, the readers are introduced to
the missionary organisations that advance this variant of globalisation (IMF, WB, WTO,
especially IMF), and the interests they represent (principally the US, Western powers, the
global finance capital sectors and large corporations). The rationale for the creation of the
Bretton Woods institutions (IMF, WB) which have evolved into the said missionary
organisations is revisited. The irony is pointed out of how these institutions, initially
Lucero, Ma. Susan J. Globalization and Its Discontents: A Book Review 2
conceived in the aftermath of WWII to help nation‐states discipline markets and prevent
themselves and the world from sliding into depression, evolved into champions of neo‐
liberal capitalism crusading against government intervention in markets. The birth of the
Bretton Woods institutions is located in the welfarist era dominated by Keynesian thinking;
in contrast, the ascendancy of neo‐liberalism is placed in the globalising 1980s when the
Reagan‐Thatcherite public choice economics became pervasive. By this alone, Stiglitz is able
to subtly point out to the discerning reader, the power of ideas in reshaping the culture of
the world, and the kind of extreme contradictory shifts in mindsets the world has been
capable of making.
Entitled Freedom to Choose, the third chapter revisits the theoretical premises of
(neo) classical economics that provides globalisation its normative infrastructure.
Particularly key assumptions derived from Adam Smith are reviewed, to show that objective
conditions under the globalised order do not coincide with those specified by Smith as
necessary for the working of the invisible hand. It is also here where Stiglitz establishes his
agreement with Smith on the existence in all markets of asymmetries in information that
make the reproduction of perfect competition difficult. A case is made for transparency as
the facilitator of democratic debate towards defining valued political economic policies. It is
also here that the doctrines of the Washington Consensus are explained ‐‐‐ fiscal austerity,
market liberalisation and privatisation, including the assumptions under which they work or
should be made to work.
The next three chapters are case studies of how the combination of blind ideology
(and/or greed), coercive institutions (mainly the IMF) beholden to narrow self‐serving
interests (the corporatocracy led by the US), and unequal relationships (Western powers vis‐
a‐vis developing countries) facilitates the perpetuation of the variant of neo‐liberal
capitalism that has brought upon globalisation, its discontents. But as well, the “resistances”
crystallised by the losers of globalisation are discussed, along with the outcomes of these
contestations. In Chapter 4, it is shown how the coercive, unilateral and one‐size‐fits‐all
approach of the IMF to implementing the prescriptions of the Washington Consensus
exacerbated the Asian financial crisis of the late 1990s and almost led the world into an
economic meltdown. This is done by showing how those Asian countries who wisely applied
only what they felt were appropriate of those imposed policies to their obtaining context
fared better than those who implemented IMF’s conditionalities lock, stock and barrel.
In Chapter 5, Stiglitz recounts what he considers one of the most important
economic transitions of all time, the transition of USSR into neo‐liberal capitalism. This is
presented as a failed experiment and a lost opportunity for showing liberal democracy
works. The failure is attributed to the wrong approach used by IMF in assisting the
transition, shock therapy. This is the application of the Washington consensus at a pace that
far exceeds the capacity of the countries in transition to re‐establish or develop the
institutions of competitive markets, the price mechanism, private property and profits, as
well as the laws, rules and regulation that underpin their workings and the institutions that
enforce them. The double standard and inequality that characterise trade relations between
Western powers and developing countries, and the hypocrisy of the former in demanding
Lucero, Ma. Susan J. Globalization and Its Discontents: A Book Review 3
fair trade while they engage in protectionism and all sorts of monopolistic manoeuvrings,
are taken up. The cooptation of WTO by the powers that be is also discussed.
The last three chapters (Better Road to the Market, The IMF’s Other Agenda and The
Way Ahead) are Stiglitz’es attempts to recoup the merits of the market, redefine a more
democratic and intellectually‐enlightened role for the IMF, and set forth practical guidelines
for reforming globalisation, specifically the international financial system. It is here in the
latter chapters that Stiglitz begins to entertain that perhaps it is not just benignly blind
ideology that drives the corporatocracy led by the US, but indeed also greed for more and
more power and money. Stiglitz comforts the reader by personally witnessing to the
possibility of change in values and mindsets, by invoking the transformation of many in the
WB at the time he was its head.
3. The Review
3.1. Recouping the Merits of Liberalism
I am convinced it is not by coincidence that Chapter 3 of Stiglitz’es book carries the
title of a signal book on market fundamentalism written by the Nobel laureate economist
and leading public choice theorist Milton Friedman (together with his wife, Rose) over two
decades ago. The core argument of Friedman’s Free to Choose, and the key tenet of public
choice theory, the theory underpinning neo‐liberal capitalist globalisation, is that
government intervention in the economy has eroded the freedoms of individuals and
undermined their prosperity. The rolled back state, small government, competition state or
states in retreat are labels used to describe the state of the state under the neo‐liberal
globalised world order. Friedman wrote in his book’s preface:
"The role of competitive capitalism is the organization of the bulk of economic
activity through private enterprise operating in a free market. This constitutes a
system of economic freedom and a necessary condition for political freedom. It is
through this process that the role of the state is defined in a free society.” (Friedman,
1980: Preface)
Stiglitz through the many empirical accounts he offers in his book unravels the
weaknesses of public choice’s core claims and its distortions of its theoretical antecedents:
(i) the untenability of the beneficence of voluntarism in unfettered markets given the
ubiquity of corrupting vested interests; (ii) impossibility of the reproduction in reality of
perfectly‐competitive market conditions and maximizing rational choice; and
(iii) suppression of the weaknesses inherent in markets and countervailing progressivism
embedded in liberalism as articulated no less by Adam Smith, the proclaimed guru of neo‐
liberals. In so doing, he recoups the important role the state, not as an unpacked black box,
but as an arena of struggle where competing interests of both state and civil society
stakeholders vis‐a‐vis complicating contexts are considered, in legitimizing the values that
constitute the public good. Chapter 3’s title, Freedom to Choose is thus precisely intended to
Lucero, Ma. Susan J. Globalization and Its Discontents: A Book Review 4
displace the re‐interpretation of democratic freedom in (Friedman’s) public choice, by
reinstating genuine participation as the arbiter of the public policy/good in place of what
neo‐liberal ideologues would want everybody to believe is the universally‐applicable,
technocratically‐superior and benevolent Washington Consensus. But what exactly is neo‐
liberalism? Or Public Choice Theory (PCT)? Its intellectual antecedents? And what exactly are
the premises in this body of theories that are being challenged as flawed or incorrectly
deployed in defence of neo‐liberalism?
A Passing Review of the Body of Theories Underwriting Neo‐Liberalism
Public Choice Theory (PCT) is now considered as the orthodox version of Rational
Choice Theory (RCT). Rational Choice Theory has dominated American political science
thinking since the 1950’s. It arose as part of the behavioural revolution that swept America
in the 1950's‐60's. Consistent with this movement's predilection to examine how individuals
behaved using empirical methods, RCT is a positivist theory privileging methodological
individualism and the nomological‐deductive approach to accounting for political
phenomena. Having drawn its methodology principally from economics, one finds at the
core of its fundamental assumptions the associated concepts of economic rationality and
constrained choice. In practical terms, what RCT as a theory of human action posits is that,
"when faced with several courses of action, people usually do what they believe is likely to
have the best over‐all outcome” (Elster in Ward, 2002: 65). To support this contention, it is
assumed further that: while human motivation is complex, often enough, individuals are
self‐interested; they have all the rational capacity, time and emotional detachment
necessary to choose the best course of action, no matter how complex the choice; they are
able to rank order outcomes, or actions; and their preferences are typically stable over time
(Ward, 2002).
Rational Choice Theory and its social, collective, and public, choice sub‐fields all
emerged as a critique of pluralist politics. Social Choice Theory "called to question the idea
that democracy is the implementation of the popular will represented by a social preference
ranking” (Riker in Ward, 2002: 66). This is conjoined by Olson's account of collective action
failure. He expounded on the tendency of liberal democracies to produce a large number of
rival groups more interested in "expanding their share of national income than in expanding
the growth rate of the society" (in Dunleavy and O’Leary, 1987: 129), a phenomenon he calls
pluralistic stagnation. Since the mid‐1960s, pluralism has also been increasingly criticised
from the new right camp that views the input and supply‐side politics of democratic systems
as grossly imperfect. New‐rights insist that even though pluralist public policy is demand
driven, it may often be systematically pernicious in its welfare consequences. They contend
that the effect of citizen control over government conferred by democratic input processes
and the distortions inherent in bureaucratic provision leads to an escalating level of state
intervention (Dunleavy and O'Leary, 1987). Subsequently, the rationalists along with the new
right developed a more comprehensive PCT of the state, whose major claim is that,
Lucero, Ma. Susan J. Globalization and Its Discontents: A Book Review 5
towards constitutional limitation of the size and autonomy of the state and
disengagement from corporatist entanglements.” (Ward, 2002: 67‐68)
This core claim renders obvious PCT's affinity with three of its four intellectual
antecedents, neo‐classical economics, Jeffersonian administration ideals and social contract
theory. The influence of democratic administration ideals on PCT is best expressed in
Jefferson's vision of the state ‐‐‐ "a wise and frugal government, which shall restrain men
from injuring one another, (but) which shall leave them otherwise free to regulate their own
pursuits of industry and improvement" (in Friedman, 1980: 4). A social contract approach
explores questions about the origins and legitimacy of the state by imagining what would
happen if rational actors were setting up a society from scratch or what kind of fundamental
agreement between people might lead to the creation of a state, and principles of justice
would make it legitimate (Dunleavy and O'Leary, 1987). New state configurations emerged
from this approach including Robert Nozick's Minimal/Nightwatchman State which limits the
functions of governments to defending individual rights to non‐interference with self and
property, ensuring contracts are honoured and ensuring procedural justice. The contribution
of neo‐classical economics to PCT is best exemplified and understood through Adam Smith's
key insight that:
"Both parties to an exchange can benefit and that, so long as cooperation is
strictly voluntary, no exchange will take place unless both parties do benefit. No
external force, no coercion, no violation of freedom is necessary to produce
cooperation among individuals all of whom can benefit. An individual who intends
only his own gain is led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of
his intention. By pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes that of the society
more effectually than when he really intends to promote it.” (in Friedman, 1980: 1‐2)
Unmasking the Neo‐Liberal Reifications
Neo‐liberals appropriated Adam Smith’s key insight to advance the inevitability of
the beneficence of the freeing of the “invisible hand of the market”. But in fact, Smith
himself clarifies that it is only in well‐functioning markets that this principle works. We all
learned in undergraduate Economics 101 that well‐functioning markets, i.e., perfectly‐
competitive markets, exist only when there is a sufficiently large number of suppliers and
consumers interacting in genuine competition. What neo‐liberals leave out, and which Sen
(2000) reminds us about, is that Adam Smith was as concerned with arguing for the social
advantages of well‐functioning markets in 18th century Britain as well as defending the role
of genuine competition against attacks by entrenched vested interests. Thus, Smith’s reality
recognises the presence of dominating vested interests and their predisposition to
monopoly and rent‐seeking that distorts competition. It is instructive to quote some of
Adam Smith’s work in this regard that the neo‐liberals have conveniently rendered invisible.
“The interest of the dealers, however, in any particular branch of trade or
manufactures, is always in some respects different from, and even opposite to that
of the publick. To widen the market and to narrow competition, is always the
Lucero, Ma. Susan J. Globalization and Its Discontents: A Book Review 6
interest of the dealers. To widen the market may frequently be agreeable enough to
the interest of the publick; but to narrow the competition must always be against it,
and can serve only to enable the dealers, by raising their profits above what they
naturally would be, to levy for their own benefit, an absurd tax upon the rest of their
fellow‐citizens. The proposal of any new law or regulation of commerce which comes
from this order, ought always to be listened to with great precaution, and ought
never to be adopted till after having been long and carefully examined, not only with
the most scrupulous, but with the most suspicious attention” (in Sen, 2000: 123).
Not only does Smith accept the contingency of the beneficial functioning of the
invisible hand mainly to well‐functioning markets, he also effectively rarefies perfect
competition by universalising “traders” predisposition towards monopoly. He also fetches
back the long hand of the state by arguing for supervision and regulation to protect public
interest against monopolistic tendencies and rent‐seeking. Significantly, he also emphasises
the role of scrutiny of market policies which necessarily presumes participation by the public
whose interests must be upheld in such policies. With this quote alone, several core
premises of PCT borrowed from neo‐classical economics collapse.
The limits of rationality, which frames the foundational construct of (neo‐) classical
economics, are also herein advanced, as it has been by many critics of RCT/PCT. There is
agreement with Lindblohm’s politics of muddling‐through and Simon’s bounded rationality
that posits human action, in general, may only be considered procedurally rational, based
on beliefs that are reasonable given the context the actor is in (in Ward, 2002). That is,
rationality is always limited by limited information, time and cognitive capacity to process
information and results mainly in satisficing, rather than maximising benefits. It is also
contended that the logical‐connection argument (Fay, 1994), which causally invokes
rationality as the grounds for which all human action are consequent is flawed; behaviour,
in general, upon empirical investigation reveals itself as not always and necessarily
proceeding from what is perceived as the logical or rational or appropriate reason for acting.
Lucero, Ma. Susan J. Globalization and Its Discontents: A Book Review 7
Stiglitz Empirically‐Grounding the Theoretical Critique
Reading Discontent was a truly validating experience. It offers credible cases that
dispel any doubt about the critique that I share being merely noisy and destabilising
radicalism or conspiracy theorising. As accounted for by Stiglitz, the East Asian Miracle
countries had been successful not only in spite of the fact that they had not followed most
of the dictates of the Washington Consensus, but because they had not. He identifies two
rounds of policy mistakes imposed by the Bretton Woods institutions, on East Asian
countries that exacerbated the crisis of the late 1990s and almost brought the world to the
verge of a global meltdown.
The first consisted of IMF (i) imposing a fiscal austerity and balanced budget policy
on these countries, particularly Thailand and South Korea, despite the world’s historically‐
contrary experience that expansionary fiscal policy is one of the few ways out of recession;
(ii) pressuring the countries to intervene against further currency devaluation to prevent
inflation even as it is the first ones to preach about leaving the markets alone; and
(iii) pushing countries to increase interest rates despite its awareness that the underlying
problems were weak financial institutions and overleveraged firms and thus doing so would
only further distress the corporate sector and reduce aggregate demand. South Korea
against advice bought dollar for its reserves and kept its exchange rate low to sustain
exports and limit imports, and was able to recover more quickly from the crisis. Malaysia
which refused the IMF programme and instituted short‐term capital controls involving
pegging its exchange rate, cutting interest rates, declaring immediate repatriation of all
offshore ringgit, limiting outward capital transfers of Malaysian residents and freezing the
repatriation of foreign portfolio capital for twelve months, indeed fared better in
maintaining economic stability.
The second involved the deployment of financial and corporate sector restructuring
strategies that resulted in bank runs and firm bankruptcies in the crisis countries. In tandem
with the contractionary fiscal policy mistakes of the first round, the triage strategy which
demanded the immediate closure of sick banks and equally immediate pushing up of the
capital adequacy ratio of reparable banks on the one hand, and the slow, IMF/externally‐
driven restructuring of bankrupted firms on the other, dried up working capital and
paralysed production. Indonesia where sixteen banks were closed down went into
depression; South Korea which ignored outside advice and instead recapitalised its two
largest banks and refused to sell the excess capacity in microchip firms, escaped the crisis
more quickly and less painfully. Thailand which took the advice of IMF to steer clear of
corporate restructuring and instead focus on selling assets took longer to successfully
undertake the process than South Korea and Malaysia which employed contrary strategies
to those imposed by the IMF. These latter two countries succeeded within two years to
complete the restructuring of a large proportion of their distressed firms. The saddest part
of the crisis is not the distress suffered by the corporate sectors of the affected countries
however, it is the depths of poverty many citizens were ratcheted into as a result of the
crisis itself, and its subsequent mishandling by the IMF. According to Stiglitz, billions and
billions were poured by the IMF for corporate welfare compared to the pittance
Lucero, Ma. Susan J. Globalization and Its Discontents: A Book Review 8
appropriated for the welfare of citizens. In Indonesia, food and fuel subsidies were even cut
back, resulting in social unrest and riots.
Stiglitz offers the story of the USSR as a case of failed economic transition, a missed
opportunity for showing the liberalised economy is a better model than the centrally‐
planned economy in bringing about wealth for all and the means for the individually‐
determined pursuit of larger democratic freedoms. The IMF and US Treasury ignored
existing socio‐economic and political realities and dynamics and behaved as if the conditions
of perfect competition existed in the Russian states, so that economic growth and
development was a matter of deploying Washington Consensus strategies of price
liberalisation/macro‐economic stabilisation/privatisation. It does not require sophisticated
economic expertise to know that the system of incentives that made markets work, price
mechanism, private property, and profits, and thus the set of laws, rules and regulations
governing markets, and with them, the regulatory and enforcing institutions, were absent in
communist states. Yet, the IMF and the US Treasury pushed for shock therapy, the
implementation of the triadic strategies mentioned earlier, at a speed that far outpaced the
development of the foundational market institutions. The rationality of citizens was also
assumed; the inevitability of rent‐seeking by new entrepreneurs and tendency to excess of
consumers suddenly offered choice, were not factored‐in in considering the consequences
of shock therapy.
The result was runaway inflation, depletion of citizen savings, stripping of national
assets by governments, and profiteering by new Russian capitalists from the fire sales that
characterised how privatisation was carried out. Profits by the new rich were repatriated
abroad, while the government kept borrowing to re‐capitalise the economy. The radical
reform undertaken despite available contrary advice from gradualists resulted in a decade
or more of economic depression. Stiglitz quantified the loss in GDP in this period to be
greater than Russia suffered in WWII. The social costs of the economic reforms were high:
the creation of poverty and inequality; the wiping out of the middle class and the
emergence of a new oligarchy. Indeed, this is exactly the converse mirror of Friedman’s
democratic capitalist state.
Unlike Perkins in his Confessions of An Economic Hitman, Stiglitz early in, and for the
most part of, his book refuses to lend credence to conspiracy theory explanations of the
predatory behaviour of IMF/Bretton Woods institutions and the vested interests they
represented. There was explicit rejection of the thesis that what was done in East Asia and
Russia were not imperialist and protectionist flexings of a US being threatened by the rise of
new global super powers. He daresays the implementation of the Washington Consensus in
each instance was deliberate despite the anticipated obvious adverse consequences,
resistance from recipients of the programme, and contrary advice by other experts. He,
however, only conjectures that this was the result of blind ideology and self‐deceiving
intellectual superiority by the right wing ideologues, rather than greed. From my
perspective, it became most difficult, if not impossible for Stiglitz to hold on to this
intellectual explanation when he recounts the Aluminium Case and how the US consciously
engages in unfair trade practices vis‐a‐vis politically and economically weaker countries.
Lucero, Ma. Susan J. Globalization and Its Discontents: A Book Review 9
Stiglitz considers the creation of a global aluminium cartel in early 1994, where the
US played a pivotal role, as the most grievous of instances of US special interest interfering
in trade during his stint in government. This allowed the cartel and the US aluminium
industry to dictate prices at whatever level they want by restricting output. In fact, cartels
are illegal inside the US. The undue advantage was sought by vested interests led by the US
to enable them to compete against Russia who was justly selling at profit even at a low
price, a price that reflected the true condition of the international aluminium market at the
time. The book unravels the hypocrisy of the US and Western powers by pointing out the
double standard and inequities that characterise the long history of unfair trade between
them and developing countries. The hypocrisy and aggressive pushing of the free trade
agenda by the US and Western powers who themselves grew on the back of protectionism
is shown as continuing in the era of globalisation under the WTO. It is further shown how,
when the US is unable to use the WTO to advance its special economic interests, it acts
unilaterally, setting up its own review process where it sits as prosecutor, judge and jury to
hear cases its Department of Commerce brings against other countries.
3.2. Taming Resistance to NeoLiberal Globalisation from Above & Below
Indeed, it would have been more comfortable for Stiglitz to not have to deal with
accounting for the manifestly predatory and self‐serving actions of the US, Western powers,
the Bretton Woods institutions and the other private players of the corporatocracy and
remain in the safe belief that their actions were just blinded by ideology. But I suspect this
became a very internally‐inconsistent position and thus in Chapter 9, he finally asks: “Is
there something systematically wrong with (IMF’s) models? Or is it trying to deliberately
mislead policy‐making?” Until I got to this point of the book, I was alternately thinking
whether Stiglitz was but a mere apologist for neo‐liberalism, or an unwilling Marxist. Was he
deploying the critique to give the message that neo‐liberalism was a self‐critical, self‐
reforming system and that its ills need only be cured rather than replaced as rival
revolutionary alternatives would have it? Or was he discovering his progressive side and
taking his place alongside the likes of Marx, Keynes and Smith whose concern about
capitalism and free markets was that it be made to work for prosperity that promotes the
public good?
In the 1990s before Perkins told the world about corporatocracy, David Korten
wrote on the same theme in his book, When Corporations Rule the World. In 1999, he
followed this up with a similarly‐themed book, The Post‐Corporate World. The first book
dealt intensively with the empirical articulation of corporatocracy and the dangerous
consequences for the world the advance of its agenda presents. The second book provided
more of the same information but as well focused on explaining the cultural engineering of
mindsets that make the advance and hegemony of neo‐liberal globalist capitalism seem
incontestable and irreversible. I call it taming of resistance from above and below.
Lucero, Ma. Susan J. Globalization and Its Discontents: A Book Review 10
We are most familiar with how taming from above takes place. It is accomplished by
institutionalised coercion. The Bretton Woods institutions and WTO condition assistance,
incentives and accommodation into the globalised network of production and distribution
to the acceptance by developing countries of the doctrines of Washington Consensus. Many
developing countries are thus almost locked‐in to the neo‐liberal trajectory as the way to
development, even as it has not created equitable growth and resulted in the discontents
Stiglitz takes up in his book and which this review reiterates.
The first time I read Korten’s account of how the current excessively consumerist
culture came about, I felt equally angry at myself and the corporatocracy that engineered
this phenomenon. Korten (1999) roots competitive self‐interest and materialistic hedonism,
values strongly embraced by neo‐liberal capitalism, to what he calls Hobbesian governance:
“Hobbes contended that not only the universe but man himself can be explained
mechanically. All that man does is determined by appetites or aversions, and these in
turn are either inherited or acquired through experience. Hobbes maintained that
there are no absolute standards of good and evil. Good is merely that which gives
pleasure, evil, that which brings pain. Thus did Hobbes combine with materialism and
mechanism a thoroughgoing philosophy of hedonism.” (Burns in Korten, 1999: 27)
Korten (1999) then points to marketing as the most overt and intentional process by
which our culture has been and is being reshaped to accommodate rational materialism.
Invoking documentation by historian William Leach, he offers an account of how US
retailing giants of the late 19th and early 20th centuries decided that to increase their
profits, they must create demand for their merchandise by replacing the culture of frugality
associated with America’s founding, with the culture of self‐indulgence and desire central
to what we know now as the culture of consumerism. This was accomplished through
studying the use of colour, glass and light in advertising, to create a sense of this‐world
paradise.
Korten (1999) maintains that corporations remain hard at work today converting the
world’s pop cultures to Hobbesian hedonism. He reveals global spending on advertising
(projected in 1994 to be US$ 437B by 1998) was starting to rival military spending (US$
778B in 1994) by the 1990s as corporations searched for ever larger customer markets and
profits. In the US, advertising expenditure at the time was estimated at nearly half of
educational spending and growing by 6% each year. Television (TV) which by the late 1990s
was already reaching 60% of the world’s population is seen as the most powerful tool of
global cultural and ideological indoctrination. In fact, Korten invokes a thirty‐year (1966‐
1996) values study of nine million freshmen on 1,500 US campuses which found a radical
shift in views of why college education is important. In 1968, 83% of entering freshmen
chose the reason – developing a meaningful philosophy of life, as essential while 43% chose
– be very well‐off financially. After thirty years, becoming financially well‐off had become
essential to 74% and developing a meaningful philosophy was important to only 42%. The
explanatory variable for the shift was the number of hours of TV viewed before college;
Lucero, Ma. Susan J. Globalization and Its Discontents: A Book Review 11
those who reported having watched the most TV were found to be the least likely to
believe that values other than money matter.
Indeed as the missionary organisations of the Washington Consensus put pressure
from above on governments to cede power to the corporatocracy, corporations
manipulate society’s cultural symbols and co‐opt citizens from below, using their own
baser materialist tendencies against themselves to desire more of products of neo‐liberal
capitalism. I was angry at myself for, who is not guilty in this process? I was stopped dead
in my tracks most of all by the definition offered in Korten’s book of the normal life of the
upwardly mobile modernist in the neo‐liberal globalised world order, and I have not
stopped reflecting about it since.
“Normal is getting dressed in clothes that you buy for work, driving through
traffic in a car that you are still paying for, in order to get to the job that you need so
you can pay for the clothes, car, and the house that you leave empty all day in order
to afford to live in it.” (Goodman in Korten, 1993: 221)
3.3. My/Your/Our Role
I have a penchant for collecting books that offer alternative historical perspectives of how
world civilisation came about. One set tries to capture how ideas, words and constructs
have been socialised through time. A subset of this collection includes what I call books of
“high foolishness”. In fact, they are highly intellectual books, but which irreverently and
critically comments upon the real state of things in particular eras. Among these books is
The Doubter’s Companion: A Dictionary of Aggressive Common Sense by John Ralston Saul. It
is described as following in the long and distinguished tradition of writers that have used the
satirical dictionary to undermine the received ideas of their day. This one speaks to our
time, having been published in 1994. I reproduce here excerpts from the entry, Academic
Consultants.
“The only place organised specifically for truth to be sought and understanding
to be taught is the UNIVERSITY. In the late 20th century some professors have
reinterpreted the long‐standing premise that since truth is a supreme value, it is
therefore without price. If it’s so supreme, it must have a market value.
Academics are the chief custodians of Western civilisation’s memory and as such
of its ethical framework. Academic independence was fought for over a thousand
years, with the gradual spread of TENURE over the last century and a half
constituting the final step in the protection of intellectual freedom.
What does it mean, then, if a sizable portion of today’s academics – in particular
the social scientists – sell their expertise to corporations and governments? What
they have to sell, after all – their aura of independent expertise – has a real use and
therefore a quantifiable value.
Lucero, Ma. Susan J. Globalization and Its Discontents: A Book Review 12
The question their commercial activity raises is whether a professor has the
moral right to cash in on the independence of academia and on the value which
society has assigned to the freedom of inquiry.” (Saul, 1994: 13‐14)
For me, what Saul describes is the equivalent of Perkin’s economic hit man in
academia. And while I agree they exist, Stiglitz’es neo‐liberal ideologues certainly being
among them, I feel strongly that academics, consultants, academic consultants, social
scientists, and natural scientists, NOT ONLY have the moral right BUT ALSO the moral
responsibility to apply their competence in their specific fields of specialisation in the service
of pursuing the public good. The payment is not what prostitutes service; it is the means
employed and the ends pursued. When democracy is stifled to advance vested interests, as
neo‐liberal capitalist democracy’s record so far seems to indicate, then it is time to question
the ideas and practice that bring this state of things about. It is the power of ideas borne by
moral people and offered to the world as an informed choice that (re)organises genuinely
consensual and democratic cultures and societies. What is important, as Korten (1999)
reiterates, is for scientists such as us to consciously veer away from the moral detachment
of rational materialism that justifies single‐minded commitment to scientific objectivity and
a search for knowledge without regard for the uses made of our discoveries. Korten points
out that when corporations brings together the scientist whose self‐perceived moral
responsibility is merely the advance of objective instrumental knowledge with the corporate
executive whose self‐perceived moral responsibility is limited to maximising profits, power
and expertise are delinked from moral accountability. We who are aware must thus be the
vanguards of that moral accountability. I chose to transcend my scepticism of Stiglitz’es
motives for writing the book precisely because his is a great effort in this moral struggle.
Allocating values is a matter of whose voices get heard. In the end what each of us believes
in, and acts upon builds into that spontaneous consensus we know as culture. We need to
exert pressure on ourselves, our peers and even “enemies” to regularly reflect and dialogue,
then act on our convictions. When one does not participate, the voices of those who are
aggressive, even if they are on the wrong side, win out.
Lucero, Ma. Susan J. Globalization and Its Discontents: A Book Review 13
References
Dunleavy, P. and O’ Leary, B. 1987. Theories of the State: The Politics of Liberal Democracy,
London: Macmillian, Ch. 3.
Faye, Brian. “General Laws and Explaining Human Behavior” in Readings in the Philosophy of
Social Science, Michael Martin and Lee C. McIntyre, eds., Massachusettes Institute of
Technology: United States of America.
Friedman, Milton and Friedman, Rose, 1979. Free to Choose, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich:
United States of America.
Korten, David.C., 1995. When Corporations Rule the World, Kumarian Press and Berrett‐
Koehler Publishers: United States of America.
Korten, David C., 1999. The Post Corporate World: Life after Capitalism, Alkem Company (S)
PTE. LTD: Singapore.
Perkins, John, 2006. Confessions of an Economic Hitman, Ebury Press: Great Britain.
Saul, John. R. 1994. The Doubter’s Companion: A Dictionary of Aggressive Common Sense,
The Free Press: United States of America.
Sen, Amartya, 2000. Development as Freedom, Anchor Books: United States of America.
Ward, Hugh. 2002. ‘Rational choice’, in D. Marsh and G. Stoker, eds., Theory and Methods in
Political Science. London: Pelgrave Macmillian, pp. 65‐89.
Lucero, Ma. Susan J. Globalization and Its Discontents: A Book Review 14