Pragmatics Speech Acts Theory

Speech Acts Theory
• Speech acts: they are the actions performed in saying something.
• Speech acts theory: it is a theory which analyses what we do with words, not only the
content but also the effect of what we say.
All sentences are speech acts, whatever we say and whatever we write.
It analyses language according to 3 levels:
• Locutionary level: literal meaning, what is said.
• Illocutionary level (force): comunicative intention, what is meant by the speaker, my

intention.
• Perlocutionary level (effect): pragmatic effect, the intended effect to be produced by the
utterance on the receiver.
Examples
- Can you please be quiet fo a second?
Locutionary level: asking if you are capable of not making noise.
Illocutionary level: implying that I can barely stand your behaviour.
Perlocutionary level: I want / expect you to be silent.
- Wouldn’t you want to be like that?
Locutionary level: asking for your opinion about a specific possibility / condition.
Illocutionary level: implying that that possibility / condition is better than yours.
Perlocutionary level: I expect you to agree with me that you should change.
- If only I knew / If I had known earlier…
Locutionary level: hypothetical clause.
Illocutionary level: you don’t / didn’t know something; expressing regret: implying that you would have behaved differently or implying that
there was a different way / solution.
Perlocutionary level: eliciting compassion / sympathy, because: you are sorry or it’s too late.
Observation about
perlocution
• The perlocutionary effect can be physical when the

utterance is aimed to produce an action / physical
response.
• The perlocutionary effect can be psychological when the

utterance is meant to produce a specific state of mind,
attitude, feeling or mood.
Examples
- I’m almost 26, can you believe it!!
Locutionary level: information about age. Question about the credibility of that condition.
Illocutionary level: speaker feels younger.
Perlocutionary level: produce / transmit surprise.
- Again!! I don’t believe that!!
Locutionary level: information about your belief.
Illocutionary level: something keeps repeating too often. You losing your temper.
Perlocutionary level: produce / transmit surprise, shock, astonishment. Produce / transmit a sense of danger /
threat.
Speech acts functions
Each sentence can be associate to a specific act according to his function:
• Representative acts (+/- constative): expressing what the speaker believes to be true (when you
say or imply verbs like describe, claim, predict, think).
• Commissive acts: expressing intentions of performing an action in the future (when you say or
imply verbs like promise, offer, threat, refuse, volunteer).
• Directive acts: making the hearer do something (when you say or imply verbs like command,
order, request, invite, forbid, suggest); generally they are imperatives.
• Expressive acts: manifesting psychological states in relation to social circumstances (when you
say or imply verbs like apologise, congratulate, deploring, be sorry, regret).
• Declarative acts: changing the state of things (when you say or imply verbs like declare, resign,
pronounce, baptise).
The utterances often have more than one of these macro-functions (overlap).
Direct vs Indirect Speech
Acts
Each speech act can be more direct or indirect.
The same speech act can have a function if it is expressed directly, and
another function if it expressed indirectly.
Direct vs indirect speech acts>
• Direct speech acts: when the form and the function coincide. You use a
declarative, expressive, etc. exploiting its function as a declaration,
expressive, etc.
• Indirect speech acts: when the form and the function so not coincide.
You use a declarative, expressive, with a different function.
Examples
- It’s cold in here.
Locution (form): representative (I think it’s cold in here).
Illocution (function): directive (someone close the door / window).
- You passed your exam? … I knew you would, you are the best!!
Locution: representative (I think you are the best).
Illocution: expressive (I congratulate you).

Observation about illocution
Illocution - representing the stage between words and action, may be either very
close to the locutionary level or to the perlocutionary level:
• In direct speech acts, where the form and the function of an utterance coincide,
illocution is close to the locutionary level.
• In indirect speech acts (especially in orders and requests), illocution is close to

the perlocutionary level.
Searle distinguishes the illocutionary level in 2 aspects:
• Illocutionary point - the propositional content of the utterance.
• Illocutionary force - the strength or commitment manifested in the sentence.

Examples
- Please, be quiet!
Locution: tell you to be silent.
Illocutionary point (content): I am annoyed, you are too noisy.
Illocutionary force: ask you to be silent.
Perlocution: I expect you to be silent.
- Shut up!
Locution: close yourself up.
Illocutionary point: I am annoyed, you are too noisy.
Illocutionary force: order you to be silent. I can’t stand you.
Perlocution: I expect you to be silent.

Examples
- I did’t do that.
Locution: information about the fact that…
Illocutionary point: it wasn’t me…
Illocutionary force: I tell you that…
Perlocution: I want you to believe that I didn’t do that.
- I really / swear (I) didn’t do that!!
Locution: information about the fact that…
Illocutionary point:it wasn’t me…
Illocutionary force: I promise / swear that…
Perlocution: I want you to believe that I didn’t do that.

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Speech Acts Theory

• Speech acts: they are the actions performed in saying something.

It analyses language according to 3 levels:

• Locutionary level: literal meaning, what is said.

• Illocutionary level (force): comunicative intention, what is meant by the speaker, my

Locutionary level: asking if you are capable of not making noise.

Illocutionary level: implying that I can barely stand your behaviour.

Perlocutionary level: I want / expect you to be silent.

- Wouldn’t you want to be like that?

- If only I knew / If I had known earlier…

Locutionary level: hypothetical clause.

• The perlocutionary effect can be physical when the

• The perlocutionary effect can be psychological when the

Illocutionary level: speaker feels younger.

Perlocutionary level: produce / transmit surprise.

- Again!! I don’t believe that!!

Locutionary level: information about your belief.

Direct vs indirect speech acts>

Locution (form): representative (I think it’s cold in here).

Illocution (function): directive (someone close the door / window).

Locution: representative (I think you are the best).

Illocution: expressive (I congratulate you).

• In indirect speech acts (especially in orders and requests), illocution is close to

Searle distinguishes the illocutionary level in 2 aspects:

• Illocutionary point - the propositional content of the utterance.

• Illocutionary force - the strength or commitment manifested in the sentence.

Locution: tell you to be silent.

Illocutionary point (content): I am annoyed, you are too noisy.

Illocutionary force: ask you to be silent.

Perlocution: I expect you to be silent.

Locution: close yourself up.

Illocutionary point: I am annoyed, you are too noisy.

Illocutionary force: order you to be silent. I can’t stand you.

Perlocution: I expect you to be silent.

Locution: information about the fact that…

Illocutionary point: it wasn’t me…

Illocutionary force: I tell you that…

Perlocution: I want you to believe that I didn’t do that.

- I really / swear (I) didn’t do that!!

Locution: information about the fact that…

Illocutionary point:it wasn’t me…

Illocutionary force: I promise / swear that…

Perlocution: I want you to believe that I didn’t do that.

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