Chase 1

Kate Chase

Dr. Thompson

HIS-009

29 February, 2020

Masculinity, Christianity, and the Fate of Vibia Perpetua

Vibia Perpetua was martyred for her Christian beliefs in the year 302 CE at the age of

twenty-two.1 As depicted in the graphic novel portion of ​Perpetua’s Journey: Faith, Gender, and

Power in the Roman Empire​, she joyfully walked to her execution despite being a mother, wife,

sister, and daughter.2 She held her Christian identity closest to her heart so she gladly accepted

her fate, seeing it as a second baptism that would whisk her away to Heaven.3 While her story of

martyrdom isn’t unique in its tragic ending, it is unique because of its educated, female, Roman

citizen’s perspective. ​In ​Perpetua’s Journey​, Perpetua used her education to challenge the power

of the Roman Empire by taking on masculine roles within her family, her court case, and her

execution.

In ​Arguments with Silence,​ Amy Richlin encouraged readers to, “look for women

writers,” because they bring a new dimension to history, giving it a roundness it otherwise lacks.4

Richlin also emphasized the importance of the intersectionality of gender, race, and class when

evaluating ancient writing. In the case of ​Perpetua’s Journey,​ it must be noted that the story is

told by a well-educated upper class woman with citizenship, making her relatively powerful in

1
Jennifer A. Rea, Liz Clarke, Perpetua’s Journey: Faith, Gender, and Power in the Roman Empire, Introduction, pp.
XI.
2
​Jennifer A. Rea, Liz Clarke, Perpetua’s Journey: Faith, Gender, and Power in the Roman Empire, Graphic History,
pp. 69.
3
Jennifer A. Rea, Liz Clarke, Perpetua’s Journey: Faith, Gender, and Power in the Roman Empire, Historical and
Social Context, pp. 122.
4
Amy Richlin, Arguments With Silence, Introduction, pp. 11.
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Roman society.5 Readers need to think about how Perpetua’s status may have impacted her

treatment and her perspective on imprisonment.

Given the time period, Perpetua’s level of education was impressive because there

weren’t any legal mandates for children, especially girls, to receive formal schooling.6

Approximately 200 years before Perpetua’s execution, Musonius Rufus, a first century Roman

proponent of stoicism, advocated for access to education for women. He said men and women

needed to be educated on the same, “sets of virtues” such as sensibility, justice, and chastity.

However, he advocated for a more home-based use of these principals for women.7 It is likely

Perpetua’s father was influenced by the thoughts of Rufus and other stoics. Her education was

probably seen as an investment so she would bring honor to the family after she was married.

However, to her father’s dismay, Perpetua eventually chose to use her education to challenge

Roman authority.

Her willingness to challenge Roman authority was augmented by her affiliation with the

early Christian church. During Perpetua’s time, about 200 years after Jesus’ execution, house

churches were commonly used for Christian worship. The leadership she displayed among her

fellow Chrisitans during imprisonment goes along with the strong female leadership present in

house churches.8

5
Jennifer A. Rea, Liz Clarke, Perpetua’s Journey: Faith, Gender, and Power in the Roman Empire, Introduction, pp.
XI.
6
​Jennifer A. Rea, Liz Clarke, Perpetua’s Journey: Faith, Gender, and Power in the Roman Empire, Historical and
Social Context, pp. 123.
7
Primary source from WTWA: Musonius Rufus, “On Women’s Education in Rome” (first century CE), WTWA,
pg.​ ​336-338.
8
​Christianity: The First 2000 Years, A&E documentary (1998), Episode 1.
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Ancient Roman society rigidly tied gender to power but, had a more fluid approach to

gender and personal identity.9 For example, there would have been no way that a man doing

“women's work” could have been considered masculine. In the writings of Cicero on the “Role

of the Roman State,” the leadership of the government is assumed to be male. Throughout his

writing, he referred to leadership with masculine pronouns and assigned the male leaders various

responsibilities to the people: protect them, discipline them, advocate for them, and more. Since

all of these actions were tied to masculine pronouns, they would have been seen by the original

Roman audience as masculine.10 Another word for this masculine leadership is “​potestas​.” This

term means “power” in Latin and would have been used to describe the power of the Roman

government as well as family patriarchs.11 So, Perpetua would have been aware that her

authoritative approach to her faith, prison time, and execution, would have made her masculine

in the eyes of society as well as a threat to the Roman government.

Perpetua took on a masculine identity when she used rhetoric to assert her faith to her

father. For example, in her prison diary she described a conversation with her father in which she

used logic to help him understand her choice to continue being a Christian. She said, “‘Is [the

vase] able to be called by any other name other than what it is?’ ‘No,’ he said. ‘I too cannot call

myself by any other name other than what I am, a Christian.’” This made her father angry and

she didn’t see him for a couple days after the altercation.12 By reasoning with her father in this

9
​Jennifer A. Rea, Liz Clarke, Perpetua’s Journey: Faith, Gender, and Power in the Roman Empire, Historical
andSocial Context, pp. 145.
10
​Primary source from WTWA: Cicero, “The Role of the Roman State” (mid-first century BCE), WTWA, pg.
334-335.
11
Jennifer A. Rea, Liz Clarke, Perpetua’s Journey: Faith, Gender, and Power in the Roman Empire, Historical and
Social Context, pp. 145.
12
​Jennifer A. Rea, Liz Clarke, Perpetua’s Journey: Faith, Gender, and Power in the Roman Empire, Perpetua’s
Prison Diary, pp. 173. 4.2.
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way, she challenged the microcosm of the Roman Empire that was supposed to be represented in

the household. She was threatening his role as, “​paterfamilias​, or male head of the Roman

household.”13 Later in the prison diary, her father is recorded saying, “‘Daughter, have mercy on

my white hairs, have mercy on your father...don’t dishonor me publicly.’”14 It is clear in this

passage that his frustration with her is about more than her imminent death; he was concerned

about the ​potestas​ she was claiming with her actions and the repercussions it would have for him

and the rest of the family after she was gone.

Perpetua’s masculine behavior carried on in her decision to defend herself in court.

Despite her father openly pleading with her in the middle of the hearing to renounce her faith,

she steadfastly refused to comply with his wishes and confessed her faith. She was promptly,

“condemned...to the beasts.”15 Her manner of execution was a calculated decision on the part of

the Roman government. She acted with ​potestas​ by defending herself in court, so it would have

seemed appropriate for her to die like other men: by bull. However, women who were executed

by bull were presumed to be adulteresses. Since Perpetua was not convicted of adultery, a bull

wouldn’t be appropriate. This is perhaps why she was given the unusual execution by cow.16

During her execution, Perpetua continued her masculine behavior in her bravery and her

general attitude. She was encouraged to act masculinely by visions she received from God during

her imprisonment. For example, pages 34-44 of the ​Graphic History​ depict a vision she had in

13
​Jennifer A. Rea, Liz Clarke, Perpetua’s Journey: Faith, Gender, and Power in the Roman Empire, Historical and
Social Context, pp. 145.
14
​Jennifer A. Rea, Liz Clarke, Perpetua’s Journey: Faith, Gender, and Power in the Roman Empire, Perpetua’s
Prison Diary, pp. 174. 5.2.
15
​Jennifer A. Rea, Liz Clarke, Perpetua’s Journey: Faith, Gender, and Power in the Roman Empire, Perpetua’s
Prison Diary, pp. 175. 6.3-6.6.
16
​Jennifer A. Rea, Liz Clarke, Perpetua’s Journey: Faith, Gender, and Power in the Roman Empire, Historical and
Social Context, pp. 141.
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which she was brought to the amphitheater to fight the beasts but was turned into a man during

the fight. This vision gave her confidence and guidance when the time came for her to really

fight the beasts. For example, as she walked to the amphitheater with her fellow catechumens,

she looked at the audience with, “a luminous face...casting down the gaze of all by the strength

of her eyes.”17 Even in her last moments, she was claiming ​potestas.​ Then, before stepping out

into the arena, she stood up for herself and fellow catechumens one last time so they wouldn’t

have to dress in costumes to look like the pagan Gods.18

Despite her story ending in tragedy, Perpetua remains victorious in the eyes of her

Christian audience. Her writing was used in North African churches and in sermons by

Augustine. Her masculinity was often attributed to Jesus; they believed he acted through her

throughout her imprisonment and execution.19 Perpetua’s story remains significant to today’s

Christians because it shows how, through Jesus, people can be strengthened to use their talents

and skills to further his mission.

Word Count : 1,169

17
​Jennifer A. Rea, Liz Clarke, Perpetua’s Journey: Faith, Gender, and Power in the Roman Empire, Perpetua’s
Prison Diary, pp. 179. 18.2.
18
​Jennifer A. Rea, Liz Clarke, Perpetua’s Journey: Faith, Gender, and Power in the Roman Empire, Historical and
Social Context, pp. 151.
19
​Jennifer A. Rea, Liz Clarke, Perpetua’s Journey: Faith, Gender, and Power in the Roman Empire, Conclusion, pp.
186.