(Jim Surmanek) Introduction To Advertising Media (BookFi) PDF

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Introduction to Advertising Media

Research, Planning, and Buying
Jim Surmanek
NTC Business Books

NTC/Contemporary Publishing Group
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Page iv
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Surmanek, Jim.
Introduction to advertising media : research, planning, and
buying / Jim Surmanek.
p. cm.
Includes index.
1. Advertising media planning. I. Title.
HF5826.5.S85 1993
659.1'11dc20 92-9134
CIP
Published by NTC Business Books
An imprint of NTC/Contemporary Publishing Company
4255 West Touhy Avenue, Lincolnwood (Chicago), Illinois 60646-1975 U.S.A.
Copyright © 1993 by NTC/Contemporary Publishing Company
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of NTC/Contemporary
Publishing Company.
Printed in the United States of America
International Standard Book Number: 0-8442-3545-8
18 17 18 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5
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Page v
For tolerating being a book widow . . . for

her understanding and constant support . . .
and for being the most important person
in my life, I dedicate this book, with
love, to my wife, Paula.
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Page vi
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Page vii
CONTENTS
Introduction xi
Part I
Background Ingredients
Chapter 1
The Advertising Process 3
Chapter 2
The Role of Media Planning 8
9
The Role of the Media Planner
Chapter 3
Major Mass Media Types 14
15
Magazines
18
Newspapers
23
Out-of-Home Media
28
Radio
31
Television
Part II
Media Definitions and Dynamics
Chapter 4
Rating 51
51
How Ratings Are Calculated
53
"Average", Rating
53
Commercial Ratings
54
Importance of Ratings
55
Ratings for Unreported Demographics
57
Ratings for Non-Broadcast Media
57
A Rating Point Is a Rating Point
59
Professional Workshop
Chapter 5
Homes Using TV:
60
HUT/PUT/PVT/PUR/Cume
64
Chapter 6
Share 65
67
Chapter 7
Rating/HUT/Share 68
71
Estimating a Rating
73
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Chapter 8
Gross Rating Points 74
75
Demography and Target Rating Points (TRPs)
76
GRPs/TRPs by Media Type
78
Time Frame
79
Why GRPs/TRPs Are Used
80
Chapter 9
Impressions 81
83
Chapter 10
Index 84
84
Calculating an Index
87
Brand Development Index
88
Category Development Index
89
Always Show the Components
90
Chapter 11
Audience Composition 91
94
Chapter 12
Cost-per-Thousand (CPM) 95
98
Chapter 13
Cost-per-Rating-Point (CPP) 99
101
Using CPP to Estimate Affordability
103
The Relationship of CPP and CPM
105
Chapter 14
Reach 106
110
Reach Accumulation
112
Reach Accumulation over Time
115
Roadblock
116
Media Mix
117
Random Combination of a Media Mix
120
Only-Only-Both
124
Chapter 15
Frequency 125
128
Frequency in a Media Mix
129
Frequency in Only-Only-Both
130
Mean, Median, Mode
131
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Page ix
Chapter 16
Reach/Frequency/GRPs 132
133
Reach Curves and Frequency Lines
143
Reach/Frequency in Radio
144
Reach/Frequency in Print Media
146
Reach/Frequency in Out-of-Home Media
146
Media Mix Reach/Frequency
147
Controlling Reach/Frequency within GRPs
149
Number of Spots
151
Chapter 17
Frequency Distribution 152
159
Chapter 18
Quintile Distribution 160
162
Calculating Quintile Distribution
164
Quintile Distributions of a Media Mix
168
Predefined Quintiles
169
Why Quintile Distributions Are Used
169
Chapter 19
Effective Reach 170
174
How Much Frequency Is Enough?
178
Effectiveness = 3+
183
Wearout
185
Methods for Analyzing Effective Reach
187
References
Chapter 20
Media Audience Definitions 188
189
Demography
190
Product Users
191
Psychographics/Lifestyles
195
Geodemographic Areas
201
How Media Report Audiences
Chapter 21
Media Audience Research 211
212
Sampling Error
217
Media Research Suppliers
Chapter 22
Geographic Areas 233
233
Broadcast Coverage Area
234
Television Market
235
Cable TV Market
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237
Radio Market
237
Metropolitan Statistical Area
239
Newspaper Areas
239
Nielsen County Size Groups
240
240
A Note of Caution
Part III
How to Construct a Media Plan
Chapter 23
Marketing Input 245
246
Achievement Goals
246
Consumer Definitions
247
Sales Data
247
Competitive Activity
247
Promotion Strategy
248
Creative Strategy
Chapter 24
How Much to Spend on Advertising 249
253
Systems to Determine Spending
258
Additional Food for Thought
Chapter 25
Media Objectives 260
261
Who?
262
Where?
265
When?
266
How?
267
How Much?
268
What Else?
270
Priorities
Chapter 26
Preconceived Notions about
271
Media Types
274
Direct Mail
275
Magazines
277
Newspapers
279
Outdoor
280
Radio
281
Sunday Magazine Supplements
283
Television
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Chapter 27
Media Strategies 285
286
1. Target Audience
290
2. Geographic Objective
299
3. Scheduling Objective
304
4. Reach/Frequency Objective
307
5. Coupon Objective
312
6. Testing Objective
Chapter 28
Media Flowchart 321
Chapter 29
Principles of Media Management 325
Glossary 328
Formulas 342
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Page xiii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
As is usually the case with books like this one, many people directly and indirectly contributed their knowledge, wisdom and
support.
I thank my early teachers at Ogilvy & Mather who taught me about advertising and especially how to be a student of this
profession. I'm indebted to Jack Hill for hiring me and teaching me the fundamentals and intricacies of media research; to Ken
Caffrey, Mike Drexler, and Jules Fine for guiding me through the learning process of media planning; to David Ogilvy for
fostering an atmosphere for learning and for being the superb teacher he is.
I thank the many people who took their personal time to gather some facts and figures and who gave me ideas for what to
include in this book: Ro Campbell, Sue Gomez, Laura Loveday, Paul Silverman and Lisa Strassman.
I thank Michelle de Castro who labored after hours and on weekends to type my manuscript and who never once objected to the
many changes I made as this work unfolded.
I also thank the people who provided me with background material and information about their organizations, and who have
allowed me to write about their companies: Kevin Beaumont (Arbitron), Byron Chandler (TAB), Joan Cheramonte (Simmons),
Julie Ann Cohn (Donnelley), Jack Dempster (ACT Media), Steven Dyer (A. C. Nielsen), Debbie Ewing (A.C. Nielsen), Julie
Goldsmith (Birch/Scarborough), Mark Harris (Gannett), Chuck Levinson (CAB), Bruce MacEvoy (SRI, International), Dan
Mahan (NAB), Julie Muer (TDI), Miriam Murphy (RADAR), Solomon Ortasse (Claritas), Bill Shaeffer (Arbitron), Chetah Shah
(MRI), Carl Spaulding (Mediaplan, Inc.) and Jacqueline Tobak (Monroe Mendelsohn).
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INTRODUCTION
What this book is all about

This book is all about selecting media for advertising purposes. Media are mass communication vehicles, like magazines,
newspapers, outdoor, radio, and television. This book investigates and summarizes how these media workhow they disrepute
themselves to people and how people ''consume'' them.
On the one hand, understanding how an advertising medium works is easy. As you probably know, you can place a commercial
in a television program. The people watching that program will see your commercial. On the other hand, the process and
dynamics of this simple commercial placement are far more complex. You should know, for example, what the rating of the TV
program was and what it might be in the future; if it's a network or spot announcement; what the coverage pattern is; what the
demographic profile of the viewers is; how many commercials you need to place to have effective reach; how many
commercials can air before there is wearout; what the cost-per-thousand is visa vis alternatives, and so on.
All of these questions contain a specialized language (jargon) which is part and parcel of understanding the dynamics of
advertising media. This book defines that jargon and other concepts peculiar to advertising media planning.
The entire spectrum of advertising media outlets changes almost daily. There are constantly new magazines being published,
new radio stations, and old radio stations that change their format, new television programs, new ways to reach people within
television, and new technologies that are having a direct effect not only on the media you know today, but also on the media
forms that will be introduced tomorrow.
This book touches on all the major mass media outlets in existence today and how you might go about selecting one or another
medium to carry your advertising message. But no book on the subject of media is ever totally current. From the time this
manuscript was completed until the publisher printed the first copy, new media forms came on the scene, new media research
has
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been conducted, new evaluation tools have been devised. The concepts discussed in this book will generally hold true, but the
specifics will always change. To partially overcome changing specifics, most of the explanations, charts, and exhibits are based
on hypothetical data rather than real-world numbers.
Much has been written in other books, pamphlets, and advertising industry periodicals by a host of advertising experts about
advertising media. There are entire books, for example, on just the radio medium, cable television, direct marketing, advertising
strategy, and so on. Digesting that storehouse of literature would be extremely beneficial to anyone desiring to understand the
complexities of media planning. This book is not meant to replace that library. Its purpose is to highlight the dynamics of media
planningfrom the formulation of advertising objectives through the strategic use of media to accomplish goals; from
understanding the relationship of one medium to another to comprehending the relationship between various analytical devices
used to evaluate media.
How this book can be used

Dealing with the decision-making process in media planning requires a three-dimensional perspective. When choosing a
medium you need to know how many different kinds of people consume that medium (width), how many people in total are part
of that medium's audience (height), and the period of time it takes to reach those audiences with your advertising message
(length). Additionally, many of the concepts and mechanics of media are interrelated and interdependent, thus also forcing a 3-D
perspective.
Current physical laws require this book be produced in two dimensions. Further, current publishing formats demand it be written
in some form of sequential orderstarting at page one . . . starting with something. This book does that. But it also allows you to
start anywhere you wish. It's divided into three sections for your convenience in selecting a topic about which you have most
interest It's also organized within each section in both a sequential order and in terms of interrelationships. The Schematic Table
of Contents allows you to pick a specific subject (such as "Reach") and simultaneously see the other concepts which affect that
subject (such as "GRPs").
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If you are relatively new to advertising media planning, you might best start at page one. If you are somewhat familiar with the
many terms and concepts used in media planning, you could start anywhere else, referring to the Glossary or Index whenever
you encounter an unfamiliar term. If you are not sure about your level of knowledge, you could turn to those pages in Part II,
"Media Definitions and Dynamics," which are entitled Professional Workshop. These pages present a series of questions about
each concept or media dynamic. If you are able to easily answer all these questions, you certainly do not need to labor through
reading all of Part II.
Lastly, if after studying all that is contained in this book, you need to review a particular media formula (e.g., converting CPP to
CPM) you could turn to the last several pages, which contain a series of the most commonly used formulas.
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PART I
BACKGROUND INGREDIENTS
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Page xix
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Chapter 1
The Advertising Process-*
In this chapter we summarize how advertising fits into the
overall marketing effort. We highlight some of the questions
advertisers must face before advertising is created, such as what
is the advertising supposed to accomplish. We also highlight the
various types of advertising companies which create and place
advertising.
You're eight years old and open up a lemonade stand in front of your home. As a youngster with more experience than reflected
by your years, you establish a financial plan to determine your costs, probable revenue, and gross profit. You predict you will
sell 50 drinks each week (all on Saturday, the only day you can devote to this effort). You calculate your expenses for this
anticipated volume:
manufacturing: lemons, sugar, water, ice.
distribution: wood, nails and paint for signage, pitcher, cups.
labor: your anticipated hourly wage times the number of hours.
Your total expenses divided by total anticipated sales equals a cost of 8 cents per drink. You decide to charge customers 10
cents and thereby seek a 2 cent profit (a healthy 20 percent margin).
Alas, you find you are not selling as many drinks as you expected. Your costs exceed your revenue. You are operating at a loss.
What to do?

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After some research and analysis you discover the probable cause of low sales volume is lack of consumer awareness that your
lemonade stand exists. Not enough people are passing by your stand or coming to it on purpose. You conclude that advertising is
necessary and set out to launch an awareness campaign.
You create and produce fliers which you distribute to every home within a reasonable distance of your stand. You place signage
at strategic points around the block. Although you invest additional money for this advertising (paper, ink, paint, tape, tacks,
labor) you're hopeful that sales volume will increase beyond your original expectations, thereby lowering your proportionate cost
per drink back to the 8 cent level.
It turns out you're right. More people come to the Stand. Sales are skyrocketing. Demand becomes greater than your supply.
You open a second stand, then a third. You start selling franchises to your friends. As your business grows, economy of scale
reduces your cost per drink. Your profits soar.
Noting your success, a competitor comes on the scene offering essentially the same product but at a lower cost. Wary of losing
business, you lower your prices, which cuts into your profit margin but still allows you to stay in business. Your competitor
announces a "two drinks for the price of one" special promotion. You counter with a "free cookie with every drink." They
announce a new formula which is sugar-free. You introduce "caffeine-free diet lemonade." Throughout all of this, advertising is
a critical ingredient. By making people aware of your product, you generated sales. By letting them know you have a special
cookie offer, you kept them coming back for repeat purchases. By announcing a new product formulation, your competitor was
able to entice new customers.
Whether it's lemonade or toothpaste, cars or cosmetics, the same marketing/advertising process takes placefrom manufacturing
to distribution to sales. Just as advertising played a role in the sale of your lemonade, so it doesalbeit in a much more
complicated arenawith just about all products and services. Advertising takes on the same charge: making people aware and
giving them reason to buy.
There have been many research studies suggesting advertising is a critical ingredient in the marketing of a product or service,
and that it stands the test Of return-on-investment. Advertising does not, however, guarantee success. It merely gives a product
a better chance of success than it would have if it was not advertised. The

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chance for success is directly dependent on the quality and effectiveness of the advertising message as well as the breadth,
scope, quality, and effectiveness of the media delivery placed behind the advertising message. Unlike the simple effort of
producing a flier stating "Cold Lemonade on Sale" and distributing the flier around the neighborhood, advertising requires a
disciplined approach that takes into consideration the innumerable questions that arise as part of the advertising process. The
answers to these questions mold the advertising plan and provide a road map to guide the journey that leads to creating and
placing advertising.
The macro-questions that need answering are basically two:
1. What is the advertising supposed to accomplish?
2. To whom should the advertising be directed?
Within the macro-questions are many micro-questions, each one critically important. Answers to all these questions form the
basic advertising strategy that will be followed in creating and placing the advertising. Some of these questions are:
1. How will the product be positioned to the consumer? Going back to lemonade, will it be positioned as the best tasting? Most
refreshing? Most filling? Best value given the quantity and the cost of the drink? Most healthy? Least expensive? Most
glamorous liquid you can drink? Most sociable drink to have and to serve?
2. What creative execution elements are most effective? Is a combination of sight, sound, and motion necessary? Is color
needed? Is a spokesperson neededcelebrity or person-on-the-street? Must a cents-off coupon be distributed to potential
customers? Must the advertising have long copy or can it be as effective with short copy? Must the advertising be large in scope
(e.g., longer TV commercials or larger print advertisements)?
3. How much will be spent on advertising? What sales might be expected as a result of spending at a level of X versus Y or Z?
At what level of expenditure does advertising "pay out"? How much must be spent to deliver what is perceived as a threshold
level of advertising messages? What level of expenditure is needed to sustain advertising during a needed period of time?
4. To whom should the advertising be directed? Which demographic group of people is most likely to buy this product? What is

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their age, individual income, household income, marital status, education level, and occupation? What are their lifestyle
characteristics? Is there a secondary or tertiary group of people that should also be addressed? What is the quantity and value of
one group versus another?
5. Where should advertising be directed? Throughout the United States or only in certain geographic areas? More in some areas
than others? How much for each area?
6. When should advertising be scheduled? Throughout the year or only during certain seasons or months or weeks? All week or
only on certain days? All day or only during certain times of the day?
7. Which media should be used? TV? Radio? Magazines? Newspapers? Outdoor posters? Subways? Bus sides? Bus shelters?
Kiosks? Walls? Direct mail? Yellow pages? Skywriting?. . .
8. Which component of the medium should be used? Within television: broadcast, cable, or both? Within radio: national,
regional, or local? Within print media: national, regional, or local? . . .
9. What specific media placement will be made? Which TV or radio programs? Which magazines or newspapers? Which
sections of magazines? Which sections of newspapers? What are the locations of outdoor posters? Which bus routes? . . .
Most often an advertiser will seek help from advertising professionals to answer these questions and to devise an advertising
plan. These professionals are sometimes employees of the advertiser (usually called an in-house agency) and sometimes outside
professionals. Outside professionals generally are within one or more of the following categories:
1. Consultanta person (or company of people) who directly creates an advertising plan, as well as the advertising and its media
execution, or who oversees and coordinates all the elements of the advertising plan which are produced by other advertising
suppliers. Consultants can be generalists or specialists and often have working titles such as marketing consultant, advertising
consultant, creative consultant, or media consultant.
2. Creative Boutiquea company that specializes in the creation of advertising: writing and producing television and radio

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commercials, print advertisements, etc. The creative boutique usually does not have substantial staffing, if any, for functions
Outside the specific creative arena such as market research, marketing, strategic planning, media planning, and media buying.
3. Media Buying Servicea company that specializes in the placement of advertising in various media and often also advises the
advertiser on which media to be used to accomplish the advertising objectives. This latter function is generally known as a
media planning capability.
4. Advertising Agencya company that provides the multiple advertising services needed by the advertiser. Most medium-sized
and large advertising agencies are considered "full-service" in that they provide nearly all needed services. Most small and some
medium-sized agencies provide many of the needed services, but traditionally do not have a media department for planning and
buying mediarelying, more often than not, on a media buying service to accomplish these tasks. The services provided by a full-
service agency usually encompass, at minimum, the functions shown in the left column of the following chart, and might also
provide the services shown in the right column. All of the services shown in the right column are provided by specialty
companies, which are either independently operated or owned or affiliated with other advertising companies:
Services Usually Other ServicesProvided Either by Full-Service
Provided by Ad Agencies Agencies or Specialty Companies
Marketing expertise Direct Response Advertising
Market Research Sales Promotion
Strategic Planning Sports Marketing
Creative Ethnic Marketing/Advertising
Media Research Yellow Pages
Media Planning Event Marketing
Media Buying Public Relations
As advertising is a critical ingredient in the marketing process, so media planning is a critical element in the advertising process.
Whether the advertiser opts for a consultant, boutique, buying service, advertising agency, specialty company, or any
combination of these services, media planning is involved.

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Chapter 2
The Role of Media Planning
In this chapter we discuss the role of media planning and,
specifically, the role of the media planner in the advertising process.
We examine various points-of-view about what advertising media
are and what they are supposed to accomplish. We also explain the
thought processes of a media planner in analyzing quantitative and
qualitative information about media.
Some might argue that a powerful creative message, brilliantly executed, can produce consumer awareness and stimulate sales.
A further argument is that the media vehicles carrying that message are of little or no importance, because the advertising itself
is just that good. It can also be safely argued that an ineffective, poorly produced advertising message stands little or no chance
of convincing consumers to buy, regardless of the general effectiveness of the selected media in which the advertising appears.
Because none of these arguments has ever been proven, they are open to question.
One argument, although not necessarily proven, is logical and stands on safe ground: great creative carried by highly effective
media vehicles will probably give a product the best chance of success. The two cannot be separated. You cannot have great
creative that leads to product sales unless consumers are exposed to the advertising by seeing it, hearing it, or both, in the media
they consume. The extent to which the chosen media deliver the same people as those to whom the advertising message is
written is the extent to which the advertising is most effective. Also, advertising

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has a greater opportunity to be effective when the chosen media reflect the tone, manner, and executional elements of the
creative message, by nature of their programming or editorial environment or physical location.
This is not to say that media planning is as simple as choosing a medium that is apparently an extension of the creative message,
such as placing a commercial for a food product in the environment of a television program about cooking. This can be, and
often should be, a consideration in the media selection process, but it is only one of the many considerations that are part of
media planning.
No component of the advertising process can be devised and implemented in a vacuum. Each component must contribute to the
others and must be focused on achieving the same overall advertising communication goal. Although the people involved in the
advertising process might be expert in one or another discipline (market research, copywriting, art direction, media planning,
etc.), all are first and foremost part of a professional advertising force. Although different disciplines might march to different
beats at different times, the combined advertising force must operate within the same strategic guidelines and accomplish the
same specific advertising objective.
As will be seen in the remainder of this book, media planning requires dealing with a host of variables and phenomena which
affect the media forms selected and the extent to which these forms are used. The knowledge and skills of the media planner are
often brought to bear on nearly all aspects of the advertising process. There may be either direct or indirect involvement in
analyses or in answering the many questions that need answering; and there certainly is a direct contribution in terms of
recommending media forms and purchasing the media.
The Role of the Media Planner

On the one hand, media planning is merely a science which requires analysis of quantitative information and concludes with a
plan of action. One of the simpler analyses for magazines, for example, might follow this path:
List audience delivery for each magazine.
List the cost for an advertising insertion.

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Divide the cost by audience delivery to determine the cost efficiency (cost per person delivered).
Rank the magazines from most cost efficient (lowest cost per person delivered) to least cost efficient.
Recommend the purchase of magazines according to the rank order shown until no funds remain in the advertising budget.
On the other hand, there is a belief that qualitative factors overshadow quantitative information and should, therefore, be the
guiding force in media selection. Just a few of the many factors used to decide magazine selection, for example, might be these:
Editorial environmentdoes it reflect what is being said in the creative message? Is the environment conducive to reception of the
advertising?
Quality of reproductionWill your advertisement be reproduced with the highest standards of registration and color?
Positioning of advertisementWill your ad be positioned within the pages of the magazine to give it the best opportunity to be
read?
Perceived reaction to the advertisementWill the reader of a specific magazine take action as a result of seeing your
advertisement?
Which point of view leads to the best media plan: decisions based on quantitative analysis, or decisions based on qualitative
considerations? The answer lies partly in the expectation of what advertising media are supposed to accomplish, and partly in
the definition of the role of what a media planner is supposed to contribute to the advertising plan.
In the advertiser's view, advertising media are devices for delivering audiences (which the advertiser defines as consumers).
Consumers may see media as sources of entertainment or informationthey are entertained by viewing a movie on TV or
informed by reading a newspaper. But advertisers see media as a conduit for communication about their product. From the
advertiser's perspective, therefore, a medium's reason-for-being is to put bodies in front of the advertising carried by that
medium to expose advertising to the people who are consuming the medium.

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From the media supplier's point of view, media perform both functions. First, to give consumerstheir audiencesa reason to
consume the medium and second, to give advertisers a reason to place advertising in that medium. No advertising medium can
exist and thrive without people wanting to consume it, and none can exist within their current financial framework without paid
advertising carried in the medium.*
Media suppliers must first offer an audience to the advertiser: the people viewing their television program or listening to their
radio program, or reading their periodical, etc. The quantity and the kinds of people that make up the audience are a result of the
programming or editorial offering or the physical location of the mediumnot a result of the kind of advertising that is carried by
the medium. People do not view a television program because of its advertising. They view it because it fulfills their needs and
wants at that particular time (because of what the program is all aboutthe actors and actresses, the quality of writing and
production, etc.). The television programmer strives to fulfill these wants and desires, hoping that people will view the show. If
people do view the show, the media supplier has something to sell to the advertiser: audience. Yes, there are media which are
partially consumed because of the advertising (some fashion magazines, coupon mailings, etc.), but the same general concept of
consumer expectation fulfillment is operative.
At this juncture we can conclude that quantitative analyses should form the foundation for all media planning because, from the
advertiser's point of view or, in part, from the media supplier's view, advertising media deliver audiences via paid insertions into
the products they produce: commercials in TV or radio programs, ads in magazines, etc. The role of the media planner is,
therefore, to find those media that deliver the people with whom the advertiser wants to communicate. But what of quality and
effectiveness?
Let's step back and confirm why media vehicles are used in the first place. Clearly, the most important ingredient in an
advertising plan is the advertising. Without the creative product there is no plan. Without a creative message to consumers, there
is no advertising. At the hub of the entire advertising process is the creative message. All forces concentrate on and contribute to
* Although there are media that do not rely on advertiser support, none is part of an advertiser's considered set and
therefore none is pertinent to this exploration of media selection.

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the creation and delivery of the advertising. The media planner must, therefore, select the media that not only deliver the
''bodies'' but also simultaneously fuel the creative message by making sure it is exposed to the consumer in the most effective
way possible.
How the consumer might receive the advertising message is critically important. The "how" certainly depends on the creative
message itself, but also very much on the mind-set of the consumer at the time he or she is exposed to the advertising. Clearly, a
person's state of mind changes throughout the day and over time. This state of mind has a cause-and-effect relationship with the
actions a person takes. Some of these actions involve media consumption: which TV program will be viewed, which radio
station will be listened to, which magazine article or newspaper section will be read. As you might attest looking at your own
media consumption pattern, people sometimes deliberately tune in to a TV program intending to view it or deliberately pick up a
magazine to read it, but sometimes not. Sometimes people tune in to TV to fill a room with noise or scan through a magazine to
fill a time void. During these various media consumption periods, a person has different degrees of receptivityboth to the media
vehicle and to the advertising within that vehicle.
Not all people pay full attention to a TV program or voraciously read every page of a magazine. The mind-set people bring to
the media consumption period affects their receptivity to the advertising message. And even if they intend to deliberately
consume that mediumthat is, pay full attention to itthere are other dynamics that could be at play at a specific time which also
might affect their receptivity. For instance, the degree to which they like the TV show, preoccupation with what happened at the
office that day, or dinner preparation while viewing TV are all factors that affect receptivity.
There are reams of paper and millions of bytes on computer disks of quantitative data to help the media planner find the right
audiences for a specific product. There is also a goodly number of market and media research studies which address the issues
of audience receptivity and advertising effectiveness on a general basis. Additionally, there are product-specific case histories
which can help decide media selectionsometimes published, sometimes proprietary. All of this vast storehouse of information is
no more than a guide. It is based on past situationspast performance of the media vehicles. It says nothing of future performance.
It is usually based on a sampling of the population, not on the entire

Page 13
population. It reflects media and product performance in a particular competitive environment in a particular economy. It does
not purport to predict performance in a changed environment or economy.
Is media planning a science or an art? It is both. The media planner must consider himself or herself a money manager looking
for the greatest return on the advertising investment, but he or she must step back and consider the value of the media selected
to accomplish the advertising task. More often than not, value transcends numbers. A media plan based solely on numbers will
produce the lowest cost-per-person or the highest amount of audience delivery, but it will not necessarily produce the most
effective advertising effort. Effectiveness of the media program, and not necessarily efficiency, is a key criterion in the
development and execution of a media program. Cost-per-results instead of cost-per-person must be the watchword. The role of
the media planner must be to bring together the message and the fight audience efficiently and effectively.

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Chapter 3
Major Mass Media Types
This chapter introduces the various major mass media forms, and the sub-
segments of these media, which are used for advertising. We look at the
historical beginnings of each of these media and track theft growth into the
1990s. We discuss the kinds of advertising units the media offer for sale to
advertisers, such as a full-page advertisement in a magazine or a thirty-second
commercial on television.
There is an abundance of media available for advertisingfrom doorknob hangers to commercials on national TV, and everything
in between. In 1990, advertisers spent approximately $130 billion in various media to communicate their advertising message.
Table 3.1 lists the proportions of this expenditure by media type
TABLE 3.1: U.S. Advertising Volume by Media Type
Mass Media Other
Magazines 5% Direct Mail 19%
Newspapers 25 Yellow Pages 7
Outdoor 1 Other 14
Radio 7 Total: 100%
Television 22
Source: McCann-Erickson
This book concentrates on those media that are commonly called mass media. Conceivably a misnomer, the term "mass media"
is nevertheless used because these media characteristically are able

Page 15
to reach a large quantity of people in all markets throughout the United States. Direct mail, yellow pages, and even doorknob
hangers can also reach the masses, but these media are generally considered a specialized form of communication for which a
different set of analytical tools are needed than those reviewed in this book. Indeed, the subjects of direct mail, et al., are amply
covered in other publications.
It should be noted that direct mad is but one vehicle used in direct response advertising. The primary differences between direct
response advertising (regardless of the media vehicle used) and general mass advertising are these:
Direct strives for interaction with the consumer. It tries to get the consumer to take immediate action as a result of seeing the
advertising messagesuch as calling a 1-800 number or mailing back a response card to the advertiser. General advertising also
strives to get consumers to take action, but not in an interactive way. General advertising asks consumers, for example, to buy
product X next time they are in a supermarket.
Direct attempts to sell to individuals, identifying to the extent possible the name and address of the prospective consumer.
General advertising, again, is directed to the masses, identifying them in broad demographic/lifestyle terms.
Notwithstanding these differences in intent, direct response advertising is often carried in major mass mediamagazines,
newspapers, out-of-home, radio, and television. The audience delivery dynamics of mass media, therefore, are as important to
understand for direct response as they are for general advertising.
Following are general descriptions of the five major mass media types, with specific emphasis on how each is configured for the
purposes of advertising.
Magazines
In 1741 there were two magazines published in the United States. Andrew Bradford published the first one, American Magazine,
which was on sale three days before Benjamin Franklin's General Magazine. Although neither publication is available today for

Page 16
advertising, over 11,000 others are. More than 2,000 of these are within the consumer and farm publications category, written
and distributed for what we can label "the masses." See Table 3.2.
TABLE 3.2: Number of Magazines
Total U.S. Consumer & Farm
Pertodicals Publications
1970 9,573 1,197
1975 9,657 1,163
1980 10,236 1,456
1985 11,090 1,805
1990 11,092 2,231
Source: Magazine Publishers Association
In recognition of a more affluent and better educated society, as well as magazine publishers' perception of reader interest in
special interest or lifestyle editorial focuses, publishers have launched an average of 1.3 new magazines every day for the last
several years. Although the majority are short-lived, many continue to be published. Table 3.3 highlights the growth in the
number of magazines and their combined circulation as reported by the Audit Bureau of Circulation for the (currently) 541
magazines that are members of this organization.
TABLE 3.3: Circulation of A.B.C. General & Farm Magazines
# Magazines or Groups Circulation (millions)
1970 302 244
1975 325 251
1980 407 286
1985 477 326
1990 541 363
Source: Magazine Association
Consumer magazines are generally classified according to their primary editorial focusbusiness, entertainment, men, women,
general interest, sports, newsweekly, etc. The classification is merely a convenience when planners are considering the types of

Page 17
magazines that might be appropriate for a specific advertising effort. The classification, per se, has nothing to do with the
audience size of a publication, or even necessarily the appropriateness of the magazine for a specific ad campaign. Table 3.4
lists the top 20 magazines according to circulation count. Note that circulation varies by magazine, rather than by classification.
TABLE 3.4: Circulation of Top 20 Magazines
Circulation Circulation
(millions) (millions)
Good
Parade 35.1 Housekeeping 5.2
Modern Maturity 22.4 McCall's 5.0
Ladies' Home
Reader's Digest 16.3 Journal 5.0
TV Guide 15.6 Woman's Day 4.8
USA Weekend 15.5 Time 4.1
Sunday 15.4 Redbook 3.9
National Geographic 10.2 National Enquirer 3.8
Cable Guide 8.9 Playboy 3.5
Better Homes &
Gardens 8.0 Star 3.4
Family Circle 5.4 Sports Illustrated 3.2
Source: Audit Bureau of Circulation
Also notable in this table is the inclusion of Parade and Sunday, both of which are also referred to as Sunday Magazines or
Newspaper Distributed Magazines or Syndicated Supplements or simply Supps. In addition to these two national supps are two
others (as shown in Table 3.5). All four are centrally published, distributed in metropolitan newspapers, and usually appear
within the Sunday edition. Although commonly Considered magazines, supps often fall within the classification of newspapers,
especially those supps that
TABLE 3.5: Newspaper Distributed Magazines
# Newspapers Circulation
Carrying (millions)
Parade 338 35.1
Sunday 29 15.4
USA
Weekend 308 16.4
Vista 20 .9

Page 18
are locally edited and published by the major daily newspapers (as discussed in the next section, Newspapers).
Magazine advertising can be purchased nationally, regionally, or locally. The larger national magazines often offer opportunities
for purchasing less than national circulation in predetermined geographic areas (for example, the Northeast, or the state of
Florida, or the Chicago Metropolitan Area). Additionally many magazines circulate only in defined areas, such as Sunset on the
West Coast, or various local magazines designated only for specific cities.
Some national magazines also offer demographic editions whereby an advertiser can buy space that runs only in copies directed
to particular audiencesdoctors, businesspeople, upper income groups, etc.
There are an enormous number of advertising units available in magazinesranging from a small classified-type ad to full color
pages and multiple pages to just about anything you can imagine that can be printed. These advertisements are generally printed
by the publisher but can also be preprinted by an outside supplier and inserted into the magazine. You need only thumb through
a few issues of several magazines to get a good sense of the wide variety of creative units available in magazines.
Newspapers
Advertising in newspapers goes as far back as newspapers themselvesback to the 1600s. The first ads ran free because the
publishers believed they contained information that was a vital part of the news that readers expected from the newspaper. As
the centuries rolled by, publishers started charging advertisers for the space their ads occupied. Sales agents were recruited to
sell advertising space to local advertisers to help defray the cost of publishing and to increase the publishers' profits. These
agents then started selling advertising space to "foreign" advertisers in distant cities. "Agencies" sprang up to represent. national
advertising clients in dealing with local newspaper advertising. With the support from advertising, traveling salesmen put
national brands into stores from coast to coast. Some of this advertising began to move out of print and into radio and eventually
into television. As the media choices proliferated and products obtained national

Page 19
distribution, agencies expanded their services to their clients by providing "creative" and "media buying" expertise. Today we
refer to these agencies as advertising agencies.
There are over 6,000 newspapers in the United States that accept advertising. Those with the largest circulation are metropolitan
daily newspapers, which may distribute in the morning, evening, all day, and often on Saturday and Sunday. The average metro
daily has a Monday-through-Friday daily circulation of 39,000 (higher in morning than in evening editions) and a 73,000
circulation on Sunday. Suburban weeklies, which generally service smaller communities, average 19,000 circulation. Some
suburban weeklies publish more frequently than once weekly. The average college newspaper (mostly published once weekly)
has a circulation of 5,000. National dailies (Christian Science Monitor, Investors Daily, USA Today, and The Wall Street
Journal) average nearly a million circulation. See Tables 3.6 and 3.7.
TABLE 3.6: Number of Newspapers and Circulation
Circulation (000)
# Papers Total Average
Metropolitan Dailies*
Dally 1,611 62,328 39
Morning 559 41,312 74
Evening 1,084 21,019 19
Sunday 863 62,635 73
Suburban Weeklies** 3,041 37,177 12
College Newspapers** 1,692 7,720 5
National Newspapers 4 3,628 907
* Includes some "all day" papers.
** Published with varying frequencies.
Source: American Newspaper Directory of Community Newspapers; Cass
College Newspaper Directory; Editor & Publisher Co.
Newspapers are one of the more geographically flexible media forms. In addition to availabilities in small suburban
communities and colleges, a number of the larger metropolitan dailies also offer zoned editions which cover specific smaller
areas within the metropolitan area.

Page 20
Nearly every metro daily (and especially the larger dailies) offers its readers, and therefore advertisers, various sections of the
newspaper that concentrate on one or another specific editorial focus. The more popular sections, in addition to main news, are
these:
Business, Finance
Entertainment
Fashion
Food
Home
Lifestyle, Women
Science
Sports
IV, Radio
Travel
TABLE 3.7: Top Ten Metropolitan Daily Newspapers
Circulation (000)
Daily Sunday
Los Angeles Times 1,243 1,576
New York Times 1,209 1,762
Washington Post 839 1,166
Newsday 826 960
Chicago Tribune 741 1,131
New York Post 645
Detroit Free Press 622 1,215
San Francisco Chronicle 570 704
Chicago Sun-Times 538 559
Boston Globe 517 798
Source: Audit Bureau of Circulation, March 31, 1991.
Free Standing Insert (FSI) A preprinted advertising message which is inserted into, but not bound into,
print media (generally into newspapers).
Many newspapers also carry supplementary material or periodicals, such as Free Standing Inserts (FSIs), Sunday magazines, and
comics. FSIs are preprinted inserts of one or more pages which are mostly 100 percent advertising and/or coupon offers.
In addition to the four syndicated supplements discussed in the previous section on magazines are five of the larger dailies
which publish their own Sunday supp. Although primarily distributed through newspapers, supps (especially national supps) are
commonly considered part of the magazine medium.

Page 21
Newspaper-published: Syndicated:
Chicago Tribune Magazine Parade
Los Angeles Times Magazine Sunday
New York Times Magazine
San Francisco ExaminerImage USA Weekend
The Washington Post Magazine Vista
Broadsheet Synonymous with a "standard" size newspaper, as compared to a "tabloid" size.

Tabloid A newspaper with pages smaller than the size of the standard "broadsheet" newspaper.
S.A.U. (Standard Advertising Unit) A measurement system for selecting and placing ad sizes in
newspapers.
Newspapers are published in one of two sizes. A broadsheet paper generally measures 21 inches to 22 ½ inches high by six
columns wide; a tabloid is usually about 14 inches deep by five columns wide. A column generally measures 2 1/16 inches wide,
with 1/8 inch between columns. A vast array of standardized and customized units are available to the advertiser. Most papers
have adopted the Standard Advertising Unit (SAU) measurement system both in their advertising cost structure and in placement
of advertisements on their pages. For example, as displayed in Exhibit 3.1, a full-page ad in a broadsheet measures 6 columns
wide by FD (full depth); a 5 × 18 ad measures five columns wide by 18 inches deep.
ROP Run-of-Press or Run-of-Paper. A position request to run an advertisement anywhere (unspecified)
in the publication. Also commonly used to describe any form of newspaper advertising.
Advertisements can be placed in any section of the newspaper. These can be black/white ads or, depending on the policy of the
newspaper and the availability, color advertisements. The majority of newspapers offer coloreither one color, two color, or full
color (in addition to black/white), as shown in Table 3.8. The advertiser can stipulate an ROP (Run-of-Paper) ad, which allows
the newspaper to place the advertisement on any page, or may request a specific section or specific position within a section.
The later two placements usually require a premium price.
TABLE 3.8: Newspaper Color Availability
Cumulative Percent of Total Circulation Represented by
Newspapers Offering Color
Metropolitan
Areas One Color Two Colors Full Color
Top 50 93% 86% 85%
Top 100 95 89 88
Top 200 96 91 89
Total U.S. 90 91 90
Source: Newspaper Advertising Bureau.

Page 22
Exhibit 3.1: Standard Advertising Unit System
Depth in
inches
FD* 1×FD* 2×FD* 3×FD* 4×FD* 5×FD* 6×FD*
18'' 1×18 2×18 3×18 4×18 5×18 6×18
15.75'' 1×15.75 2×15.75 3×15.75 4×15.75 5×15.75
14" 1×14 2×14 3×14 4×14 N 5×14 6×14
13" 1×13 2×13 3×13 4×13 5×13
10.5" 1×10.5 2×10.5 3×10.5 4×10.5 5×10.5 6×10.5
7" 1×7 2×7 3×7 4×7 5×7 6×7
5.25" 1×5.25 2×5.25 3×5.25 4×5.25
3.5" 1×3.5 2×3.5
3" 1×3 2×3
2" 1×2 2×2
1.5" 1×1.5
1" 1×1

Page 23
Out-of-Home Media
Out-of-Home Media Those media meant to be consumed only outside of one's home, e.g., outdoor,
transit, in-store media.
The out-of-home media category encompasses a wide array of different forms, all with one thing in common: consumer
exposure to these media occurs outside one's home (and also, for the most part, outside one's place of business). Unlike
television, radio, magazines, and newspapers, out-of-home media usually do not provide any form of programming or editorial
matter in which to place an advertising message. There are some minor exceptions where, for example, there might be non-
advertising matter adjacent to the advertising message (such as a placard next to a clock), but the vast majority of these media
units carry only advertising. With apologies to Marshall McLuhan, the medium is the advertising.
Out-of-home media are the second most geographically flexible media form, preceded only by direct mail. They can be
purchased almost everywhere in the United States in any configuration of national or local placement, right down to the
purchase of one outdoor poster on a specific street corner.
Billboard In outdoor media, an advertising structuresee Painted Bulletin.
Out-of-home media became a commercial entity in the United States in the 1800s, when companies began leasing out space on
wooden boards (fences) to post "bills"hence the term billboards. The term outdoor is often used interchangeably with out-of-
home media, but is technically only one of the forms available. The list of out-of-home media that appears in the rest of this
section is extensive, but not exhaustive. It does not necessarily include every specific form, nor those currently in a testing
mode, nor those which are on the entrepreneur's drawing board.
In-Store Media
These are media vehicles which are designed to reach consumers on-site, primarily in supermarkets, drug stores, convenience
stores, and mass merchandise outlets. Following are the major forms currently available, organized by general type:
Audio Systems. Depending On the system used, transmissions into the store are delivered by satellite or tape. Programming is
usually entertainment and music, with one system offering a live disc jockey. Commercials are inserted every four to six
minutes. The In-Store Satellite Network (ISN) is currently available in 3,500 stores in 29 markets; P.O.P. Radio is transmitted
into 6,500 food stores and 7,900 drug stores.

Page 24
Couponing Systems. These are terminals which are used primarily to dispense coupons directly to consumers. The Savings Spot
terminal is located near the entrance of stores (approximately 70 stores as of this writing); the Checkout Coupon terminal is
located at the checkout counter (now in 3,300 supermarkets in 27 markets).
Shelf Advertising. ActMedia, Inc. offers Shelftalk, Shelftake-One, Shelftalk RX and Shelftake-One RX. All are advertisements
which extend from the store shelf. They are now used in 11,000 grocery stores and 6,000 drug stores.
Signage. In-store signage is available in multiple formssome of which are electronic. For example:
AisleVisionads inserted in directories suspended above the aisles. Now available in 8,000 grocery stores in 176 markets.
Backlit Describes an out-of-home display where the advertising message is printed on translucent
plastic and backlit with fluorescent bulbs.
Health Monitor Centera freestanding machine for measuring blood pressure and pulse rate with a backlit advertising message in
the unit. Nationwide, 5,200 units are available.
INSIGHT Aisle Markerinternally lighted aisle or area information center placed at the center or ends of the aisle.
In-Store AdvertisingA structure containing a lighted electronic display (LED) which can be changed from a remote location.
Now in 39 markets, 6,000 stores.
Look Upsplacards placed in convenience stores within a frame and usually on poles, with the placement determined by the
advertiser. Available in 7,000 stores.
MediaOnea two-sided backlit advertisement located at the checkout counter in 7,000 stores.
Superclocksan illuminated display with a backlit advertisement next to a large clock. Available in 4,100 stores in 45 markets.
Shopping Carts. Two major forms are available:
Shopping Cart Advertisingthese are printed advertisements, in frames, attached to the shopping carts. Available in 8,000 grocery
stores in 79 markets.
VideoCartthis looks like a small TV monitor hooked to the front of a shopping cart. The monitor shows commercials, price
specials and other messages relevant to the cart's position in the store.

Page 25
Outdoor
Poster Panel An outdoor advertising structure on which a preprinted advertisement is displayed.
Bleed In print media, to extend the illustration or copy to the edge of a page so there is no white border.
In outdoor media, a poster panel that uses the entire available space.
Poster panelPoster panels can be either free-standing structures or units attached to the sides of buildings. They are offered in
various sizes with the most common being 30-sheet (bleedprinted to edge of panelor non-bleed), and 8-sheet (also called a
junior panel). The sheets refer to the number of pieces of paper originally needed to cover the panel area. At one time, posters
were printed in 30 pieces, but with today's larger presses, the 30-sheet poster is usually printed using only 8 to 10 pieces of
paper, Posters can be illuminated, offering nighttime visibility, or unlighted.
Junior Panel A scaled-down version of a 30-sheet poster.
Sheets Away of designating poster panel size based on the number of pieces of paper originally needed
to cover a poster panel area. It used to take 30 sheets to cover the average panel.
The advertising area on a 30-sheet poster measures approximately 9' 7" high by 21' 7" wide. Surrounding this display is white
blanking paper which usually resembles a mat used for framing a picture. Bleed posters, with a larger advertising area (10'5" by
22' 8"), are either printed to the edges of the copy area or they require blanking paper printed to match the background. An 8-
sheet poster, which is printed on three sheets of paper, has the same proportions as a 30-sheet, but is produced in a smaller size:
5' by 11'. Although these junior panels are wider than they are high, some plant operators are beginning to offer on-end units to
accommodate advertisements that are designed for vertical rather than horizontal presentation.
30-Sheet Poster A 10' by 22' poster panel.
8-Sheet Poster A 5' by 11' poster panel, also known as a Junior Panel because it has the same
proportions as, but is smaller than, a 30-sheet poster.
Painted bulletinsPainted bulletins are also called paints because they can accommodate advertising that is physically painted
onto the structure, but paint is only one of the reproduction media that can be used for displaying advertising. Bulletins are
generally flee-standing structures erected alongside major highways, expressways, and tollways or in other high-traffic areas.
The standard bulletin measures 14' high by 48' wide but can be larger or smaller. A super bulletin, for example, measures 20' by
60'.
Painted Bulletin (Paint) An outdoor advertising structure on which advertising is either painted directly
or preprinted on special vinyl and affixed.
The advertising on a bulletin can be reproduced using several techniques: painting directly onto the surface, hand-painting on
paper then mounted on the bulletin, lithography, silk-screening, or opaque pvc/vinyl (a plastic material produced in one sheet
and affixed to the face of the structure, which can be reproduced using the aforementioned reproduction devices as well as being
computer-painted).

Page 26
Permanent (Display or Bulletin) An outdoor bulletin at a specific locationthat is, the bulletin is not
rotated to other locations. See Rotary Display.
Bulletins are sold in two ways:
Permanentadvertising remains fixed at one location for the duration of the purchase contract;
Rotarythe display face is physically moved to a new location within the market at stated intervalsusually every 30, 60, or 90
days.
Rotary Display An option for purchasing painted bulletins whereby the display face is periodically
rotated to new locations, as opposed to a Permanent Bulletin.
Permanent paints are sold by the individual unit on a one-year basis. Paints are usually given priority placement in a market and
therefore generate higher levels of traffic (auto as well as pedestrian). They also have greater visual impact than posters. These
advantages, combined with the fact that paints are more costly to produce, result in paints costing significantly more to purchase
than posters.
Rotary painted bulletins can be purchased individually or in packages where all locations are changed periodically with no
location being used more than once. This type of purchase depends on the availability in a market and/or the advertiser's
requirement.
Transit
Transit advertising encompasses multiple media forms which have, as their common thread, a direct relationship with mass
transit vehicles or locations. The more commonly used transit units are these:
Bus exteriorsThese are displayed on the sides, front, or rear of a bus and come in various sizes (depending on the market). For
example: "King" display is 27" by 141" mounted on bus sides; "Headlight" display is approximately 19'' by 41"; ''Taillight"
display is approximately 19" by 68".
ClocksThese are located above platforms and in terminal corridors and accommodate advertising next to one or both sides of the
clock. They are backlit.
Diorama A backlit display often located in airports, bus terminals, and sports arenas.
DioramasDioramas are wall-mounted units similar to 2-sheet posters. They are displayed in transit terminal ticketing areas,

Page 27
baggage claim areas, and the like. Dioramas are backlit. Alternative versions include two or three dioramas connected together,
which rotate within a cylinder or three-sided concave, as well as a four-sided, non-rotating version. These alternative forms are
located in high-traffic areas of the airport.
Car Card An advertising unit within a transit vehicle, such as a bus.
Interior car cardsFound on the inside of buses, subways and commuter rail vehicles, car cards are of various dimensions ranging
from 10" by 27" to 32" by 20" depending on the market and the vehicle.
Rail/Subway PostersThese are located on terminal platforms/ station stops and are commonly offered in these sizes: 1-sheet
(28" by 44"), 2-sheet (44" by 58"), and 3-sheet (40" by 82").
Miscellaneous
There are innumerable other forms of out-of-home media which do not conveniently fit within the general descriptors of the
previous three categories. Among these are:
"Channel One"Television programming telecasted directly into school rooms, in which a typical TV commercial can be inserted.
Cinema (Theatre) advertisingVideo and/or slides with or without voice delivered on a movie screen, generally prior to the movie
being shown.
College bulletin boardsStructures mounted on corridor walls which contain space for typical college news/information as well as
paid advertising.
"Health Club TV" (or radio)Television or radio programs telecasted into physical fitness membership clubs, which can
accommodate the typical TV or radio commercial.
Hot-air balloonsThese have advertising messages painted or printed onto the balloon.

Page 28
InflatableFree standing inflatable can be manufactured to represent any reasonable shape or design and can be either placed on
the ground or floated with a tether.
Queue advertisingTelevision monitors mounted near waiting lines at amusement parks and the like which might carry
programming and can include typical TV commercials (e.g., "Primetime Video").
Restroom displaysPrinted advertisements in restrooms, which can be mounted on walls or on the inside of toilet doors.
"Silent Radio"This is a structure containing a matrix of light bulbs which are electronically turned on and off to create printed
words and/or the illusion of movement. Transmissions of information and advertising messages are sent to each unit via radio
waves. The units are generally found in restaurants/ bars, commuter terminals, etc.
Sky writingWhite "smoke-like" messages created against the sky's background by one or more airplanes.
Telephone enclosuresBacklit panels, affixed to street telephone booths.
Video wallsA matrix of TV monitors mounted within a shopping mall corridor which can accommodate a wide variety of video
formats.
Radio
The oldest radio station in the United States broadcast for the first time out of San Jose, back in 1909. In 1921 it was given the
call letters KQW which was changed to KCBS when CBS acquired it in 1949. There are now more than 10,000 radio stations in
the United States. The vast majority accept advertising, as the following figures show:
4,932 commercial AM stations
4,155 commercial FM stations
1,374 non-commercial stations
The standard radio commercials are 30-second and 60-second spots, although shorter and longer commercials can be purchased.
Purchases can be made on radio networks, in individual markets via

Page 29
"Spot" radio, or through a buying system known as an unwired network.
Network Radio
Network radio is used to advertise throughout the United States. There is usually no particular attempt by the advertiser to select
local markets for either more or less advertising than might be achieved via network in the average market. There are 29 radio
networks (or programs)some affiliated with and/or owned by their television counterparts (e.g., ABC), and some independent.
Each network has its own clearance by market and by station. The clearance indicates how many local stations carry the network
or program, and the percent of United States population in the markets where the network or program is carried. Some of the
radio programs are broadcast daily, often throughout the day, while others are broadcast only one day a week or only one time
during the day. ABC has five distinct networks as well as a number of programs that air on various stations within one of the
five (see Table 3.9).
TABLE 3.9: Network Radio
ABC Networks/Programs Other Networks
Excell Radio Network CBS
Galaxy Radio Network CBS Spectrum
Keystone Broadcasting
Genesis Radio Network Network
Prime Radio Network Mutual Radio Network
Platinum Radio Network NBC
Sheridan Broadcasting
Bob BrinkerMoneytalk Network
Bob Kingsley with America's Music
Makers Source
Dr. Dean EdellMedical Minutes Talknet
The Dow Jones Report Unistar Power
The Gordon Williams Business Report Unistar Super
Mike McClintockHome Sense Unistar Ultimate
Paul Harvey WONE (Westwood One)
Ralph SnodsmithThe Garden Hotline
Rush Limbaugh
Tom Snyder
Tom Snyder Commentaries
The Wall Street Journal Report

Page 30
Spot Radio
Spot Refers to the purchase of TV or radio commercial time on a market-by-market basis as opposed to
network (national) purchases. Also commonly used in lieu of "commercial announcement."
Spot refers to a local piece of geographygenerally an area encompassing a Metropolitan area, but often extending beyond the
metro area boundaries. Spot purchases can be made on any of the over 10,000 commercial radio stations, whether or not they
are part of a radio network.
Unwired Networks
Unwired Network Applicable to either radio or TV, the purchase of preselected local stations not
connected by wire or satellite, through a sales organization representing the stations.
Spot radio can also be purchased in a pseudo-network grouping of stations known as an unwired network. With an unwired
purchase the advertiser chooses the markets to receive advertising and the programming format(s) desired, but deals with a sales
representative organization representing all the stations to effect the purchase, rather than dealing with each individual market or
station. There are two such organizations: Katz Radio Group and Interrep Radio Store.
TABLE 3.10: Radio Programming Formats
Percent of Stations
Format AM FM AM/FM
Adult Contemporary 18% 21% 21%
Country 19 19 19
Rock/Contemporary Hit Radio (CHR) 3 21 10
Religious 13 4 9
Golden Oldies 11 4 8
Nostalgia/Big Band 9 1 6
Album Oriented Rock (AOR) 1 9 4
Easy Listening 2 8 4
News/Talk 7 * 4
Variety 1 1
Urban Contemporary 2 4 3
Spanish 4 1 2
Soft Contemporary (Light) 1 3 2
Black/Rythm & Blues 2 1 1
New Age/Jazz 1 2 1
Classical * 2 1
All News 1 *
* Less than one percent (rounded).
Source: Radio Advertising Bureau.

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Advertisers usually choose networks, unwired networks, or spot radio on the basis of programming format, which defines the
kind of audience attracted to a particular radio station. The most common formats are shown in Table 3.10 along with the
percent of radio stations in the top 100 markets programming each format.
Dayparts Broadcast time periods (segments), e.g., daytime: 10:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m.
Purchases are often made on the basis of dayparts. Each daypart, on average, attracts different total amounts of audience (e.g.,
more in morning drive than evening), and generally a varying demographic group (e.g., adults versus teens). The common radio
dayparts are shown in Table 3.11.
TABLE 3.11: Radio Dayparts
Morning drive 6:00 a.m.-10:00 a.m.
Midday 10:00 a.m.-3:00 p.m.
Afternoon drive 3:00 p.m.-7:00 p.m.
Evening 7:00 p.m.-Midnight
Overnight Midnight-6:00 a.m.
Television
Although advertisers spend only 22 cents out of every dollar for advertising on television, the medium is so highly consumed
and "visible" that the average person probably thinks the vast majority of advertising is on TV. For many people it's difficult to
think about advertising without thinking about TV. It's also difficult to think of a time when television was not a
communications medium. It has, nevertheless, been around for a long time. Technically, television was invented in the 1800s in
the form of a perforated rotating disc through which one could scan "moving" pictures. In the early 1900s John Baird developed
the first "television set," and in 1927 Philo Fransworth created color television. A few years later Vladimir Zworykin invented
an electronic television camera pickup tube. The TV set as we know it today was demonstrated at the 1939 World's Fair in New
York.
As an advertising medium, television has grown from the days when it offered a handful of programs, each of which was totally
controlled and sponsored by a sole advertiser. Today it offers many

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programs broadcast throughout the day and night, in which many advertisers place one or more commercial announcements.
There are two basic categories of TV available to advertisersnational and local. The various categories within national and local
TV are:
National Local
Network broadcast Spot TV (broadcast)
Network cable Spot cable
Syndication Unwired
Unwired
Network Broadcast
Network A broadcast entity that provides programming and sells commercial time in programs telecast
nationally via affiliated and/or licensed local stationse.g., ABC television network, ESPN cable
network, Mutual radio network.
A network is any group of stations joined to broadcast the same programsusually simultaneously. There are four networks in
operation: ABC, CBS, NBC, and Fox. The local TV stations affiliated with these networks contract to air a certain amount of
network programming each week, in return for which they are paid a compensation fee*. Some of these stations (referred to as
O&Os) are Owned and Operated by the networks. Table 3.12 lists the network-owned and -operated stations.
O&O A station Owned and Operated by a broadcast network.
The reason for the compensation is that the network is placing a program (with commercials in it) on a local station, which
therefore preempts the station from airing its own program and selling advertising in that program. This loss of local advertising
revenue is somewhat compensated for by the network fees. This arrangement, however, is symbiotic inasmuch as the local
station does not have to create or produce local programming to air at the time a network program is airing, and there is a belief
that network programs allow the station to attract more viewers than it might with just local programming. This greater
attraction could have a rub-off effect on the local station whereby viewers are retained even when local programs air.
The networks can transmit their programming to local stations via telephone lines or satellite, or by sending a videotape. The
intent is to air a program simultaneously in all markets, with
* Immediately prior to the publishing of this book, compensation agreements between the networks and local stations
were under discussion. These talks could lead to local stations no longer being compensated by the networks for carrying
network programming.

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TABLE 3.12: O&O TV Stations
ABC CBS NBC FOX
Chicago WLS WBBM WMAQ WFLD
Dallas WDAF
Denver KCNC
Fresno KFSN
Houston KIRK KRIV
Los Angeles KABC KCBS KNBC KTTV
Miami WClX WTVJ
New York WABC WCBS WNBC WNYW
Philadelphia WPVI WCAU
Raleigh/Durham WTVD
Salt Lake City KSTU
San Francisco KGO
Washington WRC WTTG
the exception of compensating for time zone differences for the East and West Coast markets, when possible. For example, a
program originating from New York and broadcast at 9:00 p.m. will be seen on local stations as follows:
Time Zone
Eastern 9:00 p.m.
Central 8:00 p.m.
Mountain 7:00 p.m.
Pacific 9:00 p.m.
Live broadcasts, such as a Presidential speech, do not usually have time zone adjustmentsthat is, if the President spoke at 9:00
p.m. New York time it would be seen at 6:00 p.m. on the West Coast.
Delayed Broadcast (DB) The term given to a network TV program that is delayed for airing in a given
market at a different time than the time it airs nationally.
When a network program in a local market airs at a different time or on a different day from the original telecast, it is termed h
delayed broadcast or DB. This is quite common, for example, for Alaska and Hawaii.
Networks can also offer an advertiser "regional" advertising which is accomplished by inserting the advertiser's commercial at
one or another "feed" points. For example a 9:00 p.m. program

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transmitted from New York is essentially videotaped for retransmission in the Pacific time zone three hours laterwhen it is 9:00
p.m. on the West Coast. At this feed point an advertiser's commercial could be inserted and therefore broadcast only to those
living in the Pacific time zone. Regional advertising via network TV is, however, relatively uncommon. It requires that more
than one advertiser or more than one brand from the advertiser's stable of brands "pool" to buy the national commercial slot,
with each brand or advertiser airing its commercial in a different region.
Cut-in The insertion of a commercial, at the local level, which replaces the nationally purchased (and
airing) commercial originally placed in a network broadcast program. Generally used to test media
and/or alternative commercial executions.
An advertiser can also insert a different commercial from the one being broadcast nationally in any one or more of the local
stations carrying the program. This is done through a mechanical process called a cut-in where the national commercial is
literally removed (cut) and replaced with the local commercial. The advertiser usually must first have purchased a commercial in
the national program to effect a cut-inadvertiser A is not permitted to cut-over a commercial purchased by advertiser B unless A
has arranged for this execution with B. Additionally, the network or the local station charges the advertiser for effecting a cut-
in. For these reasons cut-ins are also not common practice for national advertisers and are generally done only when absolutely
necessary, such as during a consumer or sales test of a product or the testing of an alternative commercial message.
Network programs can usually be classified into one of the following major categories, although commercials can be purchased
in any individual program regardless of its classification:
Adventure News
Children's Quiz & Audience Participation
Daytime Drama (Soap) Special
Feature Films Sports
General Drama Suspense & Mystery Drama
Information Variety
Additionally, programs are also classified according to the time of day they air. Exhibit 3.2 displays the standard TV dayparts
according to their average timespan (Eastern Standard Time).
Commercials of varying lengths (e.g., 10, 15, 30, or 60 seconds) can be purchased. All network TV commercials air in-program,
that is, between the absolute beginning and absolute end of the program. For the most part, several commercials from different
advertisers

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Exhibit 3.2:
Network Television Dayparts
Pod A grouping of commercials and nonprogram material in which (usually) more than one advertiser's
commercials air. Also referred to as a "commercial interruption" or "commercial break," but airing in-
program.
are grouped into what is called a commercial pod and air sequentially during a period known as the commercial breakof which
there are several during the telecast of the average program.
Two types of commercial purchases can be made, and three methods of buying are available:
Types
ParticipationThis refers to the purchase of one or more commercials in one or more programs.
SponsorshipThis usually requires a majority purchase of the announcements available within a program or a program segment.
Sponsoring advertisers are generally given one or more billboards at the beginning and/or end of the program. Billboards are
generally of short duration (e.g., five seconds). They announce program sponsorship to the audience and afford the advertiser
free advertising.
Billboard In broadcast, free airtime given to an advertiser, usually to one that purchases multiple
commercials within a programi.e., a "sponsor" of the program.

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Methods
Upfront A method for purchasing TV commercial time well in advance of the telecast time of the
programs and generally for a protracted period, such as for a one-year schedule. A relatively common
practice among many advertisers for the purchase of primetime TV as well as other TV dayparts and
entities (e.g., daytime network, cable TV, syndication).
Upfront BuyAn upfront buy is a purchase of many commercials, negotiated well in advance of air-dates, which encompasses
multiple programs airing during a broadcast year. The broadcast year starts when the networks premiere new TV shows (the
new season) in primetimegenerally around mid-September. An upfront advertiser usually negotiates with the networks for
quarterly cancellation rights (a quarterly option to cancel a part or all of the commercial inventory purchased), audience delivery
guarantees, and various other scheduling/flexibility options.
Scatter BuyUnlike an upfront buy, scatter buys are made only for defined periods (say, one quarter) and do not generally include
the scheduling/flexibility options of an upfront buy.
Opportunistic BuyThis is any purchase of any one or more programs, generally made immediately prior to air-date.
Spot Broadcast
As opposed to network buys, spot purchases can be made on any station in any market in just about any program being
broadcast, whether national or local. Purchases may range from one market to all U.S. markets, with the specific purchases
varying from one market to another. This geographic and local market purchase flexibility is generally the primary reason for
purchasing spot versus national TV.
There are approximately 200 distinct TV markets in the United States200 nonoverlapping geographic areas where the local
stations within that market provide programming for the households in that area. Table 3.13 lists the ten biggest markets in the
United States (according to TV household population count) and the percent of United States households accounted for by the
remaining markets.

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TABLE 3.13: Spot TV Markets
Top 10 % U.S. TV Households
New York 7.7%
Los Angeles 5.4
Chicago 3.4
Philadelphia 3.0
San Francisco/Oakland/San Jose 2.4
Boston 2.3
Dallas/Fort Worth 1.9
Detroit 1.9
Washington, D.C. 1.9
Houston 1.6
Subtotal 31.4
Top 20 45.0
Top 30 54.2
Top 40 61.4
Top 50 67.4
Top 60 72.6
Top 70 76.9
Top 80 80.5
Top 90 83.7
Top 100 86.4
Remainder 13.6
Total U.S. 100.0%
VHF (Very High Frequency) TV channels 2-13.

Within these 200 markets are 1,093 stations, half of which are VHF (Very High FrequencyTV channels 2-13) and half of which
are UHF (Ultra High FrequencyTV channels 14-83). Stations also fall within one of two categories, regardless of channel
numbers:
UHF (Ultra High Frequency) The band added to the VHF band for television transmissionchannels 14-
83 on a TV set.
AffiliateThose stations affiliated with at least one of the four TV networks (whether or not the station is an O&O), and
therefore carry network programs. These are identified to the local viewer during the ''station identification'' in which, for
example, a station will identify itself as "Station XXXX, an ABC-affiliated station."
Independentthose stations not affiliated with a network.

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Adjacency A commercial time period that is scheduled immediately preceding or following a scheduled
program on the same station in which a spot TV commercial can be placed. Opposite of an in-program
placement. Also called a break position.
Commercials of varying lengths can be purchased in spot TV. These commercials are usually purchased in packages
encompassing one or more daypartsalthough one spot could be purchased in one program regardless of daypart designation.
Spots can air in locally originated programs, between national programs (called break positions or adjacencies) and, in some
instances, within a national program. Network program positions available for local market sale by the local station are not
common and generally occur only when the network has unsold national inventory and turns back a commercial slot to its
affiliates for local sale. Local placement in a syndicated program, however, is common. This will be discussed later.
Daypart designations are common for all spot TV stations, but not all precisely follow a specific time frame. Table 3.14 displays
the most commonly used dayparts with the timings generally used by the average station. Anomalies abound depending on the
station's programming practices and its standing as an affiliate or independent.
TABLE 3.14: Spot TV Daypart Timings in the Average Market
Early Morning Sign-on-9:00 a.m.
Daytime 10:00 a.m.-4:30 p.m.
Early Fringe 4:30 p.m.-7:30 p.m.
Early News (within Early Fringe)
Prime Access 7:30 p.m.-8:00 p.m.
PrimeMonday-Saturday 8:00 p.m.-11:00 p.m.
Sunday 7:30 p.m.-11:00 p.m.
Late NewsAffiliates 11:00 p.m.-11:30 p.m.
Independents Various
Spoils Various
Children 6:00 a.m.-9:00 a.m.;
3:00 p.m.-5:00 p.m.
As with network TV, there are various types of purchases and several methods used:
Types
Long-termsimilar to a network TV unfront buy, these kinds of purchases are made for a period generally longer than a calendar
quarter.

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Scatter Purchasing commercial time in broadcast media in many different programs. Also refers to the
purchasing of network TV time which is not purchased during an "upfront" media buy.
ScatterThe most popular way to buy spot TV, scatter purchases are made for a specific period of time. For instance, all
commercials may be aired within a specified four-week periodknown as a "four-week flight."
Methods
Daypart packagesAs previously described, daypart packages specify the time of day in which commercials will air. They may or
may not include specific program designations.
Specific programsThis is simply the purchase of advertising within one or more specific programs, as opposed to a combination
of programs within a daypart.
ROS (Run-of-Station) A tactic used in broadcast media whereby commercials are scheduled throughout
the day and night at the discretion of the station or network, as opposed to time periods designated by
the advertiser.
Run-of-Station (ROS)This is the purchase of announcements that will air in programs and/or in time periods at the discretion of
the TV station. The advertiser in this case gives the local station an expenditure level to achieve and requests the station to place
as many commercials as are affordable within that budget.
Syndication Broadcast
Syndication In broadcast media, a program carried on selected stations which may or may not air at the
same time in all markets. In newspapers, an independently written column or feature carried by many
newspapers (e.g., Dear Abby). In magazines, a centrally written/published section carried by
newspapers, generally in the Sunday edition (e.g., Parade).
Syndication is a term borrowed from the print publishing field. In print, articles or publications are sold to a number of
newspapers or periodicals. For instance, Parade magazine is syndicated nationally in newspapers throughout the United States.
In television, a syndicated program is sold to local TV stations. The program can be of any type and length and may be a one-
time event or a continuing series. When scheduling a continuing program, the local station generally assigns it to the same time
slot every time it airs. This makes it easier for the local station to promote the show to the viewing audience, and for advertisers
to track viewership. This time slot, however, can vary from one market to another.
The programs can be original creations (never before seen on television) or off-network properties (programs which originally
aired on network TV). Unlike network TV, where stations generally air just about all the network fare broadcast, local stations
license individual programs from syndicators. Therefore, different

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Clearance The broadcast stations carrying a network or syndicated program. This list is usually
accompanied by a "coverage" percentage indicating the percent of U.S. TV homes in markets in which
the program airs.
syndicated programs have different clearances throughout the United States. Table 3.15 shows 20 of the many syndicated
properties available, along with the number of stations carrying each program and the resulting percent coverage of United
States TV households. You'll note that the number of stations, per se, does not necessarily correspond to the amount of coverage
(e.g., "American Gladiators" has fewer stations and higher coverage than "Love Connection").
TABLE 3.15: A Sampling of Syndicated TV Programs
Number of
Stations Percent U.S. TV Household
Carrying Coverage
American Gladiators 160 91%
Arsenio Hall 206 96
The Cosby Show 210 99
A Current Affair 193 96
Donahue 234 99
Entertainment Tonight 184 96
Family Feud 120 82
Geraldo 162 96
Hard Copy 172 91
Hee Haw 176 90
Jeopardy 219 99
Joan Rivers 115 90
Love Connection 162 90
Oprah Winfrey 224 99
People's Court 178 93
Sally Jessy Raphael 197 96
Siskel & Ebert 201 93
Star Trek 239 98
Wheel of Fortune 223 99
World Wrestling
Federation 228 96
Source: A.C. Nielsen
Syndication can be considered a hybrid within the broadcast TV spectrum. It has some of the characteristics of network TVfor
instance, it is national in scopeand some of the traits of spot TVspecifically, it can be purchased on a local market basis. An

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advertiser can purchase commercial time in a syndicated property either on a national basis or on a market-by-market basis as
available.
Network Cable
Cable TV Reception of TV signals via cable (wires) rather than from over-the-air (i.e., via a TV
antenna).
Cable TV began in the late 1940s as a means of providing a television signal, or an improved signal, to households in areas
unable to receive "over-the-air" broadcasts due to mountains or other signal interference. The cable operator built a high antenna
designed to receive broadcast signals and then retransmitted these signals to subscribing households via coaxial cablehence the
name "cable TV." Cable TV was originally called Community Antenna Television (CATV).
The number of households subscribing to cable TV did not show any remarkable increases until the 1980s, when an increase in
the amount of quality programming made available to subscribers resulted in an influx of new subscribers who did not
necessarily need improved reception, Six out of ten homes in the United States now have cable TV, brought to them by over
10,000 individual cable systems. See Table 3.16.
TABLE 3.16: Growth of Cable TV
# Subscribing
Households (millions)
% U.S. Households # Cable
with Cable TV Systems
In U.S.
1991 56.0 60% 10,704
1990 54.9 59 9,612
1985 38.0 45 6,600
1980 15.2 19 4,225
1975 8.6 12 3,506
1970 3.9 7 2,490
1965 1.3 2 1,325
1960 .7 1 640
Source: Cable Advertising Bureau

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Basic Cable The offering to subscribers of broadcast and cable TV originated programs as part of a
"basic" service agreement in which a subscriber pays a cable TV operator or system a monthly fee.
Does not include "pay" services which might be offered by the cable operator.
Pay Cable Programs and/or services provided to basic cable subscribers for an additional fee (e.g.,
HBO).
Pay-per-View A telecast, usually of a special event, for which subscribers pay a one-time fee to view.
A subscriber pays a monthly fee for basic cable service and has the option of paying additional fees for additional programming.
There are five categories of basic or pay television fare available to subscribers:
BroadcastEverything someone without cable could receive over-the-air.
Cable originationAny programming the cable operator wishes to make available to its subscribers.
Distant signalsprograms from TV stations geographically too distant to receive over-the-air.
PayPay cable provides programs which commonly do not contain advertising, for which the subscriber pays an additional
monthly fee (e.g., HBO).
Pay-per-viewPay-per-view offers individual programs for which the subscriber pays a one-time additional fee for each program
selected (e.g., a championship boxing match). These are also usually non-commercialized.
Any broadcast program transmitted into a cable household includes the commercial an advertiser purchased in that program
from a broadcast network, syndicator, or local TV station. The cable operator is prohibited from deleting that commercial or
cutting over it with another commercial (unless specifically directed to do so by the advertiser). Therefore, when an advertiser
buys commercial time in a broadcast program the commercial will appear in all homes receiving the program, whether over-the-
air or cable.
Circulation In cable TV, the number of households that subscribe to the cable services that carry a
given network.
An advertiser can also purchase commercial time in cable-originated programs. These programs are either local (that is,
designed for and transmitted to only one cable operator's subscribers), regionally distributed, or available nationally to any cable
operator who wishes to carry that program. Table 3.17 lists the national cable networks and their circulationthe number of
households that subscribe to the cable services carrying these networks. Table 3.18 lists the regional networks along with their
subscriber base.

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TABLE 3.17: Cable TV Networks
Number Subscribing Households
(millions)
ADCAmerica's Disability Channel 14.2
A&EArts & Entertainment 50.0
BETBlack Entertainment Network 30.5
CMTCountry Music Television 12.0
CNNCable News Network 57.5
Comedy TV 15.0
CNBCConsumer News and Business
Channel* 17.0
CourtCourtroom Television Network TBD
The Discovery Channel 53.2
EIEntertainment Television 18.0
ESPNEntertainment and Sports
Programming Network 57.8
The Family Channel 52.1
FNNFinancial News Network* 36.0
Galavision (Hispanic) 1.1
Headline News 47.3
The Learning Channel 21.0
Lifetime 50.0
The Monitor Channel TBD
MIVMusic Television 53.0
TNNThe Nashville Network 52.5
Nickelodeon 53.5
Nostalgia Network 10.0
Prime Network 23.0
ScI-Fl Channel 7.0
Sports Channel America 11.0
TBSTurner Broadcasting System 57.5
TNTTurner Network Television 49.0
The Travel Channel 16.0
USA Network 53.7
VH-1Video Hits One 39.6
The Weather Channel 46.0
*Merged in 1991.

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TABLE 3.18: Regional Cable TV Networks
Number Subscribing Households
(thousands)
ASPNArizona Sports Programming
Network 340
Empire Sports Network 895
Home Sports Entertainment 2,300
HomeTeam Sports 1,900
KBL Sports Network 1,500
Madison Square Garden Network 4,400
News 12 Long Island 650
Pacific Sports Network 1,200
Prime Sports Network:
Rocky Mountain 780
Intermountain 300
Upper Midwest 100
Prime Ticket 4,200
Prism 475
Pass SportsPro-Am Sports System 700
Sports Channel:
Bay Area 250
Chicago 1,800
Cincinnati 190
Florida 1,100
Los Angeles 150
New England 1,300
New York 1,400
Ohio 750
Philadelphia 1,400
Sports South Network 1,200
Sunshine Network 2,900
As noted by the number of subscribers for each of the networks, not every cable system offers every network to its subscribers.
There are a number of reasons why cable operators may not carry all programs:
Capacity. Some cable operators offer more channels to their subscribers than others, depending on the operator's technological
configuration. Table 3.19 displays the percent of total U.S. cable-subscribing households that can view various

Page 45
numbers of channels. The total number of channels required to transmit broadcast TV, national networks, regional networks, and
(if desired) locally originated programs can exceed a cable system's physical capacity.
Fiber Optics Thin glass fibers used for transmitting informatione.g., audio/video from a central source
to a person's TV set
The introduction of new technologies, such as video compression and fiber optics, will eventually increase capacityfrom the
current average of 37 channels per cable system to 150 channelsthereby allowing more systems to carry more networks and/or
local programs.
Choice. An operator may choose not to carry a network because the programming does not fit with the demographic and
lifestyle characteristics the subscribing households.
Competitive availability. An operator may elect not to carry two or more networks which are deemed very similar to each other.
Economics. Operators usually pay the networks a licensing fee to carry their programming. These fees vary from one network to
another, but all are based on the number of subscribers in the cable system. If these fees cannot be recouped via household
subscription costs (or advertising revenue), the operator has a losing proposition.
Local advertising availability. Many operators sell advertising in the cable programs they transmitin the locally originated
programs or, by agreement, in the network programs. The number of commercials they can sell in network programs is regulated
by the networks. Some networks offer more "local avails" than others. The cable operator may opt to carry those networks that
offer more local avails, which can be used to generate advertising revenue for the operator.
TABLE 3.19: Channel Capacity in Cable TV
Households
Percent of Subscribers Number of Channels
24% 54+
66 30-53
7 20-29
3 5-19
100%

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Interconnect Two or more cable systems which are linked together to air commercials simultaneously
(if possible). A "hard" or "true" interconnect is linked by cable or microwave. A "soft" interconnect is a
group of systems with an agreement to insert commercials into programs or time periods.
As with broadcast TV, commercials of varying lengths can be purchased on cable TV. The purchases can be made on a network
basis (via an upfront or scatter buy) or a system-to-system basis.
When an advertiser wishes to purchase multiple systems within a TV market to "cover" the market, it can be accomplished
either by dealing with each system, or dealing through an interconnect. An interconnect is two or more systems joining together
to form a larger combined subscriber base for advertising sales purposes. Table 3.20 lists the top ten interconnects in the United
States. exposed to a medium.
Penetration The percentage of people (or homes) within a defined universe that are physically able to
be exposed to a medium.
Whether purchasing system by system or through an interconnect, an advertiser can purchase cable TV in the same manner as
spot TV. The only difference between spot cable and spot broadcast is one of coverage. Broadcast covers nearly every home
within a TV market, while the coverage or penetration of cable TV is always less. On average, cable TV has a 60 percent
penetration, but this varies substantially by market. Table 3.21 lists cable penetration in each of the top 25 TV markets.
TABLE 3.20: Top 10 Interconnects
Number Subscribing
Households (000)
Name Coverage Area
Greater N.Y. Metro
New York Interconnect Area 3,346
Urban Contemporary 14 Markets
Interconnect nationwide 2,600
Philadelphia Cable
Advertising Philadelphia 1,353
San
Bay Cable Advertising Francisco/Oakland 1,123
Boston Interconnect Boston 1,100
Greater Chicago Cable
Interconnect Chicago 800
Tampa Bay Interconnect Tampa 773
Detroit Interconnect Detroit 765
Time Warner Manhattan,
Interconnect Brooklyn, Queens 725
Source:Cable Advertising Bureau

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TABLE 3.21: Cable TV Penetration in Top 25 Markets
Top 25 Markets Ranked by TV Percent Cable
Households Penetration
New York 57%
Los Angeles 53
Chicago 49
Philadelphia 66
San Francisco/Oakland/San Jose 62
Boston 70
Washington, D.C. 54
Dallas/Fort Worth 46
Detroit 56
Houston 50
Cleveland/Akron 57
Atlanta 55
Tampa/St. Petersburg 60
Seattle 63
Minneapolis/St. Paul 46
Pittsburgh 73
St. Louis 45
Denver 54
Phoenix 47
Sacramento/Stockton 54
Baltimore 50
Hartford/New Haven 80
San Diego 74
Orlando/Daytona Beach/Melbourne 63
Superstations
Superstation An independent TV station whose signal is transmitted throughout the United States via
satellite. Technically refers only to WTBS, but is also used for other stations.
There are four TV stations in the United States commonly referred to as superstations, although technically this distinction
belongs only to WTBS/Atlanta. A superstation transmits its signal locally via normal broadcast and also nationally via satellite,
thus allowing people in distant markets to receive the broadcast via cable TV.
WTBS is the only superstation that sells advertising time either in its local coverage area (Atlanta) or nationally (via cable TV).
The non-Atlanta purchase is the TBS network, as shown in Table 3.17. The other three superstations (WGN/Chicago,
WPIX/New York, WWOR/New York) do not offer a local/national split.


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PART II
MEDIA DEFINITIONS AND DYNAMICS

Page 50

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Chapter 4
Rating
In this chapter we define what a rating is and how it is
calculated. We explain why a rating is one of the more
important media terms and how rating information is
perceived by the media planner and by the media
supplier. Finally, we investigate ancillary factors that
might affect the ''quality'' of a rating point.
Rating The percentage of a given population group consuming a medium at a particular moment
Generally used for broadcast media, but can be used for any medium One rating point equals one
percent.
You've heard newscasts or read articles that talked about ratings: The Superbowl got such and such a rating, or a program was
cancelled due to poor ratings, etc. The reference to ratings is apopulation group reference to the quantity of the television
audience that viewed.a program. The precise definition is the percentage of individuals (or homes) exposed to an advertising
medium. In its simplest form, a one rating is equivalent to one percent of a given population group. The definition can apply to
many media forms, but is commonly used for television or radio programs.
How Ratings Are Calculated

Let us assume there are 1,000 adults (age 18 and older) in the television population (those living in households that have a TV
set) of a given geographic area, Which we'll call market X. Let us also assume they have the capability of viewing any of three
TV programs which are being broadcast at a particular time. Of the 1,000 adults, 300 view program A, 200 view program B,
100 view program C, and 400 decide to not view at that time. By dividing the number

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of viewers of program A by the TV population (300/1000) we obtain a rating of 30 (the percent sign is never used when
referring to a rating, even though that's exactly what it is: 30 percent). Likewise, program B has a 20 rating and program C has a
10 rating. Those not viewing any of the programs are obviously not counted as part of the viewing audience of any program. See
Table 4.1.
TABLE 4.1: Program Ratings in Market X
Adults 18+
Viewing Audience Rating
Program A 300 30
Program B 200 20
Program C 100 10
Not viewing 400
Total Population 1,000
The same dynamics apply to calculating a rating for any population basehouseholds, men, women, men 18-34, teens, etc. For
example, let us assume your primary target audience (those to whom you want to direct the advertising) is men 18-49, and you
also want to apply secondary emphasis to men 50+. You'll therefore want to know the ratings of TV programs for each of these
audiences.
Because programs have different appeals to different demographic groups, a program rating for one group could be quite
different from the rating for another group. The demographic ratings for the three TV programs in market X in Table 4.2
TABLE 4.2: Program Ratings in Market X For Different Demographic Groups
Men 18-49 Men 50+
Viewing Audience Rating Viewing Audience Rating
Program A 30 10 40 20
Program B 60 20 60 30
Program C 45 15 20 10
Not Viewing 165 80
Total Population 300 200

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demonstrate this phenomenon. Program A has greater appeal to men 50+ than to men 18-49, as shown by the 20 rating it
delivers to the former group versus the 10 rating to the latter. Program C, on the other hand, has more appeal to men 18-49.
You'll note that the ratings for these demographic groups apply to the total population of that group, not to all people in the
market.
It is important to note that because a rating is a percentage, it merely indicates the proportion of a population group that is
viewing the program; it does not indicate the number of people viewing. In the above example, the 10 rating delivered by
program A to men 18-49 is equivalent to 30 people; the 10 rating for Program C to men 50+ is equivalent to 20 people.
"Average" Rating
Not all people view an entire TV program or listen for a long period of time to a particular radio station. There's tune-in and
tune-out during a program as people switch channelswhich has become easier to do with the advent of the remote control
device. When media research suppliers estimate a program rating they calculate the average rating the program produces for its
time duration. A program rating of 20, for example, means that during the average minute of broadcast 20 percent of a
population group was tuned in to that program. Commonly, research suppliers provide Average Quarter Hour ratings, meaning
the average rating that was produced during the average minute of that 15-minute segment.
Commercial Ratings
When we defined rating, we emphasized the words advertising medium to dispel any misconception that a rating applies to
advertising message deliverythat is, commercial exposure. Although there is a movement afoot to obtain ratings for
commercials, they are currently not available. A rating, therefore, is only an indicator of the percentage of a group of individuals
that have the opportunity to be exposed to the advertising. The percentage of people who will actually see or hear the
commercials can vary substantially, ranging from zero (although this is highly improbable) to 100 percent of the
viewing/listening audience. The "commercial rating" that might be obtained is influenced by many factors, including (1) how
many

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people are paying attention to the broadcast program in the first place; (2) the relative position of the commercial within a pod
of different commercials (first position, middle position, last position); (3) the number of different commercials within the pod;
(4) the length of the commercial; (5) the creative effectiveness of the commercial; and (6) the relevance of the commercial
message to the viewer's/listener's needs and wants at that particular time.
Importance of Ratings
Rating is the most important broadcast term. Ratings are used extensively by media planners and media buyers to evaluate
alternative programs or combinations of programs that can best achieve the advertising goals. As will be seen in later sections of
this book, ratings form the foundation from which various other measures (reach and frequency, impressions, effective reach,
Wearout, etc.) are calculated to determine media selection and scheduling tactics.
Media suppliers (TV and radio networks, local market TV and radio stations) use rating information to assess a program's or
station's popularity, and, in part, to determine how much it will charge an advertiser to place a commercial within that program
or on that station.
Popularity
The higher a program rating, the more people are watching it. The higher the rating, the greater chance the program will
continue to be on-air; conversely, the lower the rating, the greater the chance the program will be cancelled. But the ratings are
not considered in isolation from other factors, such as the time of day of broadcast. For example, because more people view TV
during 8:00-9:00 p.m. than during 8:00-9:00 a.m., a program has a greater opportunity to generate a high rating at night than in
the morning. The fact that program A in the morning gets a 5 rating and program B in the evening gets a 20 rating does not
necessarily indicate that program A is less popular that program B. In fact, program A might be relatively more popular than
program Bit might garner a greater proportion of the total audience viewing TV at that particular time than program B does in
its time slot. This concept of "relative popularity" is known as share and is discussed later.

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Commercial Pricing
Media suppliers use ratings as one criterion for establishing the prices they will charge advertisers. Generally, the higher the
rating, the greater the cost of advertising time. But the relationship of cost to rating is not necessarily linear: A 10-rated program
will not necessarily cost twice as much as a 5-rated programit could be proportionately more or less.
Among the many factors that influence pricing are these:
1. The size of the rating against various demographic groups
2. The program's share of audience
3. The supplier's cost for producing the program and/or the price paid by the supplier to secure the rights to broadcast the
program (e.g., the Superbowl)
4. The laws of supply and demand: the greater the demand by advertisers to advertise in a TV program, the higher the price
charged by the supplier
Ratings for Unreported Demographics

Because syndicated rating research does not report on all age ranges in its demographic cells, it is sometimes necessary to
calculate a rating for a target group not contained on the rating report For example, let us assume you need to know the rating of
Program A for adults 35-49, but the rating report shows only a 20 rating for adults 18-49 and a 10 rating for adults 18-34. You
cannot subtract the 10 rating from the 20 rating and determine that the rating for adults 35-49 is 10. You must go back to the
foundation of the ratings and proceed as follows (see also Table 4.3):
1. Determine the population base for the target audience by subtracting the population of the smaller group from the larger
group: 3,000 adults 18-49 minus 2,000 adults 18-34 equals 1,000 adults 35-49.
2. Likewise, determine the number of viewers for the target audience: 600 viewers minus 200 viewers equals 400 adult 35-49
viewers.

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3. Having the viewers and the population base, you can determine the rating by division: 400 viewers divided by 1,000
population equals a 40 rating.
TABLE 4.3: Calculating a Rating from Other Ratings
Program A
Reported Population Base # Viewers Rating
18-49 3,000 600 20
18-34 2,000 200 10
Calculated
35-49 1,000 400 40
Note: If you cannot conveniently find the population base in the
ratings report, you can calculate it by using the rating and number of
viewers, for example, 600 adult 18-49 viewers divided by a 20 rating
(use 20 percent or .20) equals 3,000.
As with demographic groups, ratings cannot be averaged across geographic markets. For example, if you are advertising in
market X and market Y and need to determine an average rating for program A in both markets combined, you must add the
number of people viewing program A in market X and market Y and divide the total number of viewers by the combined
population of the two markets. Program A in our example delivers an average 18.5 ratingnot a 17.0 rating as might be
incorrectly calculated by adding the two ratings (14.0 and 20.0) and dividing by 2. (Note: You see a shift in the way a rating is
reported in Table 4.4for example, instead of "14," "14.0." Although either number could be used [inasmuch as they are identical]
it is always best to have consistency of how
TABLE 4.4: Program Ratings by Markets and Groupings
Market X Market Y Total
Population Rating Population Rating Population Rating
Program A 70 14.0 300 20.0 370 18.5
Program B 120 24.0 300 20.0 420 21.0
Program C 65 13.0 300 20.0 365 18.3
Not Viewing 245 600 845
Total 500 1,500 2,000

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numbers are reported within charts and tables and media plans so there is no reader confusion. All ratings in this table are
therefore shown to the nearest tenth of a percent.)
Ratings for Non-Broadcast Media

Although ratings are a common reference point for TV and radio programs, they can also be applied to other media. While the
concept remains the same, the terms vary for different media. Three of the more common terms used for other media follow.
They are more fully explained in later sections.
Coverage The percentage of a population group covered by a medium. Commonly used with print
media to describe their average issue audience within defined demographic or purchasing groups. Akin
to a rating
Circulation In out-of-home media, the number of people passing an advertisement who have an
opportunity to see it.
Magazines: The number of readers of a publication divided by the population base is usually called coverage.
Newspapers: The circulation of a newspaper divided by the population base is commonly referred to as penetration.
Outdoor:The number of people (not percentage of people) who pass by a given poster or billboard is known as circulation.
Circulation is combined with a series Of other units to result in a showing.
A Rating Point Is a Rating Point

There is often discussion as to whether all rating points are equivalent. On one hand, by definition, they are equal. A 1.0 rating
in program A is identical to a 1.0 rating in program Bboth represent one percent of the population group. On the other hand,
they might not be equal for any number of reasonssome of which follow:
1.Program environment might have an effect on audience exposure to a commercial. For example, a commercial that announces
a new, improved formula for product X might "play better" in a news environment than in a comedy showif you assume that the
commercial is a kind of news. However, an argument could be made that the comedy environment places people in a more
relaxed mood, perhaps more receptive to commercial exposure.

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The commercial's creative execution is important to consider. If the tone and manner of the commercial are representative of
"hard news," a news program environment might be more compatible. Conversely, if the tone and manner are upbeat and
humorous, a comedy show might afford greater compatibility. But this discussion can be turned completely around by arguing
that it is more effective to place a hard-news commercial in a comedy show for shock valueto surprise the viewer. The
compatibility question comes into play with nearly all media forms. For example:
Does a full-color advertisement have more impact in a black-and-white editorial format than in a full-color editorial format?
Will an advertisement about travel get better readership in a travel magazine or in a general editorial magazine?
Will an ad for a food product get better readership when placed within a food environment, or when placed outside this
environment and separate from competitive food ads?
Will a radio commercial using a lot of music "break through" the commercial clutter if scheduled in an all-talk program, or will
it be received better if placed in a music format?
2. As we will see, the size of the program rating affects reach and frequency levels. All things being equal, two 10-rated TV
programs will generally not achieve the same reach as one 20-rated program because there will probably be duplication of
audience between the two 10-rated showssome people will view both programs. Extending this argument further, five 20-rated
programs will usually accumulate more reach than twenty 5-rated programs.
3. There is some evidence that the higher a TV program rating, the more people think of that program as one of their "favorites"
and pay comparatively greater attention to it. More attention to the programming could translate to more attention to the
commercials in that program.
4. There is usually more advertiser demand for the most popular, higher-rated programs than for the lower-rated, ostensibly less
popular programs. Increased demand always leads to increased prices. Stations and networks generally charge a premium for
high-rated programs. The question is whether or not the premium is commensurate with the advertiser's expected return on
investment.

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5. As will be discussed later in Chapter 21, "Media Audience Research," it has been shown that the higher the rating, the greater
the statistical reliability. There is proportionately less risk in higher-rated than in lower-rated programs.
There are no conclusions for this question of rating point equality, only argumentssome of which support the notion that a rating
point is a rating point, some of which suggest all rating points are not equal. You might want to mark this section and return to
it later, after you have a greater understanding of the various other dynamics that affect consumer exposure to advertisingand
then you decide if all rating points are equal.
PROFESSIONAL WORKSHOP
1. TV program A is viewed by 100,000 adults age 18 and
older in market X, which has a total population of adults age
18 and older of 1,000,000. What is program A's average
rating?
2. This same market has a teen (12-17) population of
100,000. Program A is viewed by 5,000 teens. What is
program A's rating among teens?
3. What is the average rating of program A among all people
age 12 and older in market X (above)?
4. Program B is broadcast in markets X and Y and receives a
10 and 8 household rating respectively. What is the average
rating of program B in both markets combined?
5. Program C has an average quarter rating of 10.0 during its
9:00-9:15 segment, and an 8.0 rating during the second
quarter hour. What is program.C's average rating during its
haft-hour telecast?
6. If your commercial airs at 9:10 in program C (above),
what is the average rating for your commercial?
7. Magazine A is read by I million women in market Z,
which has a women's population of 5 million. What is
magazine A's rating among women? What is its coverage?

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Chapter 5
Homes Using TV: HUT/PUT/PVT/PUR/Cume
In this chapter we define the term Homes Using
TV and related terms, and explain how they are
calculated. We highlight how this media
phenomenon varies according to the
demographic group, geographic market, or
media form with which you are dealing.
HUT The percentage of Homes Using (tuned in to) TV at a particular time.

Several terms are used to describe the total viewing or listening audience at a given time. Although the terms used by different
media research suppliers may vary, all indicate the same concept: how many people or homes are viewing/listening to anything
being broadcast at a particular time of day (which can be expressed as a percentage of the population universe or in absolute
numbers of people):
Cume (Cumulative) Rating The reach of a radio or TV program or station, as opposed to the"avenge "
rating.
PUR The percentage of People Using Radio at a particular time.
PUT The percentage of People Using TV at a particular time. Identical to PVT, People Viewing TV.
The Arbitron Company refers to HUT (Homes Using TV) and PVT (Persons Viewing TV) for television, and to Cume
(Cumulative) Rating for radio.
Birch/Scarborough Research Corporation, which studies radio listening, employs the term PUR (People Using Radio).
Nielsen Media Research, which reports only on television viewing, prefers the term HUT and PUT (Persons Using TV).

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Returning to our example of program ratings in market X (previously shown in Table 4.1), let us assume all three programs were
broadcast 8:00-8:30 p.m. In total, 600 adults 18+ were viewing TV at that time-60 percent of the population universe. The PUT
(or PVT) is therefore 600, or 60 percent (See Table 5.1).
TABLE 5.1: PUT: Adults 18+Market X
8:00-8:30 p.m.
# Viewers Rating
Program A 300 30
Program B 200 20
Program C 100 10
PUT 600 60%
Nonviewers 400
Total Population 1,000 100%
As ratings can vary by demographic segment, so can PUT levels. Additionally, PUT levels do not necessarily reflect HUT
levels. It is therefore important to accurately describe the demographic segment for which you are seeking information or
describing your findings. Tables 5.2 and 5.3 show examples of the PUT and HUT variations that can exist at exactly the same
time of day.
The PUT level for adults 18+ at 8:00-8:30 p.m. is 60 percent, compared to a 45 percent PUT for men 18-49.
Let us assume there are five TV homes, each with four people (one man, one woman, one teenager, one child). Further assume
that not all the household members are viewing, and of those who are viewing, there is no consistency from one home to
another. As shown in Table 5.3, four of the five TV homes have their set turned on80 HUT. Of the five men in this population
base (one per home) only one is viewing (20 PUT). Of the five women in the population, two are viewing (40 PUT). Using the
same math, the PUT for teens is 20; for children, 40; for total people, 30.

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TABLE 5.2: PUT Levels by Demographic Group
Market X8:00-8:30 p.m.Rating
Adults 18 + Men 18-49
Program A 30 10
Program B 20 20
Program C 10 15
PUT 60 45
Nonviewers 40 55
Total Population 100% 100%
TABLE 5.3: PUTS/HUTSMarket X

8:00-8:30 p.m.
People Viewing
Homes Viewing Men Women Teens Children Total
Home #1 1 1 1 2
Home #2 1 1 1 2
Home #3 1 1 1
Home #4 1 1 1
Home #5
Total 4 1 2 1 2 6
Population Base 5 5 5 5 5 20
HUT/PUT 80% 20% 40% 20% 40% 30%
Viewing/listening levels vary by time of day, by day of the week, and by month of the year. They also vary from one geographic
area to another. The variations are primarily a function of when people are physically able to consume a medium, and what they
decide to do during these timespans. Let's say you live in Los Angeles and have a nine-to-five office job, and your cousin lives
in New York City and works eight to four. At 8:30 a.m. you are physically able to

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listen to the radio while driving in your car, and you indeed choose to do that. At this same time your cousin is working in the
office and either cannot or chooses not to listen to radio. Jump the time-span to evening. You watch TV. Your cousin is
working late. Now leapfrog into the weekend. You decide to read a book rather than watch TV. You might be listening to the
radio while reading. Your cousin decides to watch TV. In all these examples you and your cousin were sometimes able to watch
TV or listen to the radio, sometimes not . . . and you either chose to watch or listen, or chose not to. By expanding these same
dynamics to the entire population, we find why viewing/listening levels vary.
Table 5.4 demonstrates the kinds of variations which are generally reported by media research suppliers.
TABLE 5.4: HUT Variations
By Time of Day (8-11 p.m.
PST) By Calendar Quarter (8-11
(Total U.S.-Annual p.m. PST)
Average) (Total U.S.)
8-9 p.m. 58%Jan.-Mar. 64%
9-10 p.m. 59Apr.-Jun. 53
10-11 p.m. 54Jul.-Sep. 48
Oct.-Dec. 61
Average 8-11 p.m. 57Annual Average 57
By Geographic Area By Market
(11 p.m.- 1 a.m. PST) (11 p.m.- 1 a.m. PST)
Northeast 20%New York 30%
Central 36Chicago 42
South 25Miami 21
West 22Reno 13
Given that people do not usually consume both TV and radio at the same time, coupled with the when and What dynamics
previously reviewed, we find that the usage levels of television and radio tend to complement each other: Radio listening is at its
highest level when TV viewing is at its lowest, and vice-versa, as shown in Exhibit 5.1.

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Exhibit 5.1:
Use levels of radio and television. (Percent of women listening
to radio/viewing television)
Source: Nieisen/Arbitron
1. Three programs are available for viewing in market X at 8:00-8:30
p.m. and receive adult 18+ ratings of 20, 15, and 10 respectively.
What is the PUT level at this time?
2. For the same configuration listed above, what is the HUT level?
3. There are five radio stations available in market Y, which has
100,000 women age 18 and older. The average station is listened to
by 10,000 of these women from 6:00 to 7:00 a.m. What is the PUR
level at this time?

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Chapter 6
Share
In this chapter we define what share is as it relates to media
planning, how it is calculated, and how it is intertwined with HUT.
Share ''Share of audience'' is the percentage of HUT (or PUT, PUR, PVT) tuned to a particular program
or station. "Share of market" is the percentage of total category volume (dollars, units, etc.) accounted
for by a brand. "Share of voice" is the percentage of advertising impressions generated by all brands in
a category accounted for by a particular brand, but often also refers to share of media spending.
Share is the percentage of HUT tuned to a particular program. It can also be the percentage of PUT, PVT, PUR or Cume rating.
It is commonly referred to as share of audience.
The same term is used by marketers when assessing their "share of market"the percentage of total Sales volume of a particular
product category (e.g., instant coffee) accounted for by product X. This percentage is used as a benchmark to express what
portion of total industry sales dollars a company has garnered for itselfwhat its relative position in the marketplace is. Similarly,
in television or radio share is used to indicate the percentage of the total viewing/listening audience a program, or station, has.
Both the marketer and the media supplier strive for dominant shares, for similar reasons. A high or growing share indicates not
only relative strength vis-a-vis competitors, but also consumer acceptance and, to a large degree, business stability.
The mechanics of calculating a program share of audience are shown in Table 6.1. Program A, viewed by two of the five
available TV homes in market X, produces a 40 rating; programs B and C each produce a 20 rating. In total, four of the five
homes are viewing TV, thereby generating an 80 percent HUT. Because share is a percentage of HUT, HUT becomes the base
against which share is calculated. This calculation requires that the program rating be divided by the HUT. Thus, program A's 40
rating divided by an 80 percent HUT gives a 50 percent share of the total viewing audience.

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TABLE 6.1: Share of AudienceMarket X
# Homes Viewing Rating Share
Program A 2 40 50%
Program B 1 20 25
Program C 1 20 25
HUT 4 80 100
Not Viewing 1
Population Base 5 100%
TABLE 6.2: Relative Shares

Women 18+
Program Time Rating Share Rating Share
A 8-9 p.m. 30.0 50%
B 8-9 p.m. 15.0 25
C 8-9 p.m. 15.0 25
D 1-2 p.m. 7.5 25%
E 1-2 p.m. 7.5 25
F 1-2 p.m. 15.0 50
Total
60.0 100 30.0 100
The share of the program broadcast during the daytime might be the same as that of a program at nighttime, but because HUT
levels vary by time of day, the nighttime program will produce a higher rating. (See Table 6.2.) Comparison of program shares,
therefore, should be restricted to programs in the same general time periods. It is appropriate, for example, to compare program
A to program B if they are on the air at the same time; but it is not appropriate, and possibly misleading, to compare them if
they are on the air at distinctly different times. The only valid way to address share of

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audience for programs that air at different times is to refer to their relative strength. For example, one could state that program
A, with a 50 percent share, holds a stronger position in nighttime than program D, with a 25 percent share, holds in daytime.
Program A is therefore a relatively more popular show.
1. Program A gets a 40 rating among men 18 and older during
its 9:00-10:00 p.m. broadcast. At this time 80 percent of all
men 18 and older are viewing television. What is program A's
share of audience?
2. Program B garners a 25 household share during its 8:00-8:30
p.m. broadcast. The HUT at this time is 60. What is program
B's rating?
3. Program X and program Y each obtained a 50 share among
teens. Which program was viewed by a greater number of
teens?

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Chapter 7
Rating/HUT/Share
This chapter shows the inter-relationship of rating, HUT, and
share. We demonstrate how the numbers for each of these
terms are reported by media research suppliers and how a
media planner goes about estimating a rating for a future TV
program.
Clearly, the terms rating, HUT, and share are totally interrelated and are often used in conjunction with each other during the
media selection process. Because of this interrelationship, by having data for any of the two we can calculate the third. The
formulas are these:
Solving for Rating: HUT × Share = Rating
Solving for Share:
Solving for HUT:

The interrelationship is shown graphically in Exhibit 7.1 We see:
Four of the five homes owning a TV set are viewing:
Program A is viewed by two of the five homes:
Of the four TV homes viewing, two are viewing program A:

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Exhibit 7.1:
Interrelationship of rating/HUT/share.
Exhibit 7.2 gives the reader a sense of how rating, HUT, and share are typically presented in syndicated research sources.
Studying this information will reinforce your understanding of how the three terms interrelate, indicate why each term is
independently important in a media analysis, and demonstrate the complexity of the information with which a media planner or
buyer needs to deal. The following facts, among others, can be gathered from the table:
From January 30 to February 27, KAAA broadcast three different programs on Wednesdays between 9:30 and 10:00 p.m.
Program A received a 14 household rating on February 6 and a 15 the following week.
For its two telecasts, program A averaged a 15 household rating and obtained a 21 share based on the average 73 HUT for the
time period across the four weeks studied.
Programs B and C each aired one week, receiving a 9 and a 23 household rating respectively.
During the four weeks, KAAA averaged a 15 rating with a 21 share.

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EXHIBIT 7.2: Example of Data Found in Syndicated Research Reports
TV HH RATINGS
DAY/TIME/STATION/PROGRAM PERSONS RATINGSIV MARKET
BY WEEK AVERAGE 12- 12- 18- 18- 21- 25- 35+ 35- 50+
JAN FEB FEB FEB RTG SHR 2+ 18+ 24 34 34 49 49 54 64
30 06 13 20
WEDNESDAY
9:30-10:00P
KAAA Program A 14 15 15 21 9 11 4 4 5 7 7 9 15 12 19
9 9 13 6 7 8 6 5 5 5 5 8 7 11
Program B
23 23 30 15 16 27 22 22 19 18 16 12 13 10
Program C
15 21 10 11 11 9 9 10 9 10 12 11 15
-4 Wk Avg-
KBBB Program D 18 15 14 16 22 10 12 11 10 11 12 12 12 12 12 11
23 23 29 14 16 10 11 12 13 14 15 18 18 21
Program E
17 24 11 13 10 11 11 12 13 13 14 14 13
-4 Wk Avg-
(Remaining programs deleted from chart)
HUT/PVT/TOTAL 72 73 69 78 73 48 55 43 45 46 50 51 53 60 59 65

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The ratings of program A varied by demographic groupfrom a low of 4 among people age 12-24 and people age 12-34, to a high
of 19 among people age 50 and older.
PUT levels for this time period varied by demographic group: 43 percent for people 12-34 and 60 percent for people 35 and
older.
Program C tended to have proportionately greater appeal to younger audience segments, as witnessed by the ratings.
Estimating a Rating
All ratings information from syndicated research sources is for past performance. Media buyers need to estimate program ratings
for the future. The past might be an indicator of future performance, but does not guarantee it. As shown in Exhibit 7.2, Program
D produced ratings ranging from 14 to 18, for an average rating of 16. The challenge is predicting whether the program will
hold at an average 16 rating in the future, increase, or decrease.
The first step in estimating a rating is to estimate the level of potential viewing audience (PUT) for the time period in question.
History has shown that PUT levels are fairly consistent from one year to the next*that is, if the 9:00-10:00 p.m. time period
produced a 60 PUT during February in market X for the last few years, the probability is it will produce the same level next
February.
The next step is to estimate the share you think this program might receive. This is far more difficult to calculate because the
estimate is based more on opinion than on hard fact, and is complicated by ever-changing competitive programming
environments. Some of the variables that can be considered when estimating a share are these:
History: What is the track record of similar types of programs?
The type of program: Will it be a documentary or a situation comedy? The latter generally gets a higher share.
* There were HUT aberrations at the beginning of the decade. Although inexplicable, this occurrence does not negate the
general reliability of HUT predictions.

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The competition: Will the program be opposite a longstanding top-rated show, or will it compete with average shows?
Lead-in: Is the show that will precede it on the same channel top-rated or average? Some evidence indicates that a strong lead-
in carries viewers over to the next programthat is, if a goodly portion of the lead-in program's viewers do not switch channels,
they will represent a substantial portion of the next program's audience and therefore help produce a higher rating.
Producers, directors, cast, and scriptwriters: Have these people produced past successes?
A corollary to Murphy's Law might be "If anything can vary, it will." As we have seen, HUT varies by time of day and share
varies for all the reasons stated. These variations occur not only during the duration of a program, but also minute-by-minute
while the program is airing. It is not uncommon to find significant rating variation for two consecutive airings of the same
program (whether or not each airing is an original or a repeat), or for each quarter-hour segment within each airing. As shown in
Table 7.1, "A Team's" average rating over a two-week period was 22.2with a high of 24.3 and a low of 18.4 depending on the
week and the quarter-hour within that telecast.
TABLE 7.1: "A Team" Household Ratings.
Time Week 1 Week 2 Average
8:00-8:15 20.2 18.4 19.3
8:15-8:30 22.8 19.8 21.3
8:30-8:45 24.3 23.6 24.0
8:45-9:00 24.3 23.6 24.0
Average 22.9 21.4 22.2
Source: A.C. Nielsen

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1. Market X has 100,000 TV homes. 50,000 homes are
viewing TV at 9:00-9:30 p.m., at which time program
A is on the air. 25,000 homes are tuned in to Program
A.
a. What is the HUT level at this time?
b. What is program A's household rating?
c. what is program A's share?
2. Program B has a 25 share with a 10 rating. What is
the HUT at the time program B is broadcast?
3. Programs W, X, Y, and Z each have a 25 share.
What is the HUT at this time?

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Chapter 8
Gross Rating Points
In this chapter we show how ratings are combined to
produce a combined total known as gross rating points
(GRPs), and how GRPs are used by the media planner
to analyze the relationships of alternative media
schedules. We also discuss how GRPs vary by
demographic group, by media type, and by time frame.
Gross Rating Points (GRPs) The sum of all ratings delivered by a given list of media vehicles.
Although synonymous with TRPs, GRPs generally refer to a "household" base. In out-of-home media,
GRPs are synonymous with a Showing.
Gross Rating Points are the sum of all ratings. Like ratings, GRPs are expressed as a percentage and can be used for various
media forms.
If, for example, you plan to purchase two announcements, one in each of two programs, and each program has a 10 rating, you
will be purchasing 20 GRPs (10 × 2). The operative word is gross. GRPs describe the total audience of a media schedule
without regard to duplication of audiences; that is, the number or percent of people who are exposed to more than one media
vehicle. In this example of two 10-rated programs yielding 20 GRPs, there is no consideration for how much of the audience of
the first program, if any, is part of the audience of the second program.
Let's say your media budget allows for the purchase of 6 announcements scattered across three TV programs as shown in Table
8.1. By multiplication (average rating times number of announcements) you determine that this schedule will generate 100
GRPs. The "100" is 100 percent. It does. not necessarily state that 100 percent of the population will watch these shows or be
exposed to your commercials in the shows. The 100 GRPs does indicate, however, that the equivalent of 100 percent of the
population will watch one or more of these programs. Hypothetically, the 100 GRPs could be composed of 100 percent of the
population,

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who will watch an average of one program (or telecast); one-sixth of the population, who will watch all 6 telecasts; or anything
in between.
TABLE 8.1: Calculating GRPs in Television
# Telecasts in which an announcement is
purchased GRPs
# Telecasts In 4
Program weeks Average
Rating
A 4 25 × 2 = 50
B 4 20 × 1 = 20
C 4 10 × 3 = 30
TOTAL 6 100
Demography and Target Rating Points (TRPs)

Target Rating Points (TRPs) Essentially synonymous with GRPs.
TRPs (Target Rating Points) have the same definition as GRPs. It does not matter which term is used in media planning. All that
matters is that you state which demgraphic is encompassed in GRPs or TRPs. In the previous explanation of GRPs, there was no
reference to a demographic group, but this was only for simplicity in describing the GRP dynamic. In an actual media plan it is
imperative that the demographic group to which you are referring be statedin one fashion or another. Popular notations are these
(''GRPs'' can be substituted for "TRPs" without changing the meaning):
HH TRPs (Household) A18+ TRPs (Adults 18 & older)
W18-34 TRPs (Women) M25-49 TRPs (Men)
T12-17 TRPs (Teens) K6-11 TRPs (Kids/children)
Just as we saw different demographic ratings for the same program in the chapter on ratings, so GRPs/TRPs will encompass

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different levels depending on the demographic used. This demographic descriptor becomes critically important when two
different media are compared and/or combined in a media plan.
GRPs/TRPs by Media Type

The concept of GRPs/TRPs is the same for all media, although the calculations and terminology used might vary. Tables 8.2
through 8.5 demonstrate the basic math used for establishing TRPs by media type. Note that different demographic descriptors
are used in each table, but only for demonstration purposes.
TABLE 8.2: Radio TRPs
T12-17 # T12-17
Station Time Period Rating Announcements TRPs
A 6-10 a.m. 1.0 × 18 = 18
10 a.m.-3 p.m. .5 × 4 = 2
3-7 p.m. 2.0 × 24 = 48
B 6-10 a.m. .1 × 10 = 1
3-7 p.m. .7 × 10 = 7
7 p.m.-
midnight 1.0 × 24 = 24
Total 90 100
TABLE 8.3: Magazine TRPs

% Coverage of W18-34 W18-34 TRPs
Magazine # Advertisements
A 25% × 1 = 25
B 15 × 4 = 60
C 5 × 3 = 15
Total 8 100

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TABLE 8.4: Newspaper TRPs
% Household
Penetration
Newspaper # Household
Insertions TRPs
A 40% × 1 = 40
B 30 × 1 = 30
C 20 × 1 = 20
D 10 × 1 = 10
Total 4 100
TABLE 8.5: Outdoor TRPs

People 2 & Older Dally
Circulation for Average Poster
Gross Dally Market
# Poster Circulation Population People
Units TRPs
50 × 1,000 = 50,000 50,000 100
If, for example, all four of the media forms shown in Tables 8.2-8.5 were used in a media plan, the TRP calculations would
have to be made against the same demographic group (the target group of the advertising effort). It would be incongruous to
report that the media effort is composed of a total of 400 TRPs (100 in each of the four media types). If you keep in mind that
TRPs are an expression, in percentage terms, of coverage of specific population groups, this becomes quite clear.
For the same reason that you cannot add together TRPs for different demographic segments, you cannot add TRPs for
combinations of geographic markets. As shown in Table 8.6, for example, scheduling 100, 50 and 25 TRPs respectively in
markets A, B and C yields an average TRP level of 50 for the three markets combinednot 175 TRPs (which is the sum of the
three levels). The 50 TRPs is obtained by multiplying the TRPs in each market by the population base, adding the products, and
dividing by the combined population base. (Note: Remember that TRPs are percentages. For a TRP of 50, multiply by 50
percent or .50, for a TRP of 100, multiply by 100 percent or 1.0.)

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TABLE 8.6: TRPs by Geographic Market (men 18 & older)
Equivalent Number of Men
(000)
Market Population TRPs
(000)
A 10,000 100 10,000
B 20,000 50 10,000
C 40,000 25 10,000
Total 60,000 30,000
Average 50
Time Frame
The time frame for the accumulation of GRPs/TRPs varies by medium and must therefore be considered when evaluating media
types:
Magazines accumulate theft readership, and therefore their coverage, over t/me, depending on how many different people read
the magazine and when they physically obtain an issue for reading. Thus, coverage over time can vary from a week or two for
some weekly magazines to several months for monthly magazines.
Newspapers, for the most part, are read the day of issuance. TRP accumulation is therefore in a single day.
Outdoor TRPs are a reflection of one day's audience accumulation, although nearly all outdoor purchases are made for a
duration of at least one month.
Sunday newspaper supplements have a longer lifespan than daily newspapers. Their TRPs are accumulated primarily on the day
of issuance, but also in the ensuing days.

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Television and radio produce a rating when a program airs: the time span of that rating is at that moment. If you purchase
programs during a one-week period, the accumulated TRPs have a lifespan of one week; programs purchased during a four-
week period accumulate TRPs within those four weeks.*
The time frame of TRPs for various media is listed in Table 8.7.
TABLE 8.7: Time Frame of TRPs by Medium
As long as an Issue physically exists and is read by
Magazines someone
Newspapers Generally one day
Outdoor One day
Radio During the time the programs air
Sunday
Supplements Mostly in the first day
During the time the programs air, except for VCR
Television viewing
Why GRPs/TRPs Are Used

The reason GRPs are used instead of actual population counts is the same reason ratings/penetration/coverage is used: it's easier
to calculate and report on percentages than it is on total head counts, and it's easier to demonstrate the relationship of alternatives
(e.g., one schedule has 100 TRPs, the other 150). Further (as we will see in later sections) GRPs/TRPs form the foundation for
other media dynamics, such as reach/frequency.
* With the proliferation of VCRs we see some programs recorded for later viewing. The ratings and, therefore, TRPs
produced by these viewings may fall within the period originally purchased, or at some later time.

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1. If you purchase one commercial announcement in each of four TV
programs, each of which has a 25 rating, how many GRPs will you have
purchased?
2. If Programs A, B and C have women 18+ ratings of 5, 10, and 15
respectively, and you purchase three announcements in each program, how
many TRPs will you have purchased?
3. If you purchase ten announcements on each of five radio stations in
market X and produce a total of 100 TRPs, what is the average rating of
the avenge station?
4. Magazine A has a coverage of men 18-34 of 20 percent. Magazine B
has a coverage of men 35-49 of 10 percent. If you schedule one
advertisement in each publication, how many TRPs will you have
produced?
5. If you purchase 100 GRPs in market X and 50 GRPs in market Y, how
many total GRPs have you purchased for the two markets combined?

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Chapter 9
Impressions
In this chapter we show how impressions are calculated based on ratings
or absolute audience measures and demonstrate how impressions are used
to compare alternative media schedules.
Impressions The gross sum of all media exposures (numbers of people or homes) without regard to
duplication.
Impressions are the sum of all advertising exposures. They are identical to GRPs/TRPs, except they are expressed in terms of
numbers of individuals (or homes) rather than as a percentage. It is equally correct to refer to them as gross impressions.
As shown in the following tables, impressions can be calculated in two ways. For demonstration, let us assume we are analyzing
a television schedule geared to reaching adults 18 and older in market X (which has an adult 18+ population of I million). The
same arithmetic applies regardless of the target audience, the market, or the medium being analyzed.
Method # 1 (see Table 9.1): Multiply the audience of each TV program by the number of announcements scheduled in each.
Add the' products of the multiplication.
TABLE 9.1: Calculating Impressions
Program A18+ Viewers # Announcements A18+ Impressions
A 250,000 × 2 = 500,000
B 200,000 × 3 = 600,000
C 150,000 × 4 = 600,000
D 100,000 × 3 = 300,000
Total
2,000,000

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Method # 2 (see Table 9.2): Determine the GRPs (ratings times number of announcements) and multiply by the market
population. Keep in mind GRPs are a percentage (200 GRPs = 200 percent = 2.0).
TABLE 9.2: Calculating Impressions
Program A18+ Rating # Announcements A18+ GRPs
A 25 × 2 = 50
B 20 × 3 = 60
C 15 × 4 = 60
D 10 × 3 = 30
Total 200
200 × 1,000,000 population = 2,000,000 A18+ Impressions
Impressions are used for various purposes. The first purpose is for use in sales brochures and the like when advertisers inform
retailers of the breadth and scope of the advertising planned to support a product. The belief is that retailers are accustomed to
seeing delivery figures in gross impressions and are impressed by these statistics: "2,000,000 impressions," for example, sounds
like a lot more that "200 GRPs." The expression "boxcar number'' is often used when referring to impressions because the
magnitude of the numbers is akin to the number of cases of a packaged goods product that can be shipped in a railway boxcar.
The second use for impressions involves media plan comparisons. Because impressions can be calculated for any media form, it
is a convenient way to compare gross audience deliveries of different media vehicles or different media plans. Table 9.3 shows
two media plans at equal dollar budgets. Both deliver 90 million women impressions. If all women are the target, both plans (on
the surface) are equal. If, however, the target is women 18-34, then plan I is superior, because it delivers more of your target
audience. If women 50 and older are the target, plan H has the advantage.

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TABLE 9.3: Comparison of Alternative Plans Having
Equal Expenditures
Impressions
Plan I Plan II
Total Women 90,000 90,000
18-34 30,000 15,000
35-49 30,000 30,000
50+ 30,000 45,000
Two additional uses of impressions are for calculating Audience Composition and Cost-per-Thousand, both of which are
discussed in later chapters.
1. You intend to purchase 300 TRPs against men in market
X, which has a total population of I million people. Forty
percent of these people are men. How many men
impressions will you generate?
2. You've scheduled five national magazines to receive one
ad each. Each magazine has a women rating of 10. If there
are 90 million women in the United States, how many
impressions will you generate?
3. If the magazines in question 2 skew to women 18-34,
Will you have more or fewer impressions for women 18-
34?
4. Your market X media plan calls for 20 announcements
on each of three radio stations. Each station has an average
1.0 rating for men. You also schedule a newspaper ad in a
metropolitan daily that has a 40 percent coverage of men.
What will the impressions you generate be equivalent to?

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Chapter 10
Index
In this chapter we show how to calculate an index. We
demonstrate how an index is used to quickly review numerical
relationships between different numbers or sets of numbers. We
also discuss two specific kinds of index numbersBrand
Development Index and Category Development Indexthat are
commonly used in marketing analyses.
Index A number indicating change in magnitude relative to the magnitude of some other number (the
base) taken as representing 100. A 110 index indicates a 10 percent positive change in magnitude; a 90
index a 10 percent negative change.
You've heard of the Consumer Price Index (CPI). It's usually up or down or holding at the same level relative to a base level.
The same concept applies to index when used for media evaluation. An index is a percentage which relates one number to
another number, called the base. An index is used to demonstrate quickly whether a number is average, above average, or below
average. Unlike percent increase or percent decrease, an index includes the base in the reported number.
Calculating an Index
Calculating an index requires simple division. It follows the same arithmetic relationship as percent increase or decrease, but is
accomplished with one less step. To calculate percent increase, for example, you subtract the smaller number from the larger
number and divide the difference by the smaller number. To calculate an index for the same increase, you avoid the subtraction
step and

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simply divide the larger number by the smaller number. Because the smaller number is the base against which you are
comparing the larger number, you include the base in your index calculation.
Percent Increase Index
Number in question: 60% 60%
Base: -40% 40%
Math: 20% ÷ 40% 60% ÷ 40%
Result: 50% 150

Conclusion for either: 60 percent is 50 percent greater than 40 percent
If the 60 percent/40 percent in the above example is reversed, the same procedure applies to both the percent decrease and an
indexexcept the base is now 60 percent, so you are dividing by the larger number:
Percent Decrease Index
Number in Question: 40% 40%
Base: -60% 60%
Math: (20%) ö 60% 40% ö 60%
Result: (33%) 67
Conclusion for either: 40 percent is 33 percent less than 60 percent
Because an index compares a number to the base, and the base is always 100 (percent), an index of 100 means something is
average (the same as the base); an index over 100 means it is above average; an index below 100 means it is below average.
The amount by which something is below average is demonstrated by its numerical distance from 100. In the above example,
the 67 index is 33 less than 100. Here are some more examples to help reinforce the above/below average designation:
Index To Read
100 Average
125 25% above average
225 125% above average
75 25% below average
Let us assume you are writing a media plan to address adults who went bowling. To determine their age skews you tabulate

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the number and percent who went bowling and relate this to the population. As shown in Table 10.1, of the 140,000 adults 18-
24 in the population, 35,700 went bowlingrepresenting 23.8 percent of all adults who went bowling (column labeled ''% Down")
and 25.5 percent of the total population in this age cell (column labeled "% Across"). By displaying the index for each age
group, you can see quickly that younger adults have a greater propensity for bowling than older adults, and you can easily
assess the relative intensity of that propensity. Some of the statements you can make about your findings, based on the index,
are:
Adults 18-24 have a 70 percent greater propensity for bowling than the average adult.
It is 70 percent more likely that adults 18-24 would have gone bowling than the average adult.
The concentration of adults 18-24 who have gone bowling is 70 percent greater than the concentration of bowlers in the general
population.
If you advertise to adults 18-24, you have a 70 percent greater probability of addressing someone who has gone bowling than if
you advertise to the total population at large.
TABLE 10.1: Using an Index
Population Went Bowling
Adults: (000) % Total (000) % Down % Across Index
18-24 140.0 14.0% 35.7 23.8% 25.5% 170
25-34 240.0 24.0 46.8 31.2 19.5 130
35-44 200.0 20.0 33.0 22.0 16.5 110
45-54 140.0 14.0 18.0 12.0 12.9 86
55-64 120.0 12.0 9.0 6.0 7.5 50
65 or older 160.0 16.0 7.5 5.0 4.7 31
Total: 1000.0 100 % 150.0 100 % 15.0% 100
Because all the numbers in the table are interrelated, the index can be calculated in either of two ways:
1. Divide the "Percent Across" for the 18-24 age group by the "Percent Across" for the total population (25.5%/15.0% = 170).

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2. Divide the "% Down" for the 18-24 age group by the "% Total" that the 18-24's represent of the total population
(23.8%/14.0% = 170).
An index can be divided by an index to yield a new index. You might encounter data that show a series of indices, such as the
fluctuation in the cost of a 30-second (:30) commercial year to year, with all data relating to a base year. If you wish to change
the base year against which you are comparing the cost, you can recalculate the data either by using the actual costs, or by using
the index for the new base year. As shown in Table 10.2, if you use year 6 as the new base, you can obtain the 110 index either
by using $77/$70 or by using the indices of 154/140.
TABLE 10.2: Indexing an Index
Index
Year Cost/:30 Commercial
Year 1 = Base Year 6 = Base
1 $ 50 100
2 55 110
3 62 124
4 67 134
5 68 136
6 70 140 100
7 77 154 110
8 85 170 121
9 95 190 136
10 100 200 143
Brand Development Index

Brand Development Index (BDI) A numerical display showing the geographic or demographic areas of
a brand's relative strength or weakness. See Index.
Indices are used to express any relationship of numbers within any category. Commonly, a Brand Development Index (BDI) is
displayed by geographic area to show how each area is performing relative to the average U.S. performance. As shown in Table
10.3, markets A and D are above average, market B is on average, and markets C and E are below average.

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TABLE 10.3: Brand Development Index
Market % U.S. Population % Brand Sales BDI Share of Market BDI
A 10% 11% 110 22% 110
B 15 15 100 20 100
C 20 18 90 18 90
D 25 30 120 24 120
E 30 26 87 17 87
Total 100 100 100 20 100
The indices in Table 10.3 can be calculated in various ways and still yield the same conclusions. Method 1 is to divide the
percent of total sales accounted for in each market by the percentage of total population in that market:
Method 2 is to divide the share of market in each area by the average U.S. share of market. In the above example, this brand
commands a 22 percent share of market in market Athat is, of all the product category sold in this market, this particular brand
accounts for 22 percent of the total. The average market has a 20 percent share. Therefore, 22 share divided by 20 share equals a
110 index or a 110 BDI.
Category Development Index

Category Development Index (CDI) A numerical display showing the geographic or demographic areas
of a product/service category's relative strength or weakness. See Index.
The Category Development Index (CDI) is identical to the BDI except in one you are comparing a brand and in the other you
are comparing a category of brands (e.g., "Danny's Lemonade" brand versus the category of all lemonade brands).
Comparisons between BDI and CDI are often made to help a marketer decide relative strengths and weaknesses vis-a-vis the
competition.

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The following table demonstrates some of the conclusions a marketer could draw from the BDI/CDI analysis shown in Table
10.4:
"Danny's Lemonade" is selling proportionately more in market A than in the average of all markets, and has a greater relative
franchise than the whole category.
The brand is an average seller in market B, but could have some room for growth given that the category is doing relatively
better. There's an apparent 10 percent greater propensity for people in market B to drink lemonade.
The brand is not doing well in market C (10 percent below average), but the market obviously performs well for total lemonades
(50 percent above average). This appears to be a brand problem, not a total lemonade consumption problem.
TABLE 10.4: BDI versus CDI
Market BDI CDI
A 110 100
B 100 110
C 90 150
D 120 80
E 87 80
Average 100 100
Always Show the Components

To fully appreciate the meaning and magnitude of an index, you should always display the two numbers that beget the index.
Table 10.5 demonstrates how an index, shown in isolation, can deceive you into thinking that one market is substantially more
important than another. Here we see that market B has a 67 BDI, compared to market E with a 200. If only the BDI is
considered you might decide that market E should receive more advertising than B. Further inspection, however, reveals that
market E accounts for only two percent of all cases sold, compared to market B with 20 percent of the sales volume. Based on
case volume, market B would ordinarily be allocated more advertising.

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TABLE 10.5: An Index Can Deceive
Brand Sales
Market % POP Cases (000) % Total BDI
A 40% 200 50% 125
B 30 80 20 67
C 18 72 18 100
D 11 40 10 91
E 1 8 2 200
TOTAL 100% 400 100% 100
1. Of all the adults 18 years and older living in market X, 20 percent
buy their groceries at the Sigma supermarket chain. Of all the women
18-49 in this market, 30 percent shop at Sigma. Do women 18-49
have a greater or lesser propensity for shopping at Sigma than the
average adult? What is the index? What is the magnitude of that
propensity?
2. Product X is sold in markets A, B, C and D, which respectively
represent 5 percent, 10 percent, 10 percent, and 25 percent of the U.S.
population. Product X's percent of total sales in each market is
(respectively) 30 percent, 10 percent, 20 percent, and 40 percent.
What is the BDI in each market?
3. Television program A had a five-year run, producing an average
household rating each year as follows: 10, 15, 20, 20, 10. What is the
index of performance each year relative to the average year?
4. In market A, product X has a BDI of 90 compared to a CDI of 110.
What does this tell you? If the BDI is 110 and the CDI 90, what does
this tell you?

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Chapter 11
Audience Composition
In this chapter we show how audience composition of a medium's
audience is used to analyze alternative media schedules and how the
term is used to describe generally the kind of audiences various media or
media schedules attract.
Audience Composition The demographic profile of media audiences.

Audience composition is the amount or percentage of individuals in each demographic segment being analyzed.
Audience composition (usually referred to as Audience comp) indicates the relative concentration of different audience segments
within a specific media vehicle, for an entire schedule of media vehicles, or for combinations of different media forms.
Audience composition answers the question "What part of the total audience is my target audience?"
Table 11.1 demonstrates audience comp for two TV prorams, both of which have a total viewing audience of 500,000 people.
Program A delivers 300,000 adults 18 and older, representing 60 percent of its total audience; program B delivers 200,000 adults
18 and older, or 40 percent of its total audience. All other things being equal, if you're trying to target adults 18 and older,
program A is the better choice because it has a higher audience composition of your target than program B. It can be said that
program A skews (is biased) toward an adult audience.
How a TV program (or any media vehicle) skews is an indication of the relative acceptance of that program by a given
population group and therefore, by inference, the relative strength and importance of that program to that group. For programs C
and D in Table 11.2 we see that both deliver 40,000 adults 18 and older, but

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TABLE 11.1: Audience Composition
Program A Program B
% Total (Audience % Total (Audience
Comp) Comp)
# #
Viewers Viewers
Adults
18+ 300,000 60% 200,000 40%
Teens 12-
17 100,000 20 200,000 20
Kids 2-11 100,000 20 100,000 20
Total 500,000 100% 500,000 100%
program C skews much more heavily to an adult audiencethat is, a greater percentage of its audience is adults. This skew
suggests that the adult is in control of the TV set and has chosen to view this program. If this indeed is the case, a commercial
placed in this program, which is directed to an adult, might have a better chance of effectively reaching the adult than if placed
in program D.
TABLE 11.2: Skew
Program C Program D
# Viewers % Total # Viewers % Total
Adults 18+ 40,000 80% 40,000 40%
Teens 12-17 5,000 10 30,000 30
Kids 2-11 5,000 10 30,000 30
Total 50,000 100% 100,000 100%
An audience composition analysis of a medium (or a media category, etc.) is a handy device for describing generally the kind of
audiences the medium attracts. When the analysis also includes an audience composition index for each demographic cell, you
could ''write a story" about the people who consume the medium. For example, Table 11.3 shows such an analysis. The story
you could write might read: The people who consume medium A tend to be middle-aged and older, with a household income
skewing to the relatively higher level. More often than not they live in a household with two people, which, combined with their
age and income level, indicates they fit within the category that is termed "empty

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TABLE 11.3: Audience Composition of Medium A
Total Adults Medium A Index
Total U.S. 100% 100%
By age:
18-34 40 30 75
35-54 35 45 129
55+ 25 25 100
By Household Income:
$50M+ 25 25 100
$30M-49M 30 40 133
$10M-29M 35 30 86
Under $10M 10 5 50
By Household Size:
1 person 10 10 100
2 people 35 50 143
3+ people 55 40 73
By Education:
Graduated College 20 40 200
Graduated High School 40 70 175
By Region:
Northeast 20 25 125
North Central 25 20 80
South 35 30 86
West 20 25 125
nesters," where the kids are grown and have left the household. Because it is usual for the higher income people to have attained
a higher education level, it is not surprising to see that these people are more educated than the average adult. For the most part,
these adults are concentrated in the northeastern and western regions of the United States, although half of all these adults can
still be found throughout the remainder of the United States.
Despite its usefulness, audience composition cannot stand on its own as the primary reason for selecting a medium or media
category, for two reasons. First, other media dynamics, such as reach and frequency, should be part of the selection analysis.
Second, the base numbers used in the composition might be very small and therefore not indicative of the main thrust of the
medium. This is especially true if you simply review the indices without considering the base numbers. For example, a medium
might have

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an index of 300 for people in its audience who buy a certain product, based on a population base of one percent of people who
buy this product. This medium, therefore, has three percent of its audience who buy this producthardly an indication that this
medium skews to people who buy this product.
1. Program A delivers 10 million viewers, half of which are
women. Half of the women viewers are 18-34, 30 percent are 35-
49, and the remainder are older. This compares to a population
distribution of these groups of 40 percent, 45 percent, and 15
percent respectively. What is the most pronounced audience skew
for program A?
2. Using the same example, does program A deliver more of its
audience to women over 34 years of age, or to women under 35
years of age?
3. What is the index of delivery of program B in each age
grouping:
Population Viewers
18-34 50,000 20,000
35+ 50,000 30,000

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Chapter 12
Cost-Per-Thousand (CPM)
In this chapter we introduce a mathematical function known as
CPM which addresses the advertising cost of media relative to
the audiences delivered by these media. We demonstrate how
CPM analyses are used by the media planner to decide which
media schedule is more cost-efficient.
Cost-per-Thousand (CPM) The cost per 1,000 people (or homes) delivered by a medium or media
schedule.
CPM is an abbreviation of cost-per-thousand, with the "thousand" from the Latin mile. It is the cost per one thousand
individuals (or homes) delivered by a medium or media schedule. Calculating CPM requires simple division and multiplication:
Divide the cost by the delivery and multiply the quotient by 1,000.
A shorter method is to eliminate three zeros from the delivery and perform the same division:
The reason CPM is used instead of cost-per-audience-member is convenience in reciting the data. It's easier to say a media
vehicle has a CPM of $5.43 than to say it has a cost-per-audience-member of .00543 or 5.43 thousandths of a dollar.

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CPM can be calculated for any medium, for any demographic group, and for any total cost. It allows you to compare the
relative cost of one medium to another, or of one media schedule to another. It is not unlike the cost-per-ounce information we
now find included in supermarket pricing.
Cost Efficiency Generally refers to the relative costs of delivering media audiences. See Cost-per-
rating-point and Cost-per-thousand.
Calculating CPM allows you to display the cost efficiency of various media alternatives. The lower the CPM, the more cost
efficient the medium. The more cost efficient a medium, the more audience can be delivered per dollar invested.
Black and White Page An advertising page that is printed with black on white paper, or in reverse type
(white on black paper). Abbreviated as P B/W. In a four-color advertisement, black is considered one
of the colors.
As shown in Table 12.1, four media choices cost approximately the same amount of money for the creative units you are
considering: a black and white page in magazines; a thirty-second commercial in TV. If you are targeting women 18 and older,
two choices (at a $2 CPM) are the most cost efficientmagazine B and program B. Program A is the least cost efficient. If you're
targeting women 18-49, then magazine B (which has the lowest CPM) is the most cost efficient. (You'll note that the audience
headings show [000] which indicate three zeros Should be added to the audience shown: 5,000 readers for magazine A is read as
5 million readers.)
TABLE 12.1: CPM Comparisons
Women 18+ Women 18-49
Readers Readers
Cost 1P B/W (000) CPM (000) CPM
MagazineA $10,000 4,000 $2.50 2,000 $5.00
Magazine
B $15,000 7,500 $2.00 5,000 $3.00
Women 18+ Women 18-49
Cost :30 Viewers Viewers
Commercial (000) CPM (000) CPM
Program A $12,000 4,000 $3.00 3,000 $4.00
Program B $15,000 7,500 $2.00 3,000 $5.00
Although you can use different cost structures across different media forms (such as a page black/white and a: 30) to determine
relative CPMs, you should be careful not to assume that the creative units are necessarily equal to each other. Much research

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has been conducted, and continues to be done, to determine the ''value" of different creative units between different media forms
and within media forms. There are no general conclusions that can be drawn from this research. There is no evidence, for
example, that proves a one-page advertisement for a specific product, executed in a specific creative style, is better than or not
as good as a specific 30-second commercial in television. Nor is there evidence that an advertisement in one magazine will
perform better or worse than the same advertisement in another magazine. CPM must therefore be used only as a guide in
helping decide which media vehicle or media plan is better than another on the basis of cost relative to audience delivery.
It should also be clear that CPM figures must be for the same demographic groups when comparing two vèhicles or two plans. It
would be pointless, for example, to compare program A's CPM for women 18-34 with program B's CPM for men 18-34.
Because CPM is a function of cost and audience delivery, with one or both of these ingredients changing when vehicle or media
plan comparisons are made, it is also incorrect to average CPMs across demographic groups or across media forms. To calculate
the average CPM of combinations, you must return to the basic cost and audience ingredients, add these components, and then
strike an average. As shown in Table 12.2, the average CPM against women 18+ for magazines A and B combined is $2.17
($25,000 divided by 11,500,000), not a straight average of $2.50 and $2.00. Likewise, the CPM for adults is not an average of
the CPMs for women and men.
TABLE 12.2: CPM Averaging
Magazine A Magazine B Magazines A + B
Cost 1P B/W $10,000 $15,000 $25,000
Women 18+ (000) 4,000 7,500 11,500
CPM $ 2.50 $ 2.00 $ 2.17
Men 18+ (000) 2,000 5,000 7,000
CPM $ 5.00 $ 3.00 $ 3.57
Adults 18+ (000) 6,000 12,500 18,500
CPM $ 1.67 $ 1.20 $ 1.35

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1. A 60-second announcement on a TV program costs $100 and
delivers a 5 rating for men and a 2.5 rating for women in a
market that has one million of each sex in its population. What
is the cost-per-thousand for each group?
2. Using the same example, what is the CPM for men and
women combined?
3. Magazine A has a women CPM of $5.00 for a one-page
advertisement that costs $10,000. How many women are in the
average audience of magazine A?

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Chapter 13
Cost- Per- Rating-Point (CPP)
In this chapter we define another term based on the relationship of a
medium's advertising cost and its audience delivery. We show how cost-
per-point (CPP) varies from one specific media vehicle to another and
how it varies by demographic group. We demonstrate how CPP is used
by the media planner to project the total advertising cost of a specific
media schedule and how it can be Used to determine how much media
delivery is affordable within a defined media budget.
Cost-per-Rating-Point (CPP) The cost of an advertising unit (e.g., a 30-second commercial) divided by
the average rating of a specific demographic group (e.g., women 18-49).
Cost-per-rating-point is the cost of purchasing one rating point. It is commonly referred to as CPP (cost-per-point). As we will
see, it relates to cost-per-thousand, but is used for entirely different reasons. CPP is most often used for broadcast media.
The calculation for CPP is the same as for CPM, but the components are different. To get a CPP, divide the cost of a unit of
advertising (e.g., a 30-second TV commercial) by the program rating. As shown, the CPP for the TV :30 is $50; for the Radio
:60, $20:
Because the term is cost-per-rating-point you need to define which rating you want before calculating CPPs or before using
CPP data to devise a media plan. In the above TV example, if the 20

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rating is for homes, the CPP is for homes; if for women, the CPP is for women, etc.
CPP information can be obtained from independent media research sources (e.g., Spot Quotations and Data, Adweek's Marketer's
Guide to Media), from media buyers (those within your ad agency or independent media buying firms, etc.), or from the
TV/radio station's advertising sales representatives.
CPP estimates are based on historical purchases and a prediction of future marketplace conditions. For example, if the CPP for a
30-second TV commercial in daytime in market X was $10 for a schedule that aired in January, and it has become a seller's
market (that is, there's more demand than supply), the buyer might estimate that same schedule to have a CPP of $12 in March.
CPPs vary widelyfrom one market to another, from one calendar quarter to another, from station to station or network to
network, and from program to program. Although there may be reason for this variation, there is no yardstick for measuring past
or future CPPsno tried and true formula that can be used. Although Table 13.1 presents hypothetical data, it does reflect typical
realities. By studying the data, you'll note that different programs or stations command different CPPs by market and by
calendar quarter, but there is no linear relationship of one element to the other. Some examples:
Station A has the same rating for "News" in each quarter, but the CPP is higher in the second quarter.
TABLE 13.1: Cost-Per-Point Variation
Market X Market Y
Population (000) 500 1,000
Jan-Mar Apr-Jun Jan-Mar Apr-Jun
Rating CPP Rating CPP Rating CPP Rating CPP
Station A
News 6-7 p.m. 5 $10 5 $12
Movie 7-9 p.m. 8 $8 9 $10
Station B
Sitcom 6-7 p.m. 5 $25 5 $20
Games 7-8 p.m. 6 $20 7 $30
Special 7-8 p.m 8 $40

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The CPP for "News" in the first quarter is the same as for the "Movie" in the second quarter, but the ratings for each program
are substantially different.
Station B is in a market twice the size of station A's market, but the CPP for the same rating size is sometimes more than twice
the amount, sometimes less.
Using CPP to Estimate Affordability

Most often, cost-per-point data are used to estimate how many GRPs/TRPs can be purchased within a defined media budget.
For example, if you have a budget of $1,000 and a predicted CPP of $10, you can purchase 100 TRPs ($1,000 divided by $10 is
100).
Table 13.2 shows an example of how many TRPs can be purchased in various combinations of daytime and nighttime
televisionbeginning with 100 percent of the budget expended in either primetime or daytime, then half the budget in each, and
finally one-third in day and two-thirds in night. Calculating TRP afford-ability requires the budget to be allocated to each TV
time in the desired ratios with the appropriate CPP divided into the respective budgets.
A similar mathematical principle applies if you want to allocate TRPs in predetermined ratios. As shown in Table 13.3, you must
TABLE 13.2: Calculating Affordable TRPs within a $1,000 BudgetDollar
Allocation
Allocation of Budget Budget CPP Affordable TRPs
100% daytime $1,000 $10.00 100
100% primetime $1,000 $25.00 40
50% daytime $ 500 $10.00 50
+50% primetime $ 500 $25.00 20
Total $1,000 $14.29 70
33.33% daytime $ 333 $10.00 33
+66.66% primetime $ 667 $25.00 27
Total $1,000 $16.67 60

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TABLE 13.3: Calculating Affordable TRPs within a $1,000 BudgetTRP
Allocation
Allocation of TRP delivery CPP Affordable TRPs Cost
100% daytime $10.00 100 $1,000
100% primetime $25.00 40 $1,000
$10.00 28.6 $ 286
50% daytime
+50% primetime $25.00 28.6 $ 714
Total $17.50 57.2 $1,000
$10.00 16.7 $ 167
33.33% daytime
+66.66% primetime $25.00 33.3 $ 833
Total $20.00 50.0 $1,000
first calculate the average CPP for the combination of TV entities. The average CPP for the 50 percent/50 percent combination
is $17.50 ($10 plus $25 divided by 2). Next, divide the total available budget by the average CPP to determine total TRPs.
Allocate the total TRPs to each TV entity according to the desired ratio. Multiplying the TRPs by TV entity times the respective
CPP will yield the budget for each entity. By comparing the two tables (Dollar Allocation and TRP Allocation) you'll note
striking differences in the amount of dollars and number of TRPs that each system yields. Neither system is necessarily the
better. It all depends on what you're trying to accomplish with the media, which is a rather involved subject and requires a
complete understanding of the many dynamics discussed in other sections of the book.
This mathematical principle also applies when calculating the CPP for a group of markets. For example, let us assume you
intend to purchase radio in three markets within a $2,000 budget and want to estimate the average TRPs you can buy in the
three markets combined. You have estimated the CPP for each of the three markets, as shown in Table 13.4. It would be
erroneous to add the three and determine the CPP to be $13, as it would be erroneous to add the three and divide by three to
strike a $4.33 average. The correct math requires you to include the size of each market rela-

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TABLE 13.4: Calculating an Average Cost-Per-Point for Market Groupings
Market Population CPP Product
# %
A 200 50 × $7 = $3.50
B 100 25 × $4 = $1.00
C 100 25 × $2 = $ .50
Total/Average 400 100 $5.00
tive to the otherremembering that CPP is cost-per-rating-point and that one rating point produces different audience amounts in
different population-size markets. As the table indicates, the average CPP for the three markets combined is $5.00 (obtained by
multiplying the CPP in each market by the percent of population it represents of your total three-market universe, and adding the
products).
The Relationship of CPP and CPM

Cost-per-point and cost-per-thousand have two things in common: cost and audience delivery. How cost and delivery are
expressed for each is different, but both are based on a rating. As shown in this example, the CPP of $20 for a 5-rated program
results in a cost per unit (e.g., :30) of $100. The 5 rating is equivalent to an audience of 50,000. With a $100 unit cost and a
50,000 audience you can quickly calculate the CPM, which is $2.
If you have an estimated CPP (for a program, a station, a market, etc.) and want to determine the CPM without regard to how
many TRPs you might include in your media plan, you can use the

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following formula. The basis of the formula is the understanding that 100 TRPs is equivalent to 100 percent of the market's
population.
Conversely, if you have a CPM and wish to estimate the CPP, the following formula can be used:
*Shown in thousands.
The usefulness of converting CPP to CPM is to provide additional information for the media evaluation process. For example, if
you need to choose between two media entities (two markets, two programs, two media vehicles, etc.) you would be hard-
pressed to select one on the basis of CPP. As shown in Table 13.5, a $10,000 budget could afford 800 TRPs in market A and
775 in market B, based on their respective CPPs of $12.50 and $12.90. Which choice is more efficientwhich will deliver the
greatest audience per dollar invested? By calculating CPM we determine that B is more efficient.
TABLE 13.5: CPP & CPM Comparlsons
$10.000 Budget
Market A Market B
CPP $ 12.50 $12.90
Affordable TRPs 800 775
Population (= 100 TRPs) 275,000 325,000
Cost/100 TRPs $1,250 $1,290
CPM $4.55 $3.97

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1. You plan to buy a 10-rated program for a cost/:30 of $100. What
is your CPP?
2.You determined that the cost-per-point for primetime is $40, and
for daytime $10. You have a $10,000 budget. How many rating
points can you buy if:
a. You want to distribute your budget evenly by daypart?
b. You want to evenly distribute rating points by daypart?
3. You purchased a program which has a women rating of 20 in a
market with a population base of 500,000 women. You paid $10
CPP. What is your CPM?

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Chapter 14
Reach
In this chapter we build on what we learned about ratings and an
advertising medium's capability to deliver audiences by introducing
the concept of reach. We explain how different media vehicles
attract different groups of people and how, by combining these
media vehicles in a media plan, you can increase the number of
people who will be exposed to your advertising message. We
examine how reach accumulates by medium, with successive uses of
a medium, and by combining media forms.
Reach The number or percentage of a population group exposed to a media schedule within a given
period of time.
At this point you should have a good grasp of what a rating point is and how it leads to GRPs/TRPs and eventually to
impressions. You've noted that GRPs and impressions are indicators of gross delivery, without regard for duplication. Neither
indicates how many different people will be exposed to a medium; reach does. Reach is the number of different individuals (or
homes) exposed to a media schedule within a given period of time. Reach is generally expressed as a percentage. It applies to all
media forms.
When media suppliers ''send out" their medium every person has the opportunity to receive that medium. For example, when a
TV program is broadcast, everyone (with a TV set) has the opportunity to tune their set to the channel on which the program is
broadcast; when a newspaper distributes copies of its daily edition, everyone has the opportunity to buy a copy. Obviously, not

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everyone views a particular TV program or reads a given issue of a newspaper. Those who do view the program or read the
newspaper are those who are reached.
OTS (Opportunity to See) A term commonly used in Europe indicating the amount of ''frequency" a
media audience receives in a media schedule.
Audience reach should not be confused with how many people will actually be exposed to and consume the advertising in a
medium. Reach merely estimates the percentage (or number) of people who can be expected to be exposed to the medium, and
who, therefore, have the opportunity to see/hear the advertising. Media Planners in the United Kingdom use the term
opportunity-to-see (OTS) instead of reach because it clearly states what media reach is all about.
Let's suppose there are 100 TV homes within a market, and each box shown in Exhibit 14.1 represents one home. You decide to
schedule commercials in four of the available TV programs. Each of the programs airs at a different time in the week. Each of
the four programs has a 20 ratingthat is, each is viewed by 20 of the 100 homes in the market. Because some homes view less
TV than others, they might see only one of the four programs (as shown by the boxes with only one program listed). Some
homes view more TV and see more shows. As demonstrated, a total of 40 homes viewed at least one of the programs. You have
therefore reached 40 percent of the TV homes one or more times (40 homes reached divided by 100 TV home population).
EXHIBIT 14.1: Calculating TV Reach
100 TV HOMES
A A A A A B B B C C
C C D D D D D AB AB AC
AC AD AD BC BC BD BD BD ABC ABC
BCD BCD BCD ACD ACD ABDC ABDC ABDC ABDC ABDC

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To calculate reach, viewers are counted only once, no matter how many programs they view or how many commercials they
might be exposed to. The same applies to all media. For example, to calculate reach in magazines, readers are counted only
once, no matter how many magazines they read. The only variation among media is the time frame for which reach is expressed
(as discussed in the chapter on GRPs and reprised in Table 14.1 for convenience).
TABLE 14.1: Time Frame of TRPs by Medium
As long as an Issue physically exists
Magazines and is read by someone
Newspapers Generally one day
Outdoor One day
Radio During the time the programs air
Sunday
Supplements Mostly in the first day
During the time the programs air, except
Television for VCR viewing
Duplication The number or percentage of a medium's audience, or of those reached with a media
schedule, who are exposed to more than one media vehicle or to more than one advertising message.
Exhibit 14.2 displays the percentage of women who will be reached with an advertising schedule encompassing three magazines.
Again, the dynamics of reach are the same as in television but are displayed differently in this exhibit for greater clarification.
Magazine A is read by 20 percent of all women. Some of these women also read magazine B or magazine C, and some read both
B and C. The 20 percent that read magazine A is the gross audience of magazine A. Those that read only magazine A are its
exclusive audience, and those that read A and another magazine are part of a duplicated audience.
14%read only A (exclusive audience)
2% read A and B
2% read A and C
2% read A, B and C
20%read A

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To determine the reach of all three magazines combined, we add the exclusive audiences for each to the duplicated audiences,
counting the duplicated audience only once:
Reach
A (Exclusive) 14%
B (Exclusive) 14
C (Exclusive) 14
A + B (Duplicated) 2
A + C (Duplicated) 2
B + C (Duplicated) 2
A + B + C (Duplicated) 2
Total 50%
Exhibit 14.2:
Calculating magazine reach.
Reach Accumulation
As additional media are added to a media schedule, reach generally increasesunduplicated audiences are accumulating, which is
why

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reach is also sometimes referred to as accumulated reach or cume reach. Continuing with our three-magazine example, we can
demonstrate how magazine B increases reach over that of A alone, and how magazine C adds even more reach. Table 14.2
shows audience accumulation. R is constructed to show the number of readers (rather than percent) so you can appreciate that
percent reach is equivalent to real numbers of people. We see that each magazine is read by 20,000 people. If you buy only
magazine A you will have reached 20,000. If you add magazine B, your reach increases to 36,000. Because 4,000 of the readers
of magazine B also read magazine A, they are duplicated and thus not counted in the reach calculation. The remaining 16,000
readers of B who do not read A are counted. Likewise, only 14,000 of magazine C readers are new and only these are included
in the reach calculation.
TABLE 14.2: Audience Accumulation
Total
Readers Also Read Above Do Not Read Above
Magazine (000) Magazine(s) (000) Magazine(s) (000)
A 20 0 20
+B 20 4 16
Subtotal 40 36
+C 20 6 14
Total 60 50
It should be clear that within a media form, reach does not generally accumulate along a straight line. As a second vehicle is
added to a first, some of the audience is duplicated and therefore counted only once in the reach equation. As more and more
vehicles are added, the relative amount of duplication usually increases. This can be seen in Table 14.2: 4,000 readers read both
magazines A and C, resulting in a 10 percent duplication (4,000 divided by the combined gross audience of 40,000), and 10,000
readers read all three magazines, resulting in a 17 percent duplication (10,000 divided by the combined gross audience of
60,000). In fact, Exhibit 14.3 demonstrates that it would take 24 different

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media vehicles, on average, each with a 20 rating, to accumulate nearly a 100 percent reach. The graphical display of the reach
accumulation is sometimes called a reach curve. It curves because there is an increasing rate of duplication as more media
vehicles are added. If there was no duplication between vehicles, reach would accumulate along a straight line.
Exhibit 14.3:
Reach Accumulation
The percentage of duplication between media vehicles has an inverse relationship with reach accumulation: the lower the
duplication, the higher the reach, and vice-versa. As shown in Table 14.3, media vehicles A and B have a combined duplication
rate of 16.7 percent (100,000 people are exposed to both vehicles, which represents 16.7 percent of the gross combined audience
of 600,000 people). The combination of vehicles A and C has a duplication of

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TABLE 14.3: Relationship of Duplication and Reach
Duplicated
Total
Media Audience Audience % Unduplicated Reach
Vehicle (000) (000) Total Audience (000) (000)
A 400 100 25.0% 300
B 200 100 50.0 100 __
Total 600 100 16.7 400 500
A 400 50 12.5% 350
C 200 50 25.0 150 __
Total 600 50 8.3 500 550
8.3 percent. Because A and C have a lower duplication rate than A and B, the total reach of the A/C pair is greater than that of
the A/B pair. Also displayed in this table is the duplication rate represented by each vehicle. As shown, the 100,000 people
exposed to both A and B represent 25 percent of vehicle A's audience and 50 percent of vehicle B's. Vehicle B, therefore, is
adding 100,000 exclusive readers to vehicle A, representing 50 percent of its total audience. This compares to vehicle C, which
adds 150,000 exclusive readers, or 75 percent of its total audience. The higher the ratio of exclusive (non-duplicated) audience to
a medium's total audience, the greater the reach accumulation.
Generally speaking, and with all other variables held constant, reach accumulates fastest when media are scheduled sequentially
from the largest to the smallest vehicle. Shown in Table 14.4 are two listings of the same magazineson the left in rank-order
from largest to smallest; on the right in the opposite order. By scheduling the four largest magazines you can obtain a 36 reach,
compared to having to purchase nine magazines if you start at the bottom and work up toward the largest.
Reach Accumulation over Time

As was explored in the chapter on GRPs, different media types accumulate their total audience within various time frames. For
the most part, electronic media (radio and television) are instantaneous

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TABLE 14.4: Audience Accumulation by Rank Order of
Magazine Audience Size
Reach Reach
Magazine Each Cume Magazine Each Cume
A 19 19 J 3 3
B 13 27 I 3 5
C 12 32 H 3 6
D 11 36 G 5 10
E 8 38 F 6 13
F 6 40 E 8 17
G 5 41 D 11 24
H 3 41 C 12 29
I 3 41 B 13 36
J 3 42 A 19 42
programs are viewed or listened to at the time they are broadcast. With the exception of VCR recording for later viewing (which
accounts for a small amount of total viewing) media consumption happens at the time of broadcast because the broadcast
intrudes on the consumer with the offer of "watch this now or don't watch it." Print media are different. Direct mail, magazines,
newspapers, and out-of-home media have permanency. They invite the consumer to "look at this when you decide to." Because
of this inherent permanency and sustained offer, print media accumulate their total audiences over time, not instantly.
Issue Life The length of time it takes a magazine to be read by the maximum measurable audience.
There are several dynamics that affect how fast print media might accumulate their total audience reach, and how long a specific
media vehicle might exist in the consumers' eyes. With magazines, for example, this existence is known as issue life. Here are
some of the dynamics:
The more material contained in a direct mail piece, and/or the more complicated the offer, and/or the more recipient
involvement needed to consume the message, the longer the life of the piece.
The shorter the time for a consumer to respond to a direct mail offer, the shorter the life.
The shorter the publication interval, the faster the accumulation. For example, daily newspapers accumulate their

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TABLE 14.5: Percent Total Audience Accumulation over Time
Weekly Magazines Monthly Magazines
Week A B C D
1 55% 65% 40% 35%
2 80 85 65 55
3 90 95 75 70
4 98 99 85 80
5 100 100 89 85
6 93 90
7 96 93
8 98 96
9 99 99
10 100 100
audiences faster than weekly magazines; weeklies faster than monthlies. Table 14.5 shows the pattern of audience accumulation
for two weeklies and two monthlies, all of which have approximately the same total audience level. By the fifth week the
weeklies have accumulated their total readership, whereas the monthlies take about ten weeks.
Readers-per-Copy (RPC) The number of individuals who read a given copy of a publication.
The higher the number of different people who read a given copy of a publication (known as readers-per-copy, or RPC), the
slower the accumulationalthough this can vary substantially according to the editorial focus of the magazine and the amount of
time it takes the average reader to read an entire issue. A magazine that continues to be passed along to more and more people
accumulates more and more readers per copy, but the passing-along process obviously takes time.
The greater the proportion of newsstand sales versus subscriptions, the slower the audience accumulation (but this is a broad
generality with many exceptions).
Timely or news-oriented publications are generally consumed faster and therefore accumulate reach faster.
The greater the need for reference by the consumer, (e.g., a special issue or supplement on first aid care or places to vacation)
the longer the issue life of a magazine or newspaper

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supplementwhich could affect reach accumulation as well as repeat readership of the same material.
The higher the traffic count of an outdoor poster or billboard, the faster the reach accumulation.
Roadblock
Roadblock A scheduling device used with broadcast media to increase reach at a given point in time
(e.g., scheduling a commercial on all local market stations at 9:00 p.m.).
In the first example of how reach works we assumed a schedule of four TV programs, each airing at a different time in the
week. In this situation, a given viewer has the opportunity to see all four programs. If the programs aired simultaneously, for
example, all on Monday from 8:00-8:30 p.m., the average viewer could view only one of the programs at any specific moment.
Therefore, if each of the four programs has a 20 rating, then each is attracting different viewers. If there is no duplication of
audience between the four programs, then the ratings for each are additive, which results in an 80 reach. This tactic of
scheduling advertising at precisely the same time of day is known as a roadblocka device that intercepts as many viewers as
possible in order to maximize reach at a specific time. If commercials are scheduled on all TV programs (or radio stations)
broadcast at a given time, then reach is equivalent to the PUT (People Using TV) level at that time. Keep in mind, however, that
this scheduling tactic is not necessarily as cost efficient as scheduling programs at different times. Two of the disadvantages
follow:
Audience Turnover The average ratio of cumulative audience listening/viewing to the average audience
listening/viewing.
Precise timingReach will equal the sum of individual ratings only if the advertising message airs at precisely the same time on
all programs. Because there is audience turnover during a typical TV (or radio) programsome program viewers tune out during
the program and new viewers tune inthere can be audience duplication among viewers who might have seen your commercial on
Program A (at 8:10 p.m.) and on Program B (at 8:20 p.m.).
Cost efficiencyDuring any specific time of day, competing TV (or radio) programs have different commercial cost structures.
Some programs command a higher commercial cost than others, resulting in different CPMs by program. Buying

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multiple programs during a given time period, therefore, will force the purchase of relatively inefficient (high CPM) programs.
This results in a higher combined CPM than if only the most efficient programs are purchased in the time period or at different
times (see Table 14.6).
TABLE 14.6: Cost Efficiency of a Roadblock
Programs Airing 8:00- Adults 18+ Audience
8:30 p.m. (000) Cost/:30CPM
A 10,000 $15,000 $1.50
B 6,000 12,000 2.00
C 5,000 10,000 2.00
D 3,000 9,000 3.00
E 1.000 4.000 4.00
·
Total Average 25,000 $50,000 $2.00
Media Mix
Media Mix The use of two or more media forms, e.g., TV and magazines or radio, outdoor, and
newspapers.
When two or more different media forms are used in a media plan, it is referred to as a media mixmixing media such as TV and
magazines, or TV, radio and magazines, etc., as opposed to simply using more than one vehicle within a medium (such as two
or more magazines).
When you add a second media form, you generally accelerate reach accumulation beyond what could be obtained by using more
of the same media form. For example, if you first buy a 20-rated TV program (and therefore reach 20 percent of your target
audience), you can usually generate more additional reach if you add a 20-rated magazine than if you add another 20-rated TV
program. Accelerating reach is but one reason to mix media. Here are some more:
To reach people who do not consume your first medium, or are only lightly exposed to the first medium.
To provide additional repeat exposure of your advertising in what might be a less expensive secondary medium after you've
attained optimum reach in the first medium.

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To utilize some of the intrinsic values of a medium, which may not have been of paramount importance in your original
selection of media forms, but which can enhance the creative effectiveness of the advertising campaign (such as music on radio
or long copy in print media).
To deliver coupons in print media when the primary medium selected is broadcast.
To deliver visible full-color package registration when the primary medium selected is radio (e.g., to register how the packaging
of your brand looks).
To address a different target audience than those targeted with the primary medium (such as using radio to reach teens and
newspapers to reach adults).
To enhance reach during a specific time (that is, to ''bump'' up delivery during a critical period (such as using one or two weeks
of TV in addition to a base schedule of monthly magazines, or adding radio in the summer on top of a year-long TV effort).
To bring about synergism, a term borrowed from chemistry, which describes an effect produced when the sum of the parts is
greater than that expected by adding together the individual components (e.g., 2 + 2 = 5).
Random Combination of a Media Mix

Random Combination A mathematical formula for estimating the reach of two or more media.
There are many computerized mathematical formulas for estimating reach within a media form as more and more advertising is
planned, and for estimating the reach of two media forms combined. Some of these formulas are devised by media research
suppliers, and some are proprietary to aft advertiser or to an advertising agency. Most of the formulas used for estimating reach
of a media mix are based, more or less, on an accepted statistical method known as random combination. This method assumes
that those not reached by the first medium have an opportunity to be exposed to the second medium in direct proportion to the
quantity of those not exposed to the second medium. This opportunity increases as the proportion of those not reached by the
second medium increases.

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Here is how the random technique works, as illustrated in Exhibit 14.4.
You've established that your television schedule will reach 60 percent of your target audience; magazines will reach 50 percent.
This means that 40 percent of your target will not be reached by TV and 50 percent will not be reached by magazines.
By multiplying the percents not reached by each medium together, you establish the percent that will not be reached by either:
40% not reached by television
× 50% not reached by magazines
20% not reached by either medium
Subtracting the 20 percent not reached from the total possible reach of 100 percent leaves 80 percent, which is the percentage
the combination in this schedule supposedly does reach.
EXHIBIT 14.4: Media mix reach
Television 60% Reached 40% Not Reached
Magazines 50% Reached 50% Not Reached
Either/Or 80% Reached 20% Not Reached
When combining two or more media forms, you must establish reach for each medium on the same population base. For
example, you cannot combine the reach of women in one medium with the reach of homes in another. Nor can you combine the
homes reached with cable TV (which is not in every home with a TV set) with the homes reached with broadcast TV (which
assumes a

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population base of every home with a TV, whether or not it receives programming via cable or over the airwaves).
Table 14.7 shows the combined reach of two media forms using the random combination technique. To use the table:
Find the reach of the first medium on the horizontal axise.g., 60.
Find the reach of the second medium on the vertical axise.g., 50.
Read down from the 60 reach and across from the 50 reach. The point of intersection shows the combined reach: 80.
If three or more media forms are combined, the same procedure is used: find the combined reach of the first two media, then
find the point of intersection of these two combined plus the third
TABLE 14.7: Random Combination Table.

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medium. For example, if you have three media forms producing a reach of 50, 40 and 30 respectively, follow this procedure:
Reach
Medium A 50
Medium B 40
Media A + B 70 (from table)
Medium C 30
Media A + B + C 79 (from table)
To physically appreciate how the random combination technique works, you might try this demonstration. Mark 20 ping pong
balls, 10 with the word "TV" and 10 with the word "magazines." Gather 20 people in a room. Randomly toss out the 10 TV
balls and ask that no one catch more than one ball. Then toss out the 10 magazine balls, requesting that no one catch more than
one of these balls, whether or not they already caught a TV ball. Count the number of people who caught a TV ball (it has to be
10). These 10 represent a 50 reach (10/20 = 50%). Repeat the process for magazines. This will also equal a 50 reach. Then count
the number of people who have either a TV ball or a magazine ball or both. It will probably come out to be about 15
peoplerepresenting a 75 reach of the group of 20 people.
Only-Only-Both
It is often mistakenly assumed that when two media forms are combined, all people reached will be exposed to your advertising
in both media. Because the usual effect of adding a second medium is to extend reach to those not exposed to the first medium,
not all people will be exposed to both media forms. The only way all people reached can be exposed to both media is when each
medium produces 100 percent reach of the target, or when media delivery is tightly controlled, such as sending a direct mail
piece to every person who receives a subscription-only magazine.
Whenever a media mix reach is calculated you should also indicate the "only-only-both" componentsthat is, the reach of those
who will be exposed only to the first medium, the reach

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of those who will be exposed only to the first medium, the reach of those exposed only to the second medium, and the reach of
those exposed to both media forms. If synergy is perceived as an important factor in your media evaluation process, then
(hypothetically) the "both" reach must be considered more valuable than either of the "only's."
To calculate the "only-only-both" reach, use the following procedure:
1.Combine the two media randomly (or use a computer model): 60 + 50 = 80 (reach of either/or)
2. Subtract the reach of medium A from the combined reach. This yields the reach of those exposed only to medium B: 80 - 60
= 20 (reach of only B)
3. Subtract the reach of medium B from the combined reach. This yields the reach of those exposed only to medium A: 80 - 50
= 30 (reach of only A)
4. Subtract the combined reach of only A and only B from the total combined reach. This yields the reach of those exposed to
both media: 80 - (20 + 30) = 30 (reach of both)
If the media forms in the media plan are those shown in Exhibit 14.5, the planner can conclude the following:
Television will reach 60 percent of the population group against which these calculations have been made.
Magazines will reach 50 percent.
80 percent will be reached by TV, or magazines, or both.
30 percent will be reached by TV only.
20 percent will be reached by magazines only.
30 percent will be reached by both TV and magazines.
20 percent of the population will not be reached with this advertising schedule.

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EXHIBIT 14.5: Media mix reach
Television 60% Reached 40% Not 60% Reached

30% Not 20% Not
Magazines* Reached 50% Reached Reached
20% Not
Either/Or 80% Reached Reached
TV Only TV & Mags Mags Only 20% Not
30% 30% 20% Reached
* 50% not reached shown as 30% and 20% for demonstration
only.
While you still have those 20 people in a room counting ping pong balls, you might want to physically examine the only-only-
both concept. If you obtained a 50 reach of each medium (TV and magazines) you should have the following array:
# People with Ping Pong
Balls Reach
TV only 5 25
Magazines only 5 25
Both TV & 5 25
Magazines
Total 15 75
Not reached 5 25
Population Base 20 100
The random combination technique should not be used for calculating reach within a media form, primarily because the rates of
duplication between two media vehicles within the same media category are generally higher than between two different media
forms. As previously shown in Table 14.4, the combination of magazines A, B, C, and D produced a 36 reach based on actual

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tabulations of the duplication rates between these magazines. A random technique would have produced a much higher total
reach:
Reach
Cume
Magazine Each Cume Actual (Using Random Technique)
A 19 19 19
B 13 27 30
C 12 32 38
D 11 36 45
Two questions remain: At what point should you stop accumulating reach in one medium and start adding a second medium?
How do you evaluate reach for those people who are exposed to your advertising more than once?
There are no rules for determining how much reach is enough. Answering this question is the same as trying to answer "How
high is up?" We might answer: as high as it needs to be. We have seen that as more and more vehicles are added to a schedule,
reach accumulates, but the accumulation produces diminishing returns with each successive addition. You could graph the reach
accumulation obtainable within a specific media form, such as that displayed in Exhibit 14.3, and visually pick that point at
which you believe the reach curve is "flattening," that is, the point beyond which additional reach is adding proportionately very
little to a schedule. Using the same graph you can select what you believe to be a "threshold'' level of activitya point below
which you perceive the advertising delivery will not produce a desired consumer response. Using either the flattening or
threshold barometer you can determine how much money that level of activity will cost, subtract this cost from your total
budget, and use the remaining monies for a second medium.
You could also do a cost analysis to determine the cost per additional reach point to give quantitative substance to your decision.
Shown in Table 14.8 is a hypothetical approach to this type of analysis. We see that magazine B adds 8 reach points to magazine
A at a cost of $5,000 per reach point, magazine C adds 5 reach points at a cost of $6,000 per reach point, etc. All in all,
however, the media planner's judgment must come into play in deciding "how high is up?"

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TABLE 14.8: Increasing Cost per Reach Point
Cost l- Cume Additional Cost per Additional
Magazine Page Rating Reach Reach Reach Point
A $50,000 19 19
B 40,000 13 27 8 $ 5,000
C 30,000 12 32 5 6,000
D 28,000 11 36 4 7,000
E 20,000 8 38 2 10,000
Exposure A person's physical contact (visual and/or audio) with an advertising medium or message.
The second question is related to the first. As reach accumulates there are diminishing returns for reach, but not for the total
exposure of your advertising message(s). Total exposure is a combination of reach and frequency. The latter is discussed in the
next section.
1. You purchase two magazines, each with a 10 rating for men. What is the
minimum and maximum reach you might obtain?
2. You schedule ten TV programs, each with a 5.0 rating, and five
magzines, each with a 10.0 rating. How much reach will you generate?
3. You're considering the purchase of radio stations A and B. Station A has
20,000 listeners and station B has 10,000. The two combined have a 20
percent duplication rate. What is the combined reach of the stations?
4. Using the same example as in question 3, what percent of station A's
audience is duplicated with B? What percent of station B's audience is
duplicated with A?
5. Your TV schedule has a 50 reach of adults, and your outdoor plan yields
a 30 reach. Using the random technique, what is your combined reach?
6. Using the example in question 5, what is the reach of people who will be
exposed to only TV, only outdoor, and both media?

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Chapter 15
Frequency
In this chapter we investigate frequency, a media dynamic that is used hand-in-glove
with the previously discussed dynamic of reach. We also discuss the differences
between the terms mean, median, and modeall of which refer to the overall term of
average.
Frequency The number of times people (or homes) are exposed to an advertising message, an
advertising campaign, or to a specific media vehicle. Also, the period of issuance of a publication, e.g.,
daily or monthly.
We've seen that a media vehicle produces an audience that can be described in total numbers and as a rating. We've also seen
that when different vehicles are used in combination, audience delivery increasesboth in gross terms (gross rating points and
impressions), and in net terms (reach). We know that all of the people reached will be exposed to at least one advertising
message, and some to more than one. Up to this point we have not accounted for those who will receive more than one
advertising message. This is where the term frequency comes into play. Frequency is the average number of tunes individuals
(or homes) are exposed to the advertising messages delivered in a media schedule.
A simple example of frequency: if 10 people took one business trip per year, and 10 others took two trips, you can conclude that
the average number of trips this group of 20 took was 1.5 (10 × 1 + 10 × 2 = 30/20 = 1.5).
Let's reprise the schedule originally presented in the previous chaptershown as Exhibit 15.1, and displayed in an alternate format
in Table 15.1. We have a total of 40 people who we estimate will view one or more of the four TV programs: 17 people will
view only one program (A or B or C or D); 11 people, two programs; 7 people, three programs; and 5 people, four programs. If
we add all of this together then the 40 people will view the equivalent of 80

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EXHIBIT 15.1: Frequency of advertising exposure
A A A A A B B B C C
C C D D D D D AB AB AC
AC AD AD BC BC BD BD BD ABC ABC
BCD BCD BCD ACD ACD ABDC ABDC ABDC ABDC ABDC
TABLE 15.1: Calculating frequency

# Homes #Programs Equivalent # Programs
17 × 1 = 17
11 × 2 = 22
7 × 3 = 21
5 × 4 = 20
TOTAL 40 80
programs and will therefore be exposed to the equivalent of 80 commercials. By division, we can establish that the average
person will be exposed to an average of two commercials.
The concept of frequency, like reach, is identical in all media forms. Exhibit 15.2 and Table 15.2 show, for example, how
frequency computations are made for a combination of magazines. Here again we see three magazines, each read by 20 percent
of the population. In the last chapter we calculated a net audience of 50 (that is, a 50 reach) who read one or more of these
magazines. It's obvious that there is duplication of readership between the magazines, with some people reading two of the three
magazines and some reading all three. If there was no duplication, the three magazines combined would yield a 60 reach, with
each person having an average exposure (average frequency) of one (1.0). But because of duplication, the actual reach is less
and the average frequency is, therefore, more than 1.0. This duplication results in

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Exhibit 15.2:
Calculating magazine reach.
TABLE 15.2: Calculating Average Frequency
Magazine 1 Time 2 Times 3 Times Total
A 14%× 1
B 14%× 1
C 14%× 1
A+B 2%×2
A+C 2%×2
B+C 2%×2
A+B+C ' 2%×3
Gross Sum (TRPs) 42 12 6 60
Net Sum (Reach) 50
Average Frequency 1.2

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additional exposurebeyond the one-time exposure produced by any one of the magazines.
The arithmetic shown in Table 15.2 is the same as that in our simple example of the business traveler. Each person (or group of
people) is counted either once, twice, or three times depending on their exposure to one, two, or three magazines. Those 14
percent of readers who read only magazine A are counted once, as are those who read only magazine B or C. By multiplying the
reach of each of these magazines by one and summing the products, and continuing this multiplication for the 2-times and 3-
times reach, we find a gross sum of 60 percentequivalent to 60 TRPs. With a gross sum of 60 and a net sum (reach) of 50, we
can calculate an average 1.2 frequency (60/50 = 1.2).
Frequency in a Media Mix

Regardless of the combination of media forms used in a media plan, the concept of frequency remains constant, as does the
arithmetic. Table 15.3 shows the reach and frequency we separately
TABLE 15.3: Frequency in a Media Mix
Equivalent # Programs/Insertions
Schedule 1 Reach Frequency
Medium
80 40 2.0
TV
60 50 1.2
Magazines
140 70 2.0
Combined
Equivalent # Programs/Insertions
Schedule 2 Reach Frequency
Medium
60 40 1.5
TV
80 50 1.6
Magazines
140 70 2.0
Combined

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established in our previous two examples for TV and magazines. Schedule 1 shows that TV produced the equivalent of 80
programs across 40 people, yielding an average frequency of 2.0. Magazines reached 50 percent of people with an average
frequency of 1.2, with the equivalent of 60 insertions. Using the random combination technique, we determine that this schedule
will produce the equivalent of 140 advertising messages among 70 percent of the people, with the average person receiving a 2.0
frequency.
You'll note that the frequency for the combination (2.0) is the same as that for TV. This is coincidental. The average frequency
for combined media forms cannot be less than either medium alone, but it can be greater than either. This is shown in Table
15.3 in schedule 2, where we have reversed the number of equivalent programs/insertions for demonstration purposes.
Frequency in Only-Only-Both
Frequency for Only-Only-Both cannot be tabulated unless you have precise media consumption data for each person you are
reaching with your media schedule. Without this precision, you cannot know the average frequency within any of these three
groupings. Using schedule 1 in Table 15.3, for example, we can conclude that 20 percent of people will be exposed only to TV,
30 percent only to magazines, and 20 percent to both TV and magazines. We know that the average person reached via TV
(either only TV or with TV and magazines) is exposed to an average of 2.0 advertising messages. What we do not know is the
frequency composition of the 40 percent of people who are exposed to TV either in the ''only" TV segment or in the "both" TV
and magazines segment. Hypothetically, of the 40 percent of people exposed to TV, the half exposed only to TV could have a
frequency lower or higher than the average 2.0. It can be assumed that the group exposed only to TV would have a higher
frequency than the group exposed to both media, based on the belief that those who are viewing proportionately more TV than
average have a lesser opportunity to be exposed to magazines. But this is only assumption and could lead to misinformation.
(See Table 15.4.)

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TABLE 15.4: Frequency Unknowns
Equivalent #
Programs/Insertions
Reach Average
Frequency
TV Only 20 lower: 20? 1.0?
average: 40? 2.0?
higher: 60? 3.0?
Magazines
Only 30 lower: 30? 1.07
average: 36? 1.27
higher: 42? 1.47
Both 20 higher: 38? 1.97
average: 64? 3.2?
lower: 90? 4.5?
Total/Average 70 140 2.0
Mean, Median, Mode

Mean The sum of all items divided by the number of items. Commonly called "average."
When we speak of average frequency, we are referring to the mean averagenot the mode:
Mean the sum of items divided by the number of items
Median the middle number in a series of numbers
Median The middle number in a sequence of numbers.
Mode the number occurring most frequently in a series of numbers
Mode The number occurring most frequently in a sequence of numbers.
If we take the following series of numbers, for example, we can see that the three definitions have distinctly different meanings:
Series
50
25
15
5
5
Total 100
Mean (100/5) = 20
Median (middle number) = 15
Mode (most frequent) = 5

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Whenever the word average appears in media data it means the mean average. If the media planner wants to refer to the median
in discussing media research, this term is usually specified.
1. Based on the following information, how many programs did
the average person view?
# People #Programs viewed
5 5
3 3
2 2
2. Magazine A is read by 30 percent of women; magazine B by
20 percent. Half of the women who read magazine B also read
magazine A. If you schedule an ad in both magazines how
many ads will the average reader be exposed to?
3. You are analyzing five TV programs which have respective
ratings of 1, 1, 3, 5, and 10. What is the mean average rating of
these five? The median? The mode?

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Chapter 16
Reach/Frequency/GRPs
This chapter examines the interrelationship and
interdependence of reach, frequency and gross rating points.
We demonstrate how these three media dynamics are used to
analyze the audience delivery productivity of various media
schedules with specific focus on how each media form, each
sub segment of these forms, or each combination of the media
forms produces markedly different audience delivery patterns.
We discuss how a media planner can exercise control over how
much reach or frequency can be generated within a given
number of GRPs. Lastly, we caution about possibly misusing
the number of announcements or advertisements in a media
schedule to determine the audience' reach of that schedule by
demonstrating the non relationship between announcements and
reach.
When you devise a media schedule, you should know

How many of the people you are targeting will be exposed to your advertisingReach;
How many times the average person you reach will have an opportunity for that exposuresFrequency;
The total gross delivery of the target audienceGRPs.
These three terms are totally interrelated, as shown in this simple mathematical formula:

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If you are scheduling 200 GRPs and have determined that you will produced a 50 reach, you will also produce a 4 frequency (50
× 4 = 200). The 50 reach is of course a percentage (shown without the percent sign). The 4 frequency is an actual number, not a
percentage, and is usually shown with one decimal place; thus the ''4" would be written as "4.0." GRPs are also a percentage
because you are multiplying the percent reach by the number of times (50 percent x 4.0 = 200 percent). Media shorthand is
generally used when reporting reach/frequency. It is commonly shown as "R/F" with the slash used as a separator, not as a
division symbol. Also, it is not necessary to show "times" or ''X" next to frequency because it is assumed. The following iterates
the components of R/F/GRPsboth in percentage terms and in actual numbers. You can see that the shorthand does allow for
convenient reference.
Percent Numbers of People*
Reach 50 100,000
× Frequency 4.0 4
= GRPs 200
= Impressions
R/F 50/4.0 400,000
* Population base = 200,000
R/F can be estimated for all major media forms, with the basic formula being the same for all forms. We'll first use TV
examples to demonstrate R/F dynamics, then show the application in other media.
Reach Curves and Frequency Lines

If you were able to conduct a proprietary survey of consumers each time you devised a specific media schedulethat is, if you
could actually interview specific people to determine which TV programs they watchyou could estimate with near precision the
reach/ frequency you could deliver with a specific media schedule. This is obviously an unreasonable proposition given the time
and expense involved in such a survey. The alternative is to use estimates of the probable R/F for your media schedule as
established by researchers.

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Using raw data (unaveraged, unprojected) from consumer surveys conducted by syndicated media research companies,
researchers and statisticians are able to determine the duplication of audiences between various pairs of media vehicles, and
between media schedules composed of more than two vehicles. With this duplication data researchers can estimate how many
people could be reached with a given combination of media exposure. By tabulating the survey findings for a wide variety of
media combinations, researchers can "plot" how reach levels increase as more media (GRPs) are scheduled. By averaging the
findings of these tabulations (using what is known as a least squares regression analysis) a reach "curve" can be produced.
Shown in Exhibit 16.1 are 15 hypothetical combinations of media vehicles (let's assume these are TV programs) and the actual
reach
Exhibit 16.1:
Estimating a Reach Curve

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these combinations produced according to the raw survey data. The least squares analysis forces an average line (the reach
curve). Using this curve, you can estimate the reach of any level of GRPs, whether or not that particular level was part of the
researcher's original tabulations. For example, if the schedule for which you want to estimate reach contains 250 GRPs, you can
read the graph and determine it will produce a 55 reach.
You must keep in mind that the reach curve is an estimate. It does not pretend to identify the exact reach within a given level of
GRPs; it does tell you that, on average, a given schedule should produce approximately the reach shown.
Because reach and frequency are both functions of GRPs, you can determine the average frequency level by knowing the GRPs
and the reach: GRPs divided by reach equals frequency. The pattern of reach accumulation is one of diminishing returnsas
Exhibit 16.2:
Frequency Is A Straight Line

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more and more GRPs are added to a media schedule, proportionately less and less reach is accumulated, thereby flattening the
curve at the higher GRP levels. Frequency, however, remains a straight line, regardless of the number of GRPs within a media
schedule. This phenomenon is displayed in Exhibit 16.2, which was constructed based on the reach curve shown in Exhibit 16.1.
The specific R/F from these two exhibits is:
GRPs R/F
100 32/3.1
200 48/4.2
300 60/5.0
400 6.6/6.1
500 70/7.2
Because frequency remains a straight line, you can graph the line based on two different GRP levels and use the line to estimate
reach and frequency for any level of GRPs. For example, if you estimated R/F for the levels of 100 and 500 GRPs, and plotted
the frequency line on a graph, you would effect what is shown in Exhibit 16.2. If you then wanted to estimate the reach for 300
GRPs, you would read up from the 300-GRP point until it intersects the frequency line (at 5.0), and then divide 300 GRPs by a
5.0 frequency to yield a 60 reach.
The reach curve and frequency line are affected by these truths:
The more duplication of audience between media vehicles, the lower the rate of reach accumulation; conversely, the less the
duplication, the greater the rate.
The lower the rate of reach accumulation, the faster the rate of frequency accumulation; conversely, the greater the rate of reach,
the slower the frequency accumulation.
An additional dynamic at play in a reach curve is the point at which reachfor all intents and purposesceases to accumulate.
Obviously, reach cannot exceed 100 percent of a population group. In fact, based on typical media consumption patterns, reach
might be substantially less than 100 percent. For example, if your media plan schedules only daytime television, the probability
is that your reach will never exceed 60 percent of adult women because, on average, 40 percent of women typically do not view
daytime TV.
The graphs shown in Exhibit 16.3 demonstrate reach and frequency accumulation for six different television time periods

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(dayparts). In scanning these graphs, you'll note different rates of reach accumulation, different GRP points where the reach
curve begins to "flatten" (i.e., where little additional reach is accumulated with the scheduling of additional GRPs), and different
slopes for the frequency lines.
All of the graphs shown in Exhibit 16.3 were constructed to display R/F of households based on household GRPs. Household
reach simply means someone in a household will be reached (exposed to the media forms in your schedule). Household R/F
does not indicate who will be reached. Because different population groups have varying media consumption patterns, you
cannot assume that (for example) a household reach of 50 will mean that you will reach 50 percent of women, or men, or
women 18-34, or any given group. Table 16.1 shows the R/F that is produced by a schedule of 200 household GRPs. If the 200
household GRPs are scheduled in early morning TV, for example, they will produce a 35 reach among households, but far less
reach against women 18 and older and substantially less against men 18 and older.
TABLE 16.1: R/F by Demographic Group within a Schedule of 200 Household
GRPs
Household W18+ M18+
Early Morning 35/5.7 25/5.6 19/4.5
Day 52/3.9 43/3.7 N.T.
Early Fringe/News 35/5.7 27/5.4 31/4.3
Prime Access 66/3.0 55/2.8 54/2.2
Prime 69/2.9 59/2.6 53/2.3
Late Fringe/News 49/4.1 40/3.5 42/3.0
N.T. = Not Tabulated
You'll also note in Table 16.1 that if you multiply reach by frequency for the people demographic, your product will always be
less than 200you will produce fewer than 200 GRPs against women 18 and older or men 18 and older if you schedule 200 GRPs
against households. The reason for this ties back to viewing patterns and the different rates of media consumption by different
demographic groups. Table 16.2 on page 140 shows the average number of GRPs that are produced among women 18 and older
and men 18 and older by 100 household GRPs scheduled in each of six

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Exhibit 16.3:
Reach Curves / Frequency Lines by Daypart Households

Page 139
Exhibit 16.3
Continued

Page 140
television dayparts. The people GRPs can be read as a conversion factor and applied to any level of household GRPs. For
example, if you want to determine how many women 18+ GRPs will be generated by 200 household GRPs scheduled in early
morning, multiply 200 by 69 percent to yield 138 W18+ GRPs.
Conversion Factor A percentage applied to a number (e.g., a household rating) to obtain a different
number (e.g., a women 18-34 rating).
TABLE 16.2: GRP CONVERSIONS
Household
GRPs
W18 + M18 + GRPs
GRPs
Early Morning 100 69 43
Day 100 78 N.T.
Early Fringe/News 100 73 66
Prime Access 100 77 60
Prime 100 76 61
Late Fringe/News 100 71 63
N.T. = Not
Tabulated
Using GRP conversion factors which might be available to you, you can set out to calculate R/F. This calculation can be done
from reach curves designed for that population segment, or by using various formulas which are generally computerized, or by
using published tables. Computer models and published tables are generally available from syndicated media research
companies, media suppliers, or a company's proprietary systems. The larger advertising agencies, for example, generally
develop their own proprietary R/F models.
As shown in Table 16.3, the same level of GRPs scheduled against different demographic groups produces different R/F levels.
For example, 200 women 18+ GRPs in early morning will generate a 26/7.8, compared to 200 men 18+ GRPs in the same
daypart yielding a 21/9.6. You'll note the substantial differences between this R/F pattern and the one in Table 16.1, where R/F
among these groups was a result of scheduling household rating points. Whenever you schedule people GRPs, you will produce
more reach and/or frequency against these people than if you schedule the same amount of household GRPs. This happens
because household GRPs are people-indiscriminate. For example, two TV programs, each with a 10 rating, could produce
widely varying ratings for women, men, etc.

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TABLE 16.3: R/F by Demographic Group with a Schedule of 200 Targeted
Rating Points
200 Household GRPs200 W18 + GRPs 200 M 18 + GRPs
Early Morning 35/5.7 26/7.8 21/9.6
Day 52/3.9 47/4.2 N.T.
Early Fringe/News 35/5.7 29/6.9 34/5.8
Prime Access 66/3.0 60/3.3 66/3.0
Prime 69/2.9 65/3.1 62/3.2
Late Fringe/News 49/4.1 40/5.0 42/4.7
N.T. = Not Tabulated
In our examples so far, we have been discussing R/F patterns with all GRPs scheduled in only one TV daypart. When a
combination of dayparts is used in a media schedule, different patterns emerge. Generally, as additional dayparts are added to a
media schedule, reach accumulates faster than might ordinarily be achieved by concentrating activity within one daypart. This
phenomenon is akin to our earlier discussion on media mix in Chapter 14, "Reach." The scheduling of additional dayparts
affords the opportunity to reach people who are ordinarily not viewing the first daypart.
Shown in Table 16.4 is the R/F of various combinations of two daypartssuch as a schedule composed of 100 women 18+ GRPs
in daytime and another 100 in primetime. If you compare the R/F results shown in this table to the results shown in Table 16.3,
you'll
TABLE 16.4: Reach/Frequency for Daypart Combinations
W18 + GRPs
1 2 3 4 5
Day 100
Early Fringe/News 100 100
Prime Access 100
Prime 100 100 100 100
Late Fringe/News 100 100
Total TRPS 67/3.0 62/3.2 72/2.8 52/3.9 67/3.0
R/F

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see major differences. For example, 200 W18+ GRPs scheduled only in daytime produce a 47/4.2 and, if scheduled only in
prime, a 65/3.1. By scheduling 200 W18+ GRPs in daytime and prime, you produce a 67/3.0a higher reach than either daypart
alone, and a lower average frequency. Generally speaking, when you want to produce more reach, it's best to have a mixture of
dayparts rather than concentrating in one daypart. Concentration in one daypart will generally have the effect of increasing
frequency at a proportionately greater rate than reach.
If indeed you are setting out to produce as much reach as possible, and you've tabulated (for example) the five schedules shown
in the above table, clearly you will select schedule 3. But, you could be deceived by the R/F information as presented. None of
the R/F data reflects what it will cost to deliver that level of R/F. Because the cost of commercial time varies from one daypart
to another (see Chapter 13 on cost-per-rating-point) schedule 3 might cost more than the other schedules, or it might not be
affordable within your media budget. To compare R/F of various schedules, you must first determine how many GRPs you can
purchase within your budget. As shown in Table 16.5, a given budget in market X affords the purchase of 200 GRPs in prime,
and up to 600 GRPs in early morning. The respective affordable GRPs within each daypart yield different levels of R/F.
TABLE 16.5: Reach/Frequency Possibilities for Equal Expenditures
W18 + GRPs Affordable R/F
Early Morning 600 27/22.2
Day 500 56/9.0
Early Fringe/News 300 32/9.5
Prime Access 250 62/4.0
Prime 200 65/3.1
Late Fringe/News 325 40/81
Reworking our hypothetical schedules from Table 16.5, we might find that schedule 5 is superior because it allows the purchase
of more GRPs and produces a slightly higher reach and frequency. Table 16.6 demonstrates this possibility. Keep in mind,
however, that the one percentage point difference in reach between these

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schedules should not be definitive in making a decision. Given that all R/F schedules are estimates, small differences between
one schedule and another are not necessarily definitive. Still, if reach is your only concern in selecting one schedule over
another, and all other variables are constant, then schedule 5 is probably the better choice.
TABLE 16.6: Affordable W18 + GRPsR/F
Schedule 3 Schedule 5
Prime Access 100
Prime 100 140
Late Fringe/News 70
Total 200 210
R/F 72/2.8 73/2.9
Reach/Frequency in Radio
The same general dynamics hold true for radio as for TV. In fact, both of these electronic media forms are planned on the basis
of GRPs (as opposed to, say, magazines). The only difference between radio and TV media planning is that radio usually also
refers to the number of announcements that are placed on each station because the activity by station has a direct effect on
reach/frequency accumulation, as do these additional factors:
1. The GRP level
2. The number of stations purchased
3. The average rating of the purchased stations
4. The dispersion of announcements across different times of the day on each station
Assume you intend to purchase 100 GRPs targeted to adults 18 and older. You've decided to analyze three alternative schedules,
as shown in Table 16.7. If you place a schedule on five average stations in market X, you'll purchase 111 announcements to
generate 100 GRPs and will produce a reach/frequency of 28/3.6. If you place a

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schedule on the top five stations, which by definition have a higher average rating, you'll need to purchase only 83
announcements to yield 100 GRPs, for a reach/frequency of 32/3.1more reach, less frequency. If you scatter your
announcements across the top ten stations, your R/F will be 42/2.4the highest reach of the three, and the lowest average
frequency. The dynamics at work in these schedules deal with the audience accumulation patterns for each of the stations, as
well as the duplication of audiences between stations. Generally,
The more stations purchased, the greater the reach potential;
The higher the average rating of the stations, the greater the rate of reach accumulation;
TABLE 16.7: Dynamics of Radio R/FAdults 18+
Description/# Stations Average 5 Top 5 Top 10
Average Rating .9 1.2 1.0
# Announcements 22 17 10
Total # Announcements 111 83 100
GRPs 100 100 100
R/F 28/3.6 32/3.1 42/2.4
Reach/Frequency in Print Media

Because of the nature of the audience data collected by syndicated research companies, GRPs need not be used to estimate reach
and frequency for magazines and newspapers, but the basic R/F formula is still used and the display of R/F estimates can be the
same as that shown for TV or radio.
Several media research companies collect readership information for many magazines and newspapers. Through their survey
techniques, they can determine duplicated readership of pairs of vehicleshow many people read both magazine A and magazine
B, both C and D, etc. Using accepted statistical formulas, research

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suppliers (or independent media research services, etc.) can estimate the total reach of any combination of magazines or
newspapers.
Table 16.8 shows an example of three magazines (you could just as easily substitute newspapers) in market X. Magazine A
reaches (is read by) 300,000 people, 125,000 of whom also read magazine B and 75,000 of whom do not. Magazines A and B
produce a gross audience of 500,000 readers and a net unduplicated audience of 375,000. Magazine C added to this schedule
increases gross delivery to 600,000 and net delivery to 400,000. Using the R/F calculation, we can determine that the average
person reached with this schedule will have the opportunity to be exposed to your advertising message an average of 1.5 times
each. The data in the right portion of the table are identical to those in the left, except they are shown as percentages rather than
actual numbers.
TABLE 16.8: R/F In Print Media
Total Readers Cumulative Net Cume
Magazine (000) Unduplicated (000) Coverage Reach
A 300 300 30% 30.0
B 200 75 20 7.5
Total 500 375 50 37.5
C 100 25 10 2.5
Total 600 400 60% 40.0
(Market Population Base = 1 Million)
If duplication rates were reported for all TV and radio programs, the same kind of formulas could be developed to calculate
broadcast reach and frequency. The media planner would not have to rely on the generalities of GRPs and general audience
accumulation data. However, because of the dynamic and ever-changing program environment in broadcast media, such
duplication information would be relatively unreliable for predicting future media consumption patterns.

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Reach/Frequency in Out-Of-Home Media
Reach and frequency in out-of-home media are generally used more for information devices than as evaluation tools. With the
exception of periodic national studies conducted by syndicated research companies and a few basic formulas created by media
suppliers, there are little data available to determine the reach and frequency of specific out-of-home vehicles.
The preponderance of R/F data is based on the placement of outdoor 30-sheets (see Chapter 3) used at a level of a #100
showing. A #100 showing is equivalent to the purchase of 100 GRPs daily against people age two and older in the market.
There are no data to help discriminate between one poster unit and another, nor between different poster combinations. R/F data
used to decide if outdoor should be used in a media plan, or how much should be used, or which specific schedules should be
used, are therefore wanting.
For general information purposes, Table 16.9 displays the R/F predicted for a #100 showing of 30-sheets in an average market
among various demographic groups.
TABLE 16.9: R/F In Outdoor#100 Showing
Demographic Reach Frequency
Adults 18+ 88 28.4
Men 88 29.4
Women 88 27.5
18-34 90 32.9
35-49 89 27.5
50+ 84 23.6
Media Mix Reach/Frequency

We use the same math for calculating R/F for a media mix as we do for one medium. To establish R/F for a mix, follow these
steps:
1. Determine the GRPs and reach for each medium.
2. Add the total GRPs.

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3. Calculate the combined reach of the first two media using computer formulas available to you, or using the random
combination technique.
4. Divide the total GRPs by the combined reach to yield average frequency. Do not average the individual frequencies.
5. Continue this process for each successive medium added to the schedule.
Table 16.10 demonstrates the above steps for a hypothetical situation in three media forms.
TABLE 16.10: R/F in a Media Mix
GRPs Reach Frequency
TV 80 40 2.0
Magazines 60 50 1.2
Combined 140 70 2.0
Radio 100 35 2.9
Combined 240 80 3.0
Controlling Reach/Frequency within GRPs

We have seen that reach accumulates as more GRPs (or coverage) are added. We've also seen that frequency levels are
calculated by dividing GRPs by reach. By controlling the rate of reach accumulation, we can control, to some extent, the
amount of frequency.
To demonstrate this control let's use marbles. Lay 100 marbles on a fiat surface, forming a ten-by-ten square. Assume that each
marble represents one percent of the population (a one rating); 100 marbles, therefore, equals 100 GRPs. Further, assume the
height of your square represents reach and the width represents frequency. In this 10 × 10 array, therefore, you have displayed a
reach of 10 and a frequency of 10.0. If you change the shape of your display to 5 high and 20 across, you've displayed the
equivalent of a 5 reach and a 20.0 frequency (5/20.0). With just these 100 GRPs, you can effect 100 different
combinationsranging from a 1/100.0 to a 100/1.0. So if all you can afford is 100 marbles (that is, your

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media budget allows the purchase of just 100 GRPs) you can keep changing the matrix to display a variety of different shapesto
offer many different reach/frequency patterns. You probably will not deal with 100 different combinations because you'll have
some notion of the minimum or maximum reach you want to attain. Besides, if you did deal with 100 different combinations,
you'd wind up losing some of your marbles.
To reinforce this concept of control, let's use yet another devicethis time two pieces of 8 1/2'' × 11'' paper. Lay one sheet on
your desk, vertically. Assume that the height (11") is 11 percent and the width (8 1/2") is 8.5 frequency. Now lay the second
sheet over this, horizontally, as shown in Exhibit 16.4. The top sheet is equivalent to an 85 reach with an 11 frequency. Both
sheets encompass the same number of square inchesboth the same quantity of GRPs: 93.5 (8.5 × 11). As H × W = Area, R × F
= GRPs.
To use an example from advertising, if you scatter TV commercials across five different TV programs which have relatively
little duplication from one to another, you will accumulate
Exhibit 16.4:
Controlling Reach/Frequency within 93.5 GRPs

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proportionately more reach than frequencyreaching more new viewers with the addition of each new TV program. Conversely,
if you concentrate all commercials in one TV program (and let's assume successive airings of this program do not attract
additional new viewers), you've limited reach for the sake of accumulating frequency. Table 16.11 demonstrates the kinds of
R/F effects possible with these two hypothetical schedules.
TABLE 16.11: Different Patterns of R/F
Schedule 1 Schedule 2
Program Rating Announcements GRPs Announcements GRPs
A 10 1 10 5 50
B 10 1 10
C 10 1 10
D 10 1 10
E 10 1 10
Total 5 50 5 50
R/F 40/1.3 10/5.0
The real application of this R/F control requires that you have some understanding of the duplication rates between media
vehicles within a media form, and between different combinations of media forms. It is logical to assume, for example, that
programs within a given TV time period probably have more duplication than programs in different time periods. Also,
magazines within an editorial category (such as women's magazines) will have more duplication than magazines in divergent
categories. But even with this understanding, you should test your notions by conducting a reach/frequency analysis of
alternative combinations.
Number of Spots
It has become common to refer to the number of commercial announcements in television or radio as the number of spots.
Although grammatically questionable, referring to commercial announcements as "spots" is semantically propereveryone knows

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what you are referring to. It is also sometimes common to confuse the number of spots with the intensity of advertising delivery.
The number of spots you schedule in television or radio, in and of itself, has little to do with how many people you will reach
with that schedule, or how often they will be exposed to your advertising message.
As we've seen, average program ratings vary by daypart and are a function of the homes-using-TV (or people-using-radio) at
any particular time of day. We've also seen, for example, that HUT levels increase as we move from morning to evening, and
then decrease as the evening wears on. It's logical, therefore, that average ratings would be higher at night than in the day. For
example, if there are ten programs being telecast in daytime, and ten at night, and the HUT level during the day is 30 and at
night 60, then the average program, by definition, will get a lower rating in
Exhibit 16.5:
Non-Relationship of # Spots and Reach

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daytime than at nightin this case, a 3 rating in the day and a 6 at night. To produce 60 GRPs you would have to schedule, on
average, 20 programs in the day or 10 at night. We've also seen that equivalent levels of GRPs scheduled in different dayparts
produce varying levels of reachfor the most part, lower in daytime and higher at night (primetime). In this example, therefore,
20 spots in daytime will produce a lower reach than half as many spots in primetime. The number of spots you schedule does
not, per se, have anything to do with reach/frequency. There's almost a non-relationship between number of spots and R/F.
Exhibit 16.5 demonstrates this non-relationship across various television dayparts.
1. Your media plan contains a schedule encompassing 1,000 TRPs and
you've determined that you will produce an 80 reach. What is the
average frequency?
2. Your plan generates a 60/4.0 against women at a CPP of $10. How
much have you spent for this schedule?
3. You've reached 10,000 men an average of five times each in a
market with a population of 50,000 men. What are your reach and
frequency?
4. There are 100 million women in the United States. Your media
schedule generates 500 million impressions, and you've calculated that
each woman reached will be exposed to an average of 10 advertising
messages. What is your R/F?
5. You purchased a combination of radio stations which yield a 50/3.0
against men and a 25/2.0 against women in a market which has a
population of two million adults (half within each sex). How many
adult TRPs have you purchased?

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Chapter 17
Frequency Distribution
In this chapter we extend our understanding of frequency by discussing
frequency distribution. We demonstrate how different media audience
members receive different levels of advertising exposure and how, by
combining these levels, we arrive at average frequency. We also examine
how different components of a media form produce varying frequency
patterns.
In all our examples on reach and frequency we demonstrated average frequency among those people reached with a media
schedule. As you digested those tables and charts you noted that some people received more than average frequency, and some
less than average. For example, when we spoke of magazine reach and frequency we saw that some people read only one
magazine, some read two, and some read all three. Each of these groups of people (each of these reach segments) received
different rates of exposure, that is, different levels of frequency.
Frequency Distribution The array of reach according to the level of frequency delivered to each group.
Let's use the combination of three magazines that was originally displayed in Exhibit 15.2. We saw that 42 percent of people
read only one of the three magazines, six percent read any two, and two percent read all three. If you array this reach and
exposure level (as shown in Table 17.1), you will have calculated a frequency distribution. The usual way of showing this
distribution is displayed in the lower part of the table.
You'll also note that the three magazines produced a total of 60 GRPs. With a combined 50 reach, the average frequency is
therefore 1.2even though none of these people is exposed to the medium exactly 1.2 times. A frequency distribution overrides
the necessity

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TABLE 17.1: Magazine Frequency Distribution 3 Magazines60
GRPs
Magazine(s) Read Frequency Level Reach at Each Level
Only A 1 14
Only B 1 14
Only C 1 14
A+B 2 2
A+C 2 2
B+C 2 2
A+B+C 3 2
Total 50
1 42
2 6
3 2
Total 50
of displaying the average frequency because it addresses the amount of reach obtained at each level of frequency. Semantically,
it would be better to call a frequency distribution "a distribution of reach by each level of frequency," but media shorthand
prevails.
The frequency distribution of ten 20-rated announcements scheduled in ten primetime TV programs is displayed in Table 17.2.
The 200 women 18+ GRPs generated by this schedule produce a reach of 64.9 and an average frequency of 3.1. Some of the
women reached will view only one program, some more than oneup to the possible total of all ten programs. The specific
distribution for this schedule indicates that 20.6 percent will view only one program, a different group of women representing
13.9 percent of the population will view only two programs, etc. Because there is no duplication between these only groups, the
reach against each frequency level can be added together to get total reach. Going back to our previous discussion on mean
average, you'll see that the average frequency is 3.1. The median average frequency is 4.0, but median averages are not used in
frequency distributions.

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TABLE 17.2:
Frequency Distribution Pattern Schedule: 200 W18+ GRPs In Primetime
Frequency Reach at Each Level
1 20.6
2 13.9
3 9.7
4 6.8
5 4.7
6 3.3
7 2.3
8 1.5
9 1.3
10 1.2
Total Reach 64.9
Exhibit 17.1 displays the frequency distribution in Table 17.2 graphically. Typical frequency distributions follow this same
patternless and less reach as the level of frequency increases. The reasons for this pattern are twofold:
1. Some people view only a little bit of TV and therefore will automatically not have the opportunity to be exposed to many
commercials. Some people view a lot of TV and will therefore receive proportionately higher levels of advertising exposure.
2. The chances of hitting everyone with the same level of frequency diminish as more and more TV programs are added to a
media schedule, because different programs attract different people. In our schedule of ten primetime programs, for example, it's
unreasonable to believe that most of the people reached will be part of the viewing audience of most of the programs.
Although the general pattern of a frequency distribution is as shown, specific patterns vary according to the rates of duplication

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Exhibit 17.1:
Frequency Distribution Pattern Schedule:
200 W18+ GRPs In Primetime
between media forms and between vehicles within a form. If you schedule one announcement in each of two TV programs that
have no duplication (no one views both programs), your average frequency will be one. If these two programs have total
duplication (everyone reached views both programs), your average frequency will be two. Because of varying duplication rates
between vehicles, coupled with the available audience size at any given time (HUT levels), frequency distributions vary by
television daypart. Those dayparts, such as daytime, that have proportionately more duplication between programs tend to have
proportionately more reach at the higher frequency levels; those with proportionately less duplication (e.g., primetime) tend to
have proportionately less reach at the higher frequency levels.
Shown in Table 17.3 are frequency distributions for a schedule of 200 women 18+ GRPs in each of five TV dayparts. Total R/F
varies between dayparts (for reasons explained in the previous section), as does the amount of reach at each frequency level
between and within dayparts. For ease in reviewing these data, arithmetic

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changes are included: first, all reach numbers are rounded to the nearest full number; second, frequency is displayed only up to a
level of "8 or more." Although technically a frequency distribution can be displayed for every level of frequency (up to the total
number of announcements contained in your media schedule) it is customary to group the higher frequency levels into an "or
more" statement because the absolute reach at the very high levels of frequency is usually very small (often less than one
percent).
TABLE 17.3: Frequency Distribution by Daypart Schedule: 200
W18+ GRPs In Each Daypart
Reach at Each Level
Early Prime
Fringe Access
Frequency Day Prime Late Fringe
1 14 7 19 21 12
2 8 4 12 14 7
3 6 3 8 10 5
4 4 2 6 7 3
5 3 2 4 5 3
6 2 1 3 3 2
7 2 1 2 2 2
8 or more 8 9 6 4 7
Total 47 29 60 65 41
Avg.
Frequency 4.2 6.8 3.3 3.1 4.9
Another way to evaluate a frequency distribution is to calculate the gross delivery at each frequency level to determine how
much relative pressure (or weight) is directed to each frequency group. Using the information from Table 17.3 for 200 W18+
GRPs in primetime, for example, we can calculate how many GRPs are generated by each frequency level. As shown in Table
17.4, the 20.6 reach at one frequency level equals 21 GRPs; the 13.9 reach at the two-level equals 28 GRPs, and so forth.
Adding GRPs for each frequency level produces the total GRPs of 200. Of the total

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200 GRPs, 10.5 percent are represented by women who will, on average, be exposed to only one TV program; 14 percent are
accounted for by women who will be exposed to two programs, etc.
TABLE 17.4: R × F = GRPs at Each Level Primetime
Women 18+
Frequency × Reach = GRPs Percent Total
1 20.6 21 10.5%
2 13.9 28 14.0
3 9.7 29 14.5
4 6.8 27 13.5
5 4.7 23 11.5
6 3.3 20 10.0
7 2.3 16 8.0
8+ 3.6 36 18.0
Total 64.9 200 100%
If you tie this GRP information into cost considerations, you can determine the relative investment you are making for the
schedule you are analyzing. In the above primetime frequency distribution, for example, you can correctly state that 10.5 percent
of the media budget you want to expend in primetime for 200 GRPs is accounted for by women who will be exposed to only
one commercial announcement.
By displaying the GRPs generated at each frequency level for different media schedules, such as for 200 women 18+ GRPs in
daytime versus primetime, you can both evaluate the concentration of GRP "weight" and make some judgments on whether or
not your media budget is providing the kinds of frequency concentrations you are seeking. Exhibit 17.2 demonstrates the vast
differences between daytime and primetime. The 200 GRPs in daytime show a definite skew to the higher frequency levels,
whereas primetime exhibits a generally fiat concentration pattern.

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Exhibit 17.2:
Concentration of GRP, by Frequency Level-Schedule: 200 W18+ GRPs in Each Daypart

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1. You've scheduled one announcement in each of five TV
programs which, combined, produced 117 GRPs. You've
instructed your PC to compute R/F and a frequency distribution,
but the printer ran out of paper and only the following information
was shown:
Frequency: 1 2 3 45
Reach: 20 10 8 75
You can't access the PC to rerun the data because there's a power
outage. You're not having a good day, but you still must know the
R/F. Can you figure it out?
2. The multimedia schedule you are running produces an 80/4.0
against men 18-34. How many of these men will be exposed to
one or more commercial messages?
3. You decided to run in two magazines, each of which reaches 20
percent of women in an average issue. If there is no duplication of
audience between these magazines, what will your frequency
distribution look like? If there's 50 percent duplication, what will it
look like?

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Chapter 18
Quintile Distribution
In this chapter we focus on quintile distributions. We show how these
distributions are related to the previously discussed frequency
distributions, and how quintiles are calculated. We demonstrate how
different uses of media, or different combinations of media, produce
different quintile patterns. We also show how media research suppliers'
definitions of quintiles are not necessarily in concert with how media
planners use quintile analyses to assess media schedules.
Quintile Distribution A display of frequency (or related data) among audiences grouped into equal
fifths of reach.
Different people consume different media with varying intensity. This consumption pattern is generally fairly habitual. Although
consumption patterns may change as a person changes (for instance, as they get older, or become more educated, or attain a
different income level), at any given point in time a person tends to fall within a defined level of media exposure. Some people,
for example, spend a great deal of time reading magazines. Others spend less. Some view a great deal of TV. Some watch very
little. If you were to randomly select any five people and query them on how much TV they view in an average day, we would
find five different levels of viewingfrom the light viewer who might view only an hour or less each day, to the heavy viewer
who might view five hours or more per day. By arraying these people into five different groups (each containing one person),
we have effected a quintile distribution. A quintile distribution is like a frequency distribution, but rather than displaying reach
at each frequency level, it groups the audience reached into five equal parts and averages the frequency for each group.
Although quintiles (fifths) will be discussed

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in this chapter, the same concept applies to any equal division of people or homes, such as tertile (one third) or decile (one
tenth) distributions.
Tertile Distribution A display of frequency (or related data) among audiences grouped into equal thirds
of reach.
Continuing with our example on viewing hours, Table 18.1 shows a quintile distribution of time spent viewing TV during the
average day among all the one million households in market X. The hypothetical survey that was conducted in this market
revealed that the average home viewed TV for seven hours (that is, one or more people in the household were viewing TV and
collectively produced a viewing level of seven hours). Of these homes, 200,000 averaged only one hour of viewing, another
200,000 averaged four hours, etc. Each of these household segments represent one-fifth (20 percent) of the total market
population. The 200,000 households that viewed the least are designated as the ''lightest'' viewing quintile; those that viewed the
most are referred to as the "heaviest" viewing quintile. The "next" groups, each accounting for one-fifth of the total, have
viewing levels somewhere between light and heavy.
TABLE 18.1: Quintile Distribution of Hours Spent Viewing TV
# Households % Total # Viewing % Total
Quintile (000) Household Hours/Day Viewing Hours
Lightest 200 20% 1 3%
Next 200 20 4 11
Next 200 20 6 17
Next 200 20 9 26
Heaviest 200 20 15 43
Total/Average 1,000 100% 7 100%
Total viewing hours in the market are seven million (7 hours × 1 million households). The light viewing quintile accounts for
200,000 hours (1 hour × 200,000). The lightest viewing quintile, therefore, accounts for three percent of all viewing hours
(200,000/7,000,000). Conversely, the heaviest viewing quintile accounts for 43 percent of total market viewing hours. In nearly
all quintile distributions, you will find that the heaviest group always accounts for significantly more consumption than the
lightest group.

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Calculating Quintile Distribution
Rest assured that if you will be dealing with quintile distributions you will not, in all probability, have to calculate them
manually. Nevertheless, you should understand how one is calculated to gain a greater appreciation for what the distribution
indicates.
To calculate a quintile distribution, you must first have a complete frequency distributiongenerally available via various
computer programs. Using these data, you can re-array the reach for each frequency level in order to put reach into equal fifths
and recalculate average frequency. At first glance, it's a complicated procedure, but after calculating one quintile distribution
you'll fully understand the mechanics and can let the computer do all the calculations for you in the future. The steps, as shown
in Exhibit 18.1, are:
1. Refer to the frequency distribution as shown on the left side of the exhibit.
2. Divide the total reach into five equal parts. One-fifth (20 percent) of 75 is 15.
3. Move down the frequency distribution (starting at the 1.0 level) to find audience segments that represent a 15 reach. Here we
find that the most lightly exposed 15 percent is contained within the 20 reach of those exposed at the 1.0 level. You have
therefore accounted for the lightest viewing quintile, who will receive, on average, a frequency of 1.0.
4. Tally any portion of reach you have not accounted for, such as the 5 percent within the 20 at the 1.0 frequency level. This
remaining audience (the 5 percent) becomes part of the next viewing quintile.
5. If you have not obtained a 15 reach with the carryover of reach from the previous quintile, accumulate more audience until
you reach the level of 15. Here we see that we need an additional 10 reach points (in addition to the 5 we already have) to equal
a 15 reach. We can find this additional 10 reach at the 2.0 frequency level. Therefore, for this "next" viewing quintile, we have a
5 reach plus a 10 reach equaling a 15 reach. We also have 5 percent of the people receiving a 1.0 frequency and 10 percent
receiving a 2.0 frequency.

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6. You need to average the frequency for this "next" group by performing the R × F = GRPs equation and striking an average.
The mathematics look like this:
7. Continue the same procedures as above to account for all reach at all frequency levels.
8. Check your findings by first adding the GRPs at each quintile level. This should equal the total GRPs of the schedule.
Exhibit 18.1:
Television quintile analysis

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9. Also check your findings by multiplying the reach at each quintile level by the average frequency and adding the products.
The sum of the products should equal the total GRPs of the schedule.
You can now make the following observations about this quintile distribution:
You'd probably rather have a computer do the calculations.
The lightest viewing quintile has an average frequency of one.
The heaviest viewing 20 percent has an average frequency of 7.3.
The "top two" viewing quintiles have an average frequency of 5.8. The "top" quintiles are those with the heaviest level of
exposurenot necessarily those which are displayed at the top of a chart. The top two quintiles in our example are therefore
composed of the 15 reach with 4.3 frequency and the 15 reach with 7.3 frequency. The 5.8 average frequency is calculated by
adding the GRPs for these two groups and dividing by the combined reach:
Quintile Distributions of a Media Mix

Whenever a second medium is added to the first, the frequency distribution (and therefore the quintile distribution) flattens.
Disproportionately more frequency is added to the more lightly exposed groups than to the most heavily exposed group.
There is a mistaken belief that heavy users of one medium are light users of another. This appears logical if one concludes that
people, in general, spend about the same amount of time each day with their preferred media forms. Therefore, if people view
television for most of that time, they will have less time to spend with other media. While logical, this is not a real-world
phenomenon. The fact is that people spend varying amounts of time with media. Some are heavy consumers of media overall;
some are light consumers. As a result of this pattern, consumers of one medium (e.g., magazine

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readers) have an equal propensity to be heavy, moderate, or light consumers of another medium.
The logical and real-world assumptions are displayed in the following two tables. Table 18.2 shows what might happen if
people, in general, spend about the same amount of time with their preferred media forms. For example, most of the heavy radio
listeners would be light TV viewers. To read the chart: 20 percent of adults are considered heavy radio listeners. These 20
percent view television for varying amounts of time. Ten percent of these 20 percent are heavy viewers, compared with 30
percent who are light TV viewers. At the other end of the spectrum are light radio listeners. A large portion of these are
concentrated within the heaviest viewing quintile, that is, they tend to view TV more than they listen to radio.
TABLE 18.2: Hypothetical Inter-media quintile distributions.
Radio Quintiles
Heaviest Next Next Next Ughtest
% Adults 20% 20% 20% 20% 20%
Prime TVQuintiles
Heaviest 10 15 20 25 30
Next 15 20 25 30 10
Next 20 25 30 10 15
Next 25 30 10 15 20
Lightest 30 10 15 20 25
Source: Simmons
Table 18.3 displays the real-world situation. It shows that heavy radio listeners are almost equally distributed among each of the
TV quintiles. To read the chart: 20 percent of adults are considered heavy radio listeners. Of this 20 percent, 19 percent are
heavy viewers of primetime TV, and 23 percent are light viewers. The same holds true for light radio listeners; that is, 21
percent of all listeners are heavy TV viewers, and 20 percent are light TV viewers.
Because of what happens in the real world, the frequency distribution tends to flatten whenever a second medium is added to

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TABLE 18.3: Real-world inter-media quintile distributions.
Radio Quintiles
% Adults Heaviest 20% Next 20% Next 20% Next 20% Next 20%
Prime TVQuintiles
Heaviest 19 20 20 21 21
Next 19 21 20 20 19
Next 19 21 22 19 19
Next 19 20 21 20 20
Lightest 23 19 18 20 20
Source: Simmons
the first. Adding magazines to a base of television, for example, delivers equal frequency to each TV quintile but
disproportionately more frequency to the lighter viewing quintiles than to the heavier viewing quintiles. As shown in Exhibit
18.2, the addition of magazines increases frequency among the lightest viewing fifth by 200
Exhibit 18.2
Quintile distribution adding a second medium.

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percent, compared with a 27 percent increase in frequency of the heaviest viewing fifth.
In this example, television provides a frequency of one to the lightest quintile, 1.7 to the next quintile, up to a 7.3 average
frequency to the heaviest viewing quintile of reach. Magazines, with an average frequency of 2.0, deliver the same level of
frequency to each of the TV viewing quintiles.
This "flattening" phenomenon occurs only when different media forms are combined, not when more of the same medium is
used. Using more of the same medium results in delivering messages in approximately the same proportions as a lesser use of
the medium. People who are light consumers of that medium will continue to be relatively lightly exposed; those who are heavy
users will continue to be relatively heavily exposed. Table 18.4 demonstrates quintile distributions for two levels of radio usage.
The "5 station" level is composed of a schedule of 18 spots (announcements) placed on each station; the "10 station'' schedule
also has 18 spots on each station. Comparing these two schedules, we see that the 10 station schedule produces:
twice as many spots (index of 200)
68 percent more GRPs
a 54 percent greater reach
a 9 percent increase in average frequency
TABLE 18.4: Quintile Distribution of Two Levels of Radio Usage
5 Stations 10 Stations
Quintile Reach Frequency Reach Frequency Index
Lightest 6.4 1.0 9.9 1.0 100
Next 6.4 1.6 9.9 1.8 113
Next 6.4 2.6 9.9 2.8 108
Next 6.4 4.1 9.9 4.5 110
Heaviest 6.4 7.3 9.9 7.8 107
Total 32.0 49.5 154
Average 3.3 3.6 109
GRPs 106 178 168
# Spots 90 180 200

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a relatively flat increase in frequency across each of the listening quintilescertainly flatter than that exhibited for the previous
media mix of magazines added to television.
Predefined Quintiles
All of the quintile distributions displayed so far have been based on specific media schedules in each of the various media
forms. All have also been devised using the frequency distribution of those schedules. Many syndicated media research
companies report media audiences by quintile (or equivalent), but these designations do not necessarily jibe with the quintile
distribution that will be obtained for a specific media schedule. Syndicated research companies classify audiences into one or
another quintile based on their findings of media consumption intensitieseither by arraying segments, each of which
encompasses 20 percent of the population base, and determining their overall level of media consumption, or by defining an
array of media intensity and determining the portion of the population within that array. Shown in Table 18.5 is an example of
two major syndicated research reports listing their definitions of each quintile for magazine readership along with the
corresponding percent of total U.S. population within each segment. If you use this information in planning a media schedule,
you need to understand that different sources reveal different information, and that overall general information may or may not
indicate the quintile distribution of a specific media schedule.
TABLE 18.5: Quintile Definitions Used by Syndicated
ResearchersWomen 18 and Older
Number of Issues In a Month
I (Heavy) II III IV V(Light)
MRI 18+ 11-17 7-10 3-6 2 or less
Simmons 10+ 6-9 4-5 2-3 1 or less
Percent of Total Reading Audience
I (Heavy) II III IV V (Light)
MRI 20.0 20.0 20.0 20.0 20.0
Simmons 20.4 23.8 18.6 19.8 17.5

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Why Quintile Distributions Are Used
Quintile distributions are a better descriptor of frequency among different groups of people than average frequency, but less
discriminating than a complete frequency distribution. Nevertheless, quintile distributions are used to assess the dynamics of a
media scheduleto determine the impact of a second medium, and sometimes to decide when an additional commercial or
advertisement should be put into the pool of creative executions. This last notion is discussed in the next section under the
general description of commercial "wearout."
1. What is the reach of the heaviest viewing quintile in a TV
schedule that produces a 50 reach overall?
2. What is the reach of the lightest viewing tertile in a magazine
plan that produces a 75 reach overall?
3. Having the following quintile distribution data, what is the reach
for the missing segment (shown with an asterisk) for this 180 GRP
schedule?
Quintile F R
I 1.0 20
II 2.0 15
III 5.0 10
W 8.0 5
V 10.0 *
4. If you have abase plan using only one medium, what will
happen to the lightest quintile if you add more of the same
medium? If you add a second medium?
5. If the lightest quintile of medium A represents a 10/2.0 and the
lightest quintile of medium B represents a 10/2.0, what will the
lightest quintile of the combined schedule be?

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Chapter 19
Effective Reach
In this chapter we go beyond the basic concepts of reach and frequency by
combining these separate terms into one media dynamic known as effective
reach. We show how effective reach is calculated by using a frequency
distribution. We examine the various patterns of effective reach which
emerge through the use of alternative media schedules. We discuss possible
answers to a question that has plagued advertisers: How much frequency is
enough? We conclude with a discussion on advertising wearout by
reviewing pertinent research conducted on the issue and by demonstrating
some techniques for deciding the proper level of effective reach.
Effective Reach The number or percentage of a population group reached by a media schedule at a
given level of frequency.
Effective Frequency The level of exposure frequency at which reach is deemed "effectively" delivered.
See Effective Reach.
We have spoken of total reach, average frequency, frequency distribution, and quintile distribution. All of these are obviously
interrelated and basically address the same thing: the quantity and intensity of potential advertising exposures. From a numerical
standpoint the aim of the media planner is to maximize this total exposureto provide the most delivery per dollar invested.
Maximization of exposure opportunities goes beyond delivering reach and frequency. It involves reaching people with
frequency. Enter the media dynamic known as effective reachoften also called effective frequency. It is the percent (or number)
of people reached by a media schedule at a frequency level deemed effective.
This effective frequency level is not the overall average frequency nor the average frequency within any quintile. It is the
frequency level that you have defined as being the right level to get

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your creative message across to the consumer. You might decide, for example, that you must reach people with your advertising
message at least three times within a four-week period for them to absorb the message and take action as a result of this
absorption action such as buying the product you are advertising. If a 3.0 frequency is your chosen level of effectiveness, you
will analyze alternative media combinations to select that combination that delivers the most reach among people who will be
exposed at least three times. Those reached one or two times (frequency level of 1.0 and 2.0) will be considered ineffectively
reached and are therefore excluded from your analysis.
Calculating effective reach is an offshoot of a frequency distribution. Table 19.1 shows the frequency distribution we derived for
200 women 18+ GRPs scheduled in primetime TV (on the left side of the table), with the effective levels on the right. The
effective levels are listed as ''reach at each level." For example, the total reach of this schedule is 64.9 percentthat is, 64.9
percent of women will be exposed to one or more commercial announcements. Moving down this distribution we see that 44.3
percent will be exposed two or more times, 30.4 percent three or more times, etc. These "or more" reach levels are tabulated by
adding the reach at each frequency level starting at the bottom and working up: 3.6
TABLE 19.1: Frequency Distribution Schedule: 200 W18+ GRPs
in Primetime
Reach at Each Reach at Each
Frequency Level Frequency Level
1 20.6 1+ 64.9
2 13.9 2+ 44.3
3 9.7 3+ 30.4
4 6.8 4+ 20.7
5 4.7 5+ 13.9
6 3.3 6+ 9.2
7 2.3 7+ 5.9
8+ 3.6 8+ 3.6
Total 64.9
Average
frequency 3.1

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percent will be exposed eight or more times, added to 2.3 percent exposed only seven times equals 5.9 percent who will be
exposed seven or more times. If you have decided that a "three or more" frequency level is effective, you can determine that this
schedule delivers a 30.4 percent reach to women who will be exposed at the 3+ level.
Using the frequency distributions tabulated in the previous section, Table 19.2 shows that "reach at 3+" varies from one daypart
to anotherjust as total reach and average frequency vary. The primetime schedule has a 30 reach at 3+, daytime has a 25 reach,
early fringe has 19, etc. If you needed to decide which of these dayparts should be selected for your media plan (all other
variables held constant) you would select primetimeit has the highest 3+ reach. Likewise, if you analyzed combinations of
dayparts (as shown in the lower half of Table 19.2), with each combination delivering 200 GRPs, you would select either
daytime plus primetime or prime access plus primetime, each delivering a 3+ reach of 31.
TABLE 19.2: Effective Reach at Constant GRPs
+Additional
GRPs Prime R/F Reach @ 3+Reach @ 6+
Day 200 47/4.2 25 12
Early Fringe 200 29/6.8 19 12
Prime
Access 200 60/3.3 29 11
Prime 200 65/3.1 30 9
Late Fringe 200 41/4.9 22 12
Day 100 100 67/3.0 31 9
Early Fringe 100 100 62/3.2 30 10
Prime
Access 100 100 73/2.8 31 7
Late Fringe 100 100 67/3.0 30 9
Hypothetically, if you decided that a 6.0 frequency is the effective level you need to seek, you would choose 200 GRPs in
daytime, early fringe, or late fringe, each of which delivers the highest level of 6+ reach12.
We've noted, however, that you should not compare equal GRPs from one media schedule to another inasmuch as the costs
might

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differ. You need to determine affordability first and then calculate an effective reach. As demonstrated in Table 19.3, plans A, B,
C, and D each cost $60,000 and produce GRP levels ranging from 200 to 600. Although the all-daytime plan has the most
GRPs, and plans C and D both have the highest reach (at 1+), plan D is the clear winner on reach at 3+.
TABLE 19.3: Effective ReachPlan ComparisonsEqual
ExpendituresMarket X
Cost
Plan A Plan B Plan C Plan D
Daytime $ $60,000 $15,000 $30,000
Primetime 60,000 45,000 30,000
Total $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000
Women 18+ Delivery
Plan A Plan B Plan C Plan D
Daytime 600 150 300
Primetime 200 150 100
Total 200 600 300 400
R/F 65/3.1 55/11.0 75/4.0 75/5.3
Reach at 3+ 30 38 43 48
Bear in mind that the effective reach concept applies to all media. Just as all media can be analyzed on the basis of total reach/
frequency, they can be analyzed on effective reach levels. Also keep in mind that when combining media, some people who are
exposed at the 1.0 level for medium A and the 1.0 level for medium B move into the 2.0 level for a combination of both media
(i.e., receive two exposures from either medium A or B or both). Table 19.4 shows frequency distributions for two schedulesone
encompassing 200 GRPs in TV and the other one a schedule for one insertion in each of seven women's magazines. You'll note
that in the combination the percent reached at the 1.0 level is less than the reach obtained by either medium alone.

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TABLE 19.4: Media Mix Frequency Distribution
Women Reach at Each Level
Frequency TV Magazines Combined
1 21 19 16
2 14 12 15
3 10 8 12
4 7 6 10
5 5 4 8
6+ 8 4 23
Total 63 53 84
Average Frequency 3.1 2.6 4.0
GRPs 200 137 337
How Much Frequency Is Enough?

The often asked question is: How much frequency constitutes effective frequency . . . how much is enough? The simple truth is
that no one knows the answer. This underscores the importance of being totally conversant in the science of media planning and
using judgment to adapt scientific (quantitative and qualitative) data to create what you believe is the best media plan. As to the
scientific component, the following discussion reviews popular thoughts and research on how much frequency might be needed
to Constitute effectiveness.
Many in-market and laboratory studies have addressed this questiondating as far back as 1947, when a steering committee
representing business publications attempted to determine whether the same ad could be run more than once without losing
effectiveness. Interestingly, modem research studies incorporate the same human memory dynamics that Herman Ebbinghaus
investigated in 1885before advertising (as we know it) existed. Ebbinghaus made up lists of nonsense syllables, memorized
them, and then tested his memory capability by recording how little or how much he could remember after certain periods of
time had lapsed. This learning process required repetitive reviews of the nonsense syllableseither all at once, or over a period of
time. Such review

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is identical to what we now call frequency. Ebbinghaus found that the more frequent the review of the syllables, the greater the
buildup of memory retention: as he stated, the forgetting rate of human memory decelerates with repetition. While this is an
argument for more frequency, rather than less, in a media plan, it is not a statement on the definitive level of frequency required
for effective communication.
We can refer to several other studies to help decide the question. Stephen Greyser1 outlined a six-stage sequence for how
consumers respond to commercials. His stages are:
1. Exposure to the message on several occasions prior to serious attention (given some basic interest in the product to begin
with)
2. Interest in the advertisement on either substantive (informative) or stimulus (enjoyment) grounds
3. Continued but declining attention to the ad
4. Mentally tuning out the message due to familiarity
5. Increasing re-awareness of the ad, now as a negative stimulus
6. Growing irritation
These presumptions could also be expressed as shown in Exhibit 19.1, which is based on the work conducted by Leon
Jacobovits2. He identifies three stages:
Learning involves taking from the commercial new knowledge or information which is valuable, interesting or relevant;
Satiation is the absorption and comprehension of all the elements of the commercial message;
Decay sets in after the satiation period, which can lead to irritation: the consumer knows all he or she needs to know of the
message, does not need more stimulation, and probably doesn't want it.
The satiation area is the ideal frequency rangestarting at some minimum level after sufficient learning has taken place, and
ending at some later point on the frequency scale before decay sets in. Alvin Achenbaum3 refers to this satiation range as
Effective Rating Points (ERPs). Given that this sequence of events "makes sense," the next step for determining effective
frequency level

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Exhibit 19.1:
Effective Frequency Range
is quantifying the frequency level at each of the critical satiation points. We also need to understand that the corollary to
remembering is forgetting.
Ebbinghaus found that after one week, 75 percent of "learned" information was forgotten; after four weeks 95 percent was not
remembered. Hubert Zielske4 also investigated learning and forgetting (in 1959 for print media and, joined by Walter Henry,
again in 1980 for television advertising). A summary of the 1980 findings appears in Exhibit 19.2. The graph shows the unaided
recall level obtained by various scheduling patterns, each totalling 1,300 GRPs. The first schedule, for example, allocated 100
GRPs per week for 13 consecutive weeks. This schedule achieved the highest recall score, but was followed by a rapid decay
rate which ended in week 52 with the lowest recall of any of the studied

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schedules. Other scheduling patterns produced varying recall/decay patternsall producing accelerated recall during advertised
weeks and decelerated recall (decay) during hiatuses. The major point that relates to an effective level of frequency is that
without frequent repetition, the learning curve accelerates slowly; with frequent repetition, recall accumulates more rapidly.
Exhibit 19.2:
Summary of Five 1,300 Rating-Point Schedules

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Effectiveness = 3+
A very popular notion is that a frequency of three or more is the ideal level. Much of this theory is based on the work of Herbert
Krugman5, who in 1972 postulated that the first two segments of the learning-satiation-decay sequence required just three
exposures, which he entitled ''What is it," "What of it," and ''The true reminder." To use the author's words in describing this
concept:
Exposure No. 1 is by definition unique. Like the first exposure of anything, the reaction is dominated by a "what is it?"
type cognate responsei.e., the first response is to understand the nature of the stimulus.
The second exposure to a stimulus has several implicit qualities. One is that the cognitive "What is it?" response can be
replaced by a more evaluative and personal "What of it?" response. Another element . . . is the startled recognition
response, "Ah ha, I've seen this before!" So the second exposure is the one where personal responses and evaluationsthe
"sale" so to speakoccurs.
By the third exposure the viewer knows he has been through this "What is it?" and the "What of it," and the third
becomes, then, the true reminderthat is, if there is some consequence of the earlier evaluations yet to be fulfilled. But it is
also the beginning of disengagement, of withdrawal of attention from a completed task.
I suggest that this pattern holds true for all larger number of exposures. That is, most people filter or screen-out TV
commercials at any one time by stopping at the "What is it?" response, without further personal involvement. The same
person, months later, and suddenly in the market for the product in question, might see and experience the 23rd exposure
to the commercial as if it were the second. That is, now the viewer is able to go further into the nature of his or her
reaction to the commercialand then the 24th and probably the 25th might finish off that sequence with no further reaction
to subsequent exposures.
Krugman's "three-hit" theory gained further popularity in 1979 when Michael Naples6 authored a review, appraisal, and
summary of studies and key case histories concerned with frequency and its effects. Naples' conclusions are these:

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1. One exposure of an advertisement to a target group consumer within a purchase cycle has little or no effect in all but a
minority of circumstances.
2. Since one exposure is usually ineffective, the central goal of productive media planning should be to place emphasis on
enhancing frequency rather than reach.
3. The weight of evidence suggests strongly that an exposure frequency of two within a purchase cycle is an effective level.
4. By and large, optimal exposure frequency appears to be at least three exposures within a purchase cycle.
5. Beyond three exposures within a brand purchase cycle, or over a period of four or even eight weeks . . . increasing frequency
continues to build advertising effectiveness at a decreasing rate, but with no evidence of a decline.
6. The frequency-of-exposure data from this review strongly suggests that wearout is not a function of too much frequency per
se.
7. . .. very large and well-known brandsand/or those with dominant market shares in their categories and dominant shares of
category advertising weightappear to differ markedly in response to frequency of exposure from smaller or more average brands.
8. Perhaps as a result of the differing exposure environments of television dayparts, frequency of exposure . . . has a differential
effect on advertising response by daypart.
9. . .. the amount of money a brand spends on advertising as a percent of total category advertising expenditures has a significant
positive effect on brand users' purchase probabilities.
10. Nothing we have seen suggests that frequency response principles or generalizations vary by medium.
11. Although there are general principles with respect to frequency of exposure and its relationship to advertising effectiveness,
differential effects by brand are equally important.
12. . .. the leverage of different equal-expenditure media plans in terms of frequency response can be substantial.

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At this point you might conclude that a frequency of three is the minimum level that is required to effectively communicate with
consumers. There are, nevertheless, a number of variables that might have an impact on your decision. Joseph Ostrow7 put a
handle on these variables by outlining how a media planner should think about frequency requirements for a specific product or
service. He sees three major considerations (clusters) involved in this decision-making process. Placing your brand on the left or
right side of his matrix, shown in Table 19.5, can help you decide which proportionate level of frequency is most appropriate.
A review of Ostrow's list of considerations clearly points to the fact that any preconceived frequency level, be it 1, 3, 3+, or
anything in between, cannot apply to every advertising message in every situation. Nevertheless, you might still decide, absent
of any counterargument, that 3+ is the place to bebut you will have to consider yet another phenomenon before exercising that
decision. We must keep in mind that all media frequencies reflect exposure to the medium, not necessarily to the advertising
within that medium. A frequency of three as reported in media analyses is the "opportunity to see" (OTS) three commercial
messagesnot necessarily the conclusive and absolute number that the consumer will see.
Here again we embark on a journey of trying to understand consumer behavior as it relates to media consumption and the
consumption of advertising within the media to which consumers are exposed. And here again no one knows what portion of the
people who are part of the media audience actually watch the commercial (or actually read an advertisement or listen to a radio
commercial, etc.). We can, however, look to syndicated research, customized studies, or proprietary research for guidelines that
are based on past performance of specific creative executions within particular marketplace conditions. All of these guidelines,
of course, are based on a sampling of the population, not the entire population. Notwithstanding these limitations, judgment
suggests that some portion of the people in a medium's audience do not watch the commercial, or do not pay sufficient attention
to it to warrant being counted as exposed. One such indicator is shown in Table 19.6. The Simmons Market Research Bureau
reports on the levels of attentiveness to TV programming claimed by the

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TABLE 19.5: Ostrow's Frequency Matrix
Marketing Cluster:
Low Frequency High Frequency
Established brand New brand
High brand share Low brand share
Dominant brand Small, lesser known brand
Loyal users Sometime users
Long purchase cycle Short purchase cycle
Occasional use Dally, more often use
Low competition level Highly competitive environment
Adultold target Childrenteen target
Message Cluster:
Simple message Complex message
Unique message Non-unique message
Continuing campaign New campaign
Product sell Image appeal
Small ad unit pool Large ad unit pool
High wear-out potential Longer-wearing message
Large ad unit Small, short ad unit
Media Cluster:
Uncluttered medium Heavy clutter
Complementary editorial Neutral editorial environment
environment Low-attention vehicle
High-attention vehicle Pulsed on flighted schedule
Continuous schedule Many media
Fewer media Single exposure per vehicle
Repeat exposure per vehicle
respondents in their serf-administered questionnaire. For example, of all the adults 18 and older who claim to be part of the
early morning TV audience, 9 percent say they are generally out of the room during the telecasts, 54 percent claim to pay some
attention, and only 37 percent claim to pay full attention.

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TABLE 19.6: Attentiveness of TV Program Viewing by
DaypartAdults 18+
Average 1/2 Hour Full Some Out of
Audience Attention Attention Room
Early
Morning 100% 37 54 9
Daytime 100 57 39 4
Early
Fringe 100 58 38 4
Prime 100 69 29 2
Late
Fringe 100 69 29 2
Average 100 62 35 3
Source: Simmons, 1990
If you are running an average (though effective) commercial, in an average schedule in TV across many dayparts, in an average
competitive marketplace, you might conclude that only 62 percent of the people watching the TV programs in which you have
placed your commercial might pay full attention. Conceivably, the percentage paying full attention to your commercial could be
more or less than 62 percent, but let's stick with this ratio for the purpose of demonstration. Applying this 62 percent to a desired
3+ frequency level would lead you to need a 5+ media exposure frequency:
5
frequency(Media audience OTS)
× 62% (Possible "full attention" exposure to
your commercial)
3 (Effective frequency level)
frequency
A decision to choose a particular effective frequency level is not easy to make. It is, nevertheless, important to make a choice.
To not decide on a level is to decide that it does not matterand evidence Suggests it very much matters. Regardless of the level
that is chosen, it appears that you would be better off to be roughly right than exactly wrongbetter to go for something in the
range of a 2+ or 3+ or 4+ level than to just settle for a 1+ level. But even after you make this decision, you need to concern
yourself with the

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"+" portion of the effective frequency levelthat is, how much frequency is too much.
Wearout
Wearout A level of frequency, or a point in time, when an advertising message loses its ability to
effectively communicate.
There are many definitions for wearout, and all address the same phenomenon. For example, wearout can be seen as:
Where decay sets in. Referring back to our learning-satiation-decay curve, there probably is a point at which the consumer has
absorbed as much as he or she needs to (or wants to). Any additional exposure beyond this point is wasteful and possibly
harmful to the advertised product.
Communication inability. There is a level at which a commercial is felt to lose its ability to communicate, persuade, or create
positive attitudes. Further exposure beyond this point can be considered to have either a negative or, at best, a neutral effect.
Non-achievement of goals. "A commercial wears out when it fails to achieve the campaign goal as it has before."8
Whether you use one of the definitions above or one of your own, the logical fact remains that there is most probably a
maximum frequency level within the effective reach concept. Effective reach may start (for example) at the 3.0 frequency level,
but it certainly ends somewhere before infinity.
Specifying this finite maximum is impossible. A host of variables, many of which are also important in defining the minimum
level, come into play when thinking about the maximum. We can speculate, with some confidence in our judgment, that
wearout occurs for different individuals at different points in time (in the frequency continuum) depending on their
demographics and lifestyle characteristics, the creative execution, their propensity to be within the product's consumption group,
the number of competitive product advertisements to which they are exposed, etc. Nevertheless, there are some indications of
what this maximum level might be.

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The findings of various major research studies are shown in the following table:
Wearout Point
(The pointfrequency at which
"satiation" passes into the
"decay" stage.)
Marplan 15
Research
Communications 13-14
Research
Tele Research 15-20
Market 20-25
Evaluation
Study
Benton & 20
Bowles
TVC 12
Procter & 20-25

Gamble
It is not an uncommon practice to use information like the above, tied to a quintile distribution, to decide the point of wearout
for a given advertising campaign. Table 19.7, for example, shows a television schedule that produces a 25.0 frequency among
the heaviest-viewing 20 percent of the total reach. If a 25 frequency is considered the maximum level of effective
communication that is, a 26 frequency is the point where decay startsthen the commercial(s) being used in this campaign have
worn out, suggesting that a new commercial, or pool of commercials (or a print ad, etc.) should be produced. There are several
factors to consider, however, in making this decision:
TABLE 19.7: Wearout Based on Quintile
Distribution
Quintile Reach Frequency
Heaviest 19 25.0
Next 19 12.1
Next 19 7.2
Next 19 4.2
Lightest 19 1.9
Total/Average 95 10.1
1. All the research conducted on the subject of wearout was for specific commercial executions under specific conditions and
may or may not apply to your product in your media choice and given your chosen schedule.

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2. The competitive environment (within the product or service category you are analyzing) is seldom stagnant. For example,
new products are constantly being introduced that add to the competition and also to the absolute amount of advertising to
which the consumer will be exposed. If you assume that wearout begins with the 26th exposure (for example) in the average
situation, might it begin at the 12th exposure in a highly competitive marketplace . . . or at the 50th exposure in an
extraordinarily noncompetitive environment?
3. Based on Ebbinghaus (and others), we've seen that the duration of time between exposures can affect learning and recall. To
say that 25 exposures constitutes wearout without considering the amount of time between exposures is to deny the scientific
data at hand. Put yourself in the consumer's seat and then decide if a good commercial will wear out if you've seen it 25 times in
a year. Consider that 25 times a year translates to once every 14-15 days, or once every 233.6 of your total wakeful hours
(assuming you sleep eight hours a day), or conceivably to one commercial message out of the 300-1,000 you might be exposed
to in an average day across all media forms.
4. Assessing the amount of frequency delivered to only the heaviest viewing quintile eliminates, by default, consideration for all
other quintilesi.e., the remaining 80 percent of the people reached by your advertising schedule. The question is: are the people
within the heaviest quintile your best prospects, or are there better prospects in other quintiles? If the answer is other quintiles,
then your decision on wearout at the 26th exposure level is premature, given that other quintiles will not be exposed nearly this
many times.
Methods for Analyzing Effective Reach

There are basically two methods you can use in this evaluation processthe first very straightforward; the second requiring value
judgments:
1. Decide the minimum and maximum frequency level you deem "effective" and calculate the reach within these ranges. Using
Table 19.8, for example, if you decide that the effective range is from 3.0 to 8.0 exposures, the schedule shown will generate a
28 reach.

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TABLE 19.8: Method #1Effective Reach
Frequency Women Reach Effective Reach
1.0 25%
2.0 20
3.0 10
4.0 5
Effective 5.0 5
Range 6.0 4 28
7.0 2
8.0 2
9.0 1
10.0 1
Total Reach 75
TABLE 19.9: Method #2Effective Reach

Frequency Women Reach x Value = Product
1.0 25% 50 12.5
2.0 20 75 15.0
3.0 10 100 10.0
4.0 5 100 5.0
5.0 5 100 5.0
6.0 4 100 4.0
7.0 2 100 2.0
8.0 2 100 2.0
9.0 1 0
10.0 1 0
Total Reach 75
Effective Reach 55.5
2.Assign a value to each frequency level (or range of frequency), using the value as a multiplier against reach to produce what
Jules Fine9 terms Real Effective Reach. As shown in Table 19.9, lower frequency levels receive lower values than those in the
3-10 range; frequency levels above 8.0 are given a zero

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value. By multiplying the reach at each frequency level by the predetermined value, and adding the products, you can
obtain effective reach. The values you use are up to you, based either on known information or informed judgment
Clearly, analyzing media alternatives on the basis of average reach/frequency is wanting. it is also clear that there are no rules as
to how much frequency is enoughor for that matter, how much reach is enough. As we have said before, however, to not decide
a level is to decide that it does not matterand evidence suggests it matters very much.
References
1. Greyser, Stephen A., "Irritation in Advertising," Journal of Advertising Research, April, 1980.
2.Jackobovits, Leon, "Semantic Satiation and Cognitive Dynamics," American Psychological Association meeting paper,
September, 1966.
3.Achenbaum, Alvin, "Effective Exposure: A New Way of Evaluating Media," Association of National Advertisers Workshop,
February, 1977.
4.Zielske, Hubert A., and Walter, A. Henry, "Remembering and Forgetting Television Ads," Journal of Advertising Research,
April, 1980.
5. Krugman, Herbert, "Why Three Exposures May Be Enough," Journal of Advertising Research, April, 1980.
6.Naples, Michael, Effective Frequency: The Relationship Between Frequency and Advertising Effectiveness, Association of
National Advertisers, 1978.
7.Ostrow, Joseph, Advertising Research Foundation Workshop, 1982.
8.Priemer, A. B., "You Can Measure Wearout; However...," Association of National Advertisers Workshop, February, 1981.
9.Fine, Jules, "Using Media Effectively," Marketing Communications, January/February, 1978.

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Chapter 20
Media Audience Definitions
Most of our previous discussion has centered on media audiences: how
different media vehicles produce different audience numbers (or percentages),
how audience accumulates over time or with repeated use of a medium, how
reach and frequency are affected by different combinations of media, and so
forth. We have referred to readers or viewers or listeners within a given
demographic groupwomen or men of a certain age, total people, etc. Although
we have spoken of the rating for program A or the readers of magazine B, we
did not discuss how that rating or number of readers came to be, nor did we
speak of the computation mechanics that led to the audience count with which
we Were dealing. This chapter will first concentrate on the definitions of what
an audience is in terms of demographics, product usage habits, and
psychographics. We will discuss two popular research studies that are used to
describe consumers. We will also introduce an increasingly popular analytical
device known as geodemography. In the latter part of the chapter we will
investigate how the major mass media report their audiences to demonstrate the
kinds of information with which a media planner deals in analyzing media
alternatives.

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Demography
Demography The study of the characteristics of population groups in terms of size, distribution, and
vital statistics.
The first part of understanding media audiences requires you to understand demography. Demography is the study of the
characteristics of populations related to age, sex, income, education level, and a host of other descriptors. Demographic analyses
permeate marketing and media planning. Nearly all investigations of a brand's strengths and weaknesses, and of a medium's
strengths and weaknesses, involve a critical analysis of how people consume the product and consume media. To make the right
decisions in choosing specific media, you must know who should be addressed in the media plan.
A copywriter who creates an ad may have a great deal of latitude in defining the audience for whom the advertising is being
created. It's not uncommon, for example, to define a target audience in terms of one person, such as ''a 30-year-old man,
married with one child 11 years old, who has a white collar job, earns $40,000 a year, and enjoys playing racquetball.'' This is
all well and good, on two counts. First, advertising indeed is talking to one person at a time. The message is usually
personal"you" should know this or do that, not "all people within your general demographic group" should know this or do that.
Secondly, the copywriter does not have to be concerned, per se, with how media deliver their audiences or what information is
available to find specific audiences within each media type.
The fact is, however, you are inhibited from addressing a specific person when you are trying to choose media to carry the
copywriter's advertising. There is no media audience information available for a particular person, only for groups of people
who share general demographic descriptions. You will not find, for example, how many 30-year-old men read a magazine or
view a TV program. You will have to place the specific target audience within a broader group, such as men who are age 18-34
or 25-34, because these age groupings are the only kinds are audience data available to you.
Demographic descriptions are available from many sources, not the least of which is the Bureau of the Census. Many of these
sources are discussed in the next chapter. All provide data on the basis of demographic cells (specified groupings of particular
population groups, such as men 18-34 or men in households with incomes of $30,000-$49,999). The cells reported by the
various media are relatively consistent from one medium to another,

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allowing audience evaluations to be made against the same groups of people by medium. The reason groupings of people are
reported has to do mostly with research sampling techniques and reliability of the reported data (which is discussed more fully in
a later chapter).
Product Users
Although demographic studies are important in your planning process, they are usually considered of secondary importance to
studies that define product users, or users of products within a given category. An assessment of product users is a more
effective method of analysis because media selection is predicated on the ability to reach very specific groups of people who are
most apt to purchase a particular product or service.
A product user study can give you a more precise definition of each medium's ability to reach these users. If you are advertising
tennis shoes, for example, you certainly would want to reach men and women 18-34 years old, as this demographic group has
an above-average propensity to buy tennis shoes. The inference is that if you advertise to this group you have a better than
average chance of talking to people who are likely to buy your tennis shoes. With a product user study showing how many
people within the audience of each medium actually buy tennis shoes, however, you have an even better chance of finding the
specific people you want to reach.
Although user profiles are more useful, and directionally more precise, than demographic profiles, they are not always reported
by syndicated research sources, nor are they necessarily available for all media. You might find that tennis shoe buyers are
reported for a long list of magazines, but not for network TV or radio; you might find they are reported for broad television
dayparts, but not for specific programs. To the extent you can find user information, you should use it. But you certainly should
not select one medium versus another simply because this kind of information is available for one medium but not another.

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Psychographics/Lifestyles
Lifestyle Pertains to the nondemographic characteristics of people in describing their behavior (e.g.,
recreational habits).
It is becoming increasingly common to view consumers as more than their demographic descriptors or product consumption
patterns, and to group or categorize them according to various pyschometricstheir lifestyles and attitudes. Descriptions of two
psychographic research suppliers follow.
Simmons
Psychographics Pertains to the identification of personality characteristics and attitudes that affect a
person's lifestyle and purchasing behavior.
In addition to reporting on the product and media consumption patterns of more than 20,000 adults in the United States,
Simmons Market Research Bureau provides information on self concepthow a person views himself or herself. Interviewees are
asked to rate themselves on 60 adjectives using a five-point scale: 1"agree a lot", 2"agree a little," etc. Grouping like adjectives,
Simmons reports up to 20 psychological descriptors for which the interviewee scored "1" and/or "2,'' as follows:
Affectionate: passionate, loving, romantic
Amicable: amiable, affable, benevolent
Awkward: absentminded, forgetful, careless
Brave: courageous, daring, adventuresome
Broadminded:openminded, liberal, tolerant
Creative: inventive, imaginative, artistic
Dominating: authoritarian, demanding,
aggressive
Efficient: organized, diligent, thorough
Egocentric: vain, self-centered, narcissistic
Frank: straightforward, outspoken, candid
Funny: humorous, amusing, witty
Intelligent: smart, bright, well-informed
Hind: good-hearted, warm-hearted, sincere
Refined: gracious, sophisticated, dignified
Reserved: conservative, quiet, conventional
Self-Assured: confident, self-sufficient, secure
Sociable: friendly, cheerful, likeable
Stubborn: hardheaded, headstrong, obstinate
Tense: nervous, high-strung, excitable
Trustworthy: competent, reliable, responsible

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It is important to note that a person's self view is not necessarily the true psychological makeup of that person. Had Simmons
queried respondents on tendencies toward child abuse, for example, it is doubtful that anyone would "agree a lot." Despite the
possible polarity of self concept and "real behavior," it is believed that as one projects his or her personality he or she is
influenced by stimuli that contain similar personality traits. A person who wants to think of himself as passionate will probably
be positively stimulated by a display of passionate behavior in advertising.
By cross-tabulating the self concept data with product and/ or media consumption habits, not only could you provide a more
enhanced description of your target audience, you could also have the basis for selecting media forms and specific media
vehicles beyond what is obtainable through usual and conventional forms of demographic and product usage analysis.
Vals 2
VALS 2 A research study developed by SRI International which describes eight distinct population
groups according to their Values and Lifestyles.
Another research supplier is SRI International, which developed VALS 2 (Values and Lifestyles), a consumer segmentation
system. Based on a national probability sample, the system divides the adult consumer population into eight mutually exclusive
segments; all consumers can be assigned to one of these eight types. The types are arrayed within a framework that defines
fundamental contrasts in consumer attitudes and behavior based on the pattern of relationships between psychological and
demographic attributes and consumer behavior. Table 20.1 displays some basic descriptors for each of these eight segments.
Two syndicated media research suppliers (Mediamark Research, Inc. and Simmons Market Research Bureau) include the basic
VALS 2 questionnaire as part of self-administrated questionnaires they use to obtain marketing and media consumption data for
their research reports. Because the Mediamark and Simmons consumer panel respo nds to the VALS 2 questionnaire,
marketing and media data can be cross-tabulated with VALS 2 lifestyle descriptors. For example, you can determine how many
Actualizers use product X, or how many readers of magazine A are Achievers, or how many Believers use product Y and view
program B.
Following Table 20.1 is a synopsis of each VALS 2 segment.

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TABLE 20.1: Demographic Characteristics of VALS 2 Segments
% Adult Median % Some % White %
Population Age College Collar Married
Segment
Actualizer 8% 43 95% 68% 72%
Fulfilled 11 48 81 50 73
Believer 16 58 6 11 70
Achiever 13 36 77 43 73
Striver 13 34 23 19 60
Experiencer 12 26 41 21 34
Maker 13 30 24 19 65
Struggler 14 61 3 2 47
Source: 1987 Leading Edge survey; SRI International
ActualizersSuccessful, sophisticated, active, take-charge people with high self-esteem. They are among the established and
emerging leaders in business and government. Their self-image focuses on personal growth and they seek to develop, explore,
and express themselves in a variety of ways, enjoying challenges in all areas of their lives. They have a wide range of interests,
are concerned with social issues, are open to change, and have a global perspective. Image is importantnot as evidence of status
or power, but as an expression of taste, independence, and character. Their lives are characterized by richness and diversity.
They show a cultivated taste for the "finer things in life." As innovators, they like to try new products and services. Their
widespread interests are evidenced by the variety of magazines they read. They are light TV viewers who favor informational
and public affairs programs.
FulfilledsMature, satisfied, comfortable people who value order, knowledge, and responsibility. They are well-informed about
world and national events and are alert to opportunities to broaden their knowledge. They have a moderate respect for the status
quo, institutions of authority, and social decorum, but are open-minded about new ideas and social change. They tend to rely on
strongly held principles in their choices and decisions, and many present an appearance of calm self-assurance. Content with
their careers, families, and station in life, their leisure activities tend to center around their homes. They are conservative and
practical consumers. Prestige and image are less important than functionality, value, and

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durability in the products they buy. Many of the products they buy center around the home. Exhibiting a varied media
consumption pattern, their reading encompasses books and magazines of general interest, home and garden, epicurean and news.
Their TV viewing includes public affairs and prime-time programs.
BelieversConventional people with concrete beliefs and strong attachments to traditional institutions: family, church,
community, and nation. Many express moral codes that are deeply learned and literally interpreted. They enjoy settled,
comfortable, predictable lifestyles that follow established routines which are organized around their homes, families, and groups
to which they belong. They are politically and socially conservative people who are reasonably well informed. As consumers,
they are conservative, predictable, and slow to change. They tend to favor American products and established brands. They are
cost-conscious consumers who watch for sales and bargain prices. They watch TV and read magazines on home and garden,
health, retirement, and topics of general interest.
AchieversSuccessful career and work-oriented people who value hard work, responsibility, structure, and predictability in their
lives. They seek recognition and acknowledgement for their achievements. Their lives are structured around family and
business. They are politically moderate, respect authority, and are content with the status quo. Image is important to them. They
like their success to be reflected in the products they buypremium, prestigious products and services. They read a variety of
magazines including those on news, business, and home and family, and are average TV viewers.
StriversSeek motivation, self-definition and approval from the world around them. Many are fascinated with status and power.
Money defines success for many, who never feel that they have enough of it. They are easily bored and have difficulty
controlling their impulses. They are uninformed about current and world events and feel powerless to effect political change.
They follow fashions, trends, and fads. They are impressed by what others own and often emulate them, but lack financial
resources to keep up. Purchases of clothes and personal care products keep their credit card balances high. They read selected
lifestyle magazines and view the top ten TV programs.

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ExperiencersYoung, vital, enthusiastic, impulsive, and rebellious. They seek experiences, savoring the new, offbeat and the
risky. They are still in the process of formulating life values and patterns of behavior. Their energy finds an outlet in exercise,
sports, outdoor recreation, and social activities. At this stage in their lives, they are politically uncommitted, uninformed, and
highly ambivalent about what they believe. As avid consumers they spend a high proportion of their disposable income on
clothing, beer, fast food, music, film, and video. They are impulse buyers. They read sports, lifestyle, and fashion magazines,
are ardent rock music fans, and enjoy TV and movies.
MakersValue self-sufficiency and live their lives within a traditional context of family, practical work, and physical recreation.
They epitomize the do-it-yourselfer and fixer of the world and have sufficient skill, income, and energy to carry out their plans.
They are politically conservative, suspicious of new ideas, and respectful of government intrusion on individual rights. They are
practical consumers, unimpressed by luxury, status, or image. They base their purchases on practical or functional aspects of
products such as comfort, durability, and utility. They prefer prime-time action programs on TV and read magazines on topics
such as automobiles, home mechanics, and outdoor activities.
StrugglersDeprived of many economic, social, and emotional resources, their lives are focused on coping with the present
moment. Many are burdened by old age and health concerns. They are politically conservative and feel powerless to influence
others. They rely on organized religion for moral direction. They are cautious consumers but are strongly brand-loyal in the
products they buy. Their purchases are limited to essentials. They are heavy TV viewers and read tabloids and women's service
publications.
Based on the concept that people tend to live near others who share similar demographic and lifestyle characteristics ("birds of a
feather flock together"), geodemography focuses on the statistical similarities of people in neighborhoods. Although all
individuals are different, members of a small neighborhood unit often share

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certain characteristics such as income, education, housing type, and presence (or absence) of children. Households within these
areas also tend to exhibit similar purchasing patterns. Knowing which geographic segments people reside withinand therefore
knowing something about their demographics, lifestyle characteristics, and product and media consumption habitsyou have a
yardstick for predicting how they will behave as consumers and how they might react to advertising stimuli.
Geodemographic areas are quite different from all the basic geographic areas which will be discussed in Chapter 22,
"Geographic Areas." The other areas are based, for example, on "who can receive a TV signal" or "what the social and
economic relationship is of people living in and around a central city." Geodemographic definitions go well beyond basic
descriptors and include hundreds of demographic/lifestyle variables.
Geodemographics The demographic description of people living in specific geographic areas.
Statisically, geodemography is the grouping, or clustering, of descriptive variables (demography, consumer behavior, etc.)
whereby each neighborhood in the United States is placed into one of many classifications. There are four geodemographic
segmentation systems (also called "cluster," "lifestyle," and "neighborhood" systems) available: "ClusterPLUS,'' a product of
Donnelley Marketing Information Systems, "PRIZM,'' a product of Claritas: The Target Marketing Company, "ACORN" from
CACI, and "Microvision" from National Decision Systems.
All of the companies offer linkage to some of the databases of other specialty research firmsArbitron, MRCA, MRI, NFO,
Nielsen, BPD, Simmons, and others (see Chapter 21, "Media Audience Research"). The cluster system owners are given
geocoded listings of the survey respondents which are matched to the appropriate cluster codes based upon ZIP Code or
complete street address of the respondent. This marriage of data allows all forms of geographically coded marketing or media
data to be profiled and evaluated across geodemographic groups. A very simple example might be: if you input addresses for a
listing of retail outlets and defined their trading area as a ten-mile radius around each store, you could determine which
magazines or newspapers or TV programs or radio stations the people residing in that area most heavily consume, as well as
determining product and service consumption patterns for these people. The amount and kinds of information obtainable using a
geodemographic database married to marketing and/or media database is staggering.

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Following are brief descriptions of two widely used geo-demographic systems:
ClusterPLUS®
ClusterPLUS A geodemographic clustering system.
Donnelley developed ClusterPLUS lifestyles by analyzing 1600 characteristics of Census Block Groups. Subsequent analysis
resulted in 64 key demographic variables driving the cluster algorithm, which categorizes every neighborhood into one of 47
clusters. Each cluster can be found, for example, in many TV markets in varying concentrations representing minor to major
coverage of the TV market. Although the clusters are numbered 1 to 47 based on socioeconomic standing, this is but one
descriptive ingredient. Table 20.2 lists the 47 clusters and displays the index of concentration for only three of the 64
demographic variables. To give you an idea of the kind of information known about these clusters, the following provides an
enhanced description of two clusters:
Cluster 1. Characterized as the established wealthy, members enjoy the fruits of residing at the top of the socioeconomic scale.
Highly educated, higher-income professionals, these individuals are likely to reside in very-high-value homes in prime real
estate areas. Established members of the community, they are likely to be well settled in their neighborhoods. They have a
proportionately high preference for having an American Express Gold Card and other travel/entertainment cards, conducting
frequent stock transactions, purchasing imported beers and gourmet ice cream, and frequently taking foreign trips and playing
tennis.
Cluster 27. Contains slightly-below-average-income families living in single-family homes. Home values are generally lower,
reflective of their development in the fifties and sixtiesAmerica's suburban boomtown era. With incomes slightly below the
national average, these families have financial habits that suggest an effort to stretch their purchasing potential, making use of
home equity loans and bank lines of credit. They display an above-average preference for sugarless gum, health and beauty aids,
camping, bowling, and attending movies.

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TABLE 20.2: ClusterPLUS Clusters
Index of Concentration
Median
% U.S. Adult Household Median # Years
Population Income of Education
Median
Cluster Age
1 1.5 271 126 116
2 1.2 234 120 101
3 2.2 192 117 95
4 1.7 191 113 103
5 2.7 185 118 117
6 3.1 142 105 87
7 2.9 122 113 99
8 2.0 122 107 118
9 4.2 134 104 103
10 1.4 110 116 89
11 2.9 142 102 103
12 3.8 122 106 82
13 2.1 129 102 122
14 1.2 118 106 134
15 2.6 120 105 117
16 3.1 142 102 105
17 2.2 89 115 70
18 1.4 128 103 94
19 2.1 129 102 93
20 1.3 91 95 84
21 3.9 103 100 101
22 1.6 86 96 119
23 1.8 84 99 110
24 2.6 71 101 82
25 2.6 83 98 93
26 2. I 78 98 132
27 2.0 95 98 95
28 3.7 84 92 89
29 2.2 94 94 116
30 2.0 81 79 109
31 1.8 69 93 126
32 1.3 66 95 136
33 1.9 91 93 115
34 1.3 78 98 115
35 1.8 72 98 91
36 1.7 94 92 97
37 1.6 92 96 98
38 1.2 51 91 135
39 2.3 78 94 114
40 1.1 57 86 120
41 2.2 73 92 105
42 2.9 54 75 107
43 2.7 69 86 105
44 1.6 50 91 92
45 1.3 52 85 113
46 2.0 58 70 96
47 1.3 53 89 97
Total 40.0
U.S. 100.0% $24,533 12.2 Yrs. Yrs.
Source: Donnelley Marketing Information Systems

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Prizm
PRIZM A geodemographic clustering system.
Originally conceived and pioneered by Claritas in 1974, PRIZM is a market segmentation system that classifies every American
neighborhood into one of 40 basic clusters. In its initial seventies version, the clustering system was based on the geography of
the 37,000 five-digit ZIP codesPRIZM is an acronym for Potential Rating Index of ZIP Markets. Today, PRIZM is available for
5-digit ZIP codes, 9-digit ZIP codes, postal carrier routes, census tracts, and Census Block Groups/Block Numbering Areas.
Based on the combination of Census demographics and actual consumer behavior data since 1983, the most recent behaviorally
based update of PRIZM utilized over 500 million consumer records summarized to ZIP +4 and Census Block Group levels.
Table 20.3 lists some basic information about each of the 40 clusters. Thumbnail descriptions for two of these groups follow:
Blue Blood Estates These are America's wealthiest socioeconomic neighborhoods, populated by super-upper-established
managers, professionals, and heirs to "old money." They are accustomed to privilege and living in luxurious surroundings. One
in ten millionaires can be found in this cluster. They exhibit an above-average tendency to own United States Treasury notes
and Rolls Royces, visit Europe, downhill ski and drink bottled water and low-fat skim milk.
Shotguns and Pickups This is an aggregate of hundreds of small, outlying townships and crossroad villages which serve the
nation's breadbasket and other rural areas. It has a more easterly distribution than other clusters and shows peak indices for large
families with school-age children, headed by blue-collar craftsmen, equipment operators, and transport workers with high school
educations. These areas are home to many dedicated outdoorsmen. They exhibit an above-average likelihood of owning wood-
burning stoves and truck-mounted campers, drinking powdered soft drinks, and eating frozen potato products.

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TABLE 20.3: PRIZM Clusters
Index of Concentration
% U.S. Median % College
Households Income Graduates
ZQ* Title
Blue Blood
1 Estates 1.1 290 313
2 Money & Brains .9 189 281
Furs & Station
3 Wagons 3.2 206 235
4 Urban Gold Coast .5 152 312
5 Pools & Patios 3.4 148 174
6 Two More Rungs .7 129 175
7 Young Influentials 2.9 125 222
8 Young Suburbia 5.3 159 147
9 God's Country 2.7 151 159
10 Blue-Chip Blues 6.0 133 81
11 Bohemian Mix 1.1 90 240
12 Levittown, USA 3.1 118 97
13 Gray Power 2.9 104 113
14 Black Enterprise .8 137 99
15 New Beginnings 4.3 102 110
Blue-Collar
16 Nursery 2.2 124 63
New
17 Homesteaders 4.2 107 98
18 New Melting Pot .9 91 118
19 Towns & Gowns 1.2 74 170
20 Rank & File 1.4 108 57
21 Middle American 3.2 101 66
22 Old Yankee Rows 1.6 102 68
Coalburg &
23 Corntown 2.0 99 64
Shotguns &
24 Pickups 1.9 100 56
25 Golden Ponds 5.2 83 79
26 Agri-Business 2.1 88 71
Emergent
27 Minorities 1.7 91 66
28 Single City Blues 3.3 74 115
29 Mines & Mills 2.8 89 54
Back-Country
30 Folks 3.4 82 50
31 Norma Rae-Ville 2.3 76 59
Smalltown
32 Downtown 2.5 71 62
33 Grain Belt 1.3 89 52
34 Heavy Industry 2.8 76 40
35 Share Croppers 4.0 69 44
Downtown Dixie-
36 Style 3.4 63 66
37 Hispanic Mix 1.9 67 42
38 Tobacco Roads 1.2 55 45
39 Hard Scrabble 1.5 53 40
40 Public Assistance 3.1 45 39
Total
U.S. 100.0% $24,269 16.2%
*ZQ, or ZIP Quality, is a socioeconomic ranking based on Income,
home value, education and occupation.
Source: Claritas Corporation. PRIZM is a registered trademark of
Claritas Corporation, Alexandria, VA.

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How Media Report Audiences
We'll deal with only the five major media forms. We can divide these into three groups on the basis of their audiences, which
are roughly the same within each of the categoriesbroadcast media, print media, and out-of-home media.
Broadcast Media Audiences
The absolute foundation of radio and television audience is the rating: the percentage of a population group exposed to a
program or station. There are, nonetheless, different types (or designations) of ratings presented by media research suppliers in
their periodic reports. These are the ones most commonly used:
AQH The average quarter-hour rating for broadcast programs as reported by several media research
suppliers (e.g., A.C. Nielsen).
Average Quarter Hour Rating (AQH) The AQH refers to the percentage of a population group that is counted as being exposed
to TV or radio during some period within a given quarter-hour time span. The amount of time a viewer or listener must spend
with the medium can vary depending on the medium and the definition imposed by the research supplier. In radio, one supplier
might require listening for at least five minutes while another requires listening for at least three minutes within the quarter-
hour. In TV, one supplier might require at least five minutes of viewing while another records viewing for each minute and
averages the 15 separate audience counts to arrive at an AQH rating.
Average Audience (AA) In broadcast, the number of homes (or individuals) tuned to the average
minute of a program. In print media, the number of individuals who looked into an average issue of a
publication and are considered "readers."
Average Audience Rating (AA) The general reference to an average audience rating is to either the full duration of a TV
program or the average within a particular time span. For example, a half-hour TV program might have successive AQH ratings
of 10.0 and 12.0, which would result in an AA rating of 11.0. Likewise, separate quarter-hour ratings during the 8:00-11:00 p.m.
time period would be averaged to yield the average audience rating for this time period.
Here again, however, different media research suppliers have varying definitions. One supplier might fall back on the basic
definition of the AQH rating in calculating the AA rating while another might report an average audience composed of anyone
within their survey sample who claimed to have viewed the program.

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Cumulative Audience (Cume) As time lapses for a TV or radio broadcast from the first to the last minute of that broadcast,
some people tune in and some people tune out. For example, let us say 100 people tune in to program X at 9:00. After a while,
half these people tune out, but an additional 50 people tune in. The cume audience in this example is 150 people: the 100 who
tuned in early, plus 50 who tuned in later. The 50 people who tuned out are counted in the cume audience inasmuch as they
were part of the audience for some duration.
Cume ratings can apply to an individual program broadcast or to multiple airings of the same program, depending on the
designation listed by the research supplier. Likewise, cume ratings can apply to a particular radio program or to the daypart
(timespan) being reported.
Cume estimates are sometimes called unduplicated or reach estimates. Cume is also synonymous with total audience.
Viewers per 1,000 Households The number of people within a specific population group tuned to a TV
program in each 1,000 viewing households.
Viewers per 1,000 Households When the average household had only one TV set, researchers would report people audiences as
Viewers Per Set which, when multiplied by the number of TV sets tuned to a particular program, would yield the total people
audience of that program. For example, if a program was viewed by 10,000 households (i.e., on 10,000 different TV sets) and
had a men viewers per set of 1.25, multiplication would reveal that the program was viewed by 12,500 men. Now that we are in
an age where the vast majority of homes have more than one TV set, the "per set" definition is antiquated and has been replaced
by the current "per household" term. Additionally, for ease in listing and reading audience data in research reports, the number
of people per household is multiplied by 1,000 and reported as Viewers Per 1,000 Householdsthereby eliminating decimal
points.
Table 20.4 shows a hypothetical example of a network TV program's audience. All the audience information is reported in a
typical audience measurement report. In this example, we see that the program got a 10.0 household ratingequivalent to 10
million households. There are 800 men viewers per 1,000 households which, when multiplied by the 10,000 households, yields
8,000,000 men viewers (8,000 thousands [000] in the table). Dividing the total number of men who viewed the program by the
number of men in the U.S. population yields an average audience rating for men of 9.4.

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TABLE 20.4: Conversion of Viewers Per 1,000 Households
U.S.
Population Viewers/1,000 AA Delivery
(000) Households (000)
Rating
Households 100,000 10,000 10.0
Men 85,000 800 8,000 9.4
Women 95,000 500 5,000 5.3
Teens 20,000 100 1,000 5.0
Kids 35,000 100 1,000 2.9
Total 235,000 1,500 15,000 6.4
The above four audience measurement designationsAQH, AA, Cume, and Viewers per 1,000 Householdsare in common use.
They are, however, by no means the only designations available in syndicated media research reports. Therefore, whenever you
seek audience data for a specific designation, you should also review the entire research report to discover what other kinds of
measurements are available.
Print Media Audiences
The concepts of rating, average audience, and total audience also apply to magazines and newspapers, although the ingredients
that drive these audience measurements are quite different from those used for broadcast media. The primary distinction
between print and broadcast media is how their physical form dictates how they are consumed: broadcast media are consumed
simultaneously by more than one person, while print media are nearly always consumed by one individual at a time.
Three major factors are used to determine the size of print media audiences:
Circulation In print media, the number of copies sold or distributed by a publication.
Circulation This is the number of copies of a magazine or newspaper issue in distribution and available for purchase and
reading. If, for example, a publisher prints and distributes one million copies of a magazine, only one million people have the
opportunity to purchase that magazine. But, because of the physical nature of the magazine, each of these one million copies
stays in existence for an extended period of time. The amount of time

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varies between magazines and newspapers, and between specific publications in each category. You will recall from Chapter 14
that this time duration is called the issue life of a publication.
Circulation In broadcast, the number of homes owning a TV/radio set within a station's coverage area.
All print media have an issue lifeas compared to broadcast media, which are generally fleeting in nature. With the exception of
video/audio cassette recording, TV and radio programs can be viewed or heard only at the time they are circulated. Circulation
in broadcast media refers to the homes or people who can physically receive the transmission being broadcast. For example, if
you live in Miami, you are able to receive the signals from Miami radio stations but not from Los Angeles stations.
A publisher always attempts to print and distribute as many copies of a publication as can be sold. Distributing more than will be
purchased results in wasted production and distribution costs; distributing too few copies results in lost revenue from both
consumers and advertisers. (Generally, the more copies sold, the higher the advertising rates charged by publishers.) Broadcast
media, on the other hand, do not control their circulation in the same way.
Thus, much more than for broadcast media, the foundation of all print media audiences is circulation. Once circulation is set, the
next crucial factor is how many people will read a given issue of a publication.
Readers-Per-Copy This is the total number of people who read a given copy of a magazine or newspaper. By multiplying
readers-per-copy by the circulation of an average issue, we arrive at total audience. If two people read each copy of the June
issue of magazine X, which has a circulation of one million, the magazine will have a total audience of two million people.
Generally, magazines have a longer issue life than newspapers due primarily to the inherent qualities of the medium. As you can
well guess, there are differences from one magazine to another, from one newspaper to another, and from one magazine to one
newspaper. For purposes of comparison let us consider only the generalities of these distinctions. A daily newspaper, for
example, provides readers with "today's" information while a magazine is written to incorporate news and information which
does not have to be read "today." Readers respond to these editorial focuses by reading a newspaper the day it is published, and
reading a magazine sometime before the next issue is published. There are significant exceptions, of course. Some readers read a
newspaper the nex day,

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or read a specific section or item many days later; some readers read a magazine the day it's on the newsstand or arrives at their
home. Nevertheless, and generally speaking, magazines have a longer issue life than newspapers and therefore have the
opportunity to accumulate more readers-per-copy than newspapers. It is not unusual, for example, for a magazine to have five or
more readers per copy, compared to a daily newspaper, which might have about two readers per copy.
Several factors affect the number of readers per copy a publication will garner, such as:
The distribution pattern used by the publisher in circulating the publication. If the publication is distributed only by subscription,
the number of different readers who will pick up and read it is generally limited. Compare this to a distribution plan that places
the periodical on an airplane or in a doctor's office, where there is significant opportunity for many people to read it. Such a plan
would generate a very high number of readers per copy.
The amount of editorial in the publication. Generally, the more words contained in a publication, the longer it takes to read. The
person who purchased the publication might, therefore, hold the copy longer and not give it to another to read for some time. By
the time this second reader has a chance to read it, the third potential reader might have no interest, preferring to read something
more current.
The type of editorial. Some publications have a tendency to be retained by the purchaser because of the reference material in the
publicationpeople might keep it on their coffee table as a decorative item or house it in their library.
Table 20.5 gives figures that illustrate some of the dynamics discussed above, showing how these various factors generate fewer
or more readers per copy for a publication. Magazine A, for example, has fewer readers per copy than magazine Bcaused
primarily by the high percentage of readers who read the magazine in their home and the number of days spent reading the
magazine. Magazine D has more readers per copy than Ccaused by a greater proportion of readers consuming the magazine
outside their home and by the relatively few number of days the average reader spends reading it.

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TABLE 20.5: Readership Dynamics
Daily National Weekly Magazine Monthly Magazine
Newspaper A B C D
Readers per Copy: 2.0 2.9 10.2 3.4 6.0
Place of Reading;
In-Home 40 90% 45% 58% 39%
Someone Else's Home 1 7 7 8 11
Place of Work 55 2 19 12 17
Doctor's/Dentist's Office 13 11 14
Beauty/Barber Shop 7 3 9
Other 4 1 9 11 10
Total 100 100% 100% 100% 100%
Mean Number of Reading Days 1.0 4.5 1.5 2.1 1.5
Average Per Reader:
Regardless of the number of readers per copy a publication generates, the accumulation nevertheless takes time for the first
reader to read it, pass it to the second reader, and so forth. For newspapers, this amount of time is generally briefoften the same
day. Magazines are another story. For the most part, magazines take much longer to accumulate their total number of readers per
copy and therefore their total audience. Table 20.6 displays a typical accumulation profile for weekly and monthly magazines.
Although there are some differences by magazine within each category of issuance, the general patterns are similar. The pattern
for any particular publication is a result of what that publication is and how readers consume it. For example:
The shorter the publication interval, the faster the accumulation.
The higher the readers-per-copy, the slower the accumulation.
Timely or news-oriented publications are consumed faster and therefore accumulate faster.
The higher the percentage of newsstand circulation, the more rapidly the primary audience is accumulated.
The larger the percentage of in-home audience a publication has, the faster its audience accumulation.
The pattern of audience accumulation also varies by type of reader. People who purchase the magazine and read it at home have
the first opportunity to read the issue. This category of reader therefore accumulates early, before the type who pick up the

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TABLE 20.6: Percent Total Audience Accumulated
Weekly Magazines Monthly, Magazines
Week A B C D
1 55% 65% 40% 35%
2 80 85 65 55
3 90 95 75 70
4 98 99 85 80
5 100 100 89 85
6 93 90
7 96 93
8 98 96
9 99 99
10 100 100
magazine and read it someplace else. Table 20.7 shows the variation in type of audience accumulation for a typical weekly
magazine.
TABLE 20.7: Variation in Audience Accumulation by Type of
ReaderMagazine A
Total In-Home Out-of-Home
Audience Audience Audience
Week
1 65% 75 40%
2 85 95 70
3 95 100 85
4 99 95
5 100 100
Primary/Passalong/In-Home/Out-of-Home As we have noted, readers are categorized according to whether they read the
publication in theft home or elsewhere, and whether they purchase the magazine or not. These different types of readers are
depicted in Exhibit 20.1 and are defined below:
Primary Readers Readers who purchase a magazine or who are members of a household where the
publication is purchased.
Primary ReadersThe readers in the household in which the magazine is purchased. This includes the specific purchaser and
anyone else living in that household who also reads the magazine.

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Exhibit 20.1:
Magazine audiences
Passalong Readers Readers of a publication who are not primary readers. Also called Secondary
Readers.
Passalong ReadersAny readers who are not primary readers.
In-Home ReadersAnyone (primary or passalong) who reads the magazine in their own home.
In-Home Readers People who read a magazine or newspaper in their own home.
Out-of-Home ReadersAnyone who reads the magazine outside their own home, such as at work, on an airplane, in a doctor's
office, etc.
Out-of-Home Readers People who read a magazine someplace other than in their own home.
There are some research studies that indicate a greater ''value'' for the primary versus the passalong reader, and for the in-home
versus out-of-home reader, in terms of the opportunity for a reader to be exposed to an advertisement. Clearly, not all readers
read every page of a magazine. Even those that read the vast majority of a publication do not necessarily see a particular
advertisement. The more time people spend reading a publication, however, the more likely they are to go through it page by
pagethus the greater the opportunity for them to see a particular advertisement. Table 20.8 demonstrates this reading time
dynamic for four different magazines. You'll note that regardless of the magazine, primary readers spend more time reading than
passalong readers; in-home readers spend more time than out-of-home readers.

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TABLE 20.8: Number of Minutes Spent Reading an Average
Issue
Weekly Magazines Monthly Magazines
A B C D
Total Audience 45 40 40 60
Type of Reader:
Primary 65 60 50 80
Passalong 35 40 35 40
In-home 65 55 50 80
Out-of-home 30 25 30 30
You should not, however, jump to the conclusion that only primary readers should be analyzed, or only in-home readers.
Passalong and out-of-home readers also have an opportunity to see your advertisement and should therefore be counted as part
of the medium's audience. It is your call whether or not you "value" these passalong and out-of-home audiences to the same
degree as primary and in-home readers. No research exists that can direct you to give full value to all types of readers, or
diminished value to some types.
You should also keep in mind that not all magazines fall within the generalizations shown above. For example, in-flight
publications are usually read on an airplane. These are neither purchased by a reader nor generally read in one's home, but this
alone should not suggest to the media planner that the audiences should be devalued. Similarly, business magazines and
newspapers have a proportionately higher percent of readers who read at their place of work, but this does not mean readers will
spend less tune reading or read less thoroughly.
Out-of-Home Media Audiences
Daily Effective Circulation The gross number of people (without regard to duplication) exposed to an
out-of-home advertising display in one day.
There are two audience measurements commonly used for out-of-home mediaspecifically for outdoor (poster panels, etc.) and
transit media (bus ads, etc.):
Daily Effective Circulation (DEC) is the number of people exposed to an advertising display in one day. The length of exposure
(the day) can vary from 12 to 24 hours depending on the

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period of illumination of the unit. Circulation of every advertising unit in a market is counted either by using official
government machine counts or by hand (described in a later section). The total circulation count for all units combined is divided
by the number of units in a market to yield the average DEC for the average unit. DEC currently refers to the number of people
in a market age two years and older. Future circulation counts will be based on adults age 18 and older. Once a DEC is
established for a market, plant operators or sales representative organizations can convert the DEC to reflect circulation for most
standard demographic age groups (e.g., adults 18-24).
Gross Rating Points GRPs in outdoor media have the same meaning as in other media formsessentially they are the sum of all
rating points in a media schedule. The basis for GRPs in outdoor media is the daily effective circulation. DEC is divided by the
market's population to yield the rating for the average out-of-home advertising unit. By multiplying the number of units in a
media schedule by the average rating, you obtain GRPs. Keep in mind that the rating for a unit is the dally rating. GRPs are
therefore daily.
Showing Gross rating points within out-of-home media, or number of posters displayed in transit
media.
Showing Outdoor advertising is ordinarily planned (and sold) in GRP packages called showings. For example, a "#100 showing"
(verbally referred to as a 100 showing) comprises the number of poster panels needed to deliver a daily effective circulation
equal to the market's total population. This is identical to buying 100 GRPs in TV or radio or printeach medium will produce
impressions that are equivalent to 100 percent of the market's population. The primary difference with outdoor advertising,
however, is that it is usually sold for a one-month period. A #100 showing, therefore, results in an actual purchase of some
3,000 GRPs (100 GRPs × 30 days/month).
Now that you have an understanding of what media audiences are, you need to understand how media research suppliers obtain
these numberswhich is the subject of the next chapter.

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Chapter 21
Media Audience Research
In this chapter we will discuss how several media research suppliers
collect media audience data for the major mass media by using
various interviewing or questionnaire techniques as well as through
the use of electronic devices. We precede that discussion with one on
sampling error, in which we describe how all media audience
information is based on a sampling of the population, and why media
audience data should be viewed more as an indication of possibility
rather than an absolute.
With rare exception, you will have to rely on audience research data to compare one medium to another and to create an overall
media plan. It is incumbent on you to understand what kind of data are available so you can seek out the information you need.
It is also important that you understand the genesis of the reported information so you can appreciate that the audience data are
merely estimates based on a sampling of the population.
There is a growing trend to go beyond simple demographic descriptors (such as age and income) in analyzing and selecting
media. Increasingly, media vehicles are being chosen based on the lifestyle characteristics of the audience who consume the
media vehicle, or on the product/service usage patterns of these audiences. Notwithstanding this trend, the majority of media
audience data available to the media planner are based on demographics. Further,

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the evaluation tools, such as reach and frequency for combinations of media, continue to be based on demographic information
and formulas that rely on demographics.
Some research suppliers provide information on media audiences only, some include product or service consumption patterns,
and some report only on psychological/lifestyle descriptors (psycho-graphic data). Often, reported data on any of these three
categories are cross-tabulated and published by the research supplier or made available to the media planner via various on-line
media timesharing computer networks. As you delve into media planning, you should investigate the specific data available to
help you decide which media vehicle or media form is most appropriate. This certainly can include lifestyle or product/service
consumption characteristics, and will, more often than not, include media audiences based on demographics.
Before reviewing the basic techniques used by research suppliers, it is important to understand that the reported audience data
are based on a sampling of the populationnot a complete census. This sampling leads to sampling error.
Sampling Error
Sampling Error The possible deviation in the reported finding of media audience research based on a
sample from what might be the actual finding had a complete census been done. Usually reported as
"±" the reported number.
With the possible exception of information provided by the Audit Bureau of Circulation (which is discussed later) all audience
data are estimatesprojections based on a sampling of the total population. Inherent in using a sample rather than the entire
population is sampling error, the possible deviation for the reported finding from what might be the actual finding had the entire
population been studied. It is important for you to fully appreciate what sampling error is and why you should keep it in mind
whenever comparing one media vehicle to another or one media form to another.
If you took a cup of water from a salt lake and weighed the salt in the water, you could with great accuracy determine the total
volume of salt in the entire lake by multiplying your finding by the total amount of water in the lake. There would be little or no
question that the sample cup was representative of the whole. On the other hand, if you measured the depth of the lake at any
given point, you could not accurately determine the average depth of

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the entire lake; the one measurement point might be a typical. To increase the accuracy of your estimate, you could take depth
measurements at various points (the more the better), combine the measurements to get an average, and state with some degree
of accuracy the average depth of the entire lake. The measurement points are the sample used to project your estimate of the
whole.
The same estimating process is used in media research. Research companies select members of a population group who are
ostensibly representative of the total population. The sample group, therefore, supposedly replicates the media consumption and
product consumption patterns of the entire population being studied. But because the entire population is not studied, the
projections based on the sample have a ± error factor: the actual number for the entire population could vary up or down from
the projection. The amount of up or down variation depends largely (but not totally) on the size of the sample relative to the
total population being studied. Basically, the larger the percentage the sample is of the total population, the lesser the ± errorthat
is, the lesser the up or down variation. Further, the greater the percentage of the people in the sample who report a given activity
(e.g., viewing a specific TV program), the less the ± error. If samples of 100 people were chosen in market A (with a population
of 100,000) and market B (with a population of 500,000), the estimated projections in market A would be more reliable (have a
lower ± error) because the sample represents a greater percentage of the total population in market A than it does in market B.
Likewise, if 5 percent of the people in a sample indicate that they viewed program A and 50 percent report viewing program B,
the estimated audience projection is more reliable for Program B than that for Program A because the number of respondents
represents a greater percentage of the total population.
There is no reasonable way to have total accuracy of reported audience information. The cost of increasing the sample sizes (i.e.,
having more people respond to questions about media consumption) would be prohibitively expensive. Conceivably, it could
cost more to obtain audience estimates than it would to advertise in a media vehicle.
Making media decisions based on small differences among alternatives is therefore a shaky process. You must keep sampling
error in mind whenever numerical comparisons among alternative media solutions are made because, in the real world, the exact
opposite of what the research says could be true. Let's examine this.

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First, some definitions and summary explanations:
The ± error is known by, or related to, other terms: standard error, sampling error, standard deviation, tolerance, and sigma.
All terms relate to similar sampling concepts, although not necessarily to the same specific mathematical function.
The ± error is usually reported as a number in the same fashion as the number to which it refers. For example, if a 10 rating is
reported with a ± 2 error, the "2" refers to plus or minus two rating points.
The ± error is calculated and presented in various magnitudes, with these magnitudes representing the "chances" that the sample
reflects the population within the given ± error range.
Sigma is the term usually used to signify the magnitude of these chances. The three most common sigma references used in
audience measurement data are these:
1-sigma (or one standard error)This means the chances are about 68 out of 100 that the reported audience (e.g., the rating)
would not differ from the findings of a complete census of the population by more than the ± number reported. For example, if
a 10 rating has a 1-sigma of 2, and you conducted the same audience survey among 100 different samples of people, you would
find a rating between 8 and 12 (10 ± 2) in at least 68 of them. In the remaining 32 samples you might find a rating that varies
from 10 by more than ± 2. Therefore, you can be confident of the ± range 68 percent of the timea 68 percent confidence level.
2-sigma (or two standard errors)This means the chances are about 95 out of 100 that the ± number is accuratea 95 percent
confidence level.
3-sigma (or three standard errors)meaning the chances are about 99 out of 100 that the ± number is accuratea 99 percent
confidence level
As you can see, the greater the magnitude of the sigma, the relatively more reliable is the reported number including the
sampling errorthat is, the higher the confidence level. To demonstrate,

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let's use a hypothetical ± error for a 10 rating. As shown in Exhibit 21.1:
At one standard error (1 sigma), the chances are 68 out of 100 (68 percent confidence level) that the actual rating would fall
within the range of 9-11.
At 2 sigma, the chances are 95 out of 100 that the actual rating would fall within the range of 8-12.
At 3 sigma, the chances are 99 out of 100 that the actual rating would fall within the range of 7-13.
Exhibit 21.1:
Hypothetical Standard Deviations for a 10-Rated Program
Shown in Table 21.1 is the ± error for each of a series of household rating estimates for a specific media research report. A
program estimated to have a 10 rating has 2-sigma tolerance of ± 1.6 error, meaning the actual (real) rating could be as low as
8.4 or as high as 11.6. A ± 1.6 error for a 10-rated program is equivalent to a 16 percent swing up or downi.e., 16 percent
relative error (1.6 divided by 10 = 16 percent). You'll note that the higher the

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TABLE 21.1: Sampling Error
Household Rating Error +/- (*) Rating Range Relative Error
5 1.2 3.8-6.2 24%
10 8.4-11.6 16
15 13.2-16.8 12
20 1.6 17.8-22.2 11
30 1.8 27.6-32.4 8
40 2.6 37.4-42.6 7
* At 95% confidence level.
reported rating, the lower the relative error. But even at the high level (40 rating) you are still dealing with ± 7 percent errorthe
actual rating could be 2.6 rating points less or more.
The next example demonstrates the possible decisions that might be made to purchase time on radio station A or B. On the
surface, station B appears to be superior with a higher rating and the same cost as A. However, when the sampling error is
applied we find that actual ratings (and therefore actual number of listeners) could be more or less than reported. Station A,
therefore, could have a larger audience than station B. (See Table 21.2.)
TABLE 21.2: Application of Sampling Error in Purchase
Decisions
Station A Station B
Average Rating 3.0 4.0
Cost $ 100 $ 100
Sampling ± Error* 1.1 1.2
Possible Rating
low 1.9 2.8
high 4.1 5.2
Possible New Listeners**
low 1,900 2,800
high 4,100 5,200
* At 95% confidence level
** Market population = 100,000 men

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Most of the major syndicated media research companies publish the sample sizes used to tabulate their total audience
projections, as well as the formula that can be used to estimate the sampling error, such as the following:
where P = audience rating and n = the sample size;

2 standard deviations = 95% confidence level.
Using the 4 rating of station B in the table above, the ± error can be calculated as follows:
1. 100-4=96
2. 96 × 4 = 384
3.
4. Square root of .3721 × 2 = 1.2 (rounded)
5. ±error on this 4 rating = 1.2
6. At the 95 percent confidence level, a 4.1 rating can range from (4.1 - 1.2) = 2.8 to (4.1 + 1.2) = 5.2
Although you don't need to calculate standard errors each time media forms are evaluated, it is nevertheless beneficial to read
the technical appendixes of the various media research reports used in the evaluation process to better understand how data are
collected, and to serve as a reminder that all audience data are no more than estimates.
Media Research Suppliers

There are basically three categories of media audience research data that might be available to you:
Proprietary research commissioned by an advertiser for self-use. Generally this is not published for general industry use.
Proprietary research commissioned by one or more media outlets for use in promoting and selling their medium to
* Sample size of this particular study.

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advertisers. An example of this is a survey of a magazine's subscribers (subscriber study) to determine reading intensity, product
consumption, etc. This research is paid for by the media outlet and is generally available to the advertising industry.
Syndicated media research, which is conducted by independent research suppliers to assess media audiences across one or more
media forms. This research is sold to media outlets, advertisers, advertising agencies, independent media buying companies, etc.
The following pages will concentrate on the major syndicated media research resources because these represent the majority of
available information. Although there are research suppliers in addition to those discussed, those listed are the most commonly
used. The intent of this discussion is to provide a superficial summary of each of these resources, not to elaborate on the highly
technical and exhaustive procedures undertaken by each supplier in collecting media audience information.
Arbitron Radio Market Reports
The Arbitron Company utilizes an open-ended, individual radio listening diary to collect audience data among people age 12
and older who are in households with telephones. The self-administered diary allows the respondent to record times of listening,
station call letters (or dial setting) and the place of listening (at home, in car, some other place). People are counted as listeners
if they listened for five or more minutes during any quarter-hour segment.
Metro Area A geographic area defined by the U.S. Government's Office of Management and Budget.
Also called a Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMSA).
Total Survey Area (TSA) The geographic area in which radio signals from an originating market can be
received.
As of this writing, Arbitron issues reports for 262 radio markets in the United States, reporting ''average week'' listening during a
12-week survey period. Audience data are reported primarily for two types of geographic area: Metropolitan Statistical Area
(a.k.a. Metro Area or MSA), and Total Survey Area (TSA), which may include counties from an adjacent Metro. Another
geographic area,

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the ADI (Area of Dominant Influence), is also available in the top 50 radio markets.
ADI (Area of Dominant Influence) Arbitron Company's definition of a TV market.
Audience estimates for specific age groups for teens and adults by sex are reported for various dayparts and times. The kinds of
estimates reported are as follows:
Average quarter-hour number of persons and cumulative audience by daypart for metro, TSA and ADI
Average quarter-hour rating, share, and cumulative rating by daypart for metro area
Location of listening (at-home, car, or other) for metro area
Exclusive cumulative number of persons listening within the metro area
Two-station duplication within the metro area
Hour-by-hour average quarter-hour ratings in the metro area
Criteria for Reporting Stations Not every radio station in a market is necessarily reported by Arbitron. To be reported, the
following minimum reporting standards must have been met for persons 12 and over during the Monday-through-Sunday 6:00
a.m. to midnight daypart during the most recent 12-week survey period:
a. The station must have received five or more minutes of listening in a quarter-hour in at least ten in-tab metro diaries, or must
represent at least one percent of the metro (in-tab diaries).
b. The station must have an unrounded metro cume rating of 0.5 or greater.
c. The station must have an average quarter-hour metro rating of at least 0.1.
Arbitron Television Market Report
The Arbitron Company samples the viewing habits of television households and individuals to produce television audience
estimates in all markets in the United States. As of this writing, this encompasses 209 Areas of Dominant Influence (ADIs). A
TV household is an occupied dwelling unit that has one or more TV sets. Estimates of the number of television households in
each surveyed county in the United States are prepared annually based

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upon total U.S. household data obtained from Market Statistics. The estimated total number of television households in each
ADI is used to project TV audience estimates.
Arbitron uses a one-week, self-administered diary to collect viewing data in most markets, and an electronic meter (household
meter) in 13 markets. There are three additional meter markets referred to as Local Market Scanamerica (people meters). Meter
measurement provides the metro and ADI household and demographic viewing levels for both individual stations and
Households Using TV (HUT) estimates. A combination of meter and diary measurements is the basis for ADI demographic
audience estimates in the 13 household meter markets. Table 21.3 lists the types of measurement used for deriving audience
estimates for some of the classifications of data reported by Arbitron. The Scanamerica markets use a meter to collect both
household and demographic viewing. This service also provides product purchase information keyed to individual households.
Audience estimates are reported for households and for various age/sex demographics including all people age 2 and older. A
household or a person is counted as a viewer if they view for five minutes or more during an average quarter-hour.
TABLE 21.3: Type of Measurement Used for Deriving Arbitron TV Audience
Estimates.
Reported Information Metro Area ADI Total Survey Area
IV HH rating, share, HUTs M M
ADI demographic ratings, PVTs M/D
All TSA estimates M/D
IV HH cumes M/D M/D
TVHH ratings in adjacent ADIs D
M = Meter measurement
D = Diary measurement
M/D = both
Audience estimates are shown for each televised program for which a minimum number of the sample respondents report
viewing for each half hour, as well as for broad TV dayparts. The

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kinds of data shown vary according to the geographic area reported by Arbitron. Several examples of the reported data follow:
ADI TV HH rating and share
Metro TV HH rating and share
ADI ratings by age/sexe.g., women 12-24 or 18-34, teens 12-17; children 2-11 or 6-11
Number of people viewing within the TSA
TV HH rating in adjacent ADIs
Share and HUT trends
ADI and TSA Cume Households
Station break averages by ADI and TSA; ratings; thousands of viewers
VCR Viewing Metered households using a videocassette recorder are also included in the Arbitron audience estimates for the
time period when the show is being recorded. Playbacks of recorded programs are not credited in the audience estimates. For
non-meter markets Arbitron issues a separate VCR diary to retrieve similar program recording data.
ABC (Audit Bureau of Circulation)
The ABC collects circulation information from an extensive number of magazines and newspapers and issues various reports
used by media planners to evaluate and monitor circulation delivery for these periodicals.
Twice a year ABC requires each publication to submit a statement of its circulationcalled a Publisher's Statement The
statements, which are subject to audit, cover circulation for a six-month period.
Annual ABC audits either substantiate or correct the information that was reported in the two previous statements. Each audit is
based on detailed in-person inspection of the publication's records by an ABC auditor, and the findings are published in an audit
report.
ABC releases data via three basic reports:
1. Publisher's Statements: Magazine statements are issued for the periods ending June 30 and December 31; newspaper
statements for the periods ending March 31 and September 30. At

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the publisher's request, newspaper statements can be issued for an interim three-month period. Each statement contains various
categories of information to help media planners make informed media buying decisions, such as
Average total paid circulation and non-paid distribution.
Circulation by editions (national, regional, etc.) and by issues (January, February, etc. for magazines; daily, Sunday, etc. for
newspapers).
How subscriptions are obtained or renewed (full price, at discount, use of premiums, etc.)
Circulation by county size and geographic area.
2. FASFAX: Immediately after the deadline for filing a statement, ABC compiles a summary from all statements received,
listing information such as the following (depending on whether the report covers magazines or newspapers):
Number of issues in the six-month period
Frequency of issue
Rate base of circulation guarantee (magazines only)
Number of subscriptions
Single-copy price
Number of single-copy sales
Average total paid circulation
Changes in circulation versus the previous year
Number of occupied households in the newspaper's city zone and retail trading zone or Newspaper Designated Market.
Circulation in the above market designations
Total average paid circulation for the current period and for the same period in the previous year
3. Audit Report: On an annual basis, an ABC auditor gathers detailed information from each publisher's records to issue the
magazine or newspaper's ABC Audit Report. This confirms or adjusts the information contained in the two Publisher's
Statements.

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ABC notes any discrepancies of 2 percent or more in a quarterly variation report. Also reported for newspapers is an analysis of
cities and towns that receive 25 or more copies.
Monroe-Mendelsohn
Mendelsohn Media Research annually publishes a "Survey of Adults and Markets of Affluence." Unlike many other syndicated
research reports, Mendelsohn limits its reports to include only those people who claim a household income of $60,000 or more.
Because of its large sample concentrated among upper-income respondents, Mendelsohn reports on many publications not
measured elsewhere.
All of the information obtained is based on serf-administered questionnaires mailed to respondents. The reports contain audience
data for approximately 100 magazines and six newspapers (four dailies, one Sunday, and one weekly), and television viewing
and radio listening patterns by daypart as well as by cable network.
Readership of most publications is measured for four issues. Readership for weekday publications is ascertained for five issues.
In each case audience measurement takes place within the time frame of the frequency of issuance: for monthly magazines, for
example, it is the number of issues read in the past four months (one month per issue times four issues). This number is then
averaged through a weighting process to obtain average-issue audience. Electronic media consumption is based on the past
week's activity for cable TV, and the average weekday plus average Saturday and average Sunday for broadcast TV.
MRI (Mediamark Research Inc.)
MRI uses two different questionnaire techniques to collect audience data for adults age 18 and older. Data pertaining to media
exposure (magazines, newspapers, radio, and television) are obtained in a personal face-to-face interview. Product and service
usage, as well as viewing for specific TV programs, is obtained from a self-administered questionnaire left with the respondent.

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The personal interviews involve (among other things) the collection of data as shown below:
1. Newspaper reading. Reported is the reading of both daily and Sunday/weekend newspapers circulated in the area where the
respondent lives. The audience measured is based on the number of people who report reading the daily newspaper "yesterday"
(or the most recent weekday), or reading the Sunday paper within the past seven days. Place of reading information is also
obtained.
2. Newspaper-distributed magazines. Reported data are for the carrier newspapers.
Recent Reading A research technique to determine the average issue audience of print media. Used, for
example, by MRI.
3. Magazine reading collected in the reading audiences of some 200 magazines. MRI uses a recent-reading technique whose
principle is that the number of people reading any issue of a magazine during a given circulation period (recently read) is equal
to the total number of people reading any particular issue over its total life (average issue audience). The procedure for
establishing whether a person is a reader encompasses the use of a sort board and magazine logos printed on a deck of cards.
Although there are many steps involved in this procedure, the essential process is as follows:
The respondent is asked to sort the cards on the sort board into three groups (and eventually two groups) depending on whether
or not they were read or looked into within the last six months.
For those magazines that the respondent claims to have read or looked into within the last six months, he or she is asked, first,
how many issues were read or looked into and, eventually, when that consumption took place, using each magazine's "most
recent publication interval," i.e. the last seven days for weeklies, the last month or 30 days for monthlies, etc.
Upon completion of these steps, a series of qualitative questions is asked for each publication, which refer to place of reading,
reading days, reading time, reader's actions, source of copy, percent of pages looked at, etc.
4. Radio listening: This encompasses the listening during any period within an average half-hour, during an average weekday, or
an average weekend. The respondent's answers are based on listening "yesterday," "last Saturday," or "last Sunday'' to specific
stations. From this, estimates are made for listening levels by daypart and by station format.

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5. Television viewing (broadcast and cable): To determine daypart viewing levels (something like a Persons Using Television
estimate), the respondent is queried about "yesterday" viewing of broadcast TV and the "last seven days" of viewing for cable
TV. To estimate viewing for specific TV programs, the respondent is asked to fill out a self-administered questionnaire.
MRI reports are issued twice each yearin the spring and fall. A "Doublebase" report, available via on-line systems, combines the
samples (and therefore audience estimates) of two MRI semiannual reports, and is released once per year, each September.
NSI (Nielsen Station Index)
The A.C. Nielsen Company surveys the viewing levels of all TV stations in all markets in the United States and issues reports at
least four times a year for each market.
Nielsen uses a combination of self-administered diaries and electronic meters. Both meter and diary information is used to
project audience data for 26 markets. All remaining markets rely solely on diary information.
The Nielsen meter system uses automatic instrumentation that electronically stores minute-by-minute records of TV receiver
tunings. The tuning records are automatically communicated by phone to a central computer each day. The meter system can
monitor up to 12 TV sets in each household.
All households in the survey panel are asked to record their TV viewing for programs viewed for five or more minutes on a
printed diary form provided by Nielsen. Respondents are asked to record the station call letters, channel number and person(s) in
the household viewing at that time (including visitors, if any). Basic demographic data are obtained for each household member.
Audience estimates are computed separately for each quarter-hour. Household ratings are based on metered reports in meter
markets, and on diary information in all other markets. Demographic audience data are based on diary information for all
markets. In meter markets, demographic adjustment factors (based on diary data) are applied to the meter household viewing
data.
VCR recording of TV programs is credited for the time of recording, but currently not for the tune of playback. TV usage for
video games, computers, and the like is excluded.

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In a multi-set usage situation (households viewing on more than one TV set at any given time), the simultaneous use of more
than one TV set does not increase the HUT levelthe household is counted only once. Duplicate viewing entriesto the same
station at the same time from different TVs in the homeare counted for each station. As a result, the sum of the reported station
ratings may equal or exceed the HUT level.
NTI (Nielsen Television Index)
A.C. Nielsen provides estimates of in-home audiences of network television programs. NTI is the only syndicated research
supplier that continuously reports on all national television programs.
Nielsen preselects sample households and collects the name, age, and gender of each household member, as well as other
demographic data about the household, through personal interviews. Each selected household is equipped with a Nielsen People
Meter (NPM)an electronic device that consists of an on-set unit and a remote control unitfor each operable TV set. Each
member of the household is assigned a button on the NPM. When a TV set is turned on, respective buttons are pushed for each
audience member viewing TV at that time. As household members come into or leave the room, they are requested to indicate
their attendance by pushing their assigned button.
The NPM stores minute-by-minute records of TV receiver tuning activity and of the People Meter audience data entries in the
NTI sample households. When a visitor indicates a viewing entry, flashing lights on the set-top unit of the NPM prompt the
visitor for data on gender and age. The stored tuning records are automatically transmitted by telephone to a central computer. In
addition to recording set-tuning for broadcast programs, the NPM also stores records for cable and pay TV (e.g., HBO). Video
games, computer and clock displays, closed-circuit TV, and security appliances are not reflected in the national audience
estimates. VCR recordings of broadcast and cable material are considered at the time of taping, while replays of VCR
recordings are currently excluded from TV usage.
Among the many reports issued by Nielsen which are based on NPM data are:
NTI Dailies Plus (Overnights)Available the day after telecast, this report lists household and persons estimates for primetime
programs.

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NTI Dailies Plus (Weeklies)Audience information is shown for syndicated TV programs and multi-day network programs.
The PocketpieceA listing of audience data for all commercial network TV programs; issued each week.
The data that can be found in each weekly "Pocketpiece" include the average minute audience as reported under various
descriptors:
Household rating and share by program, by quarter-hour, haft-hour, and total program duration.
People ratings (e.g., total persons 2+, working women, men and women 18 and older by age segment, teens 12-17 by gender,
children 2-11 and 6-11).
Viewers per 1000 viewing households by age segment.
Household rating and share for non-network telecasts, PBS, cable originated programs, and pay services (e.g., HBO).
RADAR® (Radio's All Dimension Audience Research)
Statistical Research conducts daily telephone recall interviews among people age 12 and older to determine their personal radio
listening for a one-week period.
Counted as audience are people who reported that they listened to or could hear radio for at least three minutes within a quarter-
hour periodwhether they were at home or away from home.
In order to prepare network radio audience estimates, quarter-hours of radio usage as reported by respondents are matched with
program and commercial clearances for each station carrying such programming.
RADAR Radio All Dimension Audience Research report issued by Statistical Research, Inc.
Two RADAR reports are issued each year: spring and fall. Each report covers the' average listening levels during the full year.
Network radio estimates are compiled using stations associated with the individual networks in the most recent six-month
period.
The Scarborough Report
The Scarborough Report includes media and product consumption data for 56 markets throughout the United States. Reports are
issued annually.

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Data are collected using two interviewing techniques: telephone and self-administered questionnaire. Telephone interviews are
conducted to determine radio listening (by station and time), newspaper readership, and weekly magazine readership. Two
telephone interviews are conducted in the top ten markets and selected other markets in order to tabulate cumulative audience
data (i.e., read two issues of a magazine). All remaining markets are surveyed via telephone only once.
A self-administered questionnaire is used to collect product consumption data for approximately 450 different products.
Additionally, the respondent is asked to list the TV program and station viewed during each half hour of a given week, as well
as to indicate which of the monthly magazines listed in the questionnaire were read.
A person qualifies as a member of a radio station's audience if he or she listened for five minutes or more. Qualification for
being part of a magazine or newspaper audience, or part of the audience of a television program/station, is based on the
respondent's claim of having read (or viewed).
As with many syndicated media research sources, The Scarborough Report is available in hard copy form and via on-line
computer systemsthe latter allowing the media planner to cross-tabulate any reported data for any of the markets.
Simmons Market Research Bureau
Simmons conducts an annual survey of adults age 18 and older. It uses various mechanisms to collect audience data: personal
interviews, self-administered questionnaires, telephone interviews, diaries of TV viewing and listening. Two personal interviews
are conducted: the first to obtain print media readership and cable TV viewing data (as well as demographic data); the second to
cover the same readership information (to enhance reliability and measure audience turnover) and also to obtain radio listening
audiences. The methods for obtaining media consumption habits are as follows:
1. Newspaper reading. Reported is the number of respondents who claimed to have read a daily newspaper circulated in their
area ''yesterday" (or "since last Saturday" for Sunday editions). In addition to estimates on the average issue audience for daily/
Sunday/weekend newspapers, Simmons also obtains information for readership by section (business/finance, classified, etc.),

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Sunday comic sections, and nationally distributed Sunday newspaper magazines.
Through-the-Book A research technique used to determine the average issue audience of print media.
Used, for example, by SMRB.
2. Magazine reading. Simmons collects information for more than 100 publications using a through-the-book measurement
technique. The first step is the administration of a preliminary logo screening. Then, for each publication the respondent claims
to have read or looked into in the last six months, he or she is taken through a skeletonized version of the test issue containing
nine itemsostensibly to establish which items appeared interesting. This is an aided recognition technique which establishes if a
person, indeed, read or looked into the test issue. Once qualified as a reader, the respondent is taken through five qualitative
questions regarding where the reading took place, overall rating ("one of my favorites," etc.), time spent reading, number of days
spent reading, and how/why read.
3. Radio listening. Listening information is obtained from personal interviews and telephone interviews, or a self-administered
diary, depending on the availability of the respondent at the time of the research study. A person is counted as a listener of a
specific radio network or station format type, if he/she listened for five or more minutes of an entire daypart averaged across
two weekday observations.
4. Television viewing. Reported is the average half-hour audience by daypart and by program for respondents who claimed to
have viewed TV for any duration. This information is Obtained from self-administered diary keeping by the respondent during a
two-week period. Also obtained is "attentiveness of viewing" via the question: "For the most part of the period (that you
viewed) were you out of the TV room, in the room paying some attention, in the room paying full attention?"
5. Cable TV viewing. Reported as "viewed last Week" by networks for both Basic and Pay. Information is obtained in the first
personal interview.
6. Outdoor audiences. Simmons reports on the reach/frequency provided in a one-month (30-day) period by various "showing
sizes." These data are obtained by "mapping" the respondents' specific trips made during the past week and overlaying the
location of each outdoor panel location (and the direction it is facing). One exposure is counted each time the respondent passed
by a marked outdoor panel, on the street or road closest

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to the location, moving toward the panel's face. Using a mathematical formula, this information is projected to predict each
respondent's long-term average frequency of exposure.
STARS (Simmons Teenage Research Study)
The Simmons Market Research Bureau conducts a biannual survey of media and product/service consumption patterns among
teenagers age 12 to 19.
Personal interviews are conducted to determine magazine and newspaper readership using the same techniques used in
Simmons' adult survey. This "through-the-book" technique establishes the number of readers of each publication studied.
Additional questioning determines where the publication was read, the frequency of reading, the respondent's value rating of the
publication, and the actions taken as a result of the advertising in the publication.
A self-administered questionnaire is used to report on radio and television listening/viewing as well as to obtain product/service
usage levels.
TAB (Traffic Audit Bureau)
Although the Traffic Audit Bureau of Media Measurement does not issue audience measurement reports, it does audit the
estimates produced by member out-of-home plant operators every three years to ensure that the plant operator's and
government's traffic counts are a true reflection of the market.
Bus Shelter/Bus Bench Advertising posters positioned as an integral part of a freestanding covered
structure or bench, often located at a bus stop.
Audiences for out-of-home media (posters, bulletins, bus shelters) are measured in terms of circulation, which consists of
movement of people by vehicle (the primary source of circulation) or on foot.
Counting circulation Circulation is obtained by counting the number of vehicles passing any advertising structure. The count
includes the number of cars, trucks, or vans, number of pedestrians, and number of bicyclists. The number of vehicles counted
is converted to number of people using a conversion factor of 1.75 people per car. Based on updated research, future circulation
counts will use a factor of 1.35 to reflect the number of adults 18 years and older. A plant operator may include traffic volume
from all four modes of transportation (excluding mass transit). Out-of-home

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audiences, therefore, primarily reflect the number of people in motor vehicles, and only secondarily the number of pedestrians/
bicyclists. The exception to this rule is for advertising units located in downtown business districts, airports, rail and bus
terminals, shopping centers, and malls where pedestrians are dominant.
Circulation of every advertising unit in a market is counted using one of two methods:
1. Machine traffic counttaken by government agencies and recorded over a period of time. Referred to as average annual daily
traffic (AADT), these counts are adjusted using an established 'factoring system to reflect the circulation that should be expected
during the exposure time of the advertising unit. An illuminated unit, for example, has a usual exposure of 18 hours per day
(6:00 a.m. to midnight) compared to an unilluminated unit, which has a 12-hour exposure period (6:0.0 a.m. to 6:00 p.m.).
2. Head countstaken by the plant operator using established techniques for estimating each unit's DEC (Daily Effective
Circulation). This technique requires the plant operator to count traffic during any 15-minute segment between 9:00 a.m. and
noon or 1:00 p.m. and 4:00 p.m., Monday through Friday, March through Memorial Day or Labor Day through December 1 (but
not on atypical days, such as during a snow storm, or on the day of a state fair). These head counts are then converted to DEC
using established projection factors.
OVRS (Outdoor Visibility Rating System)
Outdoor Visibility Rating System (OVRS) A system of grading a poster panel's "visibility."
Developed by the American Association of Advertising Agencies in cooperation with the Outdoor Advertising Association of
America, the Outdoor Visibility Rating System (OVRS) grades the "visibility" of 30-sheet poster panels. The OVRS replaces a
previous system which was based on the same overall concept and was known as the SPV (Space Position Visibility System).
The OVRS requires that a panel meet four minimum standards:
1. The panel must not be set back more than 150 feet from the center of the approach lane.
2. The panel must be angled to face traffic.

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Facing In outdoor advertising, the direction a poster facese.g., a south facing can be seen by
northbound traffic.
3. There must not be more than two panels in a facing.
4. The panel must have at least five seconds of clear approach at the posted speed limit.
Panel Generally a "poster" panelone outdoor or transit advertising unit.
Panels that do not meet these criteria are classified as "non-qualifying" and receive zero points. Panels that do meet these criteria
are rated 10 and are eligible for bonus points, which are awarded on various bases (e.g., four points for a single panel facing,
two points if a stop sign is in the immediate vicinity of a panel). With bonus points, a panel can receive a maximum rating of
23. As with DEC, the combined OVRS ratings are added for all panels and divided by the total number of panels in market to
get a published average.

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Chapter 22
Geographic Areas
In this chapter we will concentrate on describing the various geographic units
used by a media planner for analyzing media audience and product/service
usage information.
Most source material showing product sales or media delivery presents information on some territorial basis that allows you to
make evaluations based on geographical units rather than relying only on national data. This type of investigation leads to more
precise media plansplans that target not only demographic groups, but demographic groups within specific cities, states, etc.
Here are the more common geographic units.

Broadcast Coverage Area The geographic area within which a signal from an originating station can be
received.
A broadcast coverage area is the geographic area within which a signal from an originating television station can be received.
A television signal is broadcast from a point of origin. As shown in Exhibit 22.1, TV stations originating in Syracuse can be
viewed in an area extending from Watertown down to Elmira. Exhibit 22.2 shows that people living in Yates County are within
the broadcast coverage area of both Syracuse and Rochester stations.

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Exhibit 22.1
Television Market
TV Market An unduplicated television area to which a U.S. county is assigned based on the highest
share of viewing to originating TV stations.
A TV market is an unduplicated geographic area to which a county is assigned on the basis of the highest share of viewing of
originating stations.
Both the A.C. Nielsen and Arbitron companies survey viewing habits in every county in the United States. These data report
how much the people in each county view each TV station. With these data, they are able to determine which stations are
viewed most and then assign the county to one market or another.
The homes in Yates County view more hours of programs originating from Syracuse than they do programs coming from
Rochester stations. Yates County, therefore, is assigned to the Syracuse television market.
It is necessary to place a county in only one TV market to avoid an overlap of information. If a county were assigned to more
than one television market, it would make geographic analyses of media delivery impossible.
Designated Market Area (DMA) A.C. Nielsen's definition of a TV market.
There are just over 200 TV markets in the United States, encompassing over 3,000 counties. Arbitron's term for a TV market is
Area of Dominant Influence (ADI); Nielsen's term is Designated Market Area (DMA). Although the terms differ, and to some
extent so do the research techniques establishing viewing habits,

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Exhibit 22.2
Television Market
ADI and DMA are quite similar, and both are synonymous with the term TV Market.
Various data are often tabulated according to these designations, such as the demographic characteristics of the population (age,
sex, income, etc.), purchasing patterns (food expenditures, gasoline consumption, etc.). Media consumption is also tabulated for
the same geographic areas (television viewing, radio listening, magazine and newspaper circulation, etc.). Having all these data
enables us to conveniently assess how to spend advertising budgets in each medium on a geographic basis.
Cable TV Market
About six out of ten homes in the United States have cable TV through which they receive all television programs. These
programs consist of broadcast transmissions that can ordinarily be received over the air (via a TV antenna), cable-originated
programs (both nationally telecast shows, like MTV, and locally originated and telecast shows), distant broadcast stations (which
beam their signal up to a satellite where it is then bounced down to other markets), and subscriber-paid non-commercialized
programming (such as HBO). Although there is an abundance of programs

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and stations that can be viewed, there is currently no defined and accepted geographic area which can be called a Cable TV
Market.
Unlike broadcast TV, where stations transmit their signal and anyone within a reasonable distance from that transmission point
can receive the signal, cable TV can be seen only if a household subscribes to the service and is wired to receive the service in
their home (or if they have their own satellite dish). Because people must subscribe to the service, cable operators can pinpoint
the physical location of each home receiving cable TV. This suggests that a cable TV market could be defined, but various other
considerations argue against such a definition.
There are currently about 10,000 cable systems in the United States, contained within the roughly 200 TV markets (ADI or
DMA). Each market, therefore, has an average of 50 systems. Of the 50 systems, about 10 offer local commercial availabilityvia
placement in either a national cable program or a locally originated program. These 10 systems per market (about 2,000 in
number nationally) have a government-licensed franchise to offer their service to a specific geographic area, which may or may
not follow any commonly defined boundaries (such as counties). This lack of commonly defined boundaries inhibits a clear
definition of each systemthat is, it is difficult at best to ''map" all systems in the United States.
An additional inhibitor to defining a cable TV market is the lack of other data needed to properly assess the market. For
example, no data exist for the viewing habits of the subscribers in each systemno rating information a la Nielsen or Arbitron to
determine the delivery of national or local programs in each system. Therefore, even if you took pains to construct a cable TV
market map for the United States, you would have to work in a vacuum in deciding which systems have viewers that would best
meet your needs, and therefore which systems should be part of your media plan.
You can work around this geographic area definition deficiency by using ADI and DMA information to analyze each of the 200
TV markets, and then crafting highly localized media efforts within each market using cable TV. For instance, to assess the
relative importance of the geographic areas covered by different systems, you can look at the product sales information that you
have available, or at geodemographic data that are available from several marketing/ media research suppliers.

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Radio Market
A radio market is generally referred to as either a Total Survey Area (TSA) or a Metro Survey Area (MSA). Unlike TV markets,
TSAs can overlap: a number of counties can receive originating radio stations from different cities. MSAs, however, do not
overlap and are therefore used for buying purposes.
For a county to be part of the TSA, people living in the county must have established certain levels of listening to the radio
station(s) broadcasting within their geographic area. These listening levels are tabulated from the survey diaries filled out by
those in the survey sample. One listening level, for example, requires that a radio station be mentioned (listed) in at least ten
diaries as being listened to for at least five minutes during any quarter hour within a survey week.
Metropolitan Statistical Area

Designated by the federal Office of Management and Budget, a Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) always includes a city (or
cities) of specified population which constitutes the central city, and the county (or counties) in which it is located. An MSA
also includes contiguous counties when the economic and social relationships between the central and contiguous counties meet
specified criteria.
The basic criteria for an MSA are:
It must include at least one city with 50,000 or more inhabitants, or an urbanized area of at least 50,000 inhabitants and a total
metro area population of 100,000.
It must have one or more central counties. These are the counties in which at least half the population lives in the Census
Bureau urbanized area.
Counties that do not meet the above criteria could be included in an MSA if they satisfy other requirements. There must be
significant levels of commuting from the outlying county to the

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central county (ies), and the county (ies) must display a specified degree of ''metropolitan character" by meeting any one of the
following conditions:
Counties with a commuting rate of 50 percent or more must have a population density of at least 25 persons per square mile.
Counties with a commuting rate from 40 to 50 percent must have a population density of at least 35 persons per square mile.
Those with a commuting rate from 25 to 40 percent must have a population density of at least 50 persons per square mile, or at
least 35 percent of their population classified as urban by the Bureau of the Census.
In addition to the designation of MSAs, the government has also defined two other geographic entities based on the 1980
Census:
Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area (CMSA). This is the largest designation in terms of geographic area and market
size. It is made up of component PMSAs (see below) that together total at least one million in population. These CMSAs,
or mega areas, are usually of little use to marketers because of their prohibitive size. However, they exert some influence
on bordering counties because of the proximity of potential buyers for area goods and services.
Primary Metropolitan Statistical Area (PMSA). These are the component pieces that make up the CMSAs. They are
directly associated with other PMSAs, but remain separate entities in terms of the socioeconomic data collected for them
and presented in various research reports. To be classified as a PMSA, an area must be comprised of counties that
conform to the following standards:
A total population of at least 100,000.
A population that is at least 60 percent urban.
Less than 50 percent of the resident workers commute to jobs outside the county.

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Newspaper Areas
Audit Bureau of Circulation (ABC) An organization formed by media suppliers, advertisers, and
advertising agencies to audit the circulation statements of its member newspapers and magazines.
The Audit Bureau of Circulation (ABC) verifies member newspapers' total circulation statements and reports circulation on
various geographic bases that aid the media planner in assessing precisely where the newspaper is distributed. Three geographic
units are generally reported:
City Zone is the area bounded by the corporate limits of the community in which a newspaper is published. Additional
contiguous areas are included in the City Zone if these areas have the same characteristics as the community itself.
City Zone The area bounded by the corporate limits of a community.
Retail Trading Zone is the area beyond the City Zone whose residents regularly shop in the City Zone.
Retail Trading Zone A geographic area around a central city.
Primary Market Area is defined by the newspaper publisher and is that area in which the publisher believes the newspaper has
its greatest strength on the basis of readership, editorial coverage of the communities, and advertising.
Primary Market Area A geographic area defined by a newspaper in which the publisher believes the
newspaper has its greatest strength.
Based on ABC data, other research syndicators report circulation on a metro area and TV market basis.
Nielsen County Size Groups

County Size Designation of all U.S. counties into one of four categories as defined by A.C. Nielsen
based on population density and labor force concentration. Commonly referred to as "A," "B," ''C," and
"D'' counties.
Nielsen County Size Groups are composed of counties assigned to one of four designations by A.C. Nielsen, based on
population density and labor force concentration.
The specific definition of each county size group is as follows:
A All counties belonging to the 25 largest MSAs.
B All counties not included under "A" that either have over 150,000 population or are in metropolitan areas of over 150,000
population.
C All counties not included under "A" or "B" that either have over 40,000 population or are in metropolitan areas of over
40,000 population.
D All remaining counties.

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County size is used to investigate urban/rural patterns of sales and media delivery. Several syndicated sources show sales as well
as media delivery (such as magazine circulation) on a county size basis. Quick assessments can be made about the
concentrations in the biggest cities ("A"), big cities ("B"), smaller cities (''C") and rural areas ("D"). If sales of Product X skew
to "A'' counties and Magazine Y has its highest penetration in "C" and "D" counties, then Magazine Y is probably not a
desirable medium.
County size investigations should be made as an adjunct to television market analysis or in lieu of TV market data when the
latter are not available. For example, if you are estimating potential sales for TV markets for which there are few or no sales
data available, you can assume that counties within the TV market will perform by size as do the national sales by county size.
Geodemographic areas are quite different from the other types of geographic areas we've discussed. The others are defined on
the basis of "who can physically receive a broadcast signal" (TSA), or "what the social and socioeconomic relationship is of
people who live in and around a central city" (MSA), etc. Geodemography is based on much smaller geographic entities than
any of the other definitionsusing Census Block Groups, for example, of which there are over 250,000 in the United States, with
the average Group containing approximately 350 households.
A mention of geodemographic areas is appropriate here because these areas are, indeed, defined pieces of geography for which
media consumption patterns can be obtainedwhich could therefore lead to recommendations for selecting media types or media
vehicles. The primary placement of our discussion on geodemographic areas remains, nevertheless, in Chapter 20, "Media
Audience Definitions," inasmuch as the thrust of the definition is primarily on the "demography" portion of the word.
A Note of Caution
Although you can obtain a lot of information for most of the geographic areas we have discussed, not all information is
available for all areas. Further, the various types of geographic areas may

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overlap or otherwise not fit together snugly. For example, a radio Total Survey Area may or may not be wholly contained within
a TV market; a newspaper Primary Market Area may or may not jibe with a Metro Area; the counties within a DMA may or
may not be the same as the counties within an ADI bearing the same market name.
Whenever you analyze geographic data you must appreciate the geographic boundaries of the designated area with which you
are dealing. If you are mixing data from one media research source with another, you have to make sure both sources define the
geography in the same way. If they do not, you should be keenly aware of the differences and determine if the differing
definitions have any substantial effect on your analysis. For example, if the difference between two sources amounts to the
inclusion or exclusion of one county, and this county represents a very small portion of population, there will be no substantial
risk in using both sources. Conversely, if the difference between the two sources involves a city or county with a large portion of
the population, mixing the data could lead to misinformation.

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PART III
HOW TO CONSTRUCT A MEDIA PLAN

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Chapter 23
Marketing Input
In this chapter we discuss the need for the media planner to fully
understand the marketing plan before writing a media plan, and to take
from that marketing plan specific direction or information in the areas
of:
Achievement Goals
Sales Data
Promotion Strategy
Creative Strategy
Considerable study and knowledge are needed before you set out to write a media plan for a product or service. You need to dig
deep and immerse yourself in the marketing plan, playing the role of both the marketer (the advertiser) and the consumer. You
need to be proactive in defining the marketing goals you want to achieve, and reactive in terms of predicting how the consumer
will be exposed to the advertising (and all related communication elements) as well as attempting to predict what the consumer
stimulus (the advertising message) will eliciti.e., what action the consumer might take as a result of being exposed to the
advertising.
Whether or not a marketing plan, in the classic sense, exists, you must nevertheless hammer out all important ingredients of the
plan so all efforts are appreciated, and responded to, by all concerned parties and disciplines: not only advertising, but
manufacturing, distribution, sales, public relations, trade relations, promotion, etc. All disciplines must be dancing to the same
tune: all communication

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efforts need to be orchestrated so the consumer hears a symphony, not a collection of different bands each playing its own
music.
Six of the more important ingredients in the marketing plan which apply directly to advertising (and therefore to media
planning) are discussed below.
Achievement Goals
Regardless of the product or service to be marketed, there is always some kind of goal to be achieved. If there is no goal, there is
no need to advertise. Goals may be defined in terms of sales dollars at wholesale or retail, product unit or case volume, share-of-
market, advertising awareness and usage levels, or any number of other designations. Having identified these goals, you're in a
far better position for getting a handle on what you need to accomplish with the use of media. For example, if you are
introducing a new product is a highly Competitive arena, you probably will need to have high levels of media delivery to
quickly capture consumers' attention. Conversely, a sustained level of advertising support, at somewhat lower levels of
advertising intensity, might be more appropriate for an established product with relatively little competition. A goal of sustaining
advertising awareness would point you in a different direction than a goal of increasing awareness. Building share-of-market
suggests a different media plan than one that requires maintaining an existing share.
In addition to the quantitative information that is available from a wide variety of syndicated market and media research sources,
there is often proprietary information known by the advertiser. This could come from the advertiser's own research, or could be
based simply on intuition and belief. This kind of information usually transcends what you can find in research books, and often
segments consumers in terms other than those found in standard research. Having as complete a dossier on the consumer as
possible will prove to be extraordinarily advantageous in designing the best media plan. It will also reinforce the fact that not all
consumers

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conveniently fit into predefined demographic groups. This, in turn, will open your eyes to possibly unique ways to use media to
reach these consumers.
Sales Data
For most products and services, sales data are a must. It is the rare brand that has a fiat sales picture in all of the United States.
There are always areas of high and low development where local factors or competitive forces play on the vitality of a brand.
Knowing these pockets of strength or weakness will prove invaluable in guiding your media investments. Likewise, knowing
seasonal sales patterns, by market, will also prove very worthwhile.
It is also the rare brand that has no competition. A brand might have the lion's share of a category, but there are always other
competitive animals hovering to gain a share or increase their share. Knowing the competition, and knowing what they are doing
in advertising, is a must. You need to analyze competitive activity to see which media competitors are using, how much they
use, in which markets and to what level they are advertising, etc. Such knowledge could reveal opportunities for dominating
media not used by the competition, or could suggest increased spending in media used extensively by competition.
Promotion Strategy
You need to be aware of any promotional efforts planned for the product or service, whether or not these are media driven, in
order to coordinate media activity appropriately. For example, if a cents-off coupon is to be distributed via direct mail or a flee-
standing insert, you might want to ensure that consumer advertising is scheduled to heighten awareness of the product at the
time the consumer receives the coupon. Certainly, if the cents-off coupon is

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distributed via consumer media, you need to know how many will be distributed, how often, what kind of redemption is
planned, which areas of the country will receive the coupons, etc.
Creative Strategy
Not to minimize the importance of all the other marketing ingredients discussed above, but the creative strategy is one of the
more important elements guiding the media plan. Media are the conduit for delivering the creative message. If the media you
select and the manner in which you use them do not reflect the creative thrust or specific creative executions, your media plan is
dead wrong. If the marketing plan does not contain a creative strategy (or creative positioning statements), it should be
contained in your "media objectives."

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Chapter 24
How Much to Spend on Advertising
One of the most difficult decisions an advertiser
has to make is how much to spend on
advertising. The major problem is that no one
knows the optimal amount to spend. Everybody
believes there is a threshold of spending below
which advertising has little or no effect on
consumers. Many also believe that there is a
maximum amount, beyond which additional
advertising again has little or no additional
effect. But no one knows precisely what the
threshold or maximum is. In this chapter we will
lay out the thought process you should go
through in trying to decide how much to spend
on advertising. The process requires you address
key issues, such as understanding what the role
of advertising is for your brand or service. We
will also examine five methods for deciding a
media budget with specific discussion on the
strengths and weaknesses of each of these
methods.
Quite often advertisers rely on historical information to decide future advertising expenditure levels. Also common is the use of
some ingrained formula based primarily on establishing a ratio of advertising spending to predicted sales volumecommonly
known as an advertising/sales ratio. Although these mathematical devices can help you decide how much to spend, neither is
necessarily foolproof or exact. There are innumerable outside factors that

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influence the appropriation of advertising fundsfrom the profit margin of the brand, to the financial stability of the corporation,
to competitive pressures and changes in the marketplace, to the cost of media and advertising production.
Determining the appropriate amount to spend is especially challenging when your goal is relatively intangiblethat is, when there
is no sales measurement against which you can assess an advertising expenditure. It's relatively easy, for example, to determine
that you will spend 5 percent of your sales revenue for product X because that is what you always spent, and sales are doing just
fine. It's quite another matter, however, to determine how much to spend if the task of your advertising is to create a positive
image for a corporation among its suppliers, stockholders, and employees. The "softer" the measurement of what advertising is
supposed to accomplish, the more difficult the task of deciding how much to spend.
Some argue that the results of direct response advertising can be used to pinpoint optimal spending. In large part, this is true.
Direct response measures responses. Almost immediately after the advertising effort is executed, an advertiser can know the
precise results and assess the cost against those resultssuch as how many people bought the advertised product and how much it
cost to get them to buy. But direct response advertising requires trial and error. Unless repeated advertising efforts are conducted
(using alternative creative executions or directing advertising to different geographic or demographic groups), the advertiser
never knows if a lower or higher expenditure could have resulted in the same sales, more sales, or a lower cost per product sold.
Additionally, direct response operates within the ever-changing environment of competitive marketplace, etc., thereby
prohibiting us from using this form of advertising to conclusively establish an optimal level of advertising investment.
Although no one knows how much to spend, an expenditure level must nevertheless be decided before any advertising can take
place. There is no such thing as an open-ended budget. Getting at this answer usually requires detailed analyses of the product,
its history, the category of products in which it competes, the cost and audience delivery of various media types, etc. Getting at
this answer also requires you to make various strategic decisions. The strategy you use should reflect the marketing and selling
objectives of the brand or company. To have ambitious marketing goals supported by a modest advertising budget is an
irreconcilable

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situation. Conversely, it makes no financial sense to have an ambitious budget if the marketing/selling goals are modest.
The role of advertising must therefore be clearly defined, and its task must be decided before determining how much should be
spent Until the advertising task has been determined, you cannot apply any analytical discipline or technique to calculate how
much money is required. For example, is the role you have set for advertising to:
Increase market share?
Reverse a declining sales trend?
Introduce a new product?
Heighten the level of product awareness?
Stimulate repeat usage of a product?
Promote a positive image of a company?
Persuade a constituency to take an action?
Importantly, you also need to decide if advertising can accomplish a specific goal.
Depending on the objective to be achieved, the condition of the brand (or service) to be advertised, and the marketing
environment as a whole, a decision could be made not to advertise. Advertising cannot be a panacea for all deficiencies. For
example, if a product distribution deficiency exists whereby the product cannot reach the consumer or is available in inadequate
quantities, any dollar spent in advertising will be wasted. If the product itself is inadequate and cannot match the competition,
advertising might promote first-time trials among consumers but probably will not convince consumers to purchase the product
again.
After you decide the advertising's role, and before you set out to calculate how much should be spent, you need to consider a
number of factors:
1. What market will you compete in?
The competitive environment must be selected to determine how much money you will need to accomplish your goals. For
example, if you are advertising lemonade, you might decide to compete against all other lemonades, or all non-carbonated
beverages, or all citrus beverages, or all refreshment beverages including soft drinks.

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The broader the market you compete in, the larger the advertising budget required. If you decide to compete against all
refreshment beverages, versus just lemonade advertisers, you will have to talk to more people because the competitive world is
more diverse. Also, the amount of advertising money being spent in each of these categories varies dramatically. Therefore, a
given advertising budget for your brand could represent either a major or minor portion of the total spent in the target category.
2. What is your current market position?
When you have decided upon the market in which you will compete, you will know your competitors' and your brand's relative
strength. You should bear in mind the following tenets as expressed in various market/advertising research findings:
The market leader can usually retain business by spending relatively less than the second, third, or fourth brand.
A minor brand must spend proportionately more to stay in business.
To increase your competitive position, be prepared to spend proportionately more than the brands you want to overtake.
3. Who is the target consumer?
Inherent in the competitive decision is the choice of demographic target. If you are going to compete only against other
lemonades, for example, you might select an adult target, whereas if you choose to compete against all refreshment beverages,
you may target adults, teens, and children.
The greater the number of people in your target audience definition, the more money you will have to spend to reach these
people with advertising. Further, the more demo-graphically different these people are, the greater the number of different
media vehicles you will have to select to address each of these groupsand the greater the probable cost of production for varying
creative executions. For example:
Advertising just to children requires fewer funds than advertising directed to both children and their parents.
Reaching only women can be done more efficiently than reaching all adults.
4. Where will you advertise?
Invariably, all brands have pockets of strength and weakness across the country. Spending decisions must take these variations
into consideration. The same rate of spending in every city

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or region will not necessarily produce the same results because of the competitive environment variations from city to city and
other environment and media cost factors.
It is not sufficient simply to know the amount of sales in each city or region. You must determine the share of market in each
location and the reason that share exists. For example, poor sales in a particular area could be the result of distribution
deficiencies, pricing policies, sales force weaknesses, or the strength of a specific local brand. Knowing the reasons will help
you judge the contribution that might, or might not, be made by advertising. This in turn can guide you in spending policies.
Systems to Determine Spending

Once these factors are considered, and a decision is made to advertise, there are a number of different techniques that can be
used to determine how much to spend and how to allocate those dollars. Five methods are discussed here.
Advertising/Sales Ratio
This is the most commonly used method for determining advertising budgets. Advertising expenditures are considered an
integral part of the marketing budget of a product and funds are set aside as a cost of doing business.
The mechanics of the A/S method require that you first decide the sales against which you will apply the A/S ratio. This alone
could be a tricky process inasmuch as it requires you to predict future sales. The calculation, nevertheless, is simple
multiplication:
Product A sales: $10,000,000
A/S ratio: × 10%
= $1,000, 000
You may choose to adjust the A/S ratio geographically. You may opt, for example, to spend at a higher A/S ratio in certain
markets that appear to you as having greater opportunity for sales growth, or at a lower A/S ratio in mature markets where you
are already the brand leader with little or no competitive threat.

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There is no standard A/S ratio that applies to all products and services. The ratio will vary widely among corporations, and often
among different products within the same corporation. In part, the percentage is a function of the cost of goods and the pricing
policy within the corporation and/or within the industry. For example, a drug item, which might cost ten cents to manufacture
and distribute and sells for one dollar, has a considerable margin available for advertising, promotion, and profit. A car, which
might cost $10,000 to manufacture and distribute and sells for $15,000, has a lower margin available for advertising, etc. This
difference in margin generally results in a difference in the A/S ratio. Table 24.1 shows hypothetical margins and A/S ratios for
these two distinctly different products. Also notable in this comparison is how the advertising budget compares to the dollars of
margin. The drug item, with a higher A/S ratio, has a lower percentage of advertising dollars relative to margin dollars.
TABLE 24.1: A/S Ratio Applications
Drug
item Car
Sales dollars per unit: $1.00 $15.000.00
Cost to manufacture and distribute: $. 10 $10.000.00
Margin:
Dollars: $.90 $ 5.000.00
Percent of Sales: 90% 33%
A/S Ratio Defined by the Advertiser: 10% 5%
Advertising Budget/Unit: $. 10 $ 750.00
Advertising Budget as a Percent of Margin
Dollars: 11% 15%
While the appropriation for advertising is part of the marketing budget, it is nevertheless the most vulnerable cost element.
Manufacturing and distribution costs, as well as profit margins, are usually fixed. The only flexible marketing cost is the amount
of money to be spent in advertising. Therefore, while budgets could be derived using the advertising/sales ratio method, they are
quite often subject to revision.
There are strengths and weaknesses in the A/S approach.

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Strengths:
It is self-correcting in regard to sales performance and maintains a consistent profit margin for the brand.
The budget allocation is relatively easy to manage.
The relationship is easily understood and generally suits the interests of both the financial and the marketing groups.
An implicit incentive system operates: increased sales generate additional funds to support an aggressive advertising program,
while poor sales penalize the brand.
Weaknesses:
The requirements for an advertising program do not always vary directly with sales, particularly when brand sales are declining
and increased advertising may not be the cure.
Considerable historical information is required to determine the correct A/S ratio.
A/S ratios should vary by area, which requires exhaustive analysis.
The basic assumptionthat there is a direct linear relationship between advertising and salesmight not be true.
Share of Advertising
In this system, the advertising budget is chosen as a share of total category ''pressure.'' This pressure can be defined as category
spending or as the amount of media delivery (with the latter sometimes referred to as "share of noise"). As with the A/S method,
it is necessary to decide what the right share is. And here again there is no definitive research or magical model to point you in
one direction or another. Some of the research that does exist indicates:
For new products, the share of advertising should be at least double the brand's share objectives during the first year.
For mature products, share of advertising should be commensurate with share of market.
Mechanically, this system is identical to the A/S ratio: it simply requires multiplication. What is not simple is establishing the
precise base. Although there is syndicated media research which

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compiles competitive advertising expenditure data, the findings are not necessarily totally accurate (i.e., a competitor could have
actually spent less or more than reported). If your base is predicated on media audience delivery (e.g., impressions or GRPs) you
will find the same deficiencies in syndicated research material.
The strengths and weaknesses of the "share" system can be summarized as follows:
Strengths:
It positions your advertising budget competitively.
You can react to competitive changes in advertising, such as new brands entering the market.
It places expectations for the advertising effort in a realistic perspective. For example, if you spend half as much as your nearest
competitor, you cannot expect to exceed that competitor's share of market.
Weaknesses:
The information you gather might not be accurate, because competitive advertising expenditure data are not easily obtained.
The basic assumptionthat there is a direct relationship between share of advertising and share of marketmight not be true.
Unless the right competitive market is defined, the wrong budget will be calculated.
Share of advertising might be too narrow a view when one considers the influences of point-of-sale material, promotions, etc.
Competitors could be dictating your budget, leading you into spending at the wrong rate.
Mathematical Models
Different formulas have been developed, mostly proprietary, which are used by some advertisers to define the advertising
budget. Some of these formulas, or models, calculate the interrelationships between advertising, share of market, and profits, or
various other combinations of marketing ingredients. Others are based on advertising awareness levelsprimary supposing that
there is a one-to-one relationship between advertising awareness and sales.

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If you have such a formula, and its results have proven to be correct, you are one of the fortunate few.
Available Funds
In the view of some critics this system is not a system at all. This method of determining an advertising budget is based solely
on "what's left over" after you subtract total manufacturing expenses and profit goals from predicted revenue. There are a host of
non-advertising expenditures that could be more important to the marketing effort than advertising is. A company's sales force,
for example, might require the majority of available marketing funds. For another company, promotions or trade shows might be
mandatory. Still another company might need to place disproportionate amounts of money in public relations. Therefore,
advertising can be afforded only if there is enough money left over.
Clearly, there are no strengths to the "available funds" system. There are, however, several dangers:
The leftover money might be too little to do a complete, effective job. It might be like buying a cruise ticket halfway to Hawaii
and having to get off the ship in the middle of the Pacific.
The affordable advertising effort could be viewed by customers, suppliers, and employees as insufficient relative to their
exposure to competitive efforts.
If yours is the only product or service in the category conducting any meaningful advertising, it could trigger competitors to
follow suit.
Task Method
This method requires you to establish actionable marketing or media objectives, create an advertising plan to deliver the
necessary creative and media to the target audiences, and then cost-out the plan to see how much you need to spend to fulfill the
objectives.
There are any number of tasks (objectives) you can set. For example:
At minimum, reach at least 50 percent of the target audience three or more times during each four-week flight.

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Provide continuous advertising at X level throughout the year.
Increase advertising awareness from X to Y.
Spend at least twice the rate of the nearest competitor.
As will be discussed, media objectives require extensive investigation and thought. However, once specific objectives are set
forth, you can use simple mathematical procedures to determine the cost of purchasing the required media to accomplish the
objectives.
The strength and the weakness of this system are interrelated. If you know precisely what advertising levels are required to
accomplish a task, the system is very powerful. But if you do not know (and this is usually the case), this approach is highly
subjective and therefore questionable, and very risky. Wantonly spending dollars to achieve marketing/media objectives
undermines any advertiser's fiduciary responsibility to achieve profits.
Lastly, it is this writer's experience that the Task Method seldom sees the light of day in the real world. In wanting to achieve
certain objectives, marketers' hearts and minds are in the right place, but the monetary answer that usually results from the Task
Method generally exceeds expectations and affordability.
Additional Food for Thought

As admirable as it is to decide how much to spend on advertising by using one or another analytical method (as opposed to
guessing) phenomena about which we know little or nothing at all could still cause our answers to be incorrect.
For example, rarely does one know the precise contribution advertising makes to share of market, or to a brand's profits. It is
reasonable to assume that there is a point beyond which additional media investment will not result in greater share of market or
increased salesbecause there is always a segment of consumers who will not use your brand. Spending more therefore results in
profit loss. But what is that share limit? How much must be spent to reach that limit? How long will it take to realize the limit?
Evidence suggests that striving to achieve maximum share of market seldom results in maximum profits. There is never a one-
to-one correlation of increased spending to an increased share

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of market. The law of diminishing returns prevents this. So does the reality that it takes more effort to convince a user of a
competitive product to switch to your brand than it does to keep your current user. Therefore, each additional share point
commands a disproportionately higher advertising investment. Table 24.2 demonstrates a hypothetical scenario in which an
advertising investment of $1 million is needed to achieve a 20 percent share of market. To achieve higher share levels requires a
disproportionately larger investment. For example, to go from a 20 to a 21 percent share (a five percent relative increase)
requires a 15 percent increase in advertising costs. Advertising expenditures as a percent of sales will, therefore, steadily
increaseconceivably to the point of lost profits.
TABLE 24.2: Hypothetical Correlation of Advertising and Share of
Market
Share Advertising Cost to Achieve This Share
Percent Index Cost Index
20 100 $ 1,000,000 100
21 105 1,150,000 115
22 110 1,350,000 135
23 115 1,600,000 160
24 120 1,900,000 190
25 125 2,250,000 225
This entire phenomenon is exacerbated with new products. With no specific history, the question of how much to spend on
advertising comes down to a guessing game: What is the optimal A/S ratio? Which task should be accomplished at what cost? If
expenditures are too low to achieve the unknown threshold, the product is doomed to failure. If expenditures are too high,
profitability suffers.
A dollar spent in advertising is a dollar that cannot be invested elsewhere. Advertising must compete with other income-
producing alternativesstocks, bonds, real estate, etc. The level of the advertising budget needs to be viewed as an investment,
with the marketer seeking a proper return on that investment.

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Chapter 25
Media Objectives
Media objectives define the goals you want to
achieve through the use of advertising media.
These goals must be explicitly stated so you
have a clear and precise idea of exactly what
you expect to achieve. The goals cannot be
wishy-washy. They must guide you in a
specific direction and be action-oriented. You
won't know how to get someplace if you don't
know where you are going.
In this chapter we discuss a discipline for
writing media objectivesone which requires
answering various questions. We examine the
virtues of advertising in geographic markets
where a brand has a strong franchise versus a
relatively weak franchise. We also discuss
how the need for consumer coupons, or the
desire for in-market media testing, can affect
the writing of media objectives.
Media objectives must position the media plan relative to the market and to the marketing plan. An objective that states:
"Introduce product X in order to achieve high levels of awareness"
does not provide direction. It merely says: Advertise. To guide you in assessing alternatives, you need a more realistic and
actionable objective such as:
"Reach at least 80 percent of the potential market within the first month of advertising, ensuring that the average
consumer will be exposed to a minimum of four advertising messages."

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Or:
"Direct advertising to current and potential purchasers of product X by weighing current purchaser characteristics 60
percent and potential purchaser characteristics 40 percent."
The best approach to formulating media objectives is to answer basic questions that encompass the general areas of audience,
geography, scheduling requirements, copy needs, reach and frequency, and testing. These questions are: Who? Where? When?
How? How much? and What else?
Who?
Whom does the brand want to reach?
What is the relative importance of each group?
A thorough objective recognizes the importance, or lack of importance, of each demographic cell. You should analyze audiences
on the basis of age, sex, income, education, race, employment status, family size, marital status, possessions, lifestyle
characteristics, and any other traits for which data are available.
Quite often you'll discover that there are one or two key target audiences which appear to account for most of the sales of a
product, or most of the opportunity for sales growth. The temptation is to home in on these groups in all media analysis and
consideration, completely disregarding all other groups. By limiting analysis in this manner, you've made the conscious decision
that all other groups have zero valuethat the media reaching these non-defined groups are providing unwanted or wasted
delivery.
No matter what the product or service, you will generally find that nearly all groups, regardless of their demographic
description, consume a product to one degree or another. A group is keyof primary importanceto the extent that it accounts for a
disproportionately greater level of consumption than average. But other groups, with disproportionately lower levels of
consumption, must be viewed as having secondary or tertiary importance, not complete unimportance.
It behooves you to place a "value" on all consumer groups. The value should be expressed as a quantitative "weight"such as a
percentage of the whole, or a ratio to the average. For example, you

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might define women 18-34 as your key target audience because they account for 30 percent of all product usage. You could
decide that 30 percent of all impressions you will generate in the media plan should be directed to this group. Or you can decide
that this group should receive three times as many impressions as the average person (a 3:1 ratio). By placing this numerical
weight on the target group you have made a decision to specifically address this group, and by definition, to provide some level
of advertising to all other groups.
For example, having data as shown below, you could properly write the following objective:
Direct media to demographic groups in accordance with current consumption patterns:
Percent of Total Consumption
Women 18-34 30%
Women 35-49 20
Women 50+ 10
Men 18-34 20
Men 35-49 15
Men 50+ 5
Total 100%
Had you written an objective that cited only women 18-34 (because they account for the majority of consumption), you would
have dismissed people who account for the remaining 70 percent of consumption.
Where?
Where should the brand concentrate its advertising efforts?
Are there markets that have minimal sales? How should these markets be valued?
Are brand sales changing disproportionately in any market?
Are there markets with a disproportionately high BDI?
Are there markets with a low BDI and a high CDI that should receive special recognition?
Is national advertising mandatory?

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In the consumer's eyes, all advertising is local. Seldom does a consumer know if a TV commercial is broadcast nationally or
locally, or if an ad in a magazine is running only in one geographic area or in many. The geographic scope of any advertising
has nothing to do with one consumer in one market. You therefore need to think locally and address geographic considerations
market by marketand the smaller the geographic universe, the better. If data are available, you should target advertising in the
following priority order:
Census tract
Neighborhood
ZIP code area
County
Metropolitan area
TV market
State
Region
County size
At this juncture, it does not matter if you can analyze or select media based on the chosen geographic area. Media selection
follows the marketing analysis and establishment of media objectivesit should not force the objectives. For example, if you
conducted a marketing analysis based on TV markets, you might decide (as shown in Table 25.1) that markets I and 2 should
receive equal supportthey have the same sales level and the same BDI. A
TABLE 25.1: Marketing Analysis
% U.S. Population % U.S. Sales BDI
IV MARKET #1 10% 10% 100
Metro Area A 6 9 150
Metro Area B 4 1 25
IV MARKET #2 10 10 100
Metro Area C 7 7 100
Metro Area D 3 3 100

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more in-depth marketing analysis reveals that metro area A is far and away the most important of all the areas shown. Knowing
this and writing a media objective that addresses this could lead you to select alternative media to focus on this area.
Sales, brand development, and the like are obviously important in this analysis. Nevertheless, you should also analyze other
factors that might prove important, such as income, housing, and mobility. Often, you can use related data as a predictor of
product sales or sales growth potential. For example, automobile mileage can be used to predict tire sales; temperature can be
used to forecast sales of hot weather soft drinks.
Once you amass all of these geographic data, you then need to decide on one of two basic philosophies for how best to allocate
your advertising budget or advertising delivery (impressions, GRPs, etc.)
Advertise Where the Business Is
This is basically a defensive posture. It protects the existing franchise and simultaneously seeks to develop more business on the
assumption that increases in brand sales can be achieved most efficiently where the brand is currently strong.
The underlying belief of this allocation philosophy is that it is easier to build on an existing base where product distribution has
been established and where there is apparent consumer awareness and acceptance of your product. Further, current non-users in
these areas, who ostensibly have similar demographic characteristics, have a greater propensity to become users than non-users
in areas where your product sales are low.
Advertise Where the Business Is Not
This philosophy take an offensive posture. It is based on the belief that changing consumer demands, as well as changes in
product formulation for your brand or the competitive brands, results in brand-switching. Advertising in areas of low
consumption would therefore announce your presence and keep your brand in consumers' minds should they decide to switch
brands. To implement this philosophy successfully, you must first ensure that other marketing factors are in place: You must
have the right product for the consumers, competitive pricing, widespread distribution,

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sufficient inventory position to restock for repurchase after initial trial, and good display. Advertising alone will not produce
sales, nor will it remedy marketing deficiencies.
You can use either philosophy, or some combination of both, depending on the marketing strategy. In any case, the objective at
this stage of the analysis is to assign a ''target percentage'' to each market in the United States. The target represents the share
that market should receive of the total advertising effort. The target percentage for all markets combined must equal 100 percent.
When?
To what degree should the brand recognize seasonal sales patterns?
Are there any discernible patterns?
How important is the introductory versus the sustaining period?
Should scheduling address any planned changes in the creative execution, or additions to the pool of commercials/
advertisements?
Should competitive efforts be countered?
Is there need to support planned promotions?
Are certain periods more important than othersfor instance, national or local holidays?
What is the minimum number of weeks, through the year, that advertising must run?
You need to formulate precise direction for each of these concerns, and conceivably for other timing aspects important to the
brand. When Possible or appropriate, use the most specific calendar units: time of day, day of week, week of month, month of
year. As with all objectives, strive to quantify your decision. Avoid words like "most," "emphasis," "majority," and so forth.
None of these is precise. "Emphasis," for example, could mean a five percent increase for a certain period versus the average
period, or 10 percent, 20 percent, or more.

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Examples of precise objectives are these:
Spend advertising dollars in accordance with the percentage of sales each month.
Allocate no more than 60 percent of advertising expenditures during the introductory 13-week period, ensuring sufficient funds
to cover the remainder of the year.
Increase advertising activity by 50 percent during each of the three planned promotion periods. Precede the promotion by one
week and run concurrently during the remaining four weeks of the promotion.
Concentrate all advertising from Wednesday to Saturday in order to reach high potential product X buyers immediately prior to
the highest usage day, Sunday.
How?
What are the basic requirements for color, audio, visual?
How does the complexity of the message affect copy length? What is the brand's creative experience?
How many different creative executions will be employed?
Are there different creative executions for different target audiences?
Do some creative executions require more advertising. pressure than others?
Copy is obviously of extreme importance to any viable advertising effort. Regardless of the impact of the media plan, if it does
not properly reflect the copy strategy, the entire campaign suffers. The media planner should not, however, play second fiddle to
the copywriter. It is important for both to work together to create the best copy in the best medium, and this should happen in
the early stages of planning. The copywriter should be made aware of the media ramifications of certain decisionsjust as the
media planner should have a complete understanding of the copy needs.

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How Much?
This has to do with "communication goals," such as:
What reach level is needed?
How much frequency is required?
What level of effective reach (frequency) is optimum?
Should reach/frequency vary by geographic area?
Are delivery objectives different for different target groups (primary, secondary, etc.)?
Should reach/frequency be addressed for each creative execution, or for all executions combined?
Should reach/frequency goals vary by advertising message length (e.g. 15-second versus 30-second spots, 1/2 page versus full
page ads)?
The number of people you need to reach with advertising, and how often you need to reach them, has the most demonstrable
effect on a media plan. If it is possible to have a precise objective that clearly establishes how many people need to be reached
and how often, this will significantly influence your choices of which media forms to consider, how much of each medium can
be used, the number of weeks that advertising is affordable, or what budget is necessary to achieve this objective.
There is a temptation to write this objective after a plan is constructed and the delivery of that plan is determined. While this
guarantees the objective will be achieved, it is a pointless exercise. If a predetermined level of advertising intensity is desirable
or needed based on past performance, competitive pressure, or judgment, you should state that level in the objectivesprior to
devising the actual media plan. For example, if you decided to diet to lose weight, it would be silly to first lose a few pounds
and then announce that was your goal: Far better to state your goal ("I want to lose ten pounds") and strive to achieve that goal.
Having a media goal for reach/frequency will present a challenge and a stimulus for you to overcome any obstacles to achieve
the goal. It will force you to be a more creative media thinker.

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What Else?
Objectives can be written for anything you wish to accomplish through the use of media. Two examples are discussed here.
Coupons
Will the media plan require the support of a consumer promotion in the form of a media-distributed coupon?
How many coupons will be distributed?
In what geographic areas will the distribution be made? Are there variations by area?
A number of advertising plans contain a promotional effort that can be either trade- or consumer-oriented. Trade promotions
could take many forms, such as in-store displays, cost allowances (discounts) for purchasing certain quantities of product or
purchasing at certain times of the year, sales contests, etc. These kinds of trade promotions do not generally require a consumer
media effort.
A promotion directed to the consumer does require media support. Although this effort is considered promotion rather than
advertising, the two must work in concert. If the marketing objective requires distribution of a cents-off coupon in order to
counter competitive efforts or promote consumer trial, then this must be translated into an actionable media objective so the
media planner can schedule appropriate media to deliver these coupons into the consumers' hands.
Testing
Should a media or copy test be conducted?
Should alternative advertising budgets be tested?
What information can be garnered with a test?
Throughout our discussion on media dynamics you've noted that there are many unanswered questions: How does advertising
work? What is the optimal level of reach/frequency? When does a commercial wear out?... and so forth. Although getting at
these

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answers might be difficult or currently impossible for the average situation, a media test for a specific product or service could
provide valuable information that could guide future media efforts. When you consider that many media tests can be
implemented for relatively little cost, the obvious conclusion is that testing should be part of most media plans. Regardless of
the media plan recommended, there is always room to conduct a test. For example, you could experiment with:
An unused mediummagazines if you are using TV, or radio if you are using magazines.
Media mixmagazines and TV versus either alone, or radio plus newspapers.
Copy lengthten-second commercials if the plan calls for 30-second spots, or half pages instead of full pages.
Schedulingflighting advertising with hiatus periods as opposed to continuous advertising, or concentrating in one television
daypart rather than dispersing announcements through two or more dayparts.
Test Market A market (or markets) chosen for the purpose of conducting a media test.
Conducting a test requires you to carve out representative areas of the United States. The test market areas should not only be a
microcosm of total U.S. demography, but should also be representative of any other marketing variable that affects sales, such as
product brand development vis-a-vis the competition, distribution, etc. If no one area represents this "average" microcosm, two
or more areas could be chosen that together approximate the average. The purpose of selecting a microcosm is to obtain testing
results which are projectable to the entire United States (or to the entire geographic area in which a product is sold). Testing in
only high-development areas, for example, would yield results that are projectable only to other high development markets, not
necessarily to low development marketswhich have other marketing forces affecting their relative sales position.
You should give any test a chance to work. There is no magic timetable for a test that will tell you when you can draw valid
conclusions. But it is fair to assume that a media or copy or spending test will take weeks, months, or perhaps a year before its
thrust is felt at the consumer level.
Finally, you also need to ensure that appropriate media are available in the chosen test markets. It's senseless, for example, to

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formulate a test of national magazines and find none which offer local or test market editions in your chosen test markets, or to
devise a test of cable TV only to find that penetration levels in the test markets are at below-average levels.
Priorities
In some cases, not all objectives can be realistically met. For example, there may be an objective to reach at least 80 percent of a
target group, and a second objective which requires advertising continuously throughout the sales season. Media availability and
cost could prohibit you from accomplishing both of these objectives. It is therefore wise to give priorities to the objectives in
order to have a clear direction in the decision-making process. If reach is given a greater priority than continuity of advertising,
you can then elect to provide the needed levels of reach for as long a period as is affordable without necessarily advertising
throughout the sales season.

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Chapter 26
Preconceived Notions about Media Types
In this chapter we suggest that media planners have preconceived notions
about how various media perform their task of delivering audiences and,
therefore, whether a medium should be used to accomplish a specific media
objective. These preconceived notions are usually based on the media planner's
individual experience of having Used (purchased) the medium, but can also be
based on the simple understanding of what a particular medium can or cannot
offer. We examine some of the more popularly believed notions and display
them, by medium, as either positive or negative attributes.
A popularly held scientific belief is that the left hemisphere of a person's brain primarily handles verbal and mathematical tasks,
and the right hemisphere primarily handles spacial and musical skills. Left brain, right brain; science and art. The seasoned
media planner approaches the creation of a media plan using both hemispheres. The left brain deals with all the numbers at hand
by manipulating data found in current media research reports, determining audience delivery, calculating cost efficiency, etc.
The fight brain functions at the same time by accessing the accumulated knowledge of media dynamicsbased on past
involvement with the media, interpretations of ancillary research, personal consumption of the media, thoughts and opinions of
fellow workers, etc. Consciously or unconsciously, the planner deals with all this input not only during the planning process, but
even before putting pen to paper.

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It is rare for a planner to approach a media plan with questions like: "Should I use newspapers or TV?" or "Should I plan for a
month-long effort in billboards or select weekly magazines?" Commonly, the planner has preconceived notions about media
types and specific media vehicles which have taken shape over time. These notions are believed to be ''truths'' about each
mediumwhether or not they actually are true. The notions do change over time as the planner absorbs more knowledge of the
media, but the change is a slow evolution. With the exception of entirely new media forms, media do not revolutionize
themselves and take on completely new images in the planner's mind. Before the planning process begins, the planner brings
these notions to the party and is guided by these personal judgments of how each medium works, how it can accomplish the
advertising objectives, and how it might be used in the media plan.
Depending on the advertising objectives for a particular product, you'll find that you will mentally preselect media to be
analyzed to fulfill those objectives. You will have a sense of how different media will contribute either positively or negatively
to the accomplishment of communication goals. Generally, no one medium can accomplish all the objectives of a media plan.
More often than not, several media offer benefits that you should take advantage of if the advertising budget and creative
platform permit. Importantly, no one medium is perfect. All have positive and negative attributes. Additionally, what might be a
positive attribute in one media plan for product A can conceivably be a negative attribute for product B. Additionally, not all
media experts necessarily agree on the positive and negative attributes of each mediumthey all have their own opinions based on
their personal past experiences.
Following are basic notions about the most commonly used mass media formssome inarguable, some postulates, but all
generally accepted as positive or negative attributes in the average situation. Although the attributes apply to the media category,
they may or may not necessarily apply to a specific vehicle within that category. Further, many of the attributes (positive or
negative) apply to more than one of the media. Lastly, not all vehicles are contained within these general category descriptors.
For purposes of clarity, the categories presented contain these media types:
Direct
Mail: The advertising material a consumer receives in
the mail (either directed by name or addressed to
"resident") which

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requests the consumer to take an action,
such as calling an 800 number, redeeming a
coupon, or mailing back something to the
advertiser.
Magazines: The average monthly, weekly, quarterly, or
annual consumer magazine distributed via
reader subscription, on newsstands, or both.
Not included, for example, are advertiser-
produced magazines or (for the most part)
trade magazines.
Newspapers: The typical national or metropolitan
newspaper issued daily or weekly and/or
Sunday. Not included, for example, are
Pennysaver-type periodicals.
Outdoor: Posters (30-sheet, 8-sheet, etc.) and painted
bulletins. Not contained are the many out-
of-home vehicles which may perform
similarly, but offer their own particular
attributes (e.g., kiosks, taxicab tops,
commuter rail posters).
Radio: Programs produced by broadcast media
suppliers which can be purchased either
nationally or locally. Not contained are
advertiser produced and placed programs
(e.g. infomercials).
Sunday Magazines produced by a media supplier
Magazine and distributed (generally) on Sunday as
Supplements:part of a metropolitan newspaper. The
periodical is produced either by a central
media
Informercial (Infomercial) A long-form broadcast commercial which provides much more information
than can be supplied in a typical, say, 30- or 60-second commercial. Also called Advertorial.

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supplier who syndicates the product, or by the
metropolitan newspaper itself. Not contained
are advertiser-produced magazines which can
be carried as an FSI (free standing insert) in
the newspaper.
Television:Programs produced by either broadcast or
cable media suppliers, which can be
purchased either nationally or locally. Not
contained are advertiser-produced and placed
programs (e.g., home shopping, half-hour or
hour advertiser infomercial).
Direct Mail
Positive Attributes
Allows extraordinary creative flexibility limited only by postal regulations for size and content (note: if delivered by other
methods, there are conceivably no limitations).
Offers unlimited geographic targeting (from total national to one individual person) not available in any other media form.
Delivers precise demographic and psychographic groups, with an absolute minimum of waste to non-targeted consumers, via
innumerable database and list sources.
Provides an automatic lead source for people who have responded to the advertiser, which can be productively used for future
direct mailings.
Allows relatively precise timing of delivery of the advertising message, not dependent on normal media consumption habits or
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Gives the advertiser total control over the production quality of the advertising message the consumer will see, unhampered by
extraneous forces (e.g., poor television reception).
Offers total control over the breadth and scope of advertising delivery (e.g., reach and frequency).
Offers permanence of the advertising messagefor repeat exposure during a second reading, for later reference, for exposure to
others to whom the recipient might give it, and for response at a later time.
Can be directed to consumers at their homes or at their places of business.
Quickly indicates if an advertising message is producing sales.
Can be constantly changed and tested to determine which specific creative elements produce the highest response.
Negative Attributes
Is usually cost-inefficient vis-a-vis other mass media forms.
Generally requires a proportionately high out-of-pocket cost for production and postage.
If perceived as "junk marl," will not be opened by the consumer.
Magazines
Positive Attributes
Offer a wide array of editorial formats and different editorial focuses to reach readers while they have a specific state of mind,
which can complement a specific advertising message.
Have high-fidelity color produced on quality paper, allowing for effective product presentation.
Are capable of reaching specific demographic groups with relatively minimal waste to groups outside the target audience.
Offer the opportunity for long copy exposition via full-page or multiple-page ads.
Can bind-in preprinted material supplied by the advertiser.

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Allow distribution of reader-response materials: coupons, sweepstake/contest entry forms, surveys, etc.
Offer permanence of the advertising messagerepeat exposure during a second reading of the magazine, for clipping/
saving/reference, and for exposure to others who might read the same copy.
Are capable of reaching large numbers of people, either as a single entity or when purchased in combination with other titles.
Can accommodate unique creative executions: microencapsulation, holograms, micro chips, die-cut pop-ups, special inks,
unusual space configurations, ink-jet personalizing for each reader of the publication, etc.
Can be purchased nationally, regionally, or locally.
Can be purchased to reach specific demographic segments within the total readership of the magazine.
Allow distribution of the advertisement to possible nonreaders who might be part of an advertiser's secondary target audience
(its employees, the trade, etc.) via overprints.
Depending on the target audience, can be relatively cost-efficient compared to other media forms.
Produce frequency of exposurea reader may see the same advertisement more than once in an issue (repeat readership) or may
read other magazines on the advertising schedule.
Reach people who are lightly or not exposed to other media forms, and thereby extend reach and/or frequency.
Can accommodate listings.
Negative Attributes
Unlike broadcast media, do not deliver their entire audience instantly. A magazine accumulates its audience over time depending
on when a reader decides to read it and when pass-along audiences are exposed to it.
Charge relatively high cost premiums for purchases that are less than full-run.
Do not (except via microchip insertion) offer sound.

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Currently do not offer motion, as TV does.
Do not generally offer the total reach potential of other media forms.
Mechanical A camera-ready pasteup of artworkincludes type, photography, and artwork or line art, all
on one piece of artboard. Also known as a Keyline.
Require advertising materials (mechanical, keyline) well in advance of issue dateusually a longer lead time than some other
media (with the occasional exception of those magazines offering a "fast close").
Once in the printing process, cannot be cancelled, thus becoming relatively inflexible for acccommodating last-minute changes.
Do not produce as high a frequency level as other media forms.
Usually do not expose an advertising message to more than one person at a given moment.
Newspapers
Positive Attributes
Immediately deliver their reading audience, generally 100 percent within one day.
Offer wide array of editorial environments (depending on scope of an individual publication) via different sections
(international, national, or local news; food; entertainment; etc.) which can complement a specific advertising message.
Can accommodate preprinted material supplied by the advertiser (e.g., Freestanding Insert).
Allow distribution of reader-response materials: coupons, sweepstakes/contest entry forms, surveys, etc.
Offer permanence of the advertising messagefor repeat exposure during a second reading of the newspaper, for
clipping/saving/reference, and for exposure to others who might read the same copy.

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Are capable of reaching large numbers of people, either as a single entity or when purchased in combination with other
newspapers.
Can be purchased to reach specific demographic groups via distribution to predetermined ZIP Code areas.
Can be relatively cost efficient compared to other media forms, depending on the target audience and the size of the
advertisement.
Require a lower advertising production cost than some other media forms.
Can produce frequency of exposure by a reader seeing the same advertisement more than once in a copy (repeat readership).
Reach people who are lightly or not exposed to other media forms, thereby extending reach and/or frequency.
Offer an audience which often uses the medium for shopping purposes (e.g., what's on sale where, which movie is playing at
which theatre).
Generate a relatively higher local market penetration than magazines.
Can accommodate unique ad space configurations.
Allow a relatively faster space and material close than magazines.
Can accommodate dealer listings.
Negative Attributes
Charge relatively high cost premiums for less than full-run purchases.
Do not offer sound or motion in the advertising message.
Do not offer the total reach potential of other media forms.

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Once in the printing process, cannot be cancelled, thus becoming relatively inflexible for accommodating last-minute changes.
Are relatively cost-inefficient for large-space ads.
Contain little or no separation between less-than-full-page advertisements, which results in clutter and could lead to reduced
advertising readership.
Are short-lived and do not offer substantial pass-along audiences.
Generally do not offer high-fidelity color reproduction except in within-newspaper magazines.
Do not deliver non-adult audiences to the extent other media do.
Usually do not expose an advertising message to more than one person at a given moment.
Outdoor
Positive Attributes
Provides for 24-hour exposure of the advertising message.
Offers creative flexibility for size, shape, coloration, and three-dimensional display.
Is the second most geographically selective medium (behind direct mail).
Offers the opportunity for advertising exposure at or near the point of product purchase.
Is considered the most cost-efficient of all major media forms.
Has unlimited reach potential.
Allows delivery to multiple household members simultaneously (e.g., while members are in a car).

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Can be used to direct people to specific locations while they are travelingcommonly called directional boards.
Can produce high levels of frequency.
Can allow movement to be displayed.
Negative Attributes
Does not allow for effective presentation of extended advertising copy.
Has a short duration of message deliveryusually six to eight seconds for motorists to see and read.
Offers limited demographic flexibility.
Requires a relatively high out-of-pocket cost for broad coverage.
Is not available in all geographic areas.
Radio
Positive Attributes
Offers a wide array of formats (program types) to reach listeners during a specific state of mind, which can complement a
specific advertising message.
Allows delivery to multiple household members simultaneously.
Provides for relatively immediate delivery.
Is advertiser driven and does not require the listener to seek the advertisingthat is, it is intrusive.
Is capable of producing one of the highest levels of reach of most generalized consumer segments (e.g., teens, men, women,
adults 18-34, etc.).
Can produce high frequency levels.
Can deliver advertising messages at any time during any 24-hour period.

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Can reach people immediately prior to shoppingfor instance, in their cars enroute to a supermarket.
Offers a proportionately low cost per commercial announcement.
Is one of the most cost-efficient of the major-media forms.
Can elicit the visual elements of a television commercial based on the phenomenon of imagery transfer.
Allows the commercial message to produce images not physically executable in other media forms by using the listener's
imagination.
Can reacheople who are lightly or not exposed to other media forms.
Negative Attributes
Is often considered a background medium to which audiences are not always and continuously paying full attention.
Generally requires relatively higher levels of frequency to overcome possible consumer non-attentiveness.
Does not always allow listener to take physical action as a result of the advertising message (such as calling an 800 telephone
number or writing down information), depending on the location of listening.
Generally requires a high out-of-pocket cost to purchase multiple stations in order to accumulate high levels of reach.
Does not offer any tangible visual elements.
Does not offer any tangible motion elements.
Sunday Magazine Supplements

Positive Attributes
Have high-fidelity color produced on quality paper, allowing for effective product presentation.
Can bind-in preprinted material supplied by the advertiser or "float" the material within its pages.

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Allow distribution of reader-response materials: coupons, sweepstakes/contest entry forms, surveys, etc.
Offer permanence of the advertising messagefor repeat exposure during a second reading of the magazine, for dipping/
saving/reference, and for exposure to others who might read the same copy.
Are capable of reaching large numbers of people.
Can accommodate unique creative executions similar to those of magazines and newspapers.
Can be relatively cost-efficient, depending on the target audience.
Usually require a lower advertising production cost than some other media forms.
Produce frequency of exposureby a reader seeing the same advertisement more than once in an issue (repeat readership).
Reach people who are lightly or not exposed to other media forms, and thereby extend reach and/or frequency.
Immediately deliver nearly their entire audience in one day.
Generate a relatively higher local market penetration than typical consumer magazines.
Can accommodate dealer listings.
Negative Attributes
Are nonintrusive relative to broadcast, because the reader controls page turnings.
Do not (except for microchip insertion) offer sound.
Currently do not offer motion.

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Require advertising materials (mechanical, keyline) well in advance of issue dateusually a longer lead time than some other
media.
Once in the printing process, cannot be cancelled, thus becoming relatively inflexible for accommodating last minute changes.
Require a proportionately high out-of-pocket cost for national coverage.
Are relatively cost-inefficient for large-space ads.
Are short lived and do not offer substantial pass-along audiences.
Do not deliver non-adult audiences to the extent other media do.
Usually do not expose an advertising message to more than one person in a household at a given moment.
Television
Positive' Attributes
Provides full-color advertising.
Delivers advertising that can simultaneously be seen and heard and, inherently, allows movement to be displayed: sight, sound
and motion.
Allows delivery to multiple household members simultaneously.
Provides for relatively immediate delivery.
Is advertiser driven and does not require the viewer to seek the advertisingthat is, it is intrusive.
Can be purchased in fairly concentrated pieces of geography via individualized cable offerings.

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Provides a full array of program types to reach viewers during a specific state of mind, which can complement a specific
advertising message.
Is capable of producing one of the highest levels of reach of most generalized consumer segments (e.g., children, teens, men,
women, adults 18-34).
Can produce high frequency levels.
Can deliver advertising messages at any time during any 24-hour period.
Can be negotiated for product category exclusivity.
Is usually one of the most cost-efficient media forms for most generalized consumer segments.
Can reach people who are lightly or not exposed to other media forms.
Negative Attributes
Is considered one of the more ''cluttered'' advertising media, which could affect viewer retention of the commercial message.
Has a limited inventory of commercial openings, which could preclude the purchase of specific programs.
Commands a high out-of-pocket cost for broad coverage.
Is not as demographically selective as some other media forms (with the possible exception of cable TV).
Audience size of given programs can fluctuate widely based on changes in counter-programming.
Zapping Deliberate removal by a viewer of nonprogram material (e.g., a commercial) while recording
on a VCR so as to play back program(s) without commercial interruption.
Is relatively cost-inefficient for narrowly defined target groups.
Is increasingly being recorded on VCRs for viewing after the original time of broadcast.
Zipping Fast -forwarding through commercials and/or programs while playing back a VCR recording.
Commercials can be "zapped" or zippedfast-forwardedif viewer watches program after it is recorded on a VCR.

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Chapter 27
Media Strategies
In this chapter we discuss the final analytical stage of how to construct a
media plan. We demonstrate the kinds of analyses which can be conducted
and the thought processes you should undertake in deciding which media
vehicle or combinations of media are best suited to achieve the media
objectives. We focus on six specific strategic areas: target audience,
geography, scheduling, reach/frequency, couponing, and testing. Within these
strategic areas we delve into methodologies and systems used to decide how
to allocate advertising dollars or impressions to each geographic area, and
how to execute an in-market test utilizing advertising media.
Media strategies are the solutions to the media objectives. Strategy statements reflect the specific course of action to be taken
with media:
Which media will be used
How often each will be used
How much of each medium will be used
During which periods of the year each medium will be used
Devising media strategy requires you have an in-depth knowledge of media characteristicshow they work, how they are
consumed, how they can be used to generate a desired effect. You must also have an understanding of the media
marketplacewhat the availability and cost structure of each medium is at a given point

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in time. If you decide primetime network television should be scheduled for April to achieve a particular objective, you must
know if the television networks have unsold inventory for that month and, if so, what the cost of these commercial units might
be.
A number of media alternatives are available to achieve media objectives. Your job is to find the medium, or combination of
media, that will produce the best overall effect relative to your objectives. This requires extensive analysis.
The following are examples of how you might approach media analysis in order to accomplish several specific objectives. In all
cases, the examples are illustrative of a particular situation and should not be construed as the only way to approach media
analysis. Additionally, all examples restrict consideration to one or two audience segments and a few hypothetical media
alternatives. Actual analysis of media alternatives would require far more extensive tabulating than presented in these examples.
The examples shown evaluate each mediumnot individual media vehicles (such as magazine B). You could just as easily
substitute media vehicles in the examples, inasmuch as the concept and the arithmetic are the same.
Target Audience
Let us assume you have established an objective for a $1 million media plan that recognizes the relative importance of men and
women in purchasing decisions for Product X:
Select media on the basis of a 40 percent/60 percent weighting for men and women respectively.
For ease of illustration, let us assume you have only one choice of a creative unit for each of the media formsonly 30-second
spots for TV, only pages for magazines, etc. Additionally, let us also assume you have determined which of the media vehicles
within each media type will be in the considered set, and that you have averaged the cost per advertising unit and the average
audience delivery for each of these types, so that you can look at figures for the overall medium, as shown in Table 27.1.
The first step you might take is to analyze audience composition to determine how these media skew to men and women. Table
27.2

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shows that A and E are probably not a good fit for the media objective; media B, C, and D are.
TABLE 27.1: Basic Planning Input
Average Audience Delivery (000)
Medium Cost/Unit Men Women Adults
A $10,000 1,250 3,750 5,000
B 20,000 1,600 2,400 4,000
C 30,000 1,500 1,500 3,000
D 40,000 3,000 2,000 5,000
E 50,000 7,500 2,500 10,000
TABLE 27.2: Audience Composition

Medium Men Women Adults
A 25 75 100%
B 40 60 100
C 50 50 100
D 60 40 100
E 75 25 100
The second step might be to calculate total impression delivery within the $1 million budget. This can be done in several ways:
Determine the number of units affordable and multiply by the audience delivery per unit; or
Divide the budget by the respective CPMs; or
Obtain adult impressions in either of the above two fashions, and allocate the total to men and women based on audience
composition.
Table 27.3 indicates that medium A produces the most impressions and C the least.

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TABLE 27.3: Impressions$1 Million Budget
Affordable Millions of People
Medium # Units Men Women Adults
A 100 125 375 500
B 50 80 120 200
C 33 50 50 100
D 25 75 50 125
E 20 150 50 200
Following an impression analysis, the logical next step might be to calculate cost-per-thousand. Table 27.4 shows that medium
A has the lowest CPM and C the highest, which jibes with the previous impression analysis. As is always the case, the more
impressions per dollar, the lower the CPM.
TABLE 27.4: Cost-per-Thousand
Medium Men Women Adults
A $ 8.00 $ 2.67 $ 2.00
B 12.50 8.33 5.00
C 20.00 20.00 10.00
D 13.33 20.00 8.00
E 6.67 20.00 5.00
At this point it makes sense to specifically address the media objective of weighting men 40 percent and women 60 percent.
Table 27.5 performs this calculation: men impressions times 40 percent plus women impressions times 60 percent equals adult
"weighted" impressions. Media A still comes up the winner; C is still the lowest producer. If you stopped your analysis at this
point, you would give preferential consideration to medium A, followed by B, E, D and C in that order. This means you would
analyze many alternative plans, each of which would include a proportionately higher amount of medium A.
You might opt, however, to continue the basic analysis by also considering media values. These values can be based on
anything

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TABLE 27.5: Weighted Impressions
Millions of People
Medium Men @ 40% Women @ 60% Total
A 50 225 275
B 32 72 104
C 20 30 50
D 30 30 60
E 60 30 90
you wish and are generally based on qualitative factors (which may or may not be backed by quantitative information), your
judgment, or tangential quantitative information at your disposal. For example, you may elect to favor a medium that has these
attributes (and thereby disfavor those that do not):
A programming/editorial environment which is perceived to be compatible with the basic elements of the creative execution
with which you are dealing;
Ability to deliver sight, sound and motion;
Ability to deliver high fidelity color;
Ability to be seen/heard by the sales force during their workday;
A track record of proven performance (relative to product X);
Timing flexibility to buy late or cancel at the last minute;
Ability to reach both men and women at the same time.
Suppose, therefore, that you made these judgment calls for each of the media types, giving those that met most or all of your
evaluation criteria a value of 100 percent, those that met only a few criteria a value of 25 percent, and those in the middle,
values of 50 percent or 75 percent. You could then apply these values to the weighted impressions generated by each media form
to yield a "weighted/valued" impression delivery, against which you could calculate a CPM. This math is shown in Table 27.6.
Here we see that medium B is top ranked.

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TABLE 27.6: Weighted and Valued Impressions
Welghted Valued
Impressions Media Impressions
Medium (millions) Value (millions) CPM
A 275 × 25 = 69 $14.49
B 104 × 75 = 78 12.82
C 50 × 100 = 50 20.00
D 60 × 100 = 60 16.67
E 90 × 50 = 45 22.22
Different analyses can yield different answers and thereby steer you in different directions. For example, shown in Table 27.7
are the priority choices you could have made for each of the previous analytical ingredients.
TABLE 27.7: Ranking of Media
Rank
Analysis Ingredient 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
Audience Composition B C A D E
Adult Impressions A B E D C
Adult CPM A E B D C
Weighted Impressions A B E D C
Weight/Valued Impressions B A D C E
Clearly, an impression and CPM analysis is not the be-all-and-end-all. It is only one evaluation tool for helping you decide
which media (or medium) could be in the considered set.
Geographic Objective
There are usually pronounced differences in a brand's sales, competitive pressures, category development, distribution patterns,
and a host of other marketing variables from market to market. If it is assumed that advertising affects sales, the more
advertising pressure in a market the greater the opportunity to build sales.

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With a finite advertising budget, however, you certainly cannot just spend everywhere at high levels. One of your media
objectives, therefore, might be to allocate media delivery to each market in the United States in proportion to sales (or some
other marketing criterion). The strategy needed to execute this objective is to create geographic alignment between sales and
media delivery.
Local Market Targets
The first step in accomplishing an alignment objective is to establish precise goals in each market. For example, you might
decide to spend your advertising budget in direct relationship to salesthat is, have the same advertising/sales ratio in each
market. Table 27.8 demonstrates this array for a hypothetical scenario encompassing five markets in the United States, sales of
$10 million, and an advertising budget of $1 million. To calculate how much to spend in each market you can either multiply
the percent of sales in each market by the total advertising budget, or you can apply the national A/S ratio to the sales in each
market.
TABLE 27.8: Equalizing the A/S Ratio
Sales
Advertising Budget (000)
Market (000) % Total A/S Ratio

A $ 1,100 11% $ 110 10%
B 1,500 15 150 10
C 1,800 18 180 10
D 3,000 30 300 10
E 2,600 26 260 10
Total $10,000 100% $1,000 10%
You might, however, decide to establish local market goals based on additional ingredients, such as category development (CDI)
or judgment. Table 27.9 demonstrates the kind of analysis you might undertake. Here we see that market A accounts for 10
percent of the U.S. population and has a BDI of 110 and a CDI of 90. Your brand is therefore performing above average, and
better than the category at large. Market E, however, is performing below average,

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but the category is doing very wellindicating that there is possible opportunity for increased sales. Market E also happens to be
the largest of the five markets in terms of population. Your judgment might direct you to have the following spending strategy:
Support all markets because all are important.
Spend proportionately more in markets where the BDI is less than the CDI
Spend proportionately less in markets where the BDI is less than the CDI
As shown in the table, you determined that market A should receive 8 percent of all media spending, market B, 12 percent, etc.
The A/S ratio, therefore, varies by marketless than 10 percent in some, more than 10 percent in others.
TABLE 27.9: Establishing Local Market Targets
% Category
Sales
% U.S. % Brand Target A/S
Markets Population Sales BDICDI % Ratio
A 10% 11% 9% 110 90 8% 7.3%
B 15 15 15 100 100 12 8.0
C 20 18 22 90 110 20 11.1
D 25 30 14 120 56 25 8.3
E 30 26 40 87 133 35 13.5
Total 100% 100% 100% 100 100 100% 10.0%
Local Market Media Delivery

The easiest way to align spending with sales by market is to use only local media (spot TV, newspapers, etc.). Local budgets can
therefore be translated into local media delivery by dividing the budget by the cost of media.
You might, however, decide to use a national medium in lieu of local media in all markets (for whatever media rationale you've
divined). Local delivery of national media will not, however,

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correspond with your local target goals. All national media exhibit audience variation from market to market. For example, a
national magazine might be more popular in some markets than in others, resulting in varying levels of circulation coverage by
market. A network TV program, which might get a 10 national rating, will have ratings higher or lower than 10 by market,
depending on the local viewing patterns. Therefore, if you purchase, for example, ten network TV programs and produce 200
GRPs nationally, you might get 180 GRPs in one market, 210 in another, and so forth. The chance that any national medium
will distribute its audience delivery in direct proportion to the local market targets you establish is nil.
Table 27.10 displays this variation phenomenon for a hypothetical national media schedule encompassing 200 GRPs against a
U.S. population base of 100 million people. This schedule will produce 200 million impressions overall. Market A will generate
18 million impressions based on the delivery of 180 GRPs against a population of 10 million. These 18 million impressions
represent 9 percent of total U.S. impressions. If you intend to spend $1 million on this national schedule, you have
proportionately invested 9 percent into market A$90,000. If your national CPM is $5 ($1 million divided by 200 million
impressions) you must assume that you are spending $5 against each 1000 people regardless of their geographic locationthus the
$5 can be applied to the local market impressions to yield the same local market budgetthat is, $90,000 in market A.
TABLE 27.10: National Media Impressions and Dollars by Local
Market
U.S. Population Equivalent
(MM) Dollars (000)
Impressions %
Market GRPs (MM) Total CPM
A 10 180 18 9% $5.00 $ 90
B 15 200 30 15 5.00 150
C 20 210 42 21 5.00 210
D 25 200 50 25 5.00 250
E 30 200 60 30 5.00 300
Total 100 200 200 100%$5.00 $1,000

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Dollar Allocation System
Once you have established local market targets, such as those presented in Table 27.9, you can use one of two methods to
allocate national or local media to each market. One method is the dollar allocation system. This method apportions the total
dollar spending of all media combined to each market relative to the target percentage. If market A is targeted to receive 8
percent of your national investment, then 8 percent of your total media budget should be spent in market A.
Table 27.11 continues the above example by comparing the local market spending equivalents of the national medium you have
chosen to the local market spending targets. Market A is to receive 8 percent of your advertising budgeta total of $80,000. The
selected national medium delivers the equivalent of $90,000 in market A, thereby producing an over-delivery of $10,000.
Conversely, market E is receiving $50,000 less than targeted.
TABLE 27.11: Media Dollar AllocationOnly National Media
Target National Media Difference
Market % (000) (000) (000) Index
A 8 $ 80 $ 90 $10 113
B 12 120 150 30 125
C 20 200 210 10 105
D 25 250 250 100
E 35 350 300 (50) 86
100%
Total $1,000 $1,000 100
If the goal is to align spending with established targets, you need to reduce the level of spending in national media and reinvest
the difference into local media. Determining the proper balance between national and local can be done by a simple
mathematical procedure:
Procedure Results
1. Find the market with the greatest relative over- Market B125
expenditure: spending index
2. Determine the maximum budget for this. $120,000
marketi.e., the spending goal;

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3. Find the percent of national impressions accounted for by
this market. (from Table 27.10): 15%
4. Divide the budget ($120,000) by the impression percentage $800,000
(15%) to yield the national budget:
With a total budget of $1 million and a national budget of $800,000, you now have $200,000 to invest (market by market) via
local media. Table 27.12 demonstrates the procedures for establishing how much should be spent in local media in each market.
For example, with a budget goal of $80,000 in market A and a prorated national budget of $72,000, you need to spend $8,000
locally so the total national plus local spending equals the goal. You'll note that market B, which was overspent when the entire
budget was invested in national media, is allocated no money for use via local media.
TABLE 27.12: Media Dollar AllocationNational and Local Media
Dollars
Target National Local Total
Market % (000) (000) (000) (000) Index
A 8 80 $ 72 $8 $ 80 100
B 12 120 120 120 100
C 20 200 168 32 200 100
D 25 250 200 50 250 100
E 35 350 240 110 350 100
Total 100% $1,000 $800 $200 $1,000 100
Once you've defined local media budgets you can proceed with determining which media will be used and how much of each
can be used within the budget. For example, if you are using spot TV, all you need is the anticipated CPP (cost-per-point) for
each local market to calculate total affordable GRPs. Let us assume that the

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four markets that are slated for local media in our example above will all receive spot TV. Let us also assume the following
CPPs:
Market CPP
A $ 650
C 1,300
D 1,500
E 1,200
Table 27.13 compares the two plans we have discussed: Plan I, using all national media, and Plan II, using a combination of
national and local media. Also shown is the spending target percentage by market. You'll see substantial differences between the
plans from one market to another. Plan II, which incorporates ''controllable'' local media, allows you to produce more GRPs in
the relatively important E market, albeit at the reduction of GRPs in other markets. Plan I produces GRPs by market relative to
local viewing levels, not relative to the target percentage. You will also note that Plan II produces slightly more GRPs
overall202 versus 200. This is only a function of the local media chosen, which happen to have an average CPM slightly less
than national media in this example. You will find in your actual real-world analyses that total national average GRPs (or
impressions) will be less or more or the same for local media compared to national media based on which local or national
media you choose.
TABLE 27.13: Comparison of PlansLocal GRPs
Plan I Plan II
Spending All National National Local Total
Target % Media GRPs GRPs GRPs GRPs
Market
A 8% 180 144 12 156
B 12 200 160 160
C 30 210 168 25 193
D 25 200 160 33 193
E 35 200 160 92 252
Total/Average 100% 200 160 42 202
Budget (000) $1,000 $800 $200 $1,000

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Also in real-world analyses you should judge the numbers you've produceddon't be a slave to the findings. In the above table
you'll note, for example, that market A is to receive 12 GRPs via spot TV. As we've seen from our discussions on average
ratings and reach/ frequency, 12 GRPs is not very much and will probably have only a minor effect on total advertising
deliverythat is, on top of the 144 GRPs produced by national media in market A. If your analysis yields local market budgets or
local market media delivery which you judge to be too small or ineffective, you would be wise to capture those funds and
redistribute them into other markets.
Dollar Allocation/Impression Allocation

All of the above was based on allocating dollars to each local market. An alternative to a dollar allocation system is an
impression allocation system. In this system, you calculate the estimated total impressions you believe you can purchase via a
combination of national and local media, and allocate these to each local market based on your target goals. For example (as
shown in Table 27.14), market A is to receive 8 percent of the total U.S. impressions of 200 million16 million in total. National
media deliver 14.4 million impressions (based on the GRP pattern displayed in an earlier table). Your goal, therefore, is to
purchase 1.6 million impressions via local media to yield a total of 16 million impressions in the market. Market A has a local
media CPM of $6.50. By multiplication (impressions × CPM) you can determine the local media budget $10,400 for market A.
TABLE 27.14:Media Impressions Allocation
Target Impressions
Local Cost
(000)
Impressions National Local Local
Market % (000) (000) (000) CPM
A 8% 160,000 14,400 1,600 $6.50 $ 10,400
B 12 24,000 24,000
C 20 40,000 33,600 6,400 6.50 41,600
D 25 50,000 40,000 10,000 6.00 60,000
E 35 70,000 48,000 22,000 4.00 88,000
Total 100% 200,000 160,000 40,000 $200,000

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For demonstrative purposes, this example has been structured to yield the same total U.S. target impressions as shown in the
previous Plan I (dollar allocation system). You will often find that the combined cost of the local media you need to purchase to
fulfill your impression goals will exceed your local media budget. This results from lack of spending "control" by market.
Spending in the impression allocation system is a result of multiplying the amount of media you need by the cost of media,
without regard, per se, to the absolute CPP or CPM. In real-world analysis you will often have to adjust impression goals by
market to afford the total number of impressions.
Dollar versus Impressions
The major differences between these two allocation systems can be summarized as follows:
Dollars Impressions
Presupposes that dollar Presupposes that
should be controlled without consumers react to
regard, per se, to media advertising delivery,
audience delivery not to dollars, per se
Determines ad budgets in Produces local
proportion to target impressions in
percentages proportion to target
percentages
Produces a controlled A/S A/S is a function of the
by market. cost of local media.
Produces more impressions Produces fewer
overall than the alternative impressions overall
system than the alternative
system.
Table 27.15 demonstrates the difference between the two allocation systems using the same national/local media Plan II
discussed above. You'll see some notable differences:
Market E is allocated fewer GRPs in the impression allocation systembecause of the need to purchase GRPs in other, higher
CPM markets.
National average GRPs are less for the impression allocation system than the dollar system.

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TABLE 27.15: Dollar versus Impression AllocationLocal Market
GRP Delivery
Dollar Allocation Impression Allocation
National Local Total National Local Total
Media Media Media Media Media Media
Market
A 144 12 156 144 16 160
B 160 160 160 160
C 168 25 193 168 32 200
D 160 33 193 150 40 200
E 160 92 252 160 63 223
Average 160 42 202 160 37 197
Budget
(000) $800 $200 $1,000 $800 $200 $1,000
Either of these allocation systems can be manually calculated, but they are obviously easier to effect using a computer. When
these systems were first devised by the author and labeled NASTEA (Network And Spot TV Equalizing Allocator), all
calculations were done on a desk calculator. Today, the same kind of system can be accessed from on-line media information
suppliers.
Scheduling Objective
Every media plan should have a scheduling objective to guide the planner in allocating media across the year, even, conceivably,
by day of the week and time of day. When advertising is delivered is often a critical issue. Advertising for suntan lotion should
obviously be concentrated in those months when people need suntan lotion. Advertising for a product consumed to varying
degrees throughout the year, however, presents a less obvious scheduling requirement. As stated earlier, you must conduct a
complete investigation of the brand's needs vis-a-vis its competitive position and historical sales trends, and consider other
important marketing input as well, so you can translate these considerations into actionable media objectives that will address
the requirement for timing.
There are very few products or services that have a fiat seasonal sales patternthat is, where there is no discernible difference in

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sales from week to week. Because different products serve different consumer needs, and because consumer needs vary
throughout the year, you generally find seasonal sales variations. Additionally, people exhibit different lifestyle patterns from
one season to another, such as staying home more in the cold months and going out more in the warmer months. There are also
different sales patterns exhibited by day of the week, again depending on consumer behavior. Table 27.16 shows the percentage
of homemakers who do grocery shopping each day of the week. Not only do you see that many people shop more than one day
a week (as evidenced by the fact that the percents sum to more than 100 percent), but also that they tend to shop more on the
weekend than on weekdays. The pattern for male homemakers, however, is somewhat different. Recognizing these kinds of
differences can lead you to define scheduling objectives that will allow you to deliver advertising when you believe it will have
its greatest impact to stimulate consumers to take action.
Hiatus A period of non-activitythe period between advertising flights.
Flighting The scheduling of advertising for a period of time, followed by a hiatus, then another "flight"
of advertising.
TABLE 27.16: Days Shopped for Groceries
Female Male
Monday 21.5% 31.6%
Tuesday 25.5 21.4
Wednesday 20.8 19.9
Thursday 26.4 25.5
Friday 25.1 22.9
Saturday 32.2 29.0
Sunday 33.6 31.5
Source: Medlamark Research, Inc.
Pulsing A flighting technique that calls for either a continuous base of support augmented by
intermittent bursts of heavy pressure, or an on-again-off-again pattern (e.g., one week on, one week
off).
Beyond the general tuning consideration, you also need to think about the pattern of weekly audience delivery. You may have
an objective, for example, that requires you to advertise at least to some extent during each calendar quarter. Thus you must
decide whether to schedule continuous advertising covering every week, or, alternatively, to schedule bursts of advertising for
selected weeks, each burst followed by a hiatus. This pattern is known as flighting. You might decide that some combination of
continuous and flighting be effected via a pattern known as pulsing. Exhibit 27.1 illustrates these three techniques using a
hypothetical schedule

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encompassing a total of 1,200 GRPs during the course of a 12-week period.
Exhibit 27.1:
Scheduling techniques
Over the long run, audience accumulation of flighted and continuous schedules at equal rating levels is identical. All three
schedules will accumulate the same number of GRPs; all three will reach the same number of people with equivalent average
frequency; all three will distribute impressions among the different audience segments in about the same manner.

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Over the short run, however, audience accumulation of flighted and continuous schedules will vary considerably. As shown in
the frequency distribution in Table 27.17 (based on the first four weeks of the flighted and continuous schedules in Exhibit
27.1), the flighted schedule produces slightly higher total reach over a four-week period than the continuous schedule at the "1
or more" frequency level, but substantially more reach at the higher frequency levels. If you have established an "effective
reach" level of at least four exposures, for example, then the flighted schedule has a distinct advantage in the short run: a reach
of 66 versus 50.
Although much research has been conducted to answer the question of how much frequency is required to communicate the
advertising message effectively, no study provides a definitive answer applicable to every situation. The hypotheses of all these
studies (as we have somewhat reviewed in a previous section) are:
There is a direct relationship between frequency of exposure during a given period of time and advertising effectiveness.
There is a minimum rate of exposure (frequency) below which the sales motivation value is either unproductive or marginal.
TABLE 27.17: Frequency distribution (four-week
schedule).
Percent Reach
Number of Continuous FIighted Reach
Exposures Schedule Schedule Difference
1 or more 91% 95% 4
2 or more 78 86 8
3 or more 64 76 12
4 or more 50 66 16
5 or more 38 56 18
6 or more 28 47 19
7 or more 20 39 19
8 or more 14 31 17
9 or more 10 25 15
10 or more 6 20 14
100 150
Schedule: GRPs/week GRPs/week

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There is a ceiling of frequency above which additional exposure is either unproductive or produces diminishing returns.
There is decay in recall levels and established attitudes during hiatuses.
Advertising effectiveness does not immediately cease when advertising is discontinued.
The dimensions of these factors may vary in accordance with the product's purchase cycle, stage of product maturity in the
market, product category competitive environment as it relates to advertising pressure, creative execution, media selection, and
media weights. If you believe the hypotheses to be correct and have considered these factors as they apply to the product for
which you are writing a media plan, you can then be decisive in selecting a scheduling pattern.
Within any basic scheduling pattern you can also use several alternative methods for scheduling specific media that can produce
any effect you wish. For example, if your media plan is composed of
Exhibit 27.2:
Flighting patterns

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two television dayparts, or both national and local media, or two different media forms, each of the components can be flighted
in an alternating pattern. Additionally, different broadcast stations or different magazines or newspapers can be scheduled at
different times to produce a righted effect for a specific vehicle, while maintaining a continuous effect across the media form.
See Exhibit 27.2.
Regardless of which scheduling pattern you use, keep in mind that the average consumer will not be aware of how you are
producing advertising impressions, only that he or she is exposed to what you are doing. No consumer will say, for example:
"Product X must be alternating newspaper advertising with TV advertising because I see one or the other in any given week, but
never both together." Further, average consumers are not aware of how much advertising you are producing, only that they tend
to hear or see or read more or less about your product depending on how much media you are scheduling. Lastly, keep in mind
that advertising generally produces a cumulative effect, regardless of how you schedule it. The pattern of this accumulation will
of course vary based on your scheduling pattern, but this is what media scheduling is all aboutproducing a cumulative effect
over some defined period of time.
Reach/Frequency Objective
Assume an objective has been established to maximize reach of women with a minimum of four advertising exposures per
month (once per week). For demonstration ease, let us assume that network television has been chosen as the only medium to be
used. You are now faced with deciding between network TV dayparts, and if a combination of dayparts is to be used, what
proportion of each should be used.
You could start the analysis by devising as many alternative schedules as are affordable within the given budget. Shown in
Table 27.18 are six alternatives (though numerous alternatives are possible). The six plans are different in many ways, as the
comparison in Table 27.19 shows. They produce different numbers of announcements, different women GRP levels, different
cost efficiencies, and different total women reach and average frequency. The only thing in common among the plans is that
they are all

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national in scope (network television), and each costs the same amount of money ($1 million).
TABLE 27.18: Alternative media plan considerations
Percent of $1,000,000 Budget
Plan Primetime Daytime Late Evening Early News
A 100
B 100
C 100
D 100
E 50 50
F 50 50
None of the above information, however, is useful in making a decision if the objective is effective reach (maximize reach of
women with a minimum of four advertising exposures per month). The number of announcements is a function of the budget
and the cost per commercial unitit does not reveal anything about reach. Total women GRPs is informational and offers an
indication of the gross delivery, but does not reveal facts about reach. Cost-per-thousand is useful for assessing the efficiency of
one alternative versus another, but again, provides no information about reach. Total women reach/frequency, at first blush,
might be used as the criterion for selecting one plan over another, but average frequency does
TABLE 27.19: Media plan comparison
Number of:30 Total Women Total Women
Plan Announcements GRPs CPM Reach/Frequency
A 8 90 $9.41 60/1.5
B 50 250 3.42 55/4.6
C 38 114 7.52 30/3.8
D 15 121 7.05 51/2.4
E 28 170 5.02 59/2.9
F 23 102 8.36 53/1.9

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not indicate the percentage of women who will be exposed to at least four advertising messages.
You have to take the analysis a step further by calculating a frequency distribution for each plan. Table 27.20, based on a
frequency distribution for each plan, exhibits the percentage of women who will be exposed to at least four advertising
messages.
TABLE 27.20: Effective reach comparisons
Plan Women Reach at 4.0+ Frequency Level
A 5
B 24
C 9
D 12
E 15
F 11
Based on the above, you would opt for plan B, composed of all daytime TV. This plan reaches more women who will be
exposed to at least four advertising messages. If you had not done a frequency distribution you might choose plan A because it
generates more total reach than the other plans.
Although this analysis seems very straightforward, you will seldom have the flexibility to select media vehicles on the basis of
just one objective. In addition, all analyses are complicated by a number of other factors which have an effect on how the
planner addresses each medium at any given time.
Costs, for example, fluctuate among network TV dayparts throughout the year based on supply and demand. For example,
primetime network might be less cost efficient than late night network in one calendar quarter, and more cost efficient in
another. The lower the cost-per-thousand, the more GRPs can be purchased within a set budget. The more GRPs that can be
purchased, generally the higher the reach and/or frequency that can be produced.
Let us take the above exercise one step further and assume that ''communication values'' are part of the media analysis. If we
assume, for example, that daytime's communication value is 75

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percent that of primetime, we could make a totally different strategy decision based on an analysis of effective reach. If
primetime GRPs are valued at 100 percent, and daytime GRPs at 75 percent, then the effective GRPs for Plan E are 139 (as
opposed to 170 when each daypart is given full value). This calculation is shown in Table 27.21.
TABLE 27.21: Weighting Media by Communication Values
Women GRPs × Value = Weighted Women GRPs
Primetime 45 100% 45
Daytime 125 75% 94
Total 170 139
If you calculate a frequency distribution based on the above weighted GRPs, the reach of women at the 4 + frequency level is
11. This is the same effective reach as generated by Plan F (50 percent prime and 50 percent late evening). If an evaluation of
effective reach does not reveal major differences among plan alternatives, or if other objectives bear importantly on media
usage, then you must use other criteria to decide which media are most appropriate for accomplishing the objectives of the plan.
Coupon Objective
If you have defined an objective to distribute a coupon via media, you will need to analyze alternatives in a somewhat different
fashion than we previously discussed. Reach and frequency, for example, are not necessarily important; primary audience data
become much more important than total audience.
There are different kinds of coupons (cents-off, free trial offer, premium offer, sweepstakes entry, etc.) which can be configured
in different ways (on-page, tip-in, FSI). The type of coupon generally

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has little to do with how you will select media. The configuration, however, directly affects media selection:
FSI (Free Standing Insert). One method of distributing a coupon is via an FSI, which can be preprinted in a variety of creative
formats and inserted (but not bound) into newspapers, supps, and some magazines, or distributed via direct mail. If direct mail is
used, you have choices between a co-op effort with other advertisers or a solo venturethe latter costing substantially more. As
we discussed, direct mail efforts require a specialized understanding of this specific communication form, and analytical tools
which are apart from those used for mass media. If you choose to use mass media, however, you will need to use the basic tools
of circulation, audience delivery, cost, etc., to determine the best media vehicles.
Tip-in Card An insert card in a magazine that is card in a magazine that is bound in with, or glued
onto, the printed pages. Also called a B
Tip-in card. This card-stock type of coupon, also referred to as a "pop-up coupon," is bound into a magazine or partially glued
onto a magazine page. Magazines will generally limit the number of coupons accepted to one per signature break (consisting of
16 to 24 folded pages bound together to form a section). Some publications restrict the face value of a single coupon to the cost
of their cover price, while some place a limit on the total cumulative value of insert coupons within a single issue. In nearly all
cases, a tip-in requires the purchase of a back-up page on which the card will lie. Selecting magazines for a tip-in coupon (plus
back-up) therefore requires that basic media evaluation be used.
On-page. This refers to any coupon or offer that is literally printed on the page as part of the advertisement you place in selected
print media. All print media accept on-page coupons. The evaluation process for selecting specific media vehicles for an on-
page coupon includes many of the analysis tools used for any print advertising effort.
Whenever you conduct a media analysis to decide which vehicle(s) to select for coupon distribution, you need to look at
circulation or primary audience data rather than total audience information. The reason is that the passalong reader may not have
an opportunity to receive the coupon because the previous reader tore out or cut out the coupon. This is especially important for
an

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on-page coupon, inasmuch as its extraction also mutilates the page and therefore the advertisement. Table 27.22 shows, for
example, that primary readers have a proportionately higher incidence of cutting-out and using coupons in magazines; the
incidence for secondary audiences is approximately half that of primary audiences.
TABLE 27.22: Cut-out/Used Coupons by Type of Magazine
Audience
Total Women Cut-out/Used
Audience Coupons
Index
Total Audience 100% 18% 100
Primary
Audience 100 25 144
Secondary
Audience 100 14 78
A tip-in coupon does not present this mutilation problem unless the entire advertisement is directing the reader to tear out the
tip-in. If this is the case, then the backup ad is virtually useless without the tip-in card. The nature of the advertising message
will help you decide if the ad lives for the coupon, or if it can remain an effective advertising communication after the coupon is
removed.
The specific ingredients you choose for your print media analysis of a coupon effort are very much a result of your overall
objectives, pertinent data at hand, and your judgment. If, for example, you need to cover a relatively small area, you will have to
rely more on circulation data for magazines than on readership datainasmuch as readership data within small geographic areas
are generally not available for most magazines. If you have useful and pertinent datasuch as Coupon response rates for past
effortsthis certainly should be part of your equation. You should also exercise judgment in deciding which kinds of information
you will use and how you might value (or weight) each piece of information.
Table 27.23 demonstrates one possible analysis you might undertake.

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TABLE 27.23: Magazine Analysis for Coupon Distribution
Magazine
A Magazine B Magazine C
Circulation (000) 8,000 5,000 4,000
Audience
Total women (000) 24,000 21,000 20,000
Primary (000) 10,900 6,600 6,400
Secondary(000) 13,100 14,400 13,600
Cut/Used Coupons
Total Audience (000) 3,700 3,700 4,800
Primary Audience (000) 2,350 1,525 2,000
Secondary Audience (000) 1,350 2,175 2,800
Weighted Audience* (000) 3,025 2,613 3,400
Cut/Used CouponsWeighted Audience* Estimated Reach (000)
Magazine A + B ----------4,800----------
Magazine A + C -----------------5,600-----------------
Magazine B + C ----------5,400----------
Cost/Unit $120,000 $115,000 $100,000
CPM-Cut/Used Coupons
Total Audience $ 32.43 $ 31.08 $ 20.83
Primary Audience $ 51.06 $ 75.41 $ 50.00
Weighted
Audience* $ 39.67 $ 44.01 $ 29.41
Magazine A + B -------------------$48.96---------------------
-----------------------------------$39.29------------------------
Magazine A + C ---------
Magazine B + C --------------$39.81-----------------
*100% of Primary plus 50% of Secondary
Let us assume you can afford to purchase only two of three magazines within your considered set. Your selection will vary
depending on the evaluation criteria you use. The following lists the kinds of choices you might make:
ChoiceExplanation/Rationale for Choice
A + B You're concerned mostly with absolute
distribution of coupons. These two
magazines have the highest circulation.

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A+
B or
C You are also concerned with total women
audience delivery. A has the most; B and C
are very close.
C + You have data showing the number of readers
A or who have cut out or used coupons, and you
B believe that your coupon will have an average
chance of being cut out. Magazine C is the
clear winner; A and B are tied.
A + You also have data showing how many
C primary readers have cut/used coupons.
Believing that secondary readers will not have
a significant opportunity to retrieve the
coupon (because primary readers already cut
it out), you decide A and C appear to offer the
most audience.
C + You believe your advertisement will have
A some positive effect on readers even if the
coupon has already been extracted. You
therefore place a value on secondary
audienceshalf that of primary audiences. By
adding 100 percent of the primary audience to
50 percent of the secondary audience you
obtain a "weighted" audience.
A + You've calculated the estimated reach of pairs
C of magazines for women who cut/used
coupons (using proprietary research of
formulas, syndicated research, or an
extrapolation of related reach estimates).
Combination A + C delivers the greatest
audience amount.
A + You are concerned with cost efficiency and
C or your cost-per-thousand analysis indicates
B+C either of these combinations has a lower CPM
than the A+B combination. The minor
difference in CPM between these two
combinations should be disregarded, given
that the CPM is based on an estimated
weighted audience, not necessarily on the
absolute number of women who will see your
ad and cut out the coupon.
A + These alternative choices are presented only
B or to reinforce that all of the above choices were
A+C made solely on the basis of quantitative
or considerations.
B+C

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Qualitative factors should also be included in your
rationale: editorial environment of the publication
and its relevancy to your advertising message,
possible positioning advantages in one publication
versus another, reproduction quality,
advertising/editorial ratio, and so on.
Testing Objective
If you have read all preceding pages in this book you will have concluded not only that there is a great deal of information to
help guide you in the media planning process, but also that there are very few, if any, definitive answers on which media are
best for advertising your product, how much reach/frequency is optimal, how much should be spent on advertising, and so forth.
With a relative paucity of the kind of information needed to make critical media decisions, you would be wise to incorporate
some form of media testing into every media plan you create. Media/marketing tests should be conducted to gain knowledge so
better decisions can be made in the future. All tests have two things in common:
They help minimize the risk of incorrectly spending media funds.
They are learning experiences from which we can extrapolate results for future use.
Among the more common types of tests are those for a new product prior to its national launch. Many advertisers hedge their
bet before they embark on a broadscale national introduction of a new product or new version of an old product. A great deal of
money is needed to properly launch a new product nationallymoney for manufacturing, distribution, and advertising. To spend
these funds without knowing the consumer reaction to the producthow much of it they will buyis at best a financially unwise
decision.
Additionally, there are a number of other tests that can be conducted, all of which can provide useful information. For example,
you can test:
Spending levels. Increasing or decreasing ad spending relative to the current level.

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Allocation strategy. Spending where the business is or where the business is not.
Scheduling. Testing the effects of continuous advertising versus flighting, etc.
Media mix. Using different media than currently used, either exclusively or in combination with current media.
Creative configurations. Using 60-second spots versus 10-second or full pages versus half pages, etc.
New media. Experimenting with any number of new media which have entered the scene.
Regardless of the test conducted, you need to concern yourself with a variety of factors such as devising the plan that will be
tested, timing implications, selection of test markets and controls, and the methodology you will use to implement the test.
Devising the plan
You must keep in mind that whatever you are testing has implications for broader implementation. For example, if you are
testing a 100 percent budget increase on a $5 million media plan, the test might cost $100,000, but the implication (assuming the
test is successful) is to spend an additional $5 million nationally. It is therefore important that you first construct a national plan,
and then test the proposition in one or more local markets. The geography of the national plan must reflect the geographic
parameters of your product, that is, if the product is sold nationally, the geography will encompass the entire United States; if
the product is sold only in certain regions or markets, then these regions or markets become your national universe.
Constructing a national test plan requires that you approach it as if it is the only plan, not an extension of your base plan. Some
advertisers refer to this as zero basestarting from ground zero. The purpose of zero base thinking is to allow you to dismiss
solutions to a previous problem in order to devise the best solutions for new problems. You might, for example, have used only
one national medium in your base plan because you could not afford to purchase a meaningful level of activity in a second
medium. At an increased budget level, however, you might be able to afford a second

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medium. Had you not used a zero base approach, you might have concluded that increased spending will automatically result in
increased pressure within the first medium.
Timing
There are two aspects to timing that could have a substantial effect on your test implementation. The first deals with the length
of time you will allow a test to run. If you are testing a direct response mechanism, you could obtain test results relatively
quickly, so your test period need not be extended. If you are testing the effect of increased media or a different media mix on
advertising awareness levels, you will need to run the test for an extended period of time. As we've discussed, people learn over
time, with the learning curve accelerating as people are exposed to more and more advertising messages. Although the length of
time needed for advertising awareness to peak is not known, there is a general consensus that the period is longer rather than
shorter. Likewise, if you are testing for a product with an infrequent purchase cycle, you'd best run the test for a long enough
time to cover several purchase decisions.
The second aspect of timing is to consider when the test, if successful, will be implemented nationally. You need to construct a
national test plan for the period in which it will run, rather than for the period in which it will be tested. If a national plan is
constructed for 1995 and tested in 1995, it might not be affordable in 1996 due to media price increases from one year to the
next.
Test Markets and Controls
Selecting the proper test markets is critical. You need to concern yourself not only with how well they represent your national
plan universe, but also with any potential aberrations that might affect test results.
First you must select test markets that are representative of the universe to which results will be projected. This representation
includes demography, marketing phenomena, and media.
The test market(s) must reflect the general demographic characteristics of your national universe. If the test market displays an
atypical skew to one or another demographic group, test results might not be indicative of what will happen in the entire
universe.

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Marketing phenomena, such as BDI and CDI, must also be assessed in your market selection. It stands to reason that if you test
in a very high development market, test results will not be applicable to low development markets.
Because media vehicle availabilities vary by market, as do media consumption patterns, it makes sense to select markets that not
only contain the media forms being used in your national plan but reflect the average national consumption pattern for those
media. If you are testing a national plan that uses a high level of cable TV, for example, you need to select test markets that
have an approximately average level of cable penetration.
Table 27.24 on the following page displays some basic data for three IV markets to demonstrate the differences you might find
among various markets during your selection process. These three markets happen to be approximately the same size, each
representing about 0.5 percent of U.S. TV households.
Conceivably, you could find one market that meets all of your criteria and therefore select it as the only test market. This is,
however, a potentially risky proposition; any number of noncontrollable factors could adversely affect your test result. There
could be an economic downturn in the market resulting from the closing of a major factory, or a natural disaster (such as an
earthquake) that substantially alters buying patterns. If affordable, it is best to select two or more test markets. If one of these
markets becomes "unreadable," results in the other(s) can still be read.
In addition to deciding how many markets, you need to consider the absolute population and/or business base in the test
markets. Statistically, the larger the population base the more reliable will be your test results. If you are testing in markets that
encompass far less than one percent of your national universe, test results could have a substantial margin of error (sampling
error). Conversely, although more and bigger markets are best, you need to judge the out-of-pocket test cost relative to absolute
reliability. Selecting test markets that represent ten percent of your national universe appears to be a safe bet, but such a large
test would probably be inordinately expensive.
As test market selection is important, so too is deciding how you will read test results. This reading could be based on historical
data on the performance of one or more "control" markets. If you assume that point A is your current national media plan, and
point B your test plan, you need to evaluate what happens between points A and Bhow much sales have increased, how high
advertising

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TABLE 27.24: Basic Data on Three Possible Test Markets
Index to Average U.S.
Albuquerque- Albany -
Santa Fe Schenectady - Troy
Dayton
Population Composition:
White 102 105 113
Hispanic 465 9 14
Black 13 83 26
Household Size:
1 member 98 103 104
2 members 91 98 100
3 members 102 103 96
Education:
High School Graduate 98 120 107
College Graduate 109 83 102
Income and Sales per Household
Effective Buying Income $27,069 $32,508 $35,361
Food Store Sales 3,460 3,153 3,964
Retail Sales 15,851 16,787 21,149
Television Dynamics
% Cable Penetration 54 65 68
% Spill-in 9 17 12
% Spill-out 3 15 7
AQR Household Reach
by Local
Stations: 69 112 70
Daytime 66 54 40
Late Fringe
Source: Nielsen-DMA Test Market Profiles
awareness levels have climbed, etc. To judge these differences you need to define point A and establish it as your base
measurement. For example, if you currently have a 10 percent share of market, point A is a ten share. At the conclusion of the
test period you will read your share of market and compare it to the base. If you are defining point A in terms of the current or
historical situation in the

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test market, you do not necessarily need to monitor share trends in other test markets.
You may elect to define point A as the marketing situation in other markets. Then you will evaluate performance in the test
markets compared to performance in other markets that received representative advertising as part of your base national plan.
You might select these control markets because historical data are unavailable in the test markets, or because you believe that
any market in the United States can increase its performance (sales, etc.) with or without any changes in media implementation.
The selection of the control markets, therefore, must be based on the same rigorous analysis conducted for the selection of the
test markets.
Translation Methodology
Once test markets have been decided you need to ''translate'' the national test plan into these markets, again being cognizant of
their representation of media pressure as delineated in your national plan. There are two basic translation methods and several
specific translation tactics that can be used.
Little America A method for simulating a test media plan in a test market.
Little America. The Little America method simulates in test markets the advertising pressure that is generated by the national
test plan in the average U.S. market. The goal of this simulation is to replicate as closely as possible the national test plan
weight levelsGRPs or impressions or reach/frequency, etc. For example, if your test plan has 100 GRPs of network TV, you will
ensure that the test market receives 100 GRPs regardless of the average viewing level of network TV in the test market
(although if you have properly selected the test market the viewing level should be approximately average).
Determining national media pressure is simple: it's whatever the average national effort is100 GRPs in network TV, or six
advertisements in five magazines, or 100 announcements in network radio, etc. Simulating local media in your national test plan
into a test market, however, requires some calculation. Shown in Table 27.25 are the GRPs of a national test plan, and the level
of GRPs to be executed in the test market. National media, at a total of 500 GRPs, are purchased to the same level in the test
market. Spot TV, which in the national test plan is scheduled in three

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markets, is averaged for the average U.S. market. Although the average spot TV market (60 percent of U.S. population) is
receiving an average of 100 GRPs, the remaining 40 percent of the United States is receiving zero. The average U.S. market,
which represents a "Little America," is therefore receiving an average of 60 GRPs (100 × 60% + 0 × 40% divided by 100% =
60). The test market therefore receives a total of 560 GRPs500 to simulate national media and 60 to replicate spot TV.
TABLE 27.25: Test Translation Using "Little America" Method.
GRPs
% U.S. National Test Little America Test
Population Plan Market
Network TV 100% 400 400
National
Magazines 100 100 100
Spot TV:
Market A 20 150
Market B 20 100
Market C 20 50
Total 60
Average Spot
Market 100
Average U.S.
Market 60 60
TotalAll Media:
Within Spot
Markets 60 600
Remainder of
U.S. 40 500
Average U.S.
Market 100 560 560
The Little America method is most commonly used for testing new products where there is no established history for
performance, either nationally or in any particular market. It is also used for "soft" measurements which do not encompass
absolute sales data, such as measuring recall of varying creative executions.
As It Falls A method for simulating a national test media plan in test markets.
As It Falls. In the As It Falls method, the test market receives the advertising pressure it normally would receive under the
national test plan. As such, test market goals are unique for each market.
The first step in this translation method is to determine the local market delivery of all national media. A schedule of 100
network

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TV GRPs might, for example, deliver 90 GRPs in test market A, 100 in test market B, etc.
The second step is to directly purchase in the test market the local weight it would receive if the national plan was implemented.
Referring back to Table 27.25, if you choose Market A as a test market, you would purchase 150 spot TV rating points; Market
B, 100; Market C, 50. If your test market is a part of the "remainder of United States," you would not purchase any spot TV to
simulate spot TV in the national test plan.
The As It Falls method is commonly used for established products in established product categories where there is a track record
of sales performance. However, because there are wide variations in media delivery by market for national media, and because
national media plans do not always schedule local media in every U.S. market, selecting several test markets instead of one is
the better course of action.
Within either testing method it is desirable to schedule local activity that closely resembles the national media being used.
Following are some guidelines you should use whenever you purchase local media in test markets to simulate the media in your
national test plan:
Translation Tactics
Television. Use cut-ins whenever possible for network TV. You can use cut-ins to place the test commercial in the test market
within the network program. The nationally scheduled commercial is cut-over (replaced) by the test commercial. This technique
requires your brand, or another brand owned by the same advertiser, have network TV scheduled for the test period because you
cannot take away (cut-over) advertising paid for by another advertiser. With this method, the viewer in the test market sees what
she or he normally would see if the test plan were implemented nationally.
If cut-ins are not available, spot TV can be used to simulate the network TV weight. However, there are differences between
spot TV and network TV in terms of audience composition, program type, placement of announcements (in-program in network
versus between-program in some spot TV), and reach/frequency accumulation. It is therefore general practice to compensate for
the differences by purchasing more GRPs in spot TV than would normally be scheduled via network TV.

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Radio Unlike the differences between network TV and spot TV, network radio and spot radio are virtually identical in terms of
environment, commercial positioning, and reach/frequency accumulation. Therefore, network radio can be directly translated
into spot radio. Further, there are no adjustments necessary for translating spot radio in the national plan to spot radio in the test
market.
Print. If local editions of the magazines used in the national plan are not available in the selected test markets, other magazines
with similar editorial formats should be used. If magazines are not available in the test markets, newspaper supplements can be
used as the first alternative, and newspapers as the second alternative.
Although neither supplements nor newspapers have the same editorial environment or readership pattern as magazines, it is best
to use these media rather than using totally unrelated media or not using any print media at all. It is important, however, to
analyze the delivery of the local print vehicles relative to the national print media to ensure that there are not wide variations in
coverage.
Outdoor/Transit As both are local media forms, both can be translated directly.
Overall Generalities
Regardless of what you are testingwhich media, how much of each, budget levels, etc.your test plan must have a great deal of
integrity. You should avoid compromise if at all possible; translate every component of your national test plan, no matter how
small. Keep in mind that you are attempting to anticipate in a local test market what will actually happen when the national plan
is implemented. This requires you to carefully and precisely simulate the national test plan activity, using the same number and
kinds of television programs, the same number and kinds of radio stations and formats, the same number and kinds of print
vehicles, etc.

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Chapter 28
Media Flow Chart
In this chapter we provide several examples
of how media activity is shown within a
media plan.
When all calculations, evaluations, analyses, considerations, and judgments are completedwhen you come to the point of having
selected specific media and having defined how much of each you want to use and when you want to use them, you can produce
the fruits of your labor on one piece of paper: the media flow chart.
Flow chart A summary of recommended media showing their usage throughout an advertising period;
e.g., an annual flow chart.
This piece of paper is appropriately named because it illustrates the flow of how you intend to schedule the chosen media. The
following pages (Exhibits 28.1, 28.2, and 28.3) show some examples of what flow charts can look like. They can be exceedingly
brief and highlight only the most important information (as in an "executive summary"), or they can contain lots of pertinent
data. Their creation and look are totally a function of what you need to display. The idea in creating a flow chart is to show
information clearly so any reader can quickly and correctly understand which media are going to be used, how they might be
used, and when they are being used.

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Exhibit 28.1:
Product X Magazine Activity

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Exhibit 28.2:
Product X Television Activity

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Exhibit 28.3:
Product X Market A

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Chapter 29
Principles of Media Management
In this chapter we punctuate that media
planning requires much more than
manipulating numbers. We also set forth 10
principles of media management.
It should be apparent that media planning requires much more than simple decisions to select one or another medium. A
complete understanding of how media deliver their audiences and thorough analyses of media selection alternatives, combined
with a sprinkling of intelligence, logic, judgment, and creativity, are mandatory before astute media decisions can be made.
Although much of this "input" is based on numbers, you should always be mindful that numbers don't think . . . you do.
Too often numbers are used as a crutchas the primary rationale for selecting one medium over another or one television spot
rather than another. Be wary of myopic reliance on numbers. Know all that goes into generating the numbers, all the varying
research techniques used, and all the pitfalls and dangers surrounding the numbers. Know this and you will appreciate why
numbers are no more than a guidenot the rolein the decision-making process.
By all means use computer technology to help you deal with the storehouse of marketing and media information, and to help
you analyze multiple alternatives across multiple evaluation criteria. But don't get trapped into thinking that what the computer
spits out is gospel. Don't run your fingers down the columns of data on a printout and shout "Eureka!" Realize the computer is
no more than a sophisticated calculator. Had you indeed used a simple calculator

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for your analyses, you would come to appreciate where the input came from, how it was conjured, and how you generated the
answers you obtained.
There are now more media outlets than ever. While new ones are ever emerging, old ones are reshaping. Marketing and media
research is also changing and becoming more complete and more complex. Media costs will continue to be volatile. There's an
ocean of information with which you need to deal to select media, and this ocean is constantly churning. Not only do you need
to get your sea legs by becoming expert at media, you also will need to become the captain and navigator of media selection.
You should never settle for being a swabbie.
Here are ten principles* you should keep in mind whether you are setting out to write a full media plan, or just deciding if you
should place a commercial in program A or program B.
1. You are in partnership with all others who are deciding the advertising plan. A media plan is an extension of the marketing
plan and must reflect the overall marketing and creative strategy. Your plan cannot exist in a vacuum and be effective.
2. Media management is money management. Media recommendations are an investment in an advertiser's business. By making
the savviest media decisions, you gain the greatest return on that investment.
3. Involvement with all media is a primary requisite. Specializing in one medium, to the exclusion of others, breeds narrow
thinking. Try to consider all the options. Never look for the expeditious solution simply to save time.
4. Numbers don't thinkpeople do. Numbers are a big part of a media planner's day-to-day activities. But don't rely solely on
them to make your decisions or argue your case. Use your emotions, your gut, your instinct.
5. Cost efficiency is important, but not at the cost of advertising effectiveness. You must make sure your customers see and hear
the advertising you are placingeven if it costs a few pennies more in one medium than in another.
* The above ten principles were originally written by the author as a Media Department Credo while he was employed by
J. Walter Thompson.

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6. Maintenance is as important as building. It is not enough simply to create a media plan. All plans must be monitored after
they are implemented to ensure that broadcast schedules are followed, positioning in print media is optimal, and reproduction is
acceptable.
7. Everyone should be kept informed. Endeavor to keep your partners informed about media issues and changing dynamics. The
more everyone knows, the better their understanding and appreciation of your media recommendations.
8. Keep your door open to media suppliers. Media salespeople often know more about their specific medium than you, as a
media planner, will ever know. They can be a storehouse of pertinent information that will help you make better media
decisions. Be candid with them and keep them abreast of your needs.
9. Contribute beyond media planning. As a media planner, your greatest contribution will be in media planning and buying. But
you should not be inhibited about recommending marketing, creative, promotional, or new product ideas that can build an
advertiser's business.
10. Have some fun. Work hard and get ahead. Do superb work. But don't forget that you are doing media planning, not brain
surgery.

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GLOSSARY
A.A.A.A. American Association of Advertising Agencies, commonly called the ''4-A's.''
Ad/edit ratio The ratio of advertising to editorial pages in a print medium. E.g., 60/40 indicates 60 percent of all pages are
advertising.
ADI (Area of Dominant Influence) Arbitron Company's definition of a TV market.
Adjacency A commercial time period that is scheduled immediately preceding or following a scheduled program on the same
station in which a spot TV commercial can be placed. Opposite of an in-program placement. Also called a break position.
Advertorial A print advertisement which is styled to resemble the editorial format and type face of the publication in which it
runs. Most publishers require advertorials to be labeled "advertisement" at the top. Also refers to Infomercial.
Affidavit A notarized statement from a broadcast station that confirms the commercial actually ran at the time shown on the
station's invoice.
Affiliate A broadcast station bound to a contractual relationship with one or more networks to carry network-originated
programs and commercial announcements. See also O & O.
Afternoon Drive A radio daypartusually 3:00-7:00 p.m.
Agate Line A newspaper space measurement that is one column wide by 1/14 inch high (14 agate lines to the inch). Replaced as
an advertising measurement tool by S.A.U.
Agency-of-record (AOR) An advertising agency or independent media buying company that purchases media on behalf of
another agency or group of agencies serving the same advertiser. Sometimes also refers to a full-service advertising agency that
performs all the services for a particular advertiser.
Allotments The number of outdoor panels in a showing; varies by market.
AM (Amplitude Modulation) The transmission of sound in radio broadcasting in which the amplitude (power) of a transmitting
wave is modulated (changed) to simulate the original sound.
ANA Association of National Advertisers.
Announcement An advertising message in broadcast media, commonly 10, 15, 30, or 60 seconds in length. Synonymous with
"commercial" and usually referred to as a "spot."
AQH The average quarter-hour rating for broadcast programs as reported by several media research suppliers (e.g., A.C.
Nielsen).
Arbitron Company A media research supplier.
Area of Dominant Influence See ADI.

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Arrears As reported by the ABC, these are magazine copies sent to subscribers up to three months after subscription expiration.
Also known as "post-expiration copies."
As It Fails A method for simulating a national test media plan into test markets.
Audience Accumulation The total net number of people (or homes) exposed to a medium during its duration; e.g., a haft-hour
broadcast program, a magazine issue.
Audience Composition The demographic profile of media audiences.
Audience Turnover The average ratio of cumulative audience listening/viewing to the average audience listening/viewing.
Audit Bureau of Circulation (ABC) An organization formed by media suppliers, advertisers, and advertising agencies to audit
the circulation statements of its member newspapers and magazines.
Availability The commercial position in a program or between programs on a given station or network that is available for
purchase by an advertiser. "Avails" for short.
Average Audience (AA) In broadcast, the number of homes (or individuals) tuned to the average minute of a program. In print
media, the number of individuals who looked into an average issue of a publication and are considered "readers."
Backlit Describes an out-of-home display where the advertising message is printed on translucent plastic and backlit with
fluorescent bulbs.
BAR (Broadcast Advertiser Reports) A media research supplier concentrating on the reporting of television commercial
purchases.
Barter The exchange of goods and services without the use of cash. Usually the acquisition of media time or space in exchange
for merchandise.
Basic Cable The offering to subscribers of broadcast and cable TV originated programs as part of a "basic" service agreement in
which a subscriber pays a cable · TV operator or system a monthly fee. Does not include "pay" services which might be offered
by the cable operator.
BillboardPainted Bulletin.
Bind-in Card An insert card in a magazine that is bound in with the printed pages. Also called a Tip-in.
Birch A media research supplier.
Black & White Page An advertising page that is printed with black on white paper, or in reverse type (white on black paper).
Abbreviated as P B/W.
Bleed In print media, to extend the illustration or copy to the edge of a page so there is no white border. In outdoor media, a
poster panel that uses the entire available space.
Blow-in Card A loose insert in a magazine, used primarily by the publication to sell subscriptions.
BPA Business Publications Audit of circulation.

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Brand Development Index (BDI) A numerical display showing the geographic or demographic areas of a brand's relative
strength or weakness. See Index.
Break Position A commercial aired between programs as opposed to in-program. Also called Adjacency.
Broadcast Coverage Area The geographic area within which a signal from an originating station can be received.
Broadsheet Synonymous with a "standard" size newspaper, as compared to a "tabloid" size.
Bulk Discount The discount offered to advertisers who place large orders in magazines.
Bus Shelter/Bus Bench Advertising posters positioned as an integral part of a freestanding covered structure or bench, often
located at a bus stop.
CAB Cable Advertising Bureau.
Cable TV Reception of TV signals via cable (wires) rather than over the air (i.e., via a TV antenna).
Car Card An advertising unit within a transit vehicle, such as a bus.
Cash Discount A discount granted by the media supplier to an advertiser for payment within a certain period of timee.g., a 2
percent discount if payment is made within ten days of invoice.
Category Development Index (CDI) A numerical display showing the geographic or demographic areas of a product/service
category's relative strength or weakness. See Index.
Centerspread The facing pages in the exact center of a magazine.
Chain Break The time between network programs when a network-affiliated station identifies itself to viewers and during which
commercial announcements air. Also see Break.
Circulation In print media, the number of copies sold or distributed by a publication. In broadcast, the number of homes owning
a TV/radio set within a station's coverage area. Or, in cable TV, the number of households that subscribe to the cable services
that carry a given network. In out-of-home media, the number of people passing an advertisement who have an opportunity to
see it.
City Zone The area bounded by the corporate limits of a community.
Clearance The broadcast stations carrying a network or syndicated program. This list is usually accompanied by a "coverage"
percentage indicating the percent of U.S. TV homes in markets in which the program airs.
Closing Date The deadline set by a publication for the receipt of material (keyline or mechanical) for an advertisement to appear
in a forthcoming issue.
ClusterPLUS A geodemographic clustering system.
Combination Rate A special rate for advertisers using both morning and evening editions of a newspaper which has two
editions, or for an advertiser using more than one vehicle in a group of publications. Related to, but different from, "multimedia"
buys.

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Competitive (Report) The compilation of figures on media spending and/or media usage by products/services competitive to the
advertised brand/service.
Consolidated Metro Area As defined by the U.S. Government's Office of Management and Budget, a grouping of closely related
metro areas.
Continuity Discount A rate discount allowed an advertiser who purchases a specific schedule within a series of a publication's
issues. Also called Frequency Discount.
Controlled Circulation The circulation of a publication that is sent free and addressed to specified individuals.
Conversion Factor A percentage applied to a number (e.g., a household rating) to obtain a different number (e.g., a women 18-
34 rating).
Cost-per-Rating-Point (CPP) The cost of an advertising unit (e.g., a 30-second commercial) divided by the average rating of a
specific demographic group (e.g., women 18-49).
Cost-per-Thousand (CPM) The cost per 1,000 people (or homes) delivered by a medium or media schedule.
County Size Designation of all U.S. counties into one of four categories as defined by A. C. Nielsen based on population density
and labor force concentration. Commonly referred to as "A," "B," "C" and "D" counties.
Coverage The percentage of a population group covered by a medium. Commonly used with print media to describe their
average issue audience within defined demographic or purchasing groups. Akin to a rating.
Cover Position The usually premium-priced cover space in a magazine. The second cover is the inside front; the third cover is
the inside back; the fourth cover is the outside back.
Cume (Cumulative) Rating The reach of a radio or TV program or station, as opposed to the "average" rating.
Cut-in The insertion of a commercial, at the local level, which replaces the nationally purchased (and airing) commercial
originally placed in a network broadcast program. Generally used to test media and/or alternative commercial executions.
Daily Effective circulation (DEC) The gross number of people (without regard to duplication) exposed to an out-of-home
advertising display in one day.
Dayparts Broadcast time periods (segments), e.g., daytime: 10:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m. EST.
Delayed Broadcast (DB) The term given to a network TV program that is delayed for airing in a given market at a different
time, than the time it airs nationally,
Dernographic Editions Special editions of magazines directed to specific audience types.
Dernography The study of the characteristics of population groups in terms of size, distribution, and vital statistics.
Designated Market Area (DMA) A.C. Nielsen's definition of a TV market.

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Diorama A backlit display often located in airports, bus terminals, and sports arenas.
Double Truck The facing pages in the exact center of a newspaper section where the copy runs across the margin without
interruption.
Downlink Part of a satellite transmission in which signals are sent from the satellite to earth.
Drive Time The morning and afternoon hours of radio broadcastingmorning drive: 6:00-10:00 a.m.; afternoon drive: 3:00-7:00
p.m.
Dub (Dupe) Making one or more copies of an audio or video recording.
Duplication The number or percentage of a medium's audience, or of those reached with a media schedule, who are exposed to
more than one media vehicle or to more than one advertising message.
Early Fringe The TV daypart between Daytime and Prime Access: generally 4:00-7:30 p.m. EST.
Early Morning A television daypartusually 6:00-10:00 a.m. EST. Also sometimes referred to as "Breakfast."
Effective Frequency The level of exposure frequency at which reach is deemed "effectively" delivered. See Effective Reach.
Effective Reach The number of percentage or a population group reached by a media schedule at a given level of frequency.
Efficiency Generally refers to the relative costs of delivering media audiences. See Cost-per-rating-point and Cost-per-
thousand.
8-Sheet Poster A 5' by 11' poster panel, also known as a Junior Panel because it has the same proportions as, but is smaller
than, a 30-sheet poster.
Exclusive Cume Listeners The number of different people who listen to a given radio station and to no other radio station
during a specific daypart.
Exposure A person's physical contact (visual and/or audio) with an advertising medium or message.
Facing In outdoor advertising, the direction a poster faces. E.g., a south facing can be seen by northbound traffic.
Fiber Optics Thin glass fibers used for transmitting informatione.g. audio/video from a central source to a person's TV set.
Fixed Position In broadcast, a commercial unit purchased with non-preemption guarantees. In print, a position guaranteed to the
advertiser within a specific section and/or adjacent to specific editorial.
Flagging In outdoor posters, a tear in the paper causing the advertisement to hang loose and "flag" in the wind.
Flat Rate The nondiscountable rate charged by a newspaper for advertising.
Flighting The scheduling of advertising for a period of time, followed by a hiatus, then another "flight" of advertising.
Flow chart A summary of recommended media showing their usage throughout an advertising period, e.g., an annual flow chart.
FM (Frequency Modulation) A clear radio signal, without static or fading, that

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results from the adjustment of the frequency of the transmitting wave to the originating sound.
Four-Color Page An advertising page that utilizes three colors (and/or combinations of these colors) plus black and white.
Abbreviated as P4-C.
Frequency The number of times people (or homes) are exposed to an advertising message, an advertising campaign, or a
specific media vehicle. Also, the period of issuance of a publication, e.g., daily, monthly.
Frequency Discount A rate discount allowed an advertiser who purchases a specific schedule within a specific period of time,
e.g., six ads within one year.
Frequency Distribution The array of reach according to the level of frequency delivered to each group.
Free Standing Insert (FSI) A preprinted advertising message which is inserted into, but not bound into, print media (generally
into newspapers).
Fringe Time See Early Fringe, Late Fringe.
Gatefold A folded advertising Page which, when unfolded, is bigger in dimension than the regular page.
Geodemography The demographic description of people living in specific geographic areas.
Gross Impressions See Impressions.
Gross Rating Points (GRPs) The sum of all ratings delivered by a given list of media vehicles. Although synonymous with
TRPs, GRPs generally refer to a "household" base. In out-of-home media, GRPs are synonymous with a Showing.
Hiatus A period of non-activitythe period between advertising flights.
Hi-Fi (High Fidelity) Advertising on a continuous roll of paper that is fed into and becomes a preprinted insert in a newspaper.
The completed advertisement, usually run on a heavier-than-newspaper stock and in full color, resembles a wallpaper pattern.
Homes Using TV (HUT) The percentage of homes using (tuned in to) TV at a particular time.
Identification (ID) A 10-second TV commercial (10 seconds visual and 8 seconds audio).
Impressions The gross sum of all media exposures (numbers of people or homes) without regard to duplication.
Independent Station A broadcast station not affiliated with a network.
Index A number indicating change in magnitude relative to the magnitude of some other number (the base) taken as
representing 100. A 110 index indicates a 10 percent positive change in magnitude; a 90 index a 10 percent negative change.
Infomercial (Informercial) A long-form broadcast commercial which provides much more information than can be supplied in a
typical, say, 30- or 60-second commercial. Also called Advertorial.
In-Home Readers People who read a magazine or newspaper in their own home.
Insertion Order The form or document sent to a publication that contains information relating to an ad's placementi.e., its size,
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Integration Cost The payment charged by a broadcast network to "integrate" a commercial announcement into a program.
Interactive Cable A two-way communications system which allows the cable TV viewer to respond (interact) to what is being
telecast via an electronic device (e.g., a remote control).
Interconnect Two or more cable systems which are linked together to air commercials simultaneously (if possible). A "hard" or
"true" interconnect is linked by cable or microwave. A "soft" interconnect is a group of systems with an agreement to insert
commercials into programs or time periods.
IOA Institute of Outdoor Advertising.
Issue Life The length of time it takes a magazine to be read by the maximum measurable audience.
Junior Panel A scaled-down version of a 30-sheet poster.
Keyline See Mechanical.
Late Fringe A TV daypart that follows Primetime, usually 11:00 p.m.-l:00 a.m. EST. (or later).
Lead-in/Lead-out A program preceding/ following the time period of the program being analyzed.
Lifestyle Pertains to the nondemographic characteristics of people in describing their behavior (e.g., recreational habits). See
Psychographics.
Line Network Now called TV network; was based on transmission of TV signals over telephone lines from one station to the
next.
Line-up The listing of stations carrying a radio or TV program.
Little America A method for simulating a test media plan in a test market.
LNA (Leading National Advertisers) A media research supplier reporting on advertising volume by medium by advertiser brand
or service.
Makegood In broadcast, a commercial position offered in lieu of an announcement which was (or will be) missed due to either
station error, preemption by another advertiser, or movement of the program purchased from one time slot to another. In print,
the free repeat of an advertisement to compensate for the publication's error in the original insertion.
Mean The sum of all items divided by the number of items. Commonly called "average." See also Median, Mode.
Median The middle number in a sequence of numbers. See also Mean, Mode.
Mechanical A camera-ready pasteup of artworkincludes type, photography, and artwork or line art, all on one piece of artboard.
Also known as a Keyline.
Mediamark Research, Inc. (MRI) A media research supplier.
Media Mix The use of two or more media forms, e.g., TV and magazines or radio, outdoor, and newspapers.
Merchandising Promotional activities that complement advertising and which are provided free or at a nominal charge by media
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Metro Area A geographic area defined by the U.S. Government's Office of Management and Budget. Also called a Standard
Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMSA).
Mode The number occurring most frequently in a sequence of numbers. See Mean, Median.
Monroe Mendelsohn A media research supplier.
Morning Drive A radio daypart, generally 6:00-10:00 a.m.
MPA Magazine Publishers Association.
Multimedia Buys The purchase of advertising in more than one medium owned by a media supplier, or by media suppliers who
have a cooperative agreement. Multimedia buys can encompass multiple media vehicles within a media form (e.g., several
magazines) or different media forms (e.g., magazines and TV).
Multiple System Operator (MSO) A company that owns more than one cable system.
NAB National Association of Broadcasters. Also, Newspaper Advertising Bureau.
Newsstand Circulation Copies of a publication which are sold and purchased at outlets (such as newsstands) selling single
copies.
Network A broadcast entity that provides programming and sells commercial time in programs aired nationally via affiliated
and/ or licensed local stationse.g., ABC television network, ESPN cable network, Mutual radio network.
Nielsen, A.C. A media research supplier.
OAAA Outdoor Advertising Association of America.
Objectives, Media The statement(s) of action required of media to fulfill marketing needs.
O & O A station Owned and Operated by a broadcast network.
Open Rate The maximum rate charged by a magazine or newspaper; its rate for one insertion.
Outdoor Visibility Rating System (OVRS) A system of grading a poster panel's "visibility."
Out-of-Home Media Those media meant to be consumed only outside of one's home, e.g., outdoor, transit, in-store media.
Out-of-Home Readers People who read a magazine someplace other than in their own home.
OTS (Opportunity To See) A term commonly used in Europe indicating the amount of "frequency" a media audience receives in
a media schedule.
Paid Circulation Reported by the ABC, a classification of subscriptions or purchases of a magazine or newspaper, based upon
payment in accordance with standards set by the ABC.
Painted Bulletin (Paint) An outdoor advertising structure on which advertising is either painted directly or preprinted on special
vinyl and affixed.
Panel Generally a "poster" panelone outdoor or transit advertising unit.

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Participation A commercial that appears in-program, as opposed to between programs during a "break."
Passalong Readers Readers of a publication who are not primary readers. Also called Secondary Readers.
Pay Cable Programs and/or services provided to basic cable subscribers for an additional fee (e.g., HBO).
Pay-per-View A telecast, usually of a special event, for which subscribers pay a one-time fee to view.
Penetration The percentage of people (or homes) within a defined universe that are physically able to be exposed to a medium.
Perfect Binding The process of binding that uses glue rather than staples or stitching and results in a square spine.
Permanent (Display or Bulletin) An outdoor bulletin at a specific locationthat is, the bulletin is not rotated to other locations.
See Rotary Display.
PIB (Publishers Information Bureau) A media research supplier reporting on print advertising volume (vehicle, space, cost) by
advertiser brand or service.
Plant The total number of outdoor structures under a single ownership in a city.
Plant Operator The owner of an outdoor advertising company in a certain city or area.
Pod A grouping of commercials and nonprogram material in which (usually) more than one advertiser's commercials air. Also
referred to as a "commercial interruption" or "commercial break," but airing in-program.
Point-of-Purchase Display (POP) An advertising display at the place where consumers purchase goods or services (e.g., counter
card at a retail outlet).
Porta-Panel A mobile poster panel that is wheeled to a given location (e.g., a supermarket parking lot).
Post Analysis An analysis of a media schedule after it runsgenerally based on physical evidence of its running (broadcast station
affidavit of performance, magazine tearsheets, etc.) and incorporating audience delivery estimates in effect at the time the
schedule ran.
Poster Panel An outdoor advertising structure on which a preprinted advertisement is displayed.
Post-Expiration Copies See Arrears.
Preemption The displacement of a regularly scheduled program or commercial announcement, on a broadcast facility, by the
station or network.
Preferred Position The opposite of ROP, these print advertisements are scheduled in specific positions as agreed by the
advertiser and the publication. They sometimes command a premium price.
Primary Market Area A geographic area defined by a newspaper in which the publisher believes the newspaper has its greatest
strength.
Primary Readers Readers who purchased a magazine or who are members of a household where the publication is purchased.
Prime Access A TV daypart immediately preceding primetime in which local stations

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were originally charged by the FCC to broadcast programs in the interest of the local community, but which now contains
various local or syndicated programs. Generally, the half hour from 7:00 to 7:30 p.m. or 7:30 to 8:00 p.m. EST.
Primetime In broadcast, the general reference is to that time period which attracts the most viewers or listeners. Specifically, in
TV, generally 8:00-11:00 p.m. EST. Monday through Saturday and 7:30-11:00 p.m. EST. Sunday; in radio, generally 6:00-
10:00 a.m. (a.k.a. Morning Drive) and 3:00-7:00 p.m. (a.k.a. Afternoon Drive).
PRIZM A geodemographic clustering system.
PSA A Public Service Announcement on TV or radio.
Psychographics Pertains to the identification of personality characteristics and attitudes that affect a person's lifestyle and
purchasing behavior.
Pulsing A flighting technique that calls for either a continuous base of support augmented by intermittent bursts of heavy
pressure, or an on-off-on-off pattern (e.g., one week on, one week off).
PUR The percentage of people using radio at a particular time.
PUT The percentage of People Using TV at a particular time. Identical to PVT, People Viewing TV.
Quintile Distribution A display of frequency (or related data) among audiences grouped into equal fifths of reach.
RAB Radio Advertising Bureau.
RADAR Radio All Dimension Audience Research report issued by Statistical Research, Inc.
Random Combination A mathematical formula for estimating the reach of two or more media.
Rate Base The circulation of a print vehicle upon which advertising space rates are based; it may or may not be guaranteed by
the publisher.
Rate Holder A unit of space or time, usually small, that is used to maintain or establish a contractual agreement over a period of
time.
Rating The percentage of a given population group consuming a medium at a particular moment. Generally used for broadcast
media, but can be used for any medium. One rating point equals one percent.
Reach The number or percentage of a population group exposed to a media schedule within a given period of time.
Readers-per-Copy (RPC) The number of individuals who read a given copy of a publication,
Rebate A payment to the advertiser by a medium when the advertising schedule exceeds the contractual commitments originally
agreed to and the advertising schedule earns a lower rate.
Recent Reading A research technique to determine the average issue audience of print media. Used, for example, by MRI.
Repaint Executing of an advertiser's painted bulletin copy subsequent to the original painting.

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Retail Trading Zone A geographic area around a central city.
Riding the Boards A physical inspection in the field of the poster panel or bulletins that comprise a showing.
Roadblock A scheduling device used with broadcast media to increase reach at a given point in time (e.g., scheduling a
commercial on all local market stations at 9:00 p.m.).
ROI (Return On Investment) Generally refers to the advertiser's desire to have a return on the advertising funds invested in
media.
Roll-Out A marketing procedure where advertising is progressively expanded into more geographic areas over time.
ROP Run-of-Press or Run-of-Paper. A position request to run an advertisement anywhere (unspecified) in the publication. Also
commonly used to describe any form of newspaper advertising.
ROS Run-of-Station. A tactic used in broadcast media whereby commercials are scheduled throughout the day and night at the
discretion of the station or network, as opposed to time periods designated by the advertiser.
Rotary Display An option for purchasing painted bulletins whereby the display face is periodically rotated to new locations, as
opposed to a Permanent Bulletin.
Saddle Stitched The binding process whereby a publication is held together by staples through the middle of the foldlike Time or
Newsweek.
Sampling Error The possible deviation in the reported finding of media audience research based on a sample from what might
be the actual finding had a complete census been done. Usually reported as ''±'' the reported number.
Satellite Station A broadcast station that rebroadcasts the transmission of another station (generally operating in a nearby
market) to an area that cannot otherwise be serviced by that station.
S.A.U. (Standard Advertising Unit) A measurement system for selecting and placing ad sizes in newspapers.
Scarborough A media research supplier.
Scatter Purchasing commercial time in broadcast media in many different programs. Also refers to the purchasing of network
TV time which is not purchased during an "upfront" media buy.
Secondary Readers See Passalong readers.
Sets in Use Antiquated and replaced by HUT. Referred to the number of TV sets in use (turned on) at a given time.
Share "Share of audience" is the percentage of HUT (or PUT, PUR, PVT) tuned to a particular program or station. "Share of
market" is the percentage of total category volume (dollars, units, etc.) accounted for by a brand. "Share of voice" is the
percentage of advertising impressions generated by all brands in a category accounted for by a particular brand, but often also
refers to share of media spending.
Sheets A way of designating poster panel size based on number of pieces of paper originally needed to cover a poster panel
areait used to take 30 sheets to cover the average panel.

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Short Rate In print media, the dollar Penalty an advertiser pays for not fulfilling space requirements that were contracted for at
the beginning of a given period, usually one year. The penalty is the difference in rate between the contracted rate and the actual
earned rate.
Showing Gross rating points within out-of-home media, or number of posters displayed in transit media.
Signature The name given to a printed sheet of a magazine after it comes off the press and has been folded into eight, sixteen, or
thirty-two pages.
Simmons Market Research Bureau (SMRB) A media research supplier.
Simulcast To broadcast simultaneously by AM and FM radio or by radio and television.
Single-copy Sales Denotes newsstand sales of a publication.
Single Source Data The reporting of data based on the product/service purchase patterns and media consumption habits from a
single source (i.e., an individual or family).
SMSA Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area. See Metro Area,
Spectacolor An advertising insert in newspaper, similar to Hi-Fi, but trimmed at the correct place.
Spill-In/Spill-Out Spill-in is viewing of television broadcast from a different market (e.g., people in San Diego viewing Los
Angeles stations). Spill-out is viewing outside the originating TV market (e.g., Los Angeles stations delivering audiences in San
Diego).
Split Run A scheduling technique whereby two different pieces of copy are run in the circulation of a publication with no one
reader receiving both advertisements. This can be accomplished via a geographic split, a demographic split (if the publication
offers demographic editions), a subscription/newsstand sales split, or an every-other-copy split (commonly called an "A/B"
split).
Sponsorship The purchase of more than one commercial within a program, allowing advertisers to receive bonus time via
billboards, or exclusivity of advertising within the brand's product category, or both.
Spot Refers to the purchase of TV or radio commercial time on a market-by-market basis as opposed to network (national)
purchases. Also commonly used in lieu of "commercial announcement."
SRC (Strategy Research Corporation) A media research supplier concentrating on the Hispanic market.
SRDS Standard Rate & Data Servicepublications which list data (e.g. costs, circulation) for all media vehicles that accept
advertising.
Standard Error See Sampling Error.
Starch Inra Hooper A media research supplier.
Starch Scores Print media measurement showing the performance of individual magazine advertisements among readers. Three
scores are reported: Notedthe percentage that remember having previously seen the ad in the issue being studied; Associatedthe
percentage that saw any part of the ad that clearly indicates the brand or advertiser; Read Mostthe percentage that read

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at least half of the written material in the advertisement.
Strategies, Media The media solution(s) used to fulfill the media objective(s).
Superstation An independent TV station whose signal is transmitted throughout the United States via satellite. Technically refers
only to WTBS, but is also used for other stations.
Sweep The period when local market TV ratings are studied. Originally coined to represent the time when Nielsen would
"sweep" the country to obtain ratings in all markets. Sweeps are now issued four times a year in all markets and more frequently
in top markets.
Syndication In broadcast, a program carried on selected stations which may or may not air at the same time in all markets. In
newspapers, an independently written column or feature carried by many newspapers (e.g., Dear Abby). In magazines, a
centrally written/published section carried by newspapers, generally in the Sunday edition (e.g., Parade).
Tabloid A newspaper with pages smaller than the size of a standard "broadsheet" newspaper.
Tertile Distribution A display of frequency (or related data) among audiences grouped into equal thirds of reach.
Test Market A market (or markets) chosen for the purpose of conducting a media test.
30-Sheet Poster A 10' by 22' poster panel.
Through-the-Book A research technique used to determine the average issue audience of print media. Used, for example, by
SMRB.
'Til Forbid Instructions by an advertiser to run a purchased schedule or advertisement(s) until notified to stop.
Tip-in Card An insert card in a magazine that is bound in with, or glued on to, the printed pages. Also called a Bind-in.
Tolerance See Sampling Error.
Total Survey Area (TSA) The geographic area in which radio signals from an originating market can be received.
Traffic Audit Bureau of Media Measurement A nonprofit organization that audits outdoor advertising structures, as well as other
out-of-home media, for circulation and number of people reached.
TRPs (Target Rating Points) Essentially synonymous with GRPs.
TVB Television Bureau of Advertising.
TV Market An unduplicated television area to which a U.S. county is assigned based on the highest share of viewing to
originating TV stations.
24-Sheet Poster A 12' by 25' poster panel. A 24-sheet poster has the same structure size as a 30-sheet poster panel, but with less
printed area.
UHF (Ultra High Frequency) The band added to the VHF band for television transmissionchannels 14-83 on a TV set.
Unwired Network Applicable to either radio or TV, the purchase of preselected local stations not connected by wire or satellite,
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Uplink Part of a satellite transmission in which signals are sent from earth to a satellite.
Upfront A method for purchasing TV commercial time well in advance of the telecast time of the programs and generally for a
protracted period, such as for a one-year schedule. A relatively common practice among many advertisers for the purchase of
primetime TV as well as other TV dayparts and entities (e.g., daytime network, cable TV, syndication).
Universe The total population within a defined demographic, psychographic, or product consumption segment against which
media audiences are calculated to determine ratings, coverage, reach, etc.
VALS 2 A research study developed by SRI International which describes eight distinct population groups according to their
Values and Lifestyles.
Verified Verified Audit of Circulation Corporation. Also, to prove the truth of something by the presentation of evidence.
VHF (Very High Frequency) TV channels 2-13.
Viewers per 1,000 Households The number of people within a specific population group tuned to a TV program in each 1,000
viewing households.
Volume Discount The price discount offered advertisers who purchase a certain amount of volume from the mediume.g., pages
or dollar amount in magazines.
Wearout A level of frequency, or a point in time, when an advertising message loses its ability to effectively communicate. See
other definitions within chapter of book on "Effective Reach."
Weighted Average Generally refers to the arithmetic average obtained by adding the products of numbers "weighted" by a
predetermined value.
Zapping Deliberate removal by a viewer of nonprogram material (e.g., a commercial) while recording on a VCR so as to play
back program(s) without commercial interruptions.
Zipping Fast-forwarding through commercials and/or programs while playing back a VCR recording.

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FORMULAS
Audience Composition (Pg. 91) Example
BDI (Pg. 88)
CDI (Pg. 88)
Cost-per-point (Pg. 99)
Cost-per-thousand (Pg. 95)
Converting CPP to CPM (Pg. 104)
Converting CPM to CPP (Pg. 104)

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Converting Net Cost to Gross Cost
Coverage/Rating (Pg. 51)
GRPs/TRPs (Pg. 133) Example

Reach × Frequency = GRPs 80 × 5.0 =400
# Anncts (or ads) × Avg. Rtg. = GRPs 10 × 5.0 =50
Impressions (Pg. 91)
# Occasions × Audience = Imp 5 × 100,000 = 50,000

Index (Pg. 85)
Mean, Median, Mode (Pg. 130)

Series: 50
25
15
5
5
Median: 15 (middle number)
Mode: 5 (most often number
Only-only-Both Reach (Pg. 120)
To Solve for Only A:
Reach A + B - Reach of B 80 - 60 = 20
To Solve for Only B:
Reach A + B - Reach of A 80 - 50 = 30
To Solve for Both A + B:
Reach A + B

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Converting Fractions, Decimals to Percentages
Decimal × 100 = Percentage .125 × 100 = 12.5%

Randomly Combining Reach of Two Media (Pg. 117)
Rating-Hut-Share (Pg. 68) Example

Solve for Rating:
Hut × Share = Rating 80 × 50 = 40
Solve for Share:
Solve for HUT:
Solve for non-reported audience segment (e.g. 35-49)
Reach-Frequency-GRPs (Pg. 148)

Reach × Frequency = GRPs 80 × 5.0 = 400
Solve for Reach:
Solve for Frequency:

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Readers-per-copy (Pg. 204)
Circ. × RPC = Total Audience 5,000,000 × 4 = 20,000,000

Weighted Average (Pg. 307)


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INDEX
A
AADT. See Average annual daily traffic
AA rating. See Average audience rating
ABC. See Audit Bureau of Circulations
ABC Audit Report, 222-223
ABC network, 32
Accumulated reach, 110
Accumulation profiles, 206-207
Achenbaum, Alvin, 175-176, 187
Achievement goals, in media planning, 246
Achievers, 194
ACORN, 196
ActMedia, Inc., 24
Actualizers, 193
ADI. See Area of Dominant Influence
Adjacencies, 38
Advertiser-produced magazines, 273, 274
Advertising agencies, 7
origins, 18-19
Advertising consultants, 6
Advertising effectiveness, 12-13
Advertising goals, 9
and ratings, 54
and spending, 246, 250-251
Advertising plans, 5-6
Advertising salespeople
origin, 18
and CPP information, 100
Advertising/sales ratio, 249, 250, 253-255, 291-292
Advertising spending, 5, 9, 249-259
and ratings, 55, 58
estimating with CPP, 101-103
Advertising strategy, 5-6, 250-251
Advertising units, in newspapers, 18
Advertising volume, 14
Adweek's Marketer's Guide to Media, 100
Affiliate stations, 37
Aided recognition technique, 229
AisleVision, 24
American Association of Advertising Agencies, 231
American Magazine, 15
Arbitron Company, 60, 196, 234
Radio Market Reports, 218-219
Television Market Reports, 219-221
Area of Dominant Influence (ADD, 219, 234-235, 241
As it falls method, 318-319
Attentiveness, 54, 182, 229
and high ratings, 58
and frequency, 175, 180
and radio, 281
Audience analysis, 261-262
Audience composition, 83, 91-94
Audience delivery, 9, 11
guarantees by TV networks, 36
and advertising spending, 255
Audience receptivity, 12
and program environment, 57
Audio systems, 23
Audit Bureau of Circulations (ABC), 16, 212, 221-223, 239
Available funds method, 257
Average annual daily traffic (AADT), 231
Average audience (AA) rating, 201
Average-issue audience, 223
Average quarter hour ratings, 53, 201
B
Backlit, 24
Baird, John, 31
Bases, for indexes, 84

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Basic cable service, 42
BDI. See Brand development index
Believers, 194
Billboards
outdoor, 23
reach accumulation, 115
in TV commercials, 35
Birch/Scarborough Research Corporation, 60
Black/white advertisements, 21
Blanking paper, 25
Bleeds, 25
Blue Blood Estates, 199
BPD, 196
Bradford, Andrew, 15
Brand development index (BDI), 87-88
Break positions, 38
Broadcast coverage area, 233, 234
Broadcast TV, 42
Broadcast year, 36
Broadsheet, 21
Bureau of the Census, 189, 238
Bus benches, 230
Bus exteriors, 26
Business magazines/newspapers, 209
Bus shelters, 230
C
Cable-originated programming, 42, 235
Cable TV, 41-47
audience measurement, 229
circulation, 42
markets, 235-236
networks, 43
CACI, 196
Capacity of cable TV, 44-45
Car cards, 27
Case histories, 12
Category development index (CDI), 88-89
CATV. See Community Antenna Television
CBS network, 32
CDI. See Category development index
Census Block Groups, 197, 199, 240
Channel One, 27
Checkout Coupon system, 24
Chicago Tribune Magazine, 21
Christian Science Monitor, 19
Cinema advertising, 27
Circulation
of broadcast media, 204
of magazines, 17
of national cable networks, 42
of outdoor advertising, 57, 230-231
of print media, 203-204
City zones, 239
Claritas, 196, 199
Clearances
radio, 29
syndicated TV, 40
Clocks, in transit advertising, 26
ClusterPLUS, 196, 197-198
Clutter, 259, 284
CMSA. See Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area
Coaxial cable, 41
College bulletin boards, 27
College newspapers, 19
Color advertisements, 21
availability, 21
Column, 21
Commercial breaks, 35
Commercial pods, 35
Commercial purchases
methods, 36
types, 35
Communication values, 306-307
Community Antenna Television (CATV), 41
Compatibility of advertising and editorial/program environment, 58
Competitive environment, 185, 247, 251
Computer models, use in calculating R/F, 140
Computers in media planning, 325-326
Confidence level, 214
Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area (CMSA), 238
Consultants, 6
Consumer and farm publications, 16
Consumer price index (CPI), 84
Consumer reactions to advertising, 10
awareness, 4
receptivity, 12

Page 349
Consumer segmentation, 192
in media planning, 246-247
Continuous advertising, 300
Conversion factors, 140
Copy strategy, 266
Cost efficiency, 10, 13, 326
and CPM, 96
and frequency distribution, 157
of roadblocks, 115-116
Cost per additional reach point, 123-124
Cost-per-rating-point (CPP), 99-104
relationship with CPM, 103-104
Cost-per-thousand (CPM), 83, 95-97, 305
relationship with CPP, 103-104
County size, 239
Couponing
and media mix, 117
objectives, 268, 307-312
systems, 24
Coverage
of cable TV, 46
of magazines, 57
of syndicated TV programs, 40
CPI. See Consumer price index
CPM. See Cost-per-thousand
CPP. See Cost-per-rating-point
Creative boutiques, 6-7
Creative consultants, 6
Creative execution, 5, 11, 266
and CPM, 96-97
effectiveness, 54
Creative strategy, 248
Cume. See Cumulative audience, Cumulative rating
Cume reach, 110
Cumulative audience (cume), 202
Cumulative rating (cume), 60
Cut-ins, 34
D
Daily effective circulation (DEC), 201-210, 231
Daypart packages, 39
Dayparts
network TV, 35
radio, 31
spot TV, 38
DB. See Delayed broadcast
DEC. See Daily effective circulation
Declie distribution, 161
Delayed broadcast (DB), 33
Demographic cells, 92-93, 189-190, 261
Demographic editions, 18
Demographic groups, 5-6
and VALS 2 segments, 192
Demographic ratings, 52-53, 225
and TRPs, 75-76
Demography, 189-190
Designated Market Area (DMA), 234-235, 241
Diaries
radio listening, 218-219
TV viewing, 220, 225, 228
VCR viewing, 221
Diorareas, 26
Directional boards, 281
Direct mail, 15, 23, 272-273
and issue rife, 113
positive and negative attributes, 274-275
Direct response advertising, 15, 250
Distant broadcast stations, 235
Distant signals, 4, 235
Distribution patterns, 205
DMA. See Designated Market Area
Dollar allocation/impression allocation, 297-298
Dollar allocation system, 294-297
Dollars versus impressions, 298-299
Donnelley Marketing Information Systems, 196-197
Doublebase report (MRI), 225
Duplication of audience, 74, 108, 110
and estimating reach, 134, 136
relationship with reach, 112
and roadblocks, 115
E
Ebbinghaus, Herman, 174-175, 176, 185
Editorial environment, 10, 277, 289

Page 350
Editorial focus, 16-17, 204
800 numbers, 15
8-sheet posters, 25
Effective rating points (ERPs), 175-176
Effective frequency. See Effective reach
Effective reach, 170-187, 305
calculating, 171-173
methods for analyzing, 185-187
Electronic meters of TV viewing, 220-221, 225
ERPs. See Effective rating points
Exclusive audience, 108-109, 112
Experiencers, 195
Exposure
commercial, 53-54
and frequency distribution, 152-153
and quintile distribution, 160
relationship with reach and frequency, 126
See Impressions
F
Facing, 232
FAS-FAX (ABC), 222
FD. See Full depth
Feed points, 33-34
Fiber optics, 45
Financial plan, 3
Fine, Jules, 186, 187
Flighting, 300, 303
Formulae, use in calculating R/F, 140
Four-week flights, 39
Fox network, 32
Franklin, Benjamin, 15
Fransworth, Philo, 31
Free standing insert (FSI), 20, 274, 277, 308
Frequency, 125-131
relationship with reach and GRPs, 132-151
Frequency distribution, 152-157, 307
Frequency lines, and reach curves, 133-143
FSI. See Free standing insert
Fulfilleds, 193
Full depth (FD), 21
G
General Magazine, 15
Geodemographic areas, 195-200, 236, 240
Geographic areas, 6, 233-241, 252-253
and market analysis, 262-265
Geographic editions, 18
Geographic objectives, 290-292
Greyser, Stephen, 175, 187
Gross rating points (GRPs), 74, 125, 305
calculating, 75
household versus people, 140
by media type, 76-78
for outdoor media, 210
reason for use, 79
relationship with reach and frequency, 132-151
time frames for, 78-79
GRPs. See Gross rating points
H
HBO, 42, 235
Headlight displays, 26
Health club TV/radio, 27
Health Monitor Center, 24
Heavy listeners/viewers, 160, 165
Henry, Walter, 176-177
Hiatuses, 300
Historical information, and advertising spending, 249, 255
Homes using TV (HUT), 60, 220
interrelationship with ratings and share, 68-72
variations, 62-63, 66-67
Hot-air balloons, 27
Human memory dynamics, 174-177
HUT. See Homes using TV
I
Illuminated posters, 25
Imagery transfer, 281
Impressions, 81-83
and frequency, 125
Independent stations, 37

Page 351
Indexes
BDI, 87-88
calculating, 84-87
CDI, 88-89
components of, 89
potential for deception, 90
Inflatables, 28
In-flight publications, 209
Infomercials, 273
In-home readers, 208, 209
In-house agencies, 6
In-program commercials, 34
INSIGHT Aisle Marker, 24
In-Store Advertising, 24
In-store media, 23-24
In-Store Satellite Network (ISN), 23
Interconnects, 46
Inter-media quintile distributions, 165-166
Interrep Radio Store, 31
Interviews, 223-224, 227, 228
Investors Daily, 19
ISN. See In-Store Satellite Network
Issue life, 113, 204-205
J
Jacobovits, Leon, 175, 187
Junior panels, 25
Junk mail, 275
K
Katz Radio Group, 31
King displays, 26
Krugman, Herbert, 178-179, 187
L
Lead-in, 72
Learning-satiation-decay sequence, 175-179, 183
and time between exposures, 185
Least squares regression analysis, 134-135
LED. See Lighted electronic display
Length of commercials, 54
Length of copy, 269
Lifestyles, 191-195
Light listeners/viewers, 160, 165
Lighted electronic display (LED), 24
Little America method, 317-320
Local market media delivery, 292-293
Local Market Scanamerica, 220
Local market targets, 291-292
Local placement of TV commercials, 38, 45
Long-term spot TV purchases, 38
Look Ups, 24
Los Angeles Times Magazine, 21
M
Machine traffic count for outdoor, 231
Magazines, 15-18, 273
accumulation of audience, 78, 113
calculating reach, 108-109
growth in number, 16
and issue life, 113-114
reader categories, 207-209
readership measurement, 224-229
TRPs, 76
Makers, 195
Marketing/advertising process, 4
Marketing consultants, 6
Marketing plans, 245
Market position, in media planning, 252
Mass media, 14-47
positive and negative attributes of forms, 272-274
McLuhan, Marshall, 23
Mean average, 130-131, 153
Media buyers, 7
and CPP information, 100
and rating/HUT/share, 69
use of ratings by, 54
Media components, 6
Media consultants, 6
Media consumption intensities, 168
Media delivery, 5
Media flow chart, 321-324
Media goals, 10, 260-270

Page 352
Mediamark Research, Inc. (MRI), 192, 196, 223-225
Media mix, 116-117
estimating reach for, 117-124
frequency in, 128
and frequency distribution, 174
and media objectives, 269
and R/F, 146-147
Median average, 130-131, 153
MediaOne, 24
Media placement, 6
Media planning, 7, 8-13, 245-248
and audience research, 211-232
and CPM, 96-97
defensive posture, 264
and effective reach, 260-270
and geographic data, 233
and left brain/right brain thinking, 271
and media objectives, 172-173
offensive posture, 264-265
principles of, 326-327
and rating/HUT/share, 69
use of impressions in, 82-83
use of ratings in, 54
Media research suppliers, 100, 217-232
Media selection, 6
and audience composition analysis, 92-94
and effective reach, 171
and ratings, 54
Media strategies, 285-320
Media suppliers, 11, 327
use of ratings by, 54
Mendelsohn Media Research, 223
Metro Area. See Metropolitan Statistical Area
Metropolitan daily newspapers, 19
top 10 in circulation, 20
Metropolitan Statistical Area (Metro Area) (MSA), 218, 237-238, 241
Metro Survey Area (MSA), 237
Microvision, 196
Mode, 130
MRCA, 196
MRI. See Mediamark Research, Inc.
Multi-set usage of TV, 226
MSA. See Metropolitan Statistical Area, Metro Survey Area
N
Naples, Michael, 178, 187
NASTEA. See Network and spot TV equalizing allocator
National daily newspapers, 19
National Decision Systems, 196
NBC network, 32
Network and spot TV equalizing allocator (NASTEA), 299
Network broadcast TV, 32-36
Network radio, 29
Network TV program formats, 34
Newspaper Designated Market, 222
Newspaper-distributed magazines, 17-18, 20-21
accumulation of audience, 78
audience measurement, 224
Newspapers, 18-21, 273
and geographic areas, 239
and issue life, 113-114
measurement of readership, 224, 228
numbers and circulation, 19
sections, 20
TRPs, 77
New York Times Magazine, 21
NFO, 196
A.C. Nielsen Company, 225, 226, 234, 239
Nielsen county size groups, 239-240
Nielsen Media Research, 60, 196
Nielsen People Meter (NPM), 226
Nielsen Station Index (NSI), 225-226
Nielsen Television Index (NTI), 226-227
Non-qualifying panels, 232
NPM. See Nielsen People Meter
NSI. See Nielsen Station Index
NTI. See Nielsen Television Index
Number of spots, 149-151

Page 353
O
O&Os. See Owned and operated stations
Office of Management and Budget, 237
On-end units, 25
Only-only-both reach, 120-123
frequency in, 129
On-page coupons, 308
Opportunistic buys, 36
Opportunity-to-see (OTS), 107-180
Ostrow, Joseph, 180-181, 187
OTS. See Opportunity-to-see
Outdoor advertising, 23, 25-26, 273
accumulation of audience, 78
audience measurement, 229-230
translation tactics, 320
TRPs, 77
Outdoor Advertising Association of America, 231
Outdoor Visibility Rating System (OVRS), 231-232
Out-of-home media, 23-28
audiences, 209-210
circulation measurement, 230-231
R/F, 146
Out-of-home readers, 208-209
Outside professionals, 6-7
OVRS. See Outdoor Visibility Rating System
Owned and operated stations (O&Os), 32, 33
P
Package registration, 117
Painted bulletins, 25-26, 273
Panels, 232
Parade magazine, 21, 39
Participation purchases, 35
Passalong readers, 208, 209, 279, 308
Pay cable, 42
Pay-per-view programs, 42
Penetration
of cable TV, 46-47
of newspapers, 57
Pennysaver newspapers, 273
People using radio (PUR), 60-62
Permanent displays, 26
Persons using TV (PUT), 60-62, 225
estimating levels of, 71
and roadblocks, 115
Persons viewing TV (PVT), 60-62
PMSA. See Primary Metropolitan Statistical Area
Pocketpiece (NTI), 227
P.O.P. Radio, 23
Positioning
of advertisements, 10
of commercials, 54
Poster panels, 25, 273
Potential Rating Index of ZIP Markets (PRIZM), 196, 199-200
Preprints, 18, 20, 276
Priemer, A. B, 187
Primary market areas, 239, 241
Primary Metropolitan Statistical Area (PMSA), 238
Primary readers, 207, 208, 308
Primary target audiences, 52
and media mix, 117
Primetime Video, 28
Principles of media planning, 326-327
Print media
audiences, 203-209
P/F, 144-145
See also Direct mail, Magazines, Newspapers
Priorities, 270
PRIZM. See Potential Rating Index of ZIP Markets
Product positioning, 5
Product user studies, 190
Promotion strategies, 247-24
Proprietary information, 217, 246
Psychographics, 191-195
Published tables, use in calculating R/F, 140
Publisher's Statements (ABC), 221-222
Pulsing, 300
PUR. See People using radio

Page 354
PUT. See Persons using TV
PVT. See Persons viewing TV
Q
Qualitative information, 10, 174, 289
Quantitative information, 9, 11, 174, 289
Quarterly cancellation rights, 36
Questionnaires, 223, 228, 230
Queue advertising, 28
Quintile distribution, 160
adding a second medium, 166
calculating, 162-164
flattening phenomenon, 167
of a media mix, 164-168
reason for use, 169
of TV viewing, 161, 163
and wearout, 184
R
RADAR See Radio's All Dimension Audience Research
Radio, 28-31, 273
audience measurement, 224, 229
commercials, 28-29
dayparts, 31
formats, 30, 31
markets, 237
R/F, 143-144
stations, 28
criteria to be reported by Arbitron, 219
TRPs, 76
Radio's All Dimension Audience Research (RADAR), 227
Rail/subway posters, 27
Random combination method, 117-120, 129
Ratings, 51-64
calculating, 51-53
estimating, 71-72
interrelationship with HUT and share, 68-72
for non-broadcast media, 57
for unreported demographics, 55-57
Reach, 106
accumulation, 109-112
over time, 112-115
calculating for magazines, 108-109
calculating for TV, 107-108
and frequency, 125
and media mix, 117
non-relationship with number of spots, 150-151
relationship with duplication, 112
relationship with frequency and GRPs, 132 -151
Reach curves, 111
flattening of, 123-137
and frequency lines, 133-143
threshold level of, 123
use in calculating R/F, 140
Reach estimates. See Cumulative audience
Reach/frequency (R/F), 133-149
controlling, 147-149
goals, 267
for a media mix, 146-147
objectives, 304-307
for out-of-home media, 146
for print media, 144-145
for radio, 143-144
Readership dynamics, 206
Readers-per-copy (RPC), 114, 204-206
Real effective reach, 186-187
Recent-reading technique, 224
Reference use of print media, 276, 278, 282
and issue life, 114-115, 205
Regional cable TV networks, 44
Regional TV advertising, 33-34
Relative error, 215-216
Relevance of commercial message, 54
Repeat readership, 282
Reproduction quality in print media, 10
Response cards, 15
Restroom displays, 28
Retail trading zones, 239
R/F. See Reach/frequency
Roadblocks, 115
ROP. See Run-of-paper
ROS. See Run-of-station

Page 355
Rotary display, 26
RPC. See Readers-per-copy
Run-of-paper (ROP), 21
Run-of-station (ROS), 39
S
Sales data, in media planning, 247
Sample size, 213
Sampling error, 212-217, 314
Sampling techniques, 190
San Francisco ExaminerImage, 21
Satellite dishes, 236
SAU. See Standard advertising unit
Savings Spot system, 24
Scarborough Report, 227-228
Scatter buys
cable, 46
network, 36
spot, 39
Scheduling analysis, 265-266
Scheduling patterns, 6, 269
and objectives, 299-304
and ratings, 54
and reach accumulation, 112
use of predefined quintiles, 168
Seasonal sales patterns, 299-300
Serf concept, 191-192
Share of advertising, 255-256
Share of audience, 54, 65
calculating, 65-67
interrelationship with HUT and ratings, 68-72
relative strength, 66-67
Share of market, and correlation With advertising, 259
Sheets, 25
Shelf advertising, 24
Shelftake, 24
Shelftake RX, 24
Shelftalk, 24
Shelftalk RX, 24
Shopping cart advertising, 24
Shotguns and Pickups, 199
Showings, 57, 210
Sigma, 214-215
Signage, 24
Silent radio, 28
Simmons Market Research Bureau (SMRB), 180-181, 191-192, 196, 228-230
Simmons Teenage Research Study (STARS), 230
Skew, 85-86, 91, 157, 286, 314
Sky writing, 28
SMRB. See Simmons Market Research Bureau
Space Position Visibility (SPV) system, 231
Sponsorship, 35
Spot radio, 29, 30
Spot TV purchases, 36-39
SPV. See Space Position Visibility system
SRI International, 192
Standard advertising unit (SAU), 21, 22
Standard deviation. See Sampling error
Standard error. See Sampling error
STARS. See Simmons Teenage Research Study
Station identification, 37
Statistical reliability, 190
and high ratings, 59
Statistical Research, Inc., 227
Strivers, 194
Strugglers, 195
Subscriber studies, 217-218
Suburban weeklies, 19
Sunday magazine, 21
Sunday magazines. See Newspaper-distributed magazines
Sunset magazine, 18
Super bulletins, 25
Superclocks, 24
Superstations, 47
Supps. See Syndicated supplements
Survey of Adults and Markets of Affluence, 223
Syndicated media research companies, 218
example of research report, 70
reporting of media audiences by quintile, 168
Syndicated supplements (supps). See Newspaper-distributed magazines
Syndication broadcast TV, 39-41
Synergy, 117, 121

Page 356
T
TAB. See Traffic Audit Bureau of Media Measurement
Tabloids, 21
Taillight displays, 26
Target audiences, 252, 261, 286-290
Target rating points (TRPs), 75
calculating using CPP, 101-103
by geographic market, 78
by media type, 76-78
reason for use, 79
time frames, 78-79, 108
Task method, 257-258
TBS network, 47
Telephone enclosures, 28
Television
audience measurement, 225, 229
cable, 41-47
calculating reach, 107-108
commercial purchases, 35-36
markets, 234-235, 240
program formats, 34
programmers, 11
spot markets, 36-37
syndicated programs, 40
translation tactics, 319-320
Tertile distribution, 161
Testing
markets and controls, 314-317
and media objectives, 268-270
objectives, 312-320
timing of, 314
translation methodology, 317-320
using cut-ins, 34
Test market areas, 269-270
30-sheet poster, 25
Three-hit theory, 178-179
Threshold exposure, 5
Through-the-book technique, 229, 230
Time zones, 33
Tip-in card, 308
Tolerance. See Sampling error
Total audience, 204
See Cumulative audience
Total Survey Area (TSA), 218, 237, 241
Trade magazines, 273
Trade promotions, 268
Traffic Audit Bureau of Media Measurement (TAB), 230-231
Traffic counts for outdoor advertising, 115
Transit advertising, 26-27
Translation methodology, 317-320
TSA. See Total Survey Area
Turnover of audiences, 115
U
UHF. See Ultra High Frequency TV channels
Ultra High Frequency (UHF) TV channels, 37
Unaided recall, 176
Unduplicated estimates. See Cumulative audience
Unwired networks, 29, 30-31
Upfront buys, 36, 46
USA Today, 19
USA Weekend, 21
User studies, 190
V
VALS 2, 192-195
Variations in viewing/listening levels, 62-64
VCR recording, 112-113, 221, 225, 284
Very High Frequency TV channels, 37
VHF. See Very High Frequency TV channels
VideoCart, 24
Video compression, 45
Video walls, 28
Viewers per 1,000 households, 202-203
Viewers per set, 202
Vista, 21
W
The Wall Street Journal, 19
The Washington Post Magazine, 21
Wearout, 179, 183-185
based on quintile distribution, 184
Weighted/valued impression delivery, 289, 290

Page 357
Z
Zapping, 284
Zero-base thinking, 313-314
Zielske, Hubert, 176-177, 187
ZIP codes, 199, 278
Zipping, 284
Zoned editions, 19
Zworykin, Vladimir, 31


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Page 359
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

In his career Jim Surmanek has worked for a major magazine and some of the world's largest advertising agencies.
Upon graduation from high school he got a job in the mailroom at Parade. Adept at organizing mail, he was given the
opportunity to organize research facts and figures. This tenure in the research department laid the groundwork for his eventual
entry into an ad agency.
He has worked in various cities and in multiple capacities for a wide range of advertisers. He had the great fortune of first
joining an agency run by David Ogilvy in the days when Mr. Ogilvy was actively teaching his staff about advertising. That was
in New York, where the author worked in media research, media buying, media planning, and account management.
He later ventured to Chicago, where he concentrated on media, and after that to Mexico City, where he became involved in
marketing, market research, and creative development.
Returning to the United States in the early 1980s, he took up residence in Los Angeles and expanded his knowledge of the
advertising process through his direct involvement in all things media as well as direct marketing, finance, new business
development, and general agency management.
He has lectured extensively at Advertising Age media workshops, Marketing & Media Decisions media workshops, American
Association of Advertising Agencies seminars, colleges, universities, and various advertising clubs and trade associations. He
has published a number of articles in trade media and has written two previous books and coauthored a college textbook on the
subject of advertising media.
Mr. Surmanek is currently on the Board of Governors of Verified Audit Circulation and the Editorial Board of The Journal of
Media Planning, and is a Certified Radio Marketing Consultant and a member of American Mensa.
< previous page page_359

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Introduction to Advertising Media

NTC Business Books

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For tolerating being a book widow . . . for

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What this book is all about

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How this book can be used

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The Role of the Media Planner

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Broadsheet Synonymous with a "standard" size newspaper, as compared to a "tabloid" size.

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