Running Head: PSYCHOLOGY 1

Psychology
Name
Institution of Affiliation
Course
PSYCHOLOGY 2

Psychology
1. Is elevated dopamine synthesis capacity present in all patients with schizophrenia?
Schizophrenia is one of the leading mental health problems affecting many adults across
the globe. Dopamine is an inhibitory transmitter involved in the cause of schizophrenia.
Dopamine is produced in substrate vigra, and ventral tegmental areas of the brain, and changes in
dopamine are mainly related to schizophrenia. Dopamine plays an integral role in the
transmission of signals in the nerve endings in the brain. It has been established that
schizophrenic persons produce too much dopamine. Elevated dopamine synthesis in the brain
may lead to positive signs of schizophrenia, such as delusions and hallucinations. An increase in
dopamine leads to the activation of D2 receptors and schizophrenia. The schizophrenia is
characterized by a lack of motivation and speech impairment, which happens as a result of
decreased activation of the D2 receptor.
Elevated dopamine synthesis is present in schizophrenic patients because it is also
responsible for controlling the movement and response to the stimuli. It enables a person to take
action towards it. People with low dopamine are known to take high risk and are prone to
addiction and are seeking sensation that they cannot fulfill. Dopamine also plays an integral role
in sleep, mood, learning, behavior, and cognition and inhibits prolactin production. The
prefrontal cortex has been established to affect the cognitive impairment and is mainly related to
hallucination and delusions. The prefrontal dopamine activity influences the subcortical
dopamine activity and is present in patients with schizophrenia conditions. The elevated
dopamine synthesis has been established to cause schizophrenia, as stated by the dopamine
theory, which posits that the elevated dopamine causes the disorder in the brain.
The study that was carried out in the past shows that elevated dopamine synthesis most
likely results in the development of schizophrenia. Drugs that are selective for D4 dopamine
receptors have been established to be useful, such as the clozapine and olanzapine. Clinical
studies have confirmed that dopamine abnormalities are evident before the onset of psychosis in
schizophrenia

The elevated dopamine synthesis is present in all schizophrenic patients because many
studies that have been done have shown that neurotransmitters have a role in the formation of
schizophrenia disorders. The past research has shown that the use of drugs to block the dopamine
would eliminate the symptoms of the patients. The best medicines that are used to cure
schizophrenia are similar to dopamine and would prevent the functioning of receptors. It is
therefore clear that the elevated dopamine synthesis is present in a patient with schizophrenia
because postmortem studies have shown that schizophrenic brains have shown an increased DA
receptor. DA is present in basal ganglia and also in the cerebral cortex. Elevated dopamine
synthesis in the brain may lead to positive signs of schizophrenia, such as delusions and
hallucinations. An increase in dopamine leads to the activation of D2 receptors and
schizophrenia.
In conclusion, elevated dopamine synthesis is present in all patients with schizophrenia
disorder. Dopamine plays an integral role in the transmission of signals in the nerve endings in
PSYCHOLOGY 3

the brain. It has been established that schizophrenic persons produce too much dopamine. It has
been found that schizophrenic persons produce too much dopamine. Elevated dopamine synthesis
in the brain may lead to positive signs of schizophrenia, such as delusions and hallucinations. An
increase in dopamine leads to the activation of D2 receptors and schizophrenia. Dopamine also
plays an integral role in sleep, mood, learning, behavior, and cognition and inhibits prolactin
production.
2. Discuss how neurons are specialized for their function?
Neurons are also called nerve cells, play an integral part by sending and receiving signals
from the brain. They are the primary functional unit of the central nervous system. The neurons
include sensory neurons responsible for receiving messages from different sensory organs. The
motor neurons control movements such as muscle contraction and glandular output. Motor
neurons control movement by coordinating between the brain, spinal cord, and the different
glands. The motor neurons play a role in sending signals from the brain and the spinal cord and
control various functions including eating where lower motor neuron coordinates the movement
of the muscles in the esophagus, colon and stomach to allow movement of food.
Interneurons, on the other hand, are neural intermediaries that are located in the brain and
the spinal cord. They function by sending signals to various neurons and help in reacting to
stimuli such as touch. The neurons make up part of the brain and the spinal cord. The neurons are
specialized for their functions in several ways. First, a typical neuron has some vital parts with
different characteristics that enable the cell to perform its purpose effectively. The cell body, also
known as soma or perikaryon, is where energy production, synthesis of macromolecules, and
metabolism take place. The cell body also receives the synaptic input from different types of cells
in the body.
There several organelles that are embedded in the cell body such as the nucleus,
endoplasmic reticulum, endosomes among other organelles that are crucial in keeping the genetic
makeup of an organism and replacement of proteins lost by attrition. The cell body is also
specialized to carry genetic information, maintaining neuron's structure and also provides energy
for the functioning of the neuron. It also contains the nucleus and different organelles, enclosed
by the membrane for protection and interacting with the intermediate surrounding. The nerve
cells are extended to enable faster communication to different parts. They have mitochondria
responsible for providing the energy needed for synthesizing neurotransmitters, such as the
acetylcholine that passes the message across the cells.
Dendrites are the membranes that are vital in the receptive surface of the cell. They are
specialized for their functions by having extensions called dendritic spines, which increases the
surface area needed for the synaptic contacts. They expand from the cytoplasm that holds the
organelles that are found in the cell body. They also specialized by having numerous orderly
microtubules and few neurofilaments and the microtubule-associated proteins which have higher
molecular weight. The dendritic spines also contain microfilaments that are responsible for
changes in the shape of spine shape. The dendrites branch off in different directions and can
extend to various parts of the body. They are in charge of receiving information from other cells.
The dendrites help in the communication by enabling the movements of impulse. Dendrites
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provide massive surface area, which is essential in the formation of synapse between other body
cells. The branching also takes place at the end of the cell body and diffuses between the synapse
when the impulse arrives.
Axons also referred to as a particular cellular extension and extended from the axon
hillock, and travels across the body. They are in charge of sending received information to other
neurons. The report can be electrical or chemical. A neuron has an axon that is usually straight
and long. They also have microtubules and mitochondria that provide the energy needed by the
cell to function. The axons are specialized for their functions by having a myelin sheath, which is
a crucial membrane in the cell because it insulates the plasmalemma and helps in increasing the
speed of the impulse. The axon is covered with a thin and long layer that the impulse passes; it is
also covered with fatty myelin sheath, which is an electric insulator. Axons also help in speeding
the transfer of impulse in the cell by allowing the impulse to move from the gap in the nodes.
To sum it up, the neurons are specialized to perform their functions in several ways. The
various parts of the neurons are adapted to their functions. The nerve cells are specialized in their
functions; they are mostly long to enable communication with distant body parts. The nerve body
has mitochondria, which are crucial in providing the energy needed for synthesizing
neurotransmitters. The spines in the dendrites offer a large surface area that plays a vital role in
the synaptic contacts. The dendrites branch off in different directions and can extend to different
parts. On the other hand, the axons are specialized for their functions by having a membrane
material called myelin sheath that acts as an electric insulator in the cell.
3. Discuss how neurons integrate and transmit incoming signals from other neurons.

The neurons integrate and transmit an incoming signal across the various neurons by
connecting and stimulating or inhibiting their activities. This is achieved by processing the
incoming information and giving a response. The synapse is a joint where the neurons and a
target cell communicate. The transmission at the chemical synapse involves releasing the
neurotransmitters, which are crucial in the transfer of information from pre-synaptic to
postsynaptic cells. This happens between the axon, on sending neuron and the dendrites. A single
axon has various branches that form the synapse in the postsynaptic cells.
Similarly, there is a potential for a neuron to receive many synaptic inputs from different pre-
synaptic neurons. The terminals of the axon have synaptic vesicles with numerous
neurotransmitter molecules. The nerve impulse reaches the axon terminal, and the calcium
channels in a cell wall are activated. The calcium ions are more concentrated on the outside as
compared to the inner part of the cell. The nerve impulse is then rushed inside the cell. The
synaptic vesicle then fuses with the axon terminal wall leading to the release of neurotransmitter
to the synaptic cleft.
When the neurotransmitter attaches to the receptor of the cell that is receiving the ions, it will
open or close to produce a change in potential membrane voltage in the membrane of the cell that
would receive the impulse. In some instances, any change may lead to the firing of its action
potential by the target cell. The difference in the membrane potential is identified as EPSP. In
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different cases, it might become inhibitory, also identified as IPSP, which brings the membrane
very close to its threshold.
The incoming signal travels down on a neuron cell in electrochemical form and allows the
positively charged ions inside the axon. Inside the cell, the action potentials are activated in the
soma; the impulse then travels down towards the terminal. The axon terminal is characterized by
vesicles with numerous neurotransmitters that are produced during the process. When the action
potential moves down the axon, the positive ions are filled in the cell. When the positive cells
flood the cell, the influx will reach the end of the neuron called the axon terminal. The calcium
ion would then activate the synaptotagmin releasing the brake, and the vesicle fuse in the cell
membrane, and the content is taken to the synaptic cleft part in the neuron. The neurotransmitters
help in communication from one cell to the other; the synapses between neurons could either be
inhibitory or excitatory.
The excitatory transmitters cause the propagation of the signal, while the inhibitory
transmitters work to cancel the signal. The postsynaptic terminal has numerous neurotransmitter
receptors, which are, for the most part, ligand-gated ion channels. The transmitters depend on the
type of the channel that they open, the excitatory transmitters are attached to the channels that
would only let in the positive ions like sodium. In contrast, inhibitory neurotransmitters would
open the negative chloride channels. The synapses involve a way of changing the electrical
impulse to a chemical signal when the neurotransmitter is released and when the transmitter is
bounded to the postsynaptic receptor, which converts the signal back into an electrical form.
In conclusion, the transmission at the chemical synapse involves releasing the
neurotransmitters, which are crucial in the transfer of information from pre-synaptic to
postsynaptic cells. The transmitters depend on the type of the channel that they open, the
excitatory transmitters are attached to the channels that would only let in the positive ions like
sodium. The synapse changes the electrical impulses to the chemical signal when the
neurotransmitter is released.
4. Describe the role of astrocytes, and what happens when they become dysfunctional in
disease?
Astrocytes are also identified as astroglia are the most common types of glial cells in CNS.
They are star-shaped and characterized by their different shapes, which can be short, long,
simple, or crocked shape. Astrocytes play an integral role in maintaining homeostasis and neural
metabolism. The star-shaped nature of astrocytes is critical in providing mechanical support,
plasticity, cell development, among other vital functions. The astrocytes also release energy
substrates involving glucose and lactate, which are essential nutritional substrates. The astrocytes
are crucial in the transmission in neurons and vasomodulation and repair. Modulation of synaptic
activity and plasticity, ion, and neurotransmitter homeostasis is also a vital role that the astrocytes
do in the cells. The astrocyte shape and their interaction with synapses are critically crucial for
the functioning of the brain.
The astrocytes also play an integral role in maintaining and controlling the concentration
of the ions, neurotransmitters, metabolites, and the movement of water in the cells. The
researchers have also established that astrocytes play a crucial role in regulating sleep and wake
PSYCHOLOGY 6

cycle. The astrocytes are also involved in immunodefense because of its heterogeneous nature
and are vital in the immune system; the cells are either pro or anti-inflammatory. This would play
an integral role in disease prevention and healing. The astrocytes are also involved in the
detection of the pathogens through different receptors such as the nucleotide-binding and RNA-
protein kinase. They are also involved in the secretion of the soluble mediators such as the CCL2,
CXCL10, which are crucial in innate and adaptive response. The unique architecture of
astrocytes is critical to regulating the formation and functioning of synapse in the brain.
Astrocytes are involved in glial scar formation. When a person is injured, a brain will form
a glial scar with astrocyte. This is formed through the astrogliosis process common in
neurodegenerative infections and traumatic brain injury. The active astrocytes in
neurodegenerative are more defensive and less offensive. The glial scars are vital because they
isolate the injured part and help to heal the injuries. The astrocytes are having been established to
have neuroprotective, angiogenic, neurogenic, and antioxidant properties and modulation of the
synaptic function. The astrocytes assume various roles, such as the regulation of neurotransmitter
and ion concentration. They also remove the toxins and debris from the fluid. The metabolic
relation between astrocyte and neurons is essential for the synthesis of glutamate specific
transporters. The astrocytes are also crucial for regulating the development and functioning of
synapses in the brain. The astrocytes are involved in information processing, providing
metabolic, structural support to the neurons and regulation of neurogenesis.
The astrocytes have a range of functions in the brain, most of which are vital for the
maintenance of neuronal health. They include the provision of structural and metabolic process,
regulation of synaptic movement, water transport, and flow of blood within the brain. The
astrocytes also play an integral part in the production of different neurotrophic molecules, such as
the glial-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), which is crucial in the existence of dopaminergic
neurons. The astrocytes also help in the blood-brain barrier, which has been established to be
disrupted in patients with Parkinson's disease. They are also involved in creating a barrier that
prevents the spread of toxic signals to other healthy tissues when the microglia initiate the
immune response.
When astrocytes become dysfunctional, it can lead to the pathogenesis of mental disorders
by inducing significant alterations in the way the brain functions. The pathological conditions
include epilepsy, primary tumors, Down syndrome, and Alzheimer's disease. Evidence has
shown that dysregulation of the functioning of the astrocytes may result in the development and
progression of different neurological disorders. Reactive astrogliosis has been established to exist
in most types of epilepsy and other disorders. Brain tumors are also common when astrocytes
become dysfunctional in the brain. When the astrocytes fail to function, they underlie some
neuronal problems that are observed in some mental disorders such as autism, schizophrenia, and
epilepsy. Astrocytes have also been implicated in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease, which
is mainly characterized by the neuroinflammation in the SNc, including the existence of reactive
astrocytes. The disruption of astrocyte biology is involved in dopaminergic neuron degeneration
in Parkinson's disease.
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In conclusion, astrocytes play an integral part in the brain because they provide mechanical
support, plasticity, cell development, among other vital roles. The astrocytes also release energy
substrates such as glucose and lactate, which are essential nutritional substrates in the brain. They
also take part in the provision of structural and metabolic process, regulation of synaptic
movement, water transport, and flow of blood within the brain and the production of different
neurotrophic molecules. The metabolic relation between astrocyte and neurons is important for
the synthesis of glutamate specific transporters. The astrocytes are also important for regulating
the development and functioning of synapses in the brain. The dysfunction of the astrocyte may
lead to the pathogenesis of mental disorders by inducing significant alterations in the way the
brain functions. The pathological conditions include epilepsy, primary tumors, Down syndrome,
Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease.