1

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR IMPROVING WATER USE

EFFICIENCY OF CROPS FOR BOOSTING CROP
PRODUCTION

Water is essential for human, animal and plant life. When plants are green, it constitutes over 90% of
plant body weight. Water availability influences various biochemical and physiological processes in
plants. Water is one of the most important inputs essential for the production of crops. Plants need it
in huge quantities and continuously during their life. It play important role in various processes like
photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, absorption, translocation and utilization of mineral
nutrients, cell division and cell enlargement etc. Both its shortage and excess affect the growth and
development of a plant directly and, consequently, its yield and quality. In India, however, rainfall is
unpredictable, causing drought and flood alternately. The frequency, amount and distribution of
rainfall are not according to the crop requirements. So, at one time artificial water supplies through
irrigation, and at another time the removal of excess water through drainage, therefore, become
crucial, if the crops are to be raised successfully.
Depending upon on the environmental conditions, soil, crops and climate, water management
in India, thus, comprises irrigation or drainage or both. Climate, water and soil are the essential
factors required for crop production. Water is essential natural resources for the survival of life and a
key input for plant growth. Crop water requirement (WR) is the amount of water utilized by a crop,
irrespective of its source for obtaining maximum yield from a particular area without having adverse
effect on soil properties. In a cropped field water evaporates (E) from the bare soil, is transpired
through plants (T) and some quantity is retained in plants body for metabolic activities (W m), added
together (E+T+Wm) known as crop consumptive use of water (CU).Water retained in crop plants at
any time is a very small fraction compared to quantity lost through evaporation and transpiration,
together known as evapotranspiration (ET). Both CU and ET, therefore, are used interchangeably.
Besides, some losses do take place in field during application and sometime water is also needed for
special operations such as land preparation, transplanting, leaching of salts etc. The water requirement
(WR) thus can be expressed as:
WR = CU + Application losses + Water needed for special operation = Irrigation + Effective rainfall
+ Ground water contribution + Change in soil moisture
WR = IR + ER + SMS + GWC
IR = WR – (ER+ SMS +GWC)
Where,
IR = Irrigation Requirement
WR = Water Requirement
ER = Effective Rainfall
SMS = Soil moisture Storage
GWC = Ground Water contribution
Water Use Efficiency
It is defined as yield of marketable crop produced per unit of water used in consumptive use of water
or evapotranspiration.
WUE = Y/ET
Where,
WUE = Water Use Efficiency (kg/ha-cm)
Y = Yield (kg/ha)
ET = Evapotranspiration (cm)
Need of improving Water Use efficiency: As we know water is a vital resource for all living form of
lives. It play role in different sectors like industries, irrigation, drinking, electricity generating etc. and
as the population increases abruptly the need for water in different sectors increases manifold. The
status of ground water is declining at sharp rate in India, especially in Punjab state of India. The data
provided by the Gravity satellite shown that the ground water level under irrigated region of northern
India is declining at faster rate, leaving a water scarcity condition in upcoming years. So, it is needed
to conserve our water resources along with enhancing water use efficiency.
Dispute over WUE and WP
 Water use efficiency is distinct from water productivity (WP) and can’t be recognized as same
term. WP refers to crop production in relation to total water consumed while WUE is a
dimensionless ratio of total amount of total amount of water applied. So the increase in WUE
would ultimate results to better WP (Perry et al., 2009; Heydari, 2014).
 Ali and Talukder (2008) mentioned “In a crop production system, water productivity (WP) is used
to define the relationship between crop produced and the amount of water involved in crop
production, expressed as crop production per unit volume of water”.
Factors Affecting Water Use Efficiency
 Nature of plant: Based on their photosynthetic pathway
 Varieties: Tall vs dwarf, short vs long duration
 Agronomic practices: Sowing time, depth of sowing, pattern of sowing, optimum plant
population, weed management, pest management
 Irrigation: Method and quantity of irrigation
 Fertilization
 Climate: Affect both crop yield and water requirement includes RH,day length, wind velocity,
rainfall etc.
 Soil condition
Three processes that are important to water use in agriculture forimproving irrigation water
productivity are –

Source: Kang et al.(2011)

Ways to Increase Water Use Efficiency: If yield is proportional to ET, water use efficiency has to
be a constant, but it is not so. Actually, yield and ET are influenced independently or differently by
crop management and environment. Yield is more influenced by crop management practices, while
ET is mainly dependent on climate and soil moisture. Any practice that promotes plant growth and the
more efficient use of sunlight in photosynthesis without causing a corresponding increase in ET will
increase water use efficiency. Choice of crop and the genetic improvement of its productivity and
adaptation to a particular environment as well as by improvement of water, air and nutrient supply to
the roots and of light and carbon dioxide supply to foliage.

Dr. O. P. Sharma(Emeritus Professor)

Selection of Crops/Varieties: There are considerable differences between plant species to produce a
unit of dry matter per unit amount of water used resulting in widely varying values of WUE. The crop
plants are grouped into three types based on the mode C 3, C4 and CAM. They differ with one-another
for the values of WUE. C3 plants have lower WUE and have low photosynthetic rate. Pulses, oilseed
crops, wheat, barley, oats etc. are examples of C 3 plants. C4 plants have higher rate of photosynthesis
and higher rate of WUE e.g. maize, sorghum, pearl-millet, finger-millet, sugarcane etc. CAM plant
have unique pathway known as crassulacean acid metabolism. These are mostly desert plant. They
have low growth rate but consume much less water. Pineapple and sisal are the crop plant in this
group. C4 plant which lack photorespiration and CAM plant which absorb CO 2 at night are more
efficient than C3 plant in carbon fixation per unit of water. The transpiration ratio (weight of water/
weight of dry matter) is 300 for C4 plant while it is 600 for C3 plants and only 125 for CAM plants.
Table1. Crops and water use efficiency

Source: Reddi and Reddy (1995)

The yields and water use efficiency of cultivars/hybrids of crops differed significantly. Those
varieties/hybrids produced more than the water use should be grown under the limited water areas to
increase the water productivity per unit area. Shivani et al. (2001; 2003) and Behera et al. (2002)
reported that wheat cultivars HUW 234 and Lok 1had higher water use efficiency. Similarly, Chand
and Bhan (2002) reported that Varsha sorghum was distinctly superior in water use efficiency in terms
of grain production as well as dry matter production as compared to CSV 13 and CSV 15.It shows
that the variety/hybrid should be evaluated for water use efficiency before to release in particular area
according to the availability of water
Crops and Varieties with Efficient Characters in Relation to Water Use
 Short duration and early vigour
 Deep rooting behavior with ramified roots
 Short stature with erect leaves and awns
 Moderate tillering
 Lesser period between flowering and maturity so that the grain filling is least affected by adverse
weather
 Low rate of transpiration
 Wider adaptability
Time of Planting: Time of sowing is the non-monitory input which is not only ensures the higher
yields but also optimum utilization of the applied resources. Choice of crop cultivar is also a vital
production input as all the cultivars of wheat cannot per form equally well under timely and late sown
condition. Shavani et. al. (2001; 2003) observed that water use efficiency of timely seeded wheat was
maximum and decreased by 4.6, 25.8 and 45.4percent in moderately late (7 December), late (21
December) and very late (7 January) seeded wheat, respectively.
Singh et al. (2012) observed that shifting the planting/transplanting time of crops from high to
low evaporative (ET) demand periods is likely to reduce ground water use, thereby enhancing WUE.
Time-trends of deficits between rainfall and pan evaporation in Punjab and other areas of the region
indicate that crops growing during hot and dry months of April to mid June will havegreater irrigation
needs due to high ET demand, and little or no rainfall. This concept has implications for increasing
WUE in rice and spring sunflower. For example, ET demand of June 1transplanted rice is 620 mm
against 520 mm for June 21 transplanted crop.
Method of Planting: Planting pattern has a direct effect on yield, solar energy capture and soil water
evaporation and thus an indirect effect on water use efficiency. The correct method of planting
according to the site moisture availability or other factors can help to increase the yield or reduce the
total irrigation water to be applied to crop without affecting the yield of crop.
Planting crop on raised beds is a practice for increasing water use efficiency. The crop is
sown with drill or planted on beds and water is applied in furrows. The comparable or higher yields
are obtained with saving of about 25-30 per cent water. This had been practiced in different crops like
wheat, sarson, soybean and rice. Kaur (2006) reported that water use efficiency of wheat planted on
beds was highest followed by conventional and zero tillage.
Aggarwal and Goswami (2003) reported that water use by wheat crop was lower, whereas
grain yield and water use efficiency were higher under treatment where 3 rows of wheat was sown on
37.5 cm wide beds separated by 30 cm furrow as compared to the conventional flat sowing and 2 rows
sown on bed (Table 2). Sowing of 3 rows of wheat at 37.5 cm wide bed alternating with 30 cm wide
furrows in alluvial sandy-loam soils resulted in better soil physical environment, resulted in better root
growth, reduced irrigation requirement because of furrow irrigation, higher grain yield and increased
water use efficiency compared with conventional flat sowing system with flood irrigation.
Table2. Effect of planting technique on the grain yield and water use efficiency in wheat
Planting technique Water use (cm) WUE (tonnes/ha-cm) Grain yield (kg/ha)
Bed planting (2 rows/bed) 27.7 0.153 4223
Bed Planting (3 rows/bed) 28.6 0.186 5306
Flat bed 32.5 0.157 5085
CD (P=0.05) - 0.27 269
Jat and Gautam (2001) reported that sowing of bajra in ridges and furrows 45 cm apart
resulted in higher seed yield as compared to paired row sowing and uniform row sowing (45 cm).
Ridge and furrow sowing also resulted in maximum water use efficiency
Row Spacing/Row Orientation: Narrow row spacing and crop geometry can result in higher yields
and water use efficiency. Patil and Sheelavantar (2000) observed that sowing of sorghum in furrows
60 cm apart or in compartmental bunding (3m x 3m) resulted in significantly higher grain yield and
higher water use efficiency as compared to the flat sowing (Table 3). Rathore et al. (2008) observed
that crop geometry of 45cmx 12cm of pearl millet had the higher water use efficiency owing to larger
crop canopy. This was mainly due to higher yield under this plant density owing to proper utilization
of nutrients as well as moisture under optimum population. Similar results reported by Satyajeet and
Nanwal (2007).
Table3. Effect of method of planting on grain yield, consumptive use and WUE in Sorghum
Treatments Grain yield (kg/ha) Consumptive use (mm) WUE (kg/ha cm)
Flat sowing 1276 272 46.79
Sowing in furrow (60 cm) 1603 275 58.36
Compartmental Bunding (3m x 3m) 1567 273 57.22
CD (p=0.05) 124.7 - -
Seed Rate/Plant Population: Soil water evaporation is reduced with higher planting density. In
humid regions where rainfall exceeds evapotranspiration, plant densities can be increased with a
concomitant increase in yield. However, in semi-arid are as where soil moisture is deficit the thicker
stand are avoided. The desirable plant density which could be supported by available moisture up to
production of economic part and not initial biomass only is recommended for these situations.
Karrou (1998) observed that the lower seed rate of 200 kernels/m2 gave the highest grain
yield and WUE of durum wheat, which was statistically at par with 300 kernels/m2 but significantly
better than 400 kernels/m2 (Table 4). The decreased seed yield and WUE with higher seed rate due to
higher plant population resulted in earlier exhaustion of water causing terminal stress which resulted
in reduced seed yield and decreased WUE. Under low population, water might have been used more
rationally throughout the growing season which resulted in higher seed yield and WUE. Singh et al.
(2003) reported that water use efficiency of wheat was higher at higher population density (15 cm,
205 kg seed/ha) than low population density (22 cm, 140 kg seed /ha)
Table4. Effect of plant population and row spacing on grain yield and WUE of durum wheat in semi-arid region
Treatment Grain yield (kg/ha) Rain water use efficiency (kg/ha mm) Water use efficiency (kg/ha mm)
Row spacing
12 cm 4020 9.5 7.8
24 cm 3380 8.0 5.5
CD 5% 274 1.1 1.5
Plant population (kernels/m2)

Dr. O. P. Sharma(Emeritus Professor)

 200 4010 9.5 5.3
300 3825 9.1 6.4
400 3270 7.7 6.8
CD (5%) 323 1.6 NS
Fertilizer: Fertilizer use can also have a very marked effect on crop yield and water use efficiency.
Nitrogen, phosphorus, combination of chemical fertilizer with organic fertilizer or chemical fertilizer
with bio-fertilizer has been shown to increase growth and development in both dry and irrigated areas.
Kumar et al. (2000) reported that there was a progressive increase in water use efficiency of summer
groundnut with increased level of fertilizer application and it was recorded to be higher with the use
of organic and inorganic sources of fertilizer. Patil and Sheelavantar (2000) reported that application
of nitrogen increased the yield, water use efficiency and yield component of sorghum.
Irrigation: Khatri et al. (2001) in Haryana and recorded that maximum water use efficiency under 3
rows of bed with45 cm bed width and irrigation applied at 1.0 IW: CPE ratio to bed planted wheat.
Kaur (2006) reported that water use efficiency was higher when irrigation applied at IW: CPE ratio of
1.2 followed by 0.8 and 1.0 IW:CPE ratio.
Idnani and Gautam (2008) reported that irrigation at 80 mm cumulative pan evaporation
recorded the highest consumptive use of water and rate of water use and irrigation at 200 mm
cumulative pan evaporation resulted in the highest water use efficiency and the lowest consumptive
use of water and rate of water use of greengram.
Inoculation: Inoculation can have a very marked effect on consumptive use and water use efficiency
of legume crops. Singh et al. (2004) reported that inoculation of chickpea with Rhizobium +
phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSB) significantly increased the consumptive use and water use
efficiency over the single inoculation of Rhizobium or PSB and noinoculation, however, single
inoculation with Rhizobium or PSB being at par, were significantly superior over control.
Weed Control: Competition for water by weeds and the impact of weed growth on yields is well
recognized. Herbicides use can reduce the effect of these factors. Singh et al. (2004) reported that
weed free treatment in chickpea had more moisture use efficiency than weedy check. Nadeem et al.
(2007) reported that maximum water use efficiency of wheat was recorded in manual weed control
which was statistically on a par with the post emergence application of isoproturon + carfentrazone
ethyl (Table 5). More water use efficiency in manual weed control was due to lower weed density,
resulting in lesser loss of water by weeds and consequently more grain yield.
Table5. WUE of wheat as influenced by weed control practices and irrigation levels
Treatment Water use efficiency (kg/ha-mm)
2002- 03 2003- 04
Weed control practice
Weedy check 15.9 15.8
Pendimethalin (pre-em.) at 1.031 g a.i./ha 18.6 18.1
Isoproturon +carfentrazone-ethyl (post-em.) at 750 g a.i./ha 19.8 18.6
Manual hoeing (2) 20.7 20.6
CD (p=0.05) 1.3 2.3
Irrigation levels (IW:CPE ratio)
0.50 15.1 14.3
0.75 17.4 17.7
1.00 20.9 19.6
1.25 21.6 21.4
CD (p=0.05) 1.3 1.5
Moisture Stress: The moisture stress during the grand growth and reproductive stage reduces the
duration of the crop resulted in less water consumption. Chaudhari et al. (2009) reported that water
use efficiency and water expense efficiency of amaranth were elevated as moisture stress rose. The
limited water supply under stress at active growth and grain filling stage reduced vegetative growth of
the crop thereby less consumption.
Moisture Conservation Practices: Moisture conservation practices have been widely practiced as a
mean of improving yields in water limited environment. Patil and Sheelavantar (2000) reported that
formation of compartmental bunds and ridges and furrows improved the yield components of
sorghum in the vertisols of Bijapur significantly over flatbed due to increased availability of moisture
and nutrients. Application of Subabul leaves at 2.5 t/ha proved beneficial in increasing the yield and
yield components over FYM at 2.5 t/ha and vermicompost at 1.0 t/ha. Similarly, Tetarwal and Rana
(2006) reported that application of FYM at 5 t/ha + dust mulch + straw mulch recorded significantly
higher pearlmillet–equivalent yield, nutrient uptake, water use efficiency and economics. Jat and
Gautam (2001) reported that straw mulch and straw + kaolin application to pearl millet was superior
to all other treatments in terms of yield, consumptive use and water use efficiency of rain fed pearl
millet.
Vegetative Barrier: Vegetative barriers play significant role to increase the yields than that of water
used by the crop. Chand and Bhan (2002) reported that water use efficiency of sorghum was
appreciably improved due to different vegetative barriers over control. The maximum water use
efficiency was recorded under Sesbania sesban followed by Leucaena leucocephala and Cajanus
cajan barriers. Minimizing water use efficiency was observed under the control crop. The increase in
the water use efficiency may be attributed to appreciable increase in grain yield which was in much
greater proportion than the water use under different vegetative barriers.
Intercropping: Intercropping is a practice to have an opportunity to diversify cropping system by
making the multiple land use possible utilizes water and other resources more effectively and also
provides a cover against the failure of one crop particularly under the rainfed situations. Any factor
that increases yield will increase water use efficiency. Likewise any factor reducing
evapotranspiration that has no seriously deleterious effect on yield will increase water use efficiency.
Higher water use efficiency has been reported for Maize + potato (Bharati et al., 2007), pearlmillet +
green gram and pearlmillet + cowpea (Goswami et al., 2002) intercrops in relation to their respective
mono crops.
Tetarwal and Rana (2006) reported that one row of mothbean in paired row of pearlmillet +
and one row of greengram between paired rows of pigeonpea recorded higher water use efficiency
over sole crop, respectively. This might be due to higher grain yields of both the crops than the
amount of water used for biomass production. Consumptive use and rate of moisture use were higher
in the intercropping system than sole crop because both the crops absorbed more moisture during the
crop period. Singh et al. (2004) reported that rice-coriander-maize+cowpea (F) and rice-lentil-maize +
cowpea (F) and had the lowest water use resulted in highest water use efficiency in flood prone and
semi-deep water situation, respectively.
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