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For Laura and Jeff, Michelle, Ken and Joshua.
With love and respect.

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 CONTENTS

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Grammars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
Dictionaries, Lexicons and Glossaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Reference Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi
Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi

Chapter One: The Phoenician Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter Two: The Alphabet, Orthography and

Phonology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
The Alphabet and Orthography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Phoenician . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Punic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Neo-Punic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Phonology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
The Consonants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
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The Vowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
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Chapter Three: The Independent Personal Pronouns . . . 38

Chapter Four: The Suffixal Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Possessive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
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Direct and Indirect Object Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Chapter Five: The Demonstrative Pronouns and the

Definite Article . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
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The Demonstrative Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

The Definite Article . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
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Chapter Six: The Relative and Determinative Pronouns 93

The Relative Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

vii
viii contents

The Determinative Pronoun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Chapter Seven: The Interrogative Pronouns, Independent

Possessive Pronouns, Independent Object Pronouns and
Other Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
The Personal Interrogative Pronoun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
The Neuter Interrogative Pronoun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
The Independent Possessive Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
The Independent Object Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Other Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Chapter Eight: The Noun and Adjective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

The Noun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
The Adjectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
The Nisbe Noun and Adjective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Chapter Nine: The Verb: Introduction and the Suffixing

Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
The Forms, Tense, Aspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
The Verbal Stems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Person, Number and Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
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The Suffixing Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
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Chapter Ten: The Verb: The Prefixing Forms . . . . . . . . . 180
Prefixing Form A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Prefixing Form B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Prefixing Form C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
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Chapter Eleven: The Verb: The Imperative, Participles

and Infinitives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
The Imperative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
The Active Participle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
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The Passive Participle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

The Infinitive Construct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
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The Infinitive Absolute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

Chapter Twelve: The Numerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

The Cardinal Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
 contents ix

The Ordinal Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

Other Numeric Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

Chapter Thirteen: The Prepositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

Chapter Fourteen: The Adverbs and Conjunctions . . . . . 259

The Adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Adverbs of Degree and Manner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Locative Adverbs and Adverbial Expressions . . . . . . . . 260
Adverbs and Adverbial Expressions of Time . . . . . . . . 263
The Conjunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Subordinating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Conjunctions and Disjunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
W- As Clause Marker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

Chapter Fifteen: The Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

Particles of Anticipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
The Particles of Existence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Negative Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
The Accusative Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
The Presentative Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
The Particle of Citation and Quotation . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
The Verbal Proclitic and Enclitic Particles . . . . . . . . . 287
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Directional Ending -a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Accusative Ending -am . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
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Chapter Sixteen: Closing Observations on Syntax . . . . . 290
The Equational Sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
The Syntax of the Verb in the Clause or Sentence 290
The Syntax of the Complex Sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
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Selective General Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

1. Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
2. Index of Key Morphemes and Words . . . . . . . . . . . 301
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 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

To Professor Baruch Levine of New York University for his good

offices in recommending this scholar to Brill Academic Publishers
for the preparation of a grammar of the Phoenician language I extend
special thanks. To Patricia Radder, Desk Editor for the Ancient Near
East and Asian Studies at Brill, sincerest thanks for her profession-
alism and patience in seeing this work through to publication. To
my wife Karen, profoundly heartfelt acknowledgments: she was ever
my support and active partner in bringing this book to fruition.

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 FOREWORD

The present grammar of the Phoenician-Punic has its origin in a

systematic investigation and study of the language which I first
undertook more than twenty years ago and have since then pursued
in numerous specialized studies. From the start my purpose was to
attempt a description of Phoenician and Punic based on an inde-
pendent analysis of the language and its literature. Motivating my
work was the perception that the description of Phoenician in exist-
ing grammars of the language was so exceedingly reliant upon the
traditional descriptions of Classical Hebrew that the true character
and genius of Phoenician had been seriously misrepresented and
distorted. My work was also fed by the desire to seek out details of
Phoenician grammar and lexicon not recorded in existing Phoeni-
cian grammars in order to “fill out the paradigm” with new, fuller
and more precise information about all aspects of the language. Pre-
sented in this grammar is a comprehensive statement of the results
of my work.
It will be immediately apparent to those who consult this gram-
mar that it is fundamentally informed by my personal understand-
ing of the individual texts of the Phoenician and Punic literary cor-
s
pus and of the rich lexical treasure they contain. My understanding
and translations of these texts are registered in my recent work
es
Phoenician and Punic Dictionary, to be published in 2000 by Peeters in
Leuven (Louvain). The reader may also wish to consult my prelim-
inary sketches of the grammar of Phoenician presented in my refer-
ence encyclopedia articles Phoenician, pages 222-223 in the Anchor Bible
Pr

Dictionary, vol. 4 K-N (Doubleday: New York, 1992), and in Phoeni-

cian/Punic in the forthcoming book The Encyclopedia of the World’s Lan-
guages: Past and Present to be published in May, 2000, by the H.W.
Wilson Press in New York.
The topics discussed in this work are necessarily selective. It is,
L

needless to say, impossible within the confines of any modest work

to cover in detail every feature of morphophonology and syntax. My
SB

object has been to provide good general coverage but, perhaps more
important, (i) to present data and discussion not contained in other
works and (ii) to present new and existing data accurately, based on
my own researches in Phoenician and Punic grammar. Much of the

xiii
xiv foreword

new information presented in this work, invaluable for an understand-

ing of the morphophonology of Phoenician and Punic, is drawn from
the fully vocalized Latin-letter Punic and Neo-Punic preserved by
Plautus in his play Poenulus, and from the late Neo-Punic in Latin-
letters of the inscriptions of the hinterland of Roman Tripolitania.
Although I have published studies in both, my larger monographs
on this most important literature have not yet appeared. The read-
er will, however, find the substance of this work in the Phoenician and
Punic Dictionary and in the pages of this grammar.
In one important respect this grammar differs from others. Rath-
er than adhering to the traditional discrete bifurcation of Morphol-
ogy and Syntax, this work includes the two within the same chap-
ter, each chapter consisting of Part A Morphology and Part B Syntax
and Usage. This in my considered opinion is a rather more “user-
friendly” presentation of forms and usage, designed to achieve con-
venience of reference.
This grammar of Phoenician-Punic, as all scholarly works, has a
long and noble ancestry in the rich scholarship of the past and present.
For the convenience of the reader, I provide here a comprehensive
bibliography of the existing major grammars and lexicons-glossaries
of Phoenician-Punic.

1. grammars
s
Cunchillos, Jesús-Luis and Zamora, José-Ángel
es
1997 Gramatica Fenicia Elemental. Madrid.
Friedrich, Johannes
1951 Phönizisch-punische Grammatik. Analecta Orientalia 32.
Rome: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum.
Pr

Friedrich, Johannes and Röllig, Wolfgang

1970 Phönizisch-Punische Grammatik. 2nd Edition. Analecta Ori-
entalia 46. Rome: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum.
Friedrich, Johannes and Röllig, Wolfgang
1999 Phönizisch-Punische Grammatik. 3rd Edition. Revised by Maria
L

Giulia Amadasi Guzzo, and Werner R. Mayer. Analecta

Orientalia 55. Rome: Pontificio Istituto Biblico.
SB

Harris, Zellig Shabbetai

1936 A Grammar of the Phoenician Language. American Oriental
Series Volume 8. New Haven: American Oriental Soci-
ety.
 foreword xv

Rosenberg, Josef
1907 Phoenizische Grammatik. Wien und Leipzig: Hartleben Ver-
lag.
Schröder, Paul
1869 Die Phönizische Sprache. Entwurf einer Grammatik nebst
Sprach-und Schriftproben mit einem Anhang, enthaltend eine
Erklärung der punischen Stellen im Pönulus des Plautus. Halle:
Verlag der Buchhandlung des Waisenhauses.
Segert, Stanislav
1976 A Grammar of Phoenician and Punic. Munich: C.H. Beck.
Shifman, Il’ya Sh.
1963 Finikiyskiy Yazyk. Akademiya Nauk SSSR. Institut Naro-
dov Azii. Yazyki Zarubezhnogo Vostoka i Afriki. Mos-
cow: Izdatel'stvo Vostochnoi Literatury.
van den Branden, Albert
196 Grammaire Phénicienne. Beyrouth: Librairie du Liban.

2. Dictionaries, Lexicons, Glossaries

Bloch, Armand
1890 Phoenicisches Glossar. Berlin: Mayer und Mueller.
Donner, Herbert. and Röllig, Wolfgang.
1964 Kanaanäische Glossar. Pp. 1-26 in Kanaanäische und
s
aramäische Inschriften. Band III: Glossare. Indizes. Tafeln.
Wiesbaden Harrassowitz.
es
Fuentes Estañol, Maria-José
1980 Vocabulario Fenicio. Biblioteca Fenicia. Volumen 1. Bar-
celona: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas.
Harris, Zellig Shabbetai
Pr

1936 Glossary of Phoenician. Pp. 71-156 in A Grammar of the Phoe-

nician Language. New Haven: American Oriental Society.
Hoftijzer, Jean. and Jongeling K.
1995 Dictionary of the North-West Semitic Inscriptions. Two volumes.
Leiden, New York, Koeln: E.J. Brill.
L

Jean, Charles.-F. and Hoftijzer, Jean

1965 Dictionnaire des inscriptions semitiques de l’Ouest. Leiden: E.J.
SB

Brill.
Krahmalkov, Charles R.
2000 Phoenician-Punic Dictionary. Orientalia Lovanensia Analec-
ta 90. Studia Phoenicia XV. Leuven: Peeters.
xvi foreword

Levy, Mauritz Abraham

1864 Phoenizisches Woerterbuch.
Lidzbarski, Max
1898 (1962) Glossary. Pp. 204-388 in Handbuch der nordsemitischen
Epigraphik, I-II. Wiesbaden. (Hildesheim).
Tomback, Richard S.
1978 A Comparative Lexicon of the Phoenician and Punic Language.
Missoula: Scholars Press (Society of Biblical Literature).

Reference Sources

The epigraphic passages cited in this grammar are, for the purpose
of convenient reference, assigned the number of their source texts
given in the standard collection Kanaanäische und aramäische Inschriften
(abbreviated as KAI) by Herbert Donner and Wolfgang Röllig (Har-
rassowitz: Wiesbaden, 1964). A numbered citation not preceded by
a specified source reference is drawn from KAI. Other well known
collections of texts are also used for convenience of reference, among
them P. Magnanini’s Le iscrizioni fenicie dell’Oriente (Rome, 1973), M.G.
Guzzo Amadasi’s Le iscrizioni fenicie e puniche delle Colonie in Occidente
(Rome, 1967), G. Levi Della Vida and M.G. Amadasi Guzzo’s Is-
crizioni puniche della Tripolitania 19271967 (Rome, 1987) and J.M.
Reynolds and J.B. Ward Perkins, The Inscriptions of Roman Tripolita-
s
nia (Rome and London, 1952). Citations from other collections are
preceded by the full or abbreviated name of that source. The read-
es
er need be alerted however that my readings and translations of
passages drawn from these collections are not necessarily the same
as those proposed by their authors or compilers. The specific lin-
guistic origin or character of a given citation is indicated by the sigla
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preceding: Byb for Byblian Phoenician, Pu for Punic and NPu for
Neo-Punic; a citation without specific designation is Phoenician.

Abbreviations
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AI Africa Italiana
Aistleitner J. Aistleitner, Wörterbuch der ugaritischen Sprache. Berlin, 1967.
SB

Akko M. Dothan, “A Phoenician Inscription from Akko,” IEJ

35 (1985), 81-94.
Asarh. R. Borger, Die Inschriften Asarhaddons, Königs von Assyrien. Ar-
chiv für Orientforschung Beiheft 9. Graz, 1956.
Assurb. Assurbanipal Annals: R. Borger, Beiträge zum Inschriftwerk
 foreword xvii

Assurbanipals. Wiesbaden, 1996.

Aug. Augustine of Hippo: Opera Omnia; Patrologiae Cursus Com-
pletus, vol. 32-47. Paris, 1845-9; Pp. 532-34 in Vattioni,
infra.
BAC Bulletin archéologique du Comité des travaux historiques et scien-
tifiques
BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
Benz F.L. Benz, Personal Names in the Phoenician and Punic Inscrip-
tions. Pontifical Biblical Institute: Rome, 1972.
Betlyon J.W. Betlyon, The Coinage and Mints of Phoenicia. Harvard
Semitic Monographs 26. Scholars Press: Chico, 1982.
BMQ British Museum Quarterly
Byb Byblian Phoenician
Byb 13 W. Röllig, “Eine neue phönizische Inschrift aus Byblos,”
Neue Ephemeris für semitische Epigraphik II (1974), 1-15.
CID P.G. Mosca and J. Russell, “A Phoenician Inscription from
Cebel Ires Dagi in Rough Cilicia,” Epigraphica Anatolica 9
(1987), 1-28.
CIL Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum
CIS Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum
CRAI Comptes rendus des séances de l’Académie des Inscriptions et
Belles-Lettres. Paris.
D R.G. Goodchild, “La necropoli romano-libica di Bir ed-
Dréder,” Quaderni di archeologia della Libia 3 (1954), 91-107.
Diosc(urides) Dioscurides, De materia medica. Pp. 516-28 in Vattioni, in-
fra.
EA El-Amarna Letters: J.A. Knudtzon, Die El-Amarna Tafeln.
Leipzig, 1915.
Esar. Esarhaddon Prisms. See R.C. Thompson, The Prisms of Es-
arhaddon and of Ashurbanipal.
s
EH A. Berthier and R. Charlier, Le sanctuaire punique d’El-Hofra
à Constantine. Arts et Métiers Graphiques: Paris, 1953-1955.
es
FK M. Guzzo Amadasi and V. Karageorghis, Fouilles de Ki-
tion. III. Inscriptions phéniciennes. Department of Anti-
quities: Nicosia, 1977.
GEG A. Gardiner, Egyptian Grammar. 3rd ed. Oxford, 1957.
Hassan-Beyli KAI 23: A. Lemaire, “L'inscription phénicienne de Has-
san Beyli reconsidérée,” RSF 11 (1983), 9-19.
Pr

Head B.V. Head, Historia Nummorum. London, 1963.

Hill G.F. Hill, Phoenicia in Catalogue of Greek Coins in the British
Museum. London, 1910.
IEJ Israel Exploration Journal
IFO P. Magnanini, Le Iscrizioni fenicie dell’Oriente. Istituto di Studi
del Vicino Oriente, Universita degli Studi: Rome, 1973.
L

IFPCO M.G. Guzzo Amadasi, Le iscrizioni fenicie e puniche della colonie

in Occidente. Rome, 1967.
IG G. Kaibel, ed., Inscriptiones Gracae 14: Italy and Sicily. Ber-
SB

lin, 1890
IRT J.M. Reynolds and J.B. Ward Perkins, Inscriptions of Ro-
man Tripolitania. Rome and London, 1952.
JA Journal Asiatique
xviii foreword

JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society

JKAF Jahrbuch für kleinasiatische Forschung
Jos. Ap. Flavius Josephus, Contra Apionem. B. Niese, ed. Berlin, 1889.
KAI H. Donner and W. Röllig, Kanaanäische und aramäische
Inschriften. Harrassowitz: Wiesbaden, 1964.
Karthago Karthago. Revue d'archéologie africaine
KI M. Lidzbarski, Kanaanäische Inschriften. Giessen, 1907.
Kition M. Yon and M. Sznycer, “Une inscription phénicienne
royale de Kition (Chypre),” Comptes rendus des séances de
l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres 1991. Pp. 791-823.
Paris.
JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society
LA Libya Antiqua
Lapethos Inscriptions of Lapethos, Cyprus: pp. 123-127 in IFO,
supra.
Mactar B J.G. Février and M. Fantar, Karthago 12 (1965), 45-59.
Manfredi, Monete L.I. Manfredi, Monete puniche: Repertorio epigrafico e numis-
matico delle leggende puniche. Bolletino di Numismatica,
Monografia 6. Rome, 1995 [1997].
Marathus RES 234=1601; P. 40 in IFO.
Moran W.L. Moran, A Styntactical Study of the Dialect of Byblos as
Reflected in the Amarna Tablets. Unpublished Johns Hop-
kins doctoral dissertation, 1950.
Müller L. Müller, Numismatique de l’ancienne Afrique. Copenhagen,
1860-1874.
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 foreword xix

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