3.

3 Constant speed wind energy conversion system

Most of the existing large systems in operation are built or planned to run at

constant speed in synchronization with a utility grid. Until recently, this has usually

been achieved by utilizing mechanical control means such as blade pitch angle

control, yaw control, coning etc.

An alternative means of achieving the same result is to couple the turbine to

a cage rotor induction generator through a gear box and the stator of the generator

is tied to the three phase grid through a transformer [figure 3.2]. The grid frequency

therefore, determines the mechanical speed of the generator/turbine shaft, the slip

being nominally of the order of 5%. In constant speed system the power is mostly

limited using the classic stall principle. If the wind speed increases above the rated

wind speed, the power coefficient inherently reduces, so that the power produced

by the turbine stays near the rated power.

Sometimes active stall is used : negative pitch angles are used to limit the

power. There are a few variants:

1. Pole changing generators with two stator windings with different numbers of

pole pairs so that turbine can operate at two constant speeds in order to

increase energy yield and reduce audible noise and

2. generators with electronically variable rotor resistance in order to reduce

mechanical loads by making larger speed variations possible : the semi

variable speed wind turbine.

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 WIND
Grid
TURBINE

GEAR THREE PHASE

BOX TRANSFORMER

SQUIRREL CAGE
INDUCTION
GENERATOR
COMPENSATING
CAPACITORS

Figure 3.2 Constant speed with turbine with asynchronous squirrel cage
induction generator

A cage rotor induction generator when connected to the grid draws the

magnetizing current from the line thereby reducing stator power factor. Under low

wind conditions, when the active power generation is low, the machine mainly

draws reactive power from the grid and the stator power factor is extremely poor.

The lagging reactive power is compensated by connecting capacitor banks across

the line. Depending on the active power generation, these capacitors are either cut-

in or cut-out to regulate the average power factor of the generator between 0.95

and 1. But the random switching of the capacitor banks gives rise to undesirable

transients in the line currents and voltages. In a grid, where hundreds of such

machines are installed, these capacitive switchings can cause severe over voltage

problems.

3.3.1 Constant speed characteristics

For a wind rotor with radius r, (3.1) can be rewritten as :

1
P  C p (, )r 2 v 3 (3.2)
2
The pitch angle  is defined as the angle between the cord of the blade and

the plane of the wind rotor.

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 As an example of figure (3.3) shows the dependency of the power coefficient

Cp on the tip speed ratio  and the blade pitch angle  for a specific blade. For

this blade maximum energy capture from the wind is obtained for   0 and  just

above 6. To keep Cp at its optimal value for varying wind speed, the rotor speed

should be proportional to the wind speed.

For onshore turbines, the blades are designed such that the optimal tip

speed is limited to roughly 70 m/s. This is done because the blade tips cause

excessive acoustical noise at higher tip speeds. For offshore turbines, the noise

does not play an important role and higher speeds are used leading to slightly

higher optimal value of Cp.

0.5
0 deg

0.4

0.3
20

Performance 0.2
Coefficient
(Cp)

0 50
10
0
15
0

-0.1 25
0

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Tip Speed
Ratio ()

Figure 3.3 Power coefficient Cp as a function of tip speed ratio  and pitch
angle  for a specific blade [52]

52
 The constant speed system eventhough, apparently simple and reliable,

severely limits the quantity of power generated and has several associated

disadvantages that require major attention.

3.4 Variable speed wind energy conversion system

In order to withdraw as much energy as possible from the often strongly

fluctuating wind, the WECS should be able to follow these variations so that

maximum power can be obtained for most of the time. This is especially important

at lower wind speeds which occur frequently. The power coefficient C p of wind

turbines varies with the tip speed ratio  as shown in figure 3.1. Maximum power

transfer is achieved by ensuring operation where the turbine is most efficient (  opt ) .

In the recent past, the extra cost and complexity of a variable speed

generator and/or a variable ratio transmission, and structural dynamics

complications of having to operate over a range of speeds have been considered as

the main drawbacks in variable speed systems. It is now possible to obtain

constant voltage constant frequency operation with variable shaft speed turbines at

high power levels, utilizing static power converters.

The rotor speed of the generator can be made to vary with the changing wind

velocity so that the turbine always operates with maximum Cp, within the power

and speed limits of the system. The power limit is governed by the choice of the

generator rating, while the speed limit is dictated by the mechanical design of the

turbine and the tower. Selection of the generator can be judiciously made based on

the average wind velocity during the peak wind season. To exploit the power

53
transfer capability adequately, turbines operating at higher speeds are being built;

some of them being commercially available as well.

With variable wind speed, the torque needs to be controlled actively to reach

the proper operating point. The kinetics of the system is governed by the following

equation.

dw
J  Taero  Tem (3.3)
dt

where J is the effective inertia of the rotating system. T aero is the aerodynamic

torque developed by the wind rotor (prime for transformation through gear box) and

Tem is the electromagnetic torque. If Tem is larger than the available wind torque

Taero then the turbine will eventually stop. If T em is too small, the turbine will speed

up to a tip speed ratio  above the optimal value, resulting in a reduction of the

power coefficient Cp and the torque Taero. Eventually the turbine will reach a stable

operating point that is above the optimal speed and below the optimal torque. For

the variable speed turbines the control is mostly based on space vector control,

where the set point for torque is mostly derived from the power curve. From the

torque the needed stator current vector can be calculated if the air gap flux vector is

known. With direct drive generators the rotor position is measured and used to

determine the position of the air gap flux. Based on this position a voltage space

vector is applied at the terminals that will results in required stator current vector.

Because the control is based on space vectors, automatically the applied voltage

will have the proper electrical frequency.

54
 10000

900 Maximum Power Point

0
800 V8
0
700 V7
0 V6
600 V5
0
Turbine 500
V4
Power 0
(KW) 400 V3
0
300
0 V2

200 V1
0
100
0

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Figure 3.4 Turbine power-generator variable shaft speed characteristics

3.4.1 Variable speed generation technologies

There are three different technologies that are applied today in variable

speed WECS and we will analyse the benefits and drawbacks of their operation.

3.4.1.1 Variable speed synchronous generator will full scale power converter
connected in the stator winding (VSSG)

RECTIFIER INVERTER

DC LINK

WIND
TURBINE

EXCITER

SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR
Figure 3.5 WECS with variable speed synchronous generator

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