sOMAL Chemistry Practical Hand Book PDF

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ii
wOHlaI ckrd,a;=ñhf.a mKsúvh
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.ekSu iy fmdÿ ksmqK;d ixj¾Okh lsÍfï uQ,sl wruqKq iys;j tjl mej;s wka;¾.;h
mokï jQ úIhud,dj kùlrKhg Ndck fldg j¾I wglska hq;= pl%hlska iukaú; kj
ksmqK;d mdol úIhud,dfjys m<uq jk wÈhr" j¾I 2017 § cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
úiska Y%S ,xldfõ m%d:ñl yd oaú;Shsl wOHdmk lafIa;%hg y`ÿkajd fok ,§'
m¾fhaIKj,ska wkdjrKh jQ lreKq o" wOHdmkh ms<snò úúO md¾Yaj bÈßm;a l<
fhdackd o mokï fldg f.k isÿ lrk úIhud,d ;d¾lSlrK l%shdj,shl m%;sM,hla
f,i úIhud,d pl%fha fojeks wÈhr wOHdmk lafIa;%hg y`ÿkajd §u 2015 jif¾ isg
wdrïN lr we;'
;d¾lSlrKh lrk ,o kj úIh ud,dfõ uQ,sl wruqK jkqfha YsIH m%cdj jvd;a YsIH
flakaøSh jQ iy l%shdldrlïmdol jQ wOHhk rgdjlg wj;S¾K lsÍu uÕska" jev f,dalhg
wjYH olaI;d iy ksmqK;dj,ska ikakoaO udkj iïm;la njg mßj¾;kh lsÍuhs'
fï l%shdj,sfha § ish¨ úIhj, ksmqK;d mokï uÜgfï isg Wiia uÜgu olajd l%udkql+,
j f.dvke`.Su iòyd my< isg by<g .uka lrk isria ifudaOdk l%uh Ndú; lr we;s
w;r úúO úIhj, § tl u úIh lreKq kej; kej; bÈßm;a ùu yels ;dla wju lsÍu"
úIh wka;¾.;h iSud lsÍu iy l%shd;aul l< yels YsIH ñ;=re úIhud,djla ieliSu
iòyd ;sria ifudaOdk l%uh Ndú; lr we;'
úoHd bf.kqï - b.ekaùï l%shdj,sfha § m%dfhda.sl jev tys jeo.;a fldgils' YsIHhd
wod< m%dfhda.sl jevj, by< uÜgulska ksr; ùu Tjqkag jeo.;a l=i,;d jeä ÈhqKq
lr .ekSug" úoHd;aul úu¾Ykfha l%shdj,sh f;areï .ekSug iy Tjqkaf.a ixl,amuh
wjfndaOh jeä ÈhqKq lr .ekSug Wojq fõ'
fï m%dfhda.sl w;afmd; ilia lr we;af;a m%dfhda.sl mÍlaIK ukdj ie,iqï lsÍu"

YsIHhka bf.kqï l%shdj,sh ;=< ld¾hlaIu f,i ksr; ùu" ridhk úoHd úIh lafIa;%
;=< YsIHhkaf.a m%dfhda.sl l=i,;d Tma kexùu hk ld¾h id¾:l lr .ekSug .=re - isiq
fomd¾Yajhg u u`. fmkaùu wruqKq lr.ksñks'
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kfha wdh;k iNdfõ iy wOHhk lghq;= uKav,fha idudðlhkag;a"

fï m%dfhda.sl w;afmd; ilia lsÍug odhl jQ iïm;a mqoa.,hkag;a fï ld¾hh id¾:l
lr .ekSfuys,d lem ùu ms<snò lD;{ ùug o uu fuh wjia:dj lr .ksñ'
wdpd¾h à'ta'wd¾'fÊ' .=Kfialr ñh

wOHlaI ckrd,a
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iii
úoHd wOHlaI;=udf.a mKsúvh
fï m%dfhda.sl w;afmd; YsIHhd úoHd úIh lafIA;%fha m%ùK;ajh lrd f.k hEug Wojq jk
f,i iïmdokh lr we;' fuu .%ka:h ilia lsÍfï § .=rejreka" úYajúoHd, wdpd¾hjreka
iy úIhud,d úfYaI{hka iu`. wm lghq;= lr we;' fï m%dfhda.sl w;afmdf;ys we;s
mÍlaIK bÈßm;a lr we;af;a ridhk úoHd úIhud,d wruqKq uqÿkam;a lr .ekSfï woyi
we;sj h'
mdi, ;=< m%dfhda.sl mÍlaIK lsÍfï jeo.;a lu ms<sn| tlsfkl yd wka;¾ iïnkaOhla
we;s" tkuq;a fjka fjka lreKq f,i iòyka l< yels fya;= ;=kla my; olajd we;'
1' úoHd;aul ixl,am ôekqu iy wjfndaOh& f.dvkexùug Wmldr ùu iy ffioaOdka;sl

lreKq m%dfhda.sl lreKq yd ifudaOdkh lsÍu
2' úu¾Ykd;aul l=i,;d jeä ÈhqKq lsÍu
3' m%dfhda.sl l=i,;d f.dvkexùu iy m%.=K lsÍu
hï m%dfhda.sl mÍlaIKhla isÿ lrk úg" by; iòyka l< fya;= .ek wjOdkh fhduq
lrñka YsIHhd úIhh jvd;a fyd`Èka f;areï .ekSug" YsIHhd ;=< úoHd{hl= i;= l=i,;d
Tmakexùug iy YsIHhd ;=< úoHd" ;dlaIK" bxðfkare iy .Ks; lafIa;%j,g iïnkaO
jeäÿr wOHdmkh yd /lshd wjia:d iòyd wjYH yiqre l=i,;d m%.=K lsÍug" .=rejrhd
Wojq lrkq we;ehs wms úYajdi lruq'
m%dfhda.sl jev ld¾hlaIu ùu iòyd lghq;=j, kshe<Su uÕska bf.k .kakd ia:dkhla
njg úoHd.drh m;a úh hq;= h' ;j o úoHd.drh ;=< § ms<smeÈh hq;= my; olajd we;s
ms<sfj;a ms<snò ud¾f.damfoaY .=rejrhd úiska iemhsh hq;= h'
• jev lrk ia:dkh msßisÿj ;nd .ekSu

• YsIHhka ;u lghq;= ms<snò oeä wjOdkhlska hq;=j isàu
• ridhk øjH wvx.= fnda;,aj, uQä wdÈh úoHd.dr fïi u; ;nd hEfuka je<lSu
• c,h" .Eia iy úÿ,sh wmf;a hEu j<lajd.ekSug lghq;= lsÍu
• mÍlaIKh iòyd § we;s u`. fmkaùu b;d mßiaifuka lshùu iy wkq.ukh lsÍu
• .=rejrhdf.a oekqj;aNdjh hgf;a YsIHhd úoHd.drhg we;=¿ ùu
• úIh Ndr .=rejrhd úiska wkqu; lrk ,o mÍlaIK muKla YsIHhd úiska isÿ lsÍu
fï wjia:dj m%dfhda.sl w;afmd; ilia lsÍfï m%h;akh id¾:l lr .ekSug odhl jQ

úYajúoHd, wdpd¾hjrekag" .=rejrekag iy wfkl=;a iïm;a mqoa.,hkag lD;{;djh
m< lsÍug o fhdod .ksñ' ;j o wjidk jYfhka" wmf.a ;reK mrmqr f;dr;=rej,ska
fmdfydi;a ;dlaIKsl jYfhka ÈhqKq iudcj, idudðlhka f,i iún, .ekaùug fï
m%h;akh bjy,a fõjdhs m;ñ'
wdpd¾h' ta'ã' wfidal o is,ajd

úoHd wOHlaI
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iv
wkqYdil;ajh
wdpd¾h à'ta'wd¾'fÊ' .=Kfialr
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iyldr lÓldpd¾h
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wNHka;r iïm;a odhl;ajh

t,a'fla' jvqf.a uhd - fcHIaG lÓldpd¾h"
ù' rdcqfoajka uhd - iyldr lÓldpd¾h"
tï'tia' úl%uisxy ñh - iyldr lÓldpd¾h"
úIhud,d lñgqj
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wdh;kh
Ô'Ô'mS'tia' fmf¾rd ñh - iyldr lÓldpd¾h" úoHd fomd¾;fïka;=j"
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'
uydpd¾h tia'mS' oerKsh., - YS% chj¾Okmqr úYajúoHd,h'
uydpd¾h tï'ã' mS' fldia;d - fld<U úYajúoHd,h
uydpd¾h" fla'î' .=Kfyar;a - YS% ,xld újD; úYajúoHd,h
uydpd¾h tÉ'tï'ã'tka' ms%hka; - fmardfoKsh úYajúoHd,h
uydpd¾h ví'ã'ví' ch;s,l - YS% chj¾Okmqr úYaj úoHd,h
fla'ã' nkaÿ, l=udr uhd - ksfhdacH flduidßia" wOHdmk m%ldYk
fomd¾;fïka;=j" wOHdmk wud;HdxYh
uqÈ;d w;=fldar< ñh - m%cdm;sSs nd,sld úoHd,h" fydrK
f,aLl uKav,h
wdpd¾h ví'tï'tA'à' nKavdr - fmardfoKsh úYajúoHd,h'
wdpd¾h tï't,a' fl!ud,a - fmardfoKsh úYajúoHd,h'
wdpd¾h olaIsld jkakswdrÉÑ - YS% chj¾Okmqr úYajúoHd,h'
v
ixialdrl uKav,h
ndysr uydpd¾h tia' mS' oerKsh., - Y%S ch $ mqr ú' ú'
^fÊHIaG& uydpd¾h wð;a wfífialr - ^ridhk úoHd wxYh&" YS% chj¾Okmqr
úYajúoHd,h
uydpd¾h tï' iS' mS' fldia;d - fld<U ú' ú'
uydpd¾h fla' î' .=kfyar;a - Y%S ,xld újD; ú' ú'
uydpd¾h iqoka; ,shkf.a - YS% chj¾Okmqr úYajúYajúoHd,h'
wdpd¾h tï'ta'î' m%idka; - YS% chj¾Okmqr úYaj úoHd,h'
ù'fla'ví'ã' id,sld udOú ñh" - .=re fiajh" uqia,sï ldka;d úoHd,h" fld<U'
tÉ'tï'ã'ã' §msld ueKsfla ñh - .=re fiajh" úydruydfoaù nd,sld úoHd,h"
lsßn;af.dv
oSmsld fk;aisxy ñh - .=re fiajh" ldka;d úoHd,h" fld<U'
tia' ;sf,hskdoka uhd - .=re fiajh" yskaÿ ldka;d úoHd,h" fld<U'
tia' fõ¨ms,af,a fufKúh - úÿy,am;s" yskaÿ úoHd,h" fld<U
tï' ;srekjqlriq ñh - .=re fiajh ^úY%du&" yskaÿ úoHd,h" fld<U'
tia' rdcÿfrhs fufKúh - .=re fiajh" Ydka; mS;r úoHd,h" fld<U'
NdId ixialrKh - ch;a mshoiqka uhd

m%Odk Wml¾;D - is`tñK" f,alayjqia
ljrh yd
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- chrejka úchj¾Ok uhd"
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vi
mgqk
wOHlaI ckrd,a;=ñhf.a mKsúvh iii

úoHd wOHlaI;=udf.a mKsúvh iv
iïm;a odhl;ajh v
ye|skaùu 1
mÍlaIK tallh msgq

wxlh wxl
01 01 lef;dav lsrKj, .=K wdo¾Ykh lsÍu 10

02 02 wdlD;s uÕska wKq iy whkj, yev fmkakï
q lssÍu 15
03 03 ùÿre NdKav mßyrKh yd isjq o`vq ;=,dj mßyrKh 17
04 03 m%dudKsl ødjK ms<sfh, lsÍu 21
05 04 jdhqjl ujq,sl mßudj mÍlaIKd;aulj ks¾Kh lsÍu 23
06 04 yhsv%ckaj, ujq,sl mßudj Ndú;fhka ue.akSishïj,
idfmalaI mrudKql ialkaOh mÍlaIKd;aulj ks¾Kh lsÍu 28
07 05 wï, - Niau WodiSkSlrK tka;e,amsh mÍCIKd;aulj
ks¾Kh lsÍu 32
(NaOH yd HCl, KOH yd HNO3, NaOH yd CH3COOH, NH4OH yd HCl)
08 05 fyia kshuh mÍlaIKd;aulj i;Hdmkh lsÍu 36
09 06 jd;h" c,h iy wï, iu`. s f.dkqfõ f,dayj, m%;sls%hd
ixikaokh 42
10 06 myka is¿ mÍlaIdj uÕska ixfhda.j, we;s Li , Na , K , Ca
+ + + 2+,
Sr2+, Ba2+ uQ,øjH y÷kd .ekSu 45

11 06 wekdhk y÷kd .ekSu (SO42-, SO32-, S2O32-, S2-, CO32-, NO3-) 47
12 06 jd;fha khsg%cka we;s nj mÍlaIKd;aulj fmkaùu 50
13 06 fya,hsv y÷kd .ekSu 52
14 06 KIO3 yd KI Ndú; lr ;fhdai,af*aÜ ødjKhla m%udKSlrKh
lsÍu 54
15 06 wefudakshd jdhqj yd wefudakh
s ï ,jK y÷kd .ekSu 57
16 06 s f.dkqfõ uQ,øjHj, ,jK ødjH;d mÍlaId lsÍu 60
17 06 s f.dkqfõ uQ,øjHj, khsfÜ%g yd ldnfkaÜj,
;dm ia:dhS;dj mÍlaId lsÍu 64
18 06 c,Sh udOHfha ixlS¾K whkj, j¾K y÷kd .ekSu 66
19 06 wdï,slD; fmdgEishï m¾uex.fkaÜ Ndú;fhka f*ria whk
ødjKhl idkaøKh ks¾Kh lsÍu 68
20 06 wdï,slD; iïu; K2C2O4 øjKhla uÕsska KMnO4 ødjKhl
idkaøKh ks¾Kh lsÍu 71
21 06 Cu(II), Ni (II) yd Co (II) yhsâfrdlaf,daßla wï,h yd
wefudakhs d iuÕ idok ixfhda.j, j¾K TlaislrK yd
TlaisyrK m%;sl%shd weiqfrka ksÍËKh 73
vii
22 06 +2, +4, +6 yd +7 TlaislrK wjia:dj,g wkqrEm
uex.kSia whkj, j¾K ksÍËKh 75
2+ 2+ 3+ 2+ 3+
23 06 Ni , Fe , Fe , Cu yd Cr y÷kd .ekSfï mÍËd 77
24 08 we,alSk yd we,alhskj, m%;sls%hd yd .=Kdx. ksÍlaIKh 79
i' we,alSk yd we,alhsk laIdÍh fmdgEishï m¾uex.fkaÜ
iy fn%daóka Èhr iu`. m%;sl%shd ksÍËKh
ii' w.%ia: we,alhsk wefudakSh is,aj¾ khsfÜ%Ü yd wefudakSh
lshqm%ia laf,drhsâ iu`. m%;sl%shd ksÍlaIKh
25 09 we,afldfyd,j, .=K mÍËd lsÍu 83
26 09 *Sfkda,aj, .=K mÍËd lsÍu 86
27 09 we,aäyhsv yd lSfgdak i|yd mÍlaId 88
28 09 ldfndlais,sla wï,j, .=K mÍlaId lsÍu 91
29 10 weks,Ska y÷kd .ekSfï mÍlaId 93
30 11 ue.akSishï iy wï, w;r m%;sl%shdfõ wï, idkaøKh
m%;sl%shdfõ YS>%;dj flfrys n,mEu mÍlaIKd;aulj
ks¾Kh lsÍu 95
31 11 fidaähï ;fhdai,af*aÜ iy khsá%la wï,h w;r m%;sl%shdfõ
YS>%;dj flfrys m%;sl%shl idJøKfha n,mEu mÍËKd;aulj
ks¾Kh lsÍu 100
3+ - 3+
32 11 Fe yd I w;r m%;sl%shdj i|yd Fe j,g idfmaËj
m%;sl%shdfõ fm< mÍËKd;aulj ks¾Kh lsÍu 102
33 12 Fe2+/SCN- moaO;sh Wmfhda.s lr .ksñka .;sl
iu;=,s;;dfõ mj;akd moaO;shl ,dlaIKsl .=K
mrSËKd;aulj wOHhkh lsÍu 106
34 12 NO2 /N2O4 iu;=,s; moaO;sh flfrys WIaK;ajfha n,mEu
mÍËKd;aulj wOHhkh lsÍu 108
35 12 pH w.h mÍËd lsÍfuka c,Sh ,jK ødjKj, wdï,sl"
Ndiañl" WodiSk iajNdjh mÍËKd;aulj ks¾Kh lsÍu 112
36 12 *Sfkdma;,Ska iy fu;s,a Tf¾kaÊ Ndú; lr fidaähï
ldnfkaÜ yd yhsâfrdlaf,darsla wï,h w;r wkqudmkh
îul;d ,laIHfha § pH w.h .Kkh lsÍu wjYH ke;& 114
37 12 le,aishï yhsfv%dlaihsâj, ødjH;d .=Ks;h mÍËKd;aulj
ks¾Kh lsÍu 117
38 12 c,h yd ìhqgfkda,a w;r t;fkdhsla wï,fha jHdma;s
ix.=Klh mÍËKd;aulj ks¾Kh lsÍu 120
39 13 iq,N f,day lSmhla úoHq;a ridhksl fY%aKsfha mj;sk
idfmlaI ia:dkh mÍlaIKd;aulj ks¾Kh lsÍu 123
-
40 13 iïu; Ag(s) , AgCl(s)/Cl (aq) bf,lafg%davh ms<sfh, lsÍu 125
41 14 úoHd.drfha § inka idïm,hla ms<sfh, lsÍu 129
42 14 yqud, wdijkh Ndú; lr l=re÷ fld<j,ska l=re÷
f;,a ksiaidrKh 133
43 14 ffcj ãi,a ksIamdokh 137
44 14 úkdlsßj, weisála wï, m%;sY;h ks¾Kh lsÍu 139
45 14 úkala,¾ l%ufhka c,fha øú; Tlaiscka uÜgu ks¾Kh lsÍu 143
viii
úoHd.drfha wdrlaIdj ms<sn| ye`Èkaùu
úoHd.dr lghq;= iòyd iQodkï ùu

² mÍlaIKh lshjd fmr mÍlaIK m%Yakj,g ms<s;=re iemhSu
² úoHd.drfha we;s wka;rdhodhl øjH wdrlaIdldß f,i Ndú;h" iqÿiq .nvd l%u
iy yÈishl § wkq.ukh l< hq;= ls%hd ud¾. ms<snò oekqj;a ùu
² ridhk øjH f.khEu, újD; lsÍu yd mßyrKhg fmr wod< f,an, lshjd
ne,Su
² ku iòyka lr ke;s n`ÿka fyda øjH Ndú; fkdlsÍu
² wdrlaIs; WmlrK ls%hd lrk wdldrh ^.sks ksjk WmlrK" m%:udOdr" j;=r
lrdu we;=¿j&" wdrlaIdldß ls%hd ud¾. iy yÈishl § msgùfï fodrgq wdÈh
ms<snò oekqj;a ùu
úoHd.drfha lghq;= lrk ld,h ;=< wkq.ukh l< hq;= ls%hdud¾.

² úoHd.drh ;=< lEu îu isÿ fkdlrkak'
² ridhk úoHd.drh ;=< § isúldp me,òSfuka je<lS isákak'
² úoHd.drh ;=< § wdrlaIs; weia wdjrK me,`Èh hq;= h' fifrmamq jeks újD;
im;a;= wdÈh fkdm,`Èkak'
² ridhkd.drh ;=< jev lSÍfï § fldKavh ;Èka .eg.id .kak'
² msfmÜgqj Ndú; lsÍfï § uqLh Ndú; fkdlr msfmÜgq mqrjkhla Ndú; lrkak'
² yÈis wk;=re iy Nhdkl wjia:d laIKslj jd¾;d lrkak'
^ridhk øjH úisÍu" ùÿre WmlrK ìòSu" .sks we;s ùu&
wmøjH neyer lsÍu

² levqKq fyda ì`ÿKq ùÿre WmlrK tajd nyd,Sug úoHd.drfha ;nd we;s
Ndckhlg neyer l< hq;= h (tajd lsis úgl li< Ndckhg fkdoukak' ùÿre
i|yd r;= meye;s li< n÷ka Ndú; lrkak¡)
² >k wmøjH fiaÿï fíiug fkdoukak' tajd iqÿiq n`ÿklg oukak'
² wï, yd Niau fjk fjk u imhd we;s n`ÿkaj,g tl;= lr neyer lSÍug fmr"
WodiSk lrkak'
² ldnksl ødjl tl;= lr" wjYH úfgl kej; Ndú;h i|yd wdijkh uÕska
m%;spl%slrKh lrkak¡
² mdif,a wmøjH neyer lsÍfï m%foaYhg lsis u ridhk øjHhla fkdoukak'
úoHd.drfhka msg ùug fmr msßisÿ lsÍu

úoHd.drfhka msg ùug fmr iEu mÍlaIKhla wjidkfha § u wdrlaIl mshjr
wkq.ukh lr we;a oehs mÍlaId lrkak'
tys § my; iòyka oE ms<snò ie,ls,su;a jkak'
1
² .Eia" c,h" úÿ,sh iy r;a lrk WmlrK jid oukak¡
² Ndú; fkdl< øjH kej; Ndr §u iy WmlrK kshñ; ia:dkfha .nvd lr
;eîu
² Wmfoia § we;s mßÈ ish¨ wmøjH iqÿiq whqßka neyer lsÍu
² jevlghq;= isÿ l< ia:dkh msßisÿ lsÍu
² w;a fyd`Èka fidaod .ekSu
² wdrlaIl we`ÿï me,`ÿï bj;a lsÍu ^úoHd.dr lndh" w;a jeiqï wdÈh&
úoHd.drfha we;s úI iys; øjH

my; iòyka ls%hdldrlïj, § ridhk øjH YÍr.; úh yels h'
² jdhq" jdIam iy iuyr øjH wd>%dKh ^Wod ( ¥ú,s" ÿï" jdIam" óÿu&
² >k" øj" jdhq iy jdIam iu yryd wjfYdaIKh
² lEuîu iu`. ñY% ùfuka fyda uqLh iy w;aj,ska iam¾Yh u`.ska Rcqj fyda
jl%j we;=¿ ùu ^Wod: ksh úlSu" ÿïîu&
² bÈlgq iy fjk;a ;shqKq úoHd.dr Wmdx. uÕska ridhk øjH we;=¿ ùu
úLdol øjH mßyrKh iòyd wdrlaIl ls%hdud¾.

² iu iy weiaj, wdrlaIdj iòyd iqÿiq wdjrK me,òSu
² yels ;dla ;kql ødjK Ndú; lsÍu
² jdhq mßyrKh ÿï l+vqjla ;=< isÿ lsrSu
² úLdol .nvd lsÍfï § yd tyd fuyd f.k hEfï § fjk;a n`ÿkla Ndú; lsÍu
² iEu úg u c,hg wï,h oeófuka ;kqllrKh isÿ lsrSu
² ;kql lsÍu yd ñY% lsÍu fifuka isÿ lsÍu
úI úLdol .sks.kakdiq¨ msmsfrkiq¨ Tlaisldrl úlsrKYS,s øjH
1 rEmh - wka;rdodhl ixfla;
2
ridhk øjH f,an,j, we;s w;HjYH wx.
1.2 rEmh - ridhk øjH f,an,j, we;s wx.
úoHd.dr ùÿre WmlrK
mÍlaId k, lelEreï k, îlr
fla;= ma,dial= wkqudmk ma,dial= mßudñ;sl ma,dial=
m%;sldrl fnda;,a ñkqï ird ìhqfrÜgq msfmÜgq
3
jg wä ma,dial= mqkS, f;md
msfmÜgq mqrjk mÍlaIK k, wdOdrl Trf,daiq uqyqK;a
mÍlaIK k, w~q veys w~q fmdafima w~qj iame;shq,dj
fmá% §is jk iy fudfyd,
3 rEmh - ridhk úoHd.drfha we;s iq,n ùÿre WmlrK yd Wmdx.
4
ridhk úoHd.drhl oS Ndú; lrk Ys,am l%u
m%;sldrl Ndú;h
m%;sldrl fnda;, úoHd.dr fïi u; fkd;eìh hq;= w;r rdlalhl ;eìh hq;= h' rdlalfha
;eîfï § f,an,h bÈßmig fmfkk fia ;eîug j. n,d .kak' fnda;,h we,a,Sfï §
f,an,h w,jd we;s me;af;ka we,a,sh hq;= h'
lelEreï k,hl we;s ødjKhla r;a lsÍu

ødjK r;a lsÍu iòyd nkaika odylh Ndú; lrkak' r;a lsÍu ld¾hlaIuj isÿ lsÍug
oe,af,a wvx.= m%Odk fldgia ms<snòj oek .ekSu jeo.;a fõ'
4 rEmh - nkaika oe,af,a m%Odk fldgia
jdhqj iu`. ñY% jk jd; m%udKh iSreudre lsÍfuka ôdylfha m;=f,a we;s isÿr Ndú;fhka&"
úúO wjYH;d i|yd wjYH úúO wdldrfha oe,a, ,nd .; yels h'
1 jk wdldrh - jd isÿr iïmQ¾Kfhka jeiQ úg - §ma;su;a ly (luminous)

2 jk wdldrh - jd isÿr hka;ñka újD; l< úg
3 jk wdldrh - jd isÿr w¾Oj újD; l< úg - ¨ñkia ;=vla iys; we;=<;

ks,a fla;=j" msg; ¨ñkia fkdjk l,dmh
4 jk wdldrh - jd isÿr iïmQ¾Kfhka újD; l< úg - ¨ñkia fkdjk

^ks,a&
;=kajk j¾.fha oe,a, idudkHfhka ødjK r;a lsÍu i|yd Ndú; fõ' r;a l< hq;=
ødjKh lelEreï k,hlg j;a lr" mÍlaId k, w~qjlska w,a,d .; hq;=h' k,fha m;=,
m%foaYh oe,af,a ly mdg m%foaYhg w,a,ñka r;a l< hq;= fõ' ta w;r;=r k,h oe,a, jgd
jD;a;dldrj p,kh lrñka taldldrj r;a ùug bv ie,ish hq;= fõ' fuuÕska k,h
wkjYH f,i r;a ùfuka msmsrSug we;s bv lv j<lajd .; yels h¡ lelEreï k,fha
újD; fl<jr lsisjl= ke;s osYdjlg t,a, lsÍug j. n,d .; hq;= h' fndfyda r;a
lsrSï i|yd uOHu m%udKfha oe,a,la m%udKj;a fõ' jd isÿf¾ m%udKh iSreudre lsÍfuka
oe,af,a Wi wjYH mrsÈ ilia l< yelsh'
5
fmÍu (1) idudkH wdldrh - c,Sh ødjK fmÍu i|yd
(2) fmryka lvodisfha uq¿ lafIa;%M,h u fhdod fmÍu - ldnksl ødjl ;=< wvx.=
ixfhda. fmÍu i|yd
os. yersh úg
5 rEmh - fmÍu iòyd fmryka lvodish kjk wdldrh
fmryka lvodish by; olajd we;s mßÈ keúh hq;= w;r" th th fmrd .; hq;= ñY%Kfha
iajNdjh u; ròd mj;S' fmryka lvodish mqkS,fha ì;a;sh iu`. fyd`Èka /òúh hq;=
w;r" wdi%e; c,h u`.ska f;;a l< hq;= h' fmryka lvodish yd mqkS,h w;r jd;h isrù
;sîu je<elaùug iqmÍlaIdldÍ úh hq;= h' fmrd.; hq;= ødjKh ùÿre l+rla wdOdrfhka
mqkS,hg j;a lrkq ,efí' fmrKh tl;= lr .kakd mÍlaId k,h$ îlrh yd mqkS,h
w;r ysoeila mj;sk mßÈ mqkS,fha Wi ilia lr .; hq;= h' ødjKh oud wjika jQ miq
ta ødjKh wvx.= jQ mÍlaId k,h lSm jrla wdi%e; c,fhka by; úia;r lr we;s mßÈ
fidaod y< hq;= h' wjidkfha ùÿre l+r wdi%e; c,h u`.ska fojqï fnda;,hla wdOdrfhka
fyd`Èka fidaod y< hq;= h'
6
jdhq Ndú;h
6 rEmh - jdhq Ndú;h iòyd wjYH WmlrKh
jdhqj ksoyia lrk ñY%Kh lelEreï k,fha wvx.= fõ' m<uqj lelEreï k,h w~qjlg
iú lr úi¾cl k,fha ;=äka jdhqj ksoyia ùu meyeÈ,sj fmfkk ;=re fifuka r;a
l< hq;= h' bka miq rEmfha fmfkk mßÈ jdhqj ødjKh ;=<g nqnq<kh jk wdldrhg
mÍlaId k,h ;nd .kq ,efí' úi¾cl k,fha ;=v ødjKfha iïmQ¾Kfhka .s,afjk mßÈ
m%udKj;a ødjK mßudjla mÍlaId k,fha ;sìh hq;= h' ødjKh jeämqr r;aùu je<elaùug
uq¿ wegjqug mßiaifuka fi,úh hq;= h' lelEreï k,fhka msg;g jdhqj ldkaÿ ùu
je<elaùug wenh lelEreï k,hg ;Èka iú l< hq;= h' r;a lsÍu wjika jQ miq lelEreï
k,h oe,af,ka bj;a lsÍug fmr úi¾ck k,h mÍlaId k,fhka bj;g .; hq;= h'
fuuÕska mÍlaId k,fha we;s ødjKh lelEreï k,hg .uka lsÍu j<lskq we;'
jdIamSNjkh u.ska ødjK úh,d .ekSu
7 rEmh - jdIamSlrK §ish
ødjKh jdIamSlrK oSishg oud th wdOdrlh u; ;enQ ueá ;s%fldaKh u; ;nkq ,efí'
^jdIamSlrK §ish ueá ;s%fldaKh u; fydòska /òù we;a oehs mÍlaId lrkak'& m<uqj
jdIamSlrK §isfha we;s ødjKh fkdúisfrk mßÈ 3 jk wdldrfha mßÈ l=vd oe,a,lska
r;a lrkq ,efí' wjYH kï muKla oe,af,a m%udKh yd WIaK;ajh l%ufhka jeä lrkq
,efí' fndfyda wjia:dj, § oe,a, bj;a l< úg o jdIamSlrK §isfha øj iaj,amhla
;jÿrg;a b;sß ù mj;S kï ta øjh jdIamSlrKh iòyd mj;sk ;dmh m%udKj;a fõ'
7
ìhqfrÜgqj Ndú;h
idudkHfhka 0.05 cm3 olajd øj mßudjla b;d ksjerÈj uek .ekSug ìhqfrÜgqj Ndú;
lrkq ,efí' øjh bj;a ùug fmr yd miq udjlfha msysàu lshjd .ekSfuka th isÿ l<
yels h' c,h we;=¿ fndfyda øjj, udjlh wj;, fõ' weia uÜgu øj mDIaG udjlfha
m;=, iu`. tl fm<g isák fia ;nd mdGdxlh ,nd .kakd w;r" th 0.1 cm3 lg
iudkqmd; jk 1/10 l fldgilg wdikakj ksudkh l< yels h' mdGdxlh ksjerÈj ,nd
.ekSug iqÿ miq;,hla Wojq fõ'
udjlh
weia uÜgu
8 rEmh - ìhqfrÜgq mdGdxlhla ,nd .ekSfï ksjerÈ l%uh
mßudñ;sl ma,dial=j Ndú;h
ødjKhla ksjerÈj ms<sfh, lr .ekSug mßudñ;sl ma,dial= Ndú; flf¾' ødjKhla

ms<sfh, lsÍfï §" m<uqj mqkS,hla Ndú;fhka idïm,h ma,dial=j ;=<g oud .; hq;=
w;r" mqkS,h iu`. ish,a, mßiaifuka c,fhka fidaod yer" wdi%e; c,h iaj,amhla o
tl;= lrkq ,efí' bka miq ma,dial=jg wenh iú lr" ødjHh iïmQ¾Kfhka Èh jk f;la
mßiaifuka fid,jkak' bka miq ma,dial=fõ kshñ; i,l=K f;la wdi%e; c,h tl;= lr
ødjKh iucd;Sh ùug ;jÿrg;a ñY% lrkak' w;a foflka isÿ úh yels ;dm m%idrKh
je<elaùug mßudñ;sl ma,dial=j lfrka muKla we,a,sh hq;= h'
;=,d Ndú;h
9 rEmh ( bf,lafg%dksl ;=,dj iy isõ o`vq ;=,dj
8
ridhksl ;=,d b;d ixfõ§ WmlrK jk neúka b;d mßiaifuka Ndú; l< hq;= h' ;=,dj
iSreudre l< miq tys msysàu fjkia fkdúh hq;= h' ;=,dj tyd fuyd f.k hEfï § ;=,dfõ
ixfõolhg ydks úh yels neúka th jer§ulska fyda ;o fkdl< hq;= h' mdGdxlhla ,nd
.ekSug fmr ;=,dj iSre udre ù ;sfí oehs ieu úg u mÍlaId l< hq;= h' idïm,hla
uekSfï §" uq¿ ialkaOh ;=,dfõ ueksh yels Wmßu ialkaO iSudj fkdblauúh hq;= h'
ridhk øjH fl<ska u ;=,d ;eáhg fkdoeñh hq;= w;r" Ndú; lsÍfuka miq msßisÿ lr
;eîug wu;l fkdl< hq;= h'
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak(
(i) wdrlaIl WmlrKj, ia:dk.; lsÍï fmkaùug ìï ie,eiaula w|skak'
(ii) úoHd.drfha § ridhk øjH Ndú; jk m%udKh wvq lsÍug iy Ndú; l<
ridhk øjH ksishdldrj neyer lsÍug Tn .kakd l%shdud¾. idlÉPd lrkak'
9
mÍlaIKh 1: lef;dav lsrKj, .=K wdo¾Ykh lsÍu
wruqKq(
1. lef;dav lsrK k,h ls%hd lrùug wjYH úoHq;a mßm:fha Wmdx. y`ÿkd .ekSug
wjYH oekqu yd l=i,;d ,nd .ekSu
2. lef;dav lsrKj, .=K ksÍlaIKh lsÍug yd meyeÈ,s lsÍu
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak:

1. Wm mrudKql wxY= kï lrkak'
2. Wm mrudKql wxY= fidhd .ekSug odhl jQ úoHd{hka ,ehsia;=.; lrkak'
3. lef;dav lsrKj, e/m wkqmd;h fidhd .;af;a ljqre o@
ye`Èkaùu:
lef;daav lsrKj, .=K ksÍlaIKh lsÍu iòyd úfYaI wdldrfha k, Ndú; lrkq ,efí¡
lDDlaia k, f,i ye`Èkafjk fï k,j, wvq mSvkfha we;s jdhqjla wvx.= fõ' úoHq;a
úi¾ckhla ksÍlaIKh lrk úg f,day ;yvq fol w;r ie,lsh hq;= úNj wka;rhla
,nd Èh hq;= h' RK wdfrdams; ;yvqj lef;davh jk w;r" thska ksl=;a jk fkdfmfkk
lsrK k,fha wfkla fl<jrg .uka lrhs' ta fl<jf¾ úfYaI m%;s§ma; øjHhla wdf,am
lr we;s neúka lef;dav lsrK th u; m;s; jQ úg §,siqula we;s fõ' my; 1.1 rEmh
u`.ska úúO wdldrfha lDDlaia k, ksrEmKh lr we;'
1.1 rEmh( úúO wdldrfha lef;dav lsrK k,
10
wjYH WmlrK:
WmlrK yd øjH
· lef;dav lsrK k, (lDDlaia k,)
· fm%arK o`.rh
· 6V ir, Odrd m%Njh [f,â welshqñf,agrh
fyda Ni/ Fe fldaIh fyda n, weiqreu (power pack)]
· iïnkaOl lïì
· iaúph
1'2 rEmh( lef;dav lsrK ksÍlaIKhg wod< mÍlaIKd;aul wegjqu

(a) mÍlaIK I yd II i|yd mÍlaIKd;aul wegjqu
(b) mÍlaIK III yd IV i|yd mÍlaIKd;aul wegjqu
mQ¾j wdrlaIs; mshjr:
· wê úNj WmlrKh u`.ska fyda iïnkaê; lïì u`.ska we;s úh yels úoHq;a
lïmkj,ska je<elaùug YÍrh iu`. iïnkaO;d wE;a l< hq;= h'
· lef;dav lsrKj, .=K ksÍlaIKh fkdlrk úg § mßm:h ;=<ska Odrdj .,dhEu

je<elaùug iaúph ls%hdúrys; lr we;s oehs ie,ls,su;a úh hq;= h'
11
l%uh
mÍlaIKh I
· 1.2 (a) rEmfha fmkajd we;s mßÈ mÍlaIK wegjqu ilia lr .kak'
· mßm:h ;=<ska Odrdj .uka lrùug iaúph jikak'
· A iy B w;r úoHq;a mq,s`.=jla we;s lsÍug foda,k h;=r jug fyda ol=Kg
lrljkak'
· fï wjia:dfõ § fld< meye;s wdf,dalhla lef;dav lsrK k,h ;=< olakg
,efnkq we; ^fld< wdf,dalhla olakg fkd,efí kï úNj m%Njfha + yd – w.%
udre lrkak& fï wdf,dalh we;s jkafka lef;dav lsrK ksid h'
· Odrdj .e,Su k;r lsÍug iaúph újD; lrkak'
· f,day l=reih lef;dav lsrK k,h ;=< isriaj ròjd kej; mßm:h ;=<ska Odrdj
.,dhEug i,iajkak'
· ksÍlaIK jd¾;d lrkak'
· ksÍlaIK ,nd .;a miq mßm:h ;=<ska .,k Odrdj keje;aùug iaúph jikak'
mÍlaIKh II
· by; mßm:fha lef;dav lsrK k,h ;=< yn,a il ròjd iaúph oukak' 1'2 (a)
rEmfha fmkajd § we;s mßÈ mÍlaIK wegjqu Ndú; lrkak'
· k,h yels ;dla ;sriaj ;nd .ekSug j. n,d .kak'
· mßm:h ;=<ska Odrdj .,d hEug iaúph jikak' ksÍlaIK jd¾;d lrkak'
· oeka negßfha (+) yd (-) w.% udre lr Odrdj m%;súreoaO ÈYdjg .,d hEug i,iajd
lef;dav lsrKj, isÿ jk fjkialï ksÍlaIKh lrkak'
· mÍlaIKh wjidkfha .,k Odrdj kj;ajkak'
mÍlaIKh III
· 1.2 (b) rEmfha fmkajd we;s mßÈ mÍlaIK wegjqu ilia lr .kak'
· Cu ;yvqj RK f,i wdfrdamKh jk fia mßm:h ilikak'
· úoHq;a lafIa;%hla yuqfõ lef;dav lsrKj, yeisÍu ksÍlaIKh lsÍug fï RK
f,i wdfrdams; Cu ;yvqj fhdod .kak'
· Tnf.a ksÍlaIK jd¾;d lrkak'
· tfia u lef;dav lsrK k,fha my<g Cu ;yvqj f.k tafï § isÿ jk ksÍlaIK
jd¾;d lrkak'
12
mÍlaIKh IV
· by; 1'2 (a) rEmfha mßÈ III mÍlaIKhg wjYH mßÈ lef;dav lsrK k,h iu`.
mÍlaIK wegjqu ilid .kak'
· mßm:h ;=<ska Odrdj .,d hEug i,iajd ksÍlaIK jd¾;d lrkak'
· B<`.g pqïNlhl olaIsK O%ejh lef;dav lsrK iómhg w,a,kak' ksÍlaIK
jd¾;d lrkak'
· pqïNlhl W;a;r O%ejh lef;dav lsrK iómhg w,a,kak' ksÍlaIK jd¾;d
lrkak'
m%;sM, iy idlÉPdj
mÍlaIKh I
ksÍlaIK( ………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
lef;dav lsrKj, l=uk .=Kh fï mÍlaIKfhka wdo¾Ykh fõ o@

……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
mÍlaIKh II
ksÍlaIK( ………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………………
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……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
mÍlaIKh III
ksÍlaIK( ………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………………
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……………………………………………………………………………………………
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13
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
mÍlaIKh IV
ksÍlaIK( ………………………………………………………………………………...
……………………………………………………………………………………………
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……………………………………………………………………………………………

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miq mÍlaIK m%Yak(
1. lef;dav lsrKj,g mdgla we;ehs Tn is;kafka o@ lef;dav lsrK fld<

meye;s È,siqula f,i Èia ùug i,iajkafka flfia oe hs meyeÈ,s lrkak'
2. Tn úiska wêl úNj wka;rhla Ndú; l< hq;af;a wehs@
3. fï mÍlaIKfhka ksÍlaIKh lrk ,o lef;dav lsrKj, .=K ,ehsia;=.;

lrkak'
14
mÍlaIKh 2( wdlD;s uÕska wKq iy whkj, yev fmkakqï lsÍu
wruqKq( ir, wKq yd whk iòyd mrudKq w;r mj;sk úúO wdldrfha nkaOk j¾. yd
;%sudk wjldYfha mrudKqj, úys§u ms<snò wjfndaOhla ,nd §u'
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak:

1. iyixhqc nkaOk" whksl nkaOk iy f,dayl nkaOk w;r fjki fláfhka
meyeÈ,s lrkak'
2. VSEPR jdoh ,shd iqÿiq ksoiqka foñka wKq iy whkj, jHQy wfmdaykh lrkak'
3. iyixhqc nkaOk iE§fï § my; mrudKqj, ixhqc;d ljpfha mej;sh yels Wmßu
bf,lafg%dak .Kk ,shd olajkak'
Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl
ye`Èkaùu(
fok ,o wKqjl fydA whkhl we;s mrudKq w;r mj;sk nkaOk j¾.h" ;dmdxlh"
øjdxlh" O%eùh;dj" ødjH;dj jeks fN!;sl .=K iòyd fya;= fõ' tneúka wKqj,
jHQyh iy ;%sudk wjldYfha mrudKqj, ieleiau wjfndaO lr .ekSu" fN!;sl
.=K meyeÈ,s lsÍu iòyd b;d jeo.;a fõ' VSEPR jdoh u`.ska wKq$ whkj,
yevh wfmdaykh l< yels h'
wjYH WmlrK:
WmlrK yd øjH
· wKql wdlD;s lÜg,h fyda
· wdlD;s f,i fhdod .; yels fjk;a øjH
ûeá" ne¨ka" foys" o~q&
· s, yd p ldlaIsl fmkaùu iòyd fmr ilia lrk ,o
wdlD;s lÜg,
2'1 rEmh - wKql wdlD;s lÜg,
l%uh(
· iEÈh yels nkaOk .Kk i,lñka uOH mrudKq iòyd iqÿiq fnda, f;dard .kak'
· my; ,ehsia;=fõ we;s wKq idod" tajdfha yevh wfmdaykh lrkAk'
15
m%;sM, (
uOH
uOH uOH
mrudKqfõ
mrudKqj mrudKqj bf,lafg%dak wKqfõ$
wKqj$ ixhqc;d
jgd we;s jgd tlir hq., whkfha
whkh ljpfha uq¿
VSEPR bf,lafg%dak cHdñ;sh yevh
bf,lafg%dak
hq.,a .Kk hq., .Kk
hq., .Kk
H2
BeCl2
BF3
CH4
NH3
H2O
PCl3
SF6
SF4
ClF3
XeF2
XeF4
IF5
NH4+
SO42-
CO32-
NO3-
O2
O3
N2
H2, N2 yd O2 i|yd tla mrudKqjla uOH mrudKqj f,i i,lkak'
idlÉPdj(
· wKqjla ksrEmKh iòyd 100%la u wdlD;s fhdod .; fkdyels nj meyeÈ,s
lsÍu iòyd wKqj, i;H jHQyh iy wdlD;s jHQyh w;r we;s fjkialï idlÉPd
lrkak' (iïm%hqla; jHQy mej;Su weiqfrka)
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak(

1. H2O yd CH4 j, wdlD;s fhdod .ksñka wKqjla O%eùh fyda ks¾O%eùh jk nj
ks¾Kh lrkafka flfia oehs meyeÈ,s lrkak'
2. CO2 hkq O%eùh fyda ks¾O%eùh wKqjla o@ fya;= bÈßm;a lrkak'
16
mÍlaIKh 3( ùÿre NdKav mßyrKh iy isõ o~q ;=,dj mßyrKh
wruqKq(
1. úúO ùÿre WmlrK y`ÿkd .ekSu yd tajd úoHd.drj, Ndú; jk wdldrh .ek
oekqj;a ùu
2. isõ o~q ;=,dj Ndú; lr ialkaO ñkqï ,nd .ekSu ms<sn| oekqj;a ùu
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak:

úoHd.dr w;Afmdf;a ye|skaùu lshjd n,d ridhkd.drfha we;ehs Tn n,dfmdfrd;a;=
jk ùÿre WmlrKj, ,ehsia;=jla ms<sfh, lrkak'
ye`Èkaùu(
ùÿre WmlrK ish¨ úoHd.drj, we;s w;HjYH wx.h fõ' ta ksid È.= ld,hla Ndú;
lsÍu iòyd ùÿre WmlrK ksishdldrj mßyrKh lsÍu yd msßisÿ lsÍu .ek oekqj;a ùu
w;HjYH fõ' ùÿre WmlrK" th Ndú; jk wjia:dj wkqj úúOdldr h' mÍlaIK fodaI
wju lr .ekSu iòyd jvd;a WÑ; u WmlrKh f;dard .ekSu jeo.;a fõ'
mÍlaIK iòyd ì÷Kq ùÿre WmlrK Ndú; lsÍfuka ;=jd, isÿ úh yels h' tuksid
mÍlaIKhg m%:u WmlrKj, m¿ÿ ùï fyda ìòSï we;s oehs mÍlaId lsÍu jeo.;a fõ'
nyq,j isÿ jk ìu jeàï yereKq úg" tlajr u WIaK;aj fjkilg Ndckh ùfuka o
ùÿre WmlrKj, ìòSï we;s fõ' ^WodyrK(- r;a jQ ùÿre WmlrKhla f;;A mDIaGhla u;
;eîu& tfia u ksjerÈ mdGdxl ,nd .ekSu iòyd msßisÿ ùÿre WmlrK Ndú;d lsrSug
j. n,d .kak' ùÿre WmlrK msßisÿ lsÍu iòyd jvd;a WÑ; l%uh jkafka m<uqj iqÿiq
øj fiaÿïldrlhla u`.ska fidaod" bka miq ùÿre WmlrKh Niauhla ;=< .s,ajd ;eîuhs
^f,dayuh øjH l=vd m%udKhla we;s kï th bj;a lr .ekSug KOH/ t;fkda,a ;=<
flá ld,hla .s,ajd ;nkq ,efí&' ùÿre WmlrKh Niaufhka bj;a lr bka miq th
wï, ødjKhl úkdä 30la muK .s,aúh hq;= h (Wod : ;kql HCl) wjidkfha § ùÿre
WmlrK idudkH c,fhka o, wdi%e; c,fhka o, wjidkfha § weisfgdakaj,ska o fidaod
úh<k Wÿkl ;eìh hq;= fõ' kuq;a mßudñ;sl ùÿre WmlrK lsis úfgl úh<k Wÿkl
fkd;eìh hq;= fõ' ula ksid o( tys l%udxlsl i,l=Kq wdrlaId l< hq;= neúks' ;Èka iú
l< hq;= we;eï WmlrK lÜg, wjidkfha § .,jd bj;a lsÍfï § isÿ jk m¿ÿ úï
j<lajd .ekSu iòyd wjYH ia:dkj, .%Sia iaj,amhla ;ejÍu iqÿiq h' mÍlaIKhla wjidk
jQ jyd u yels blAukska ùÿre WmlrK mú;% lsÍu l< hq;= fõ' tfia u Ndú; l< ridhk
øjH wdrlaIdldÍj neyer l< hq;af;a flfia oehs úoHd.dr w;afmd; lshùfuka oek.;
yels h'
17
3'1 rEmh - isõ o~q ;=,dj
wjYH WmlrK:
WmlrK
· ,ehsia;=fõ iòyka ùÿre WmlrK
· isõo~q/ f;o~q ;=,dj
· nrlsreï fndaÜgqj ^weighing boat)
· lsreï mä lÜg,h (5 g, 10 g, 50 g)
mQ¾j wdrlaIs; mshjr(

Ndú; lsÍug fmr ùÿre WmlrK wmú;% ù fyda m¿ÿ ù we;s oehs mÍlaId lrkak'
l%uh:
3'1' ùÿre WmlrK Ndú;h:

· úoHd.dr w;afmd;a Ndú; lr" § we;s ùÿre WmlrK y`ÿkd f.k tajd my; olajd
we;s j.=fõ lgq igyka lrkak'
· tla tla ùÿre WmlrKh Ndú; lrk wdldrh iy tajd mÍlaIKj, oS Ndú; lrk
úg .; hq;= mQ¾fjdamdh idlÉPd lrkak'
3'2' isõ o~q ;=,dj Ndú; lsÍu

· isõ o~q ;=,dfõ úúO Wmdx. y`ÿkd .kak'
· o~q y;f¾ ròjd we;s wdfrdayl p,kh lsÍfuka tajd Y+kH msysàug f.k tkak'
· fuys § ;=,d ;eáh msßisÿj ;sìh hq;= w;r" th u; lsisjla fkd;sìh hq;= h'
· ;=,dj Y+kH ,l=K olajhs oehs mÍlaId lrkak' th Y+kH ,l=K fkdolajhs kï
iSreudre weKh bÈßhg fyda miqmig lerleùfuka o¾Ylh Y+kH msysàug f.k
tkak'
· o~qj, ròjd we;s wdfrdayl ^úYd, u wdfrdaylfhka wdrïN lr& bÈßhg p,kh
lrkak' o¾Ylh Y+kH i,l=Kg jvd my;g hkafka kï wdfrdaylh ;=,d oKafâ
Bg fmr we;s i,l=Kg f.k hkak'
· B<`. o~q foflys wdfrdAyl o by; wdldrhg ilia lrkak'
· o~q y;frka u lshfjk ialkaO tl;= lr" ødjHfha ialkaOh fidhd .kak'
· fï wdldrhg úúO øjHj, ialkaOh lsrd .ekSug mqyqKq jkak'
18
m%;sM, :- 3.1 mÍlaIKh
Ndú; jk wdrlaIl
ùÿre WmlrK lgq igyk
wjia:d l%fudamdh
mÍlaId k,h
lelEreï k,h
îlr
fla;= ma,dial=j
wkqudmk ma,dial=j
mßudñ;sl ma,dial=j
jg wä ma,dial=j
me;,s wä ma,dial=j
m%;sldrl fnda;,h
^wenh iys;&
fiaÿï fnda;,h
mqkS,h
ñkqï irdj
msfmÜgqj
msfmÜgq mqrjkh
ìhqfrÜgqj
ìkaÿ fy<kh
fmà% §ish
Trf,daiq ùÿrej
,Sì.a lkafvkairh
mshk iys; fldaj
iame;slshq,dj
veys w~qj
fmdfima w~q
mÍlaId k, rdlalh
mÍlaId k, w~qj
19
isõ o~q ;=,dj Ndú;h
m<uq oKafâ fojk ;=kajk y;rjk

uq¿ ialkaOh
iòyka oKafâ oKafâ oKafâ
jia;=j (W1 + W2+
ialkaOh ialkaOh ialkaOh ialkaOh
W3+ W4)/g
(W1/g) (W2/g) (W3/g) (W3/g)
idlÉPdj:
· ridhkd.dr wmøjH j¾. lrkAfka flfia oehs idlÉPd lrkak'
· MSDS m;s%sldjla mj;ajd .ekSfï jeo.;alu idlÉPd lrkak'
· úoHd.dr wmøjH wdrlaIs;j neyer lsÍfï l%u fhdackd lrkak'
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak(

1. mßudj uekSug Ndú; lrk ùÿre WmlrK ,ehsia;=.; lrkak' tla tla
WmlrKfhka uek .; yels wju mßudj olajkak'
2. ùÿre WmlrKj, wmøjH bj;a lr msßisÿ lsÍu iòyd Tn wkq.ukh lrk mshjr
olajkak' ^mÍlaIK k," msfmÜgq" ìhqfrÜgq&
20
mÍlaIKh 4( m%dudKsl ødjK ms<sfh, lsÍu
wruqKq( : 1. ùÿre WmlrK yd isõ o~q ;=,dj Ndú; lsÍfï l=i,;dj ,nd .ekSu¡
2. mßud uekSfï l=i,;d j¾Okh lr .ekSu¡
3. wjYH idkaøKfhka hq;a ødjK ms<sfh, lsÍfï ksmqK;d ,nd .ekSu¡
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak:

1. ødjKhl ixhq;sh ks¾Kh lsÍfï l%u fudkjd o?
2. ujq,sl idkaøKh w¾: olajkak.
3. okakd idkaøKfhka hq;a ødjKhla ms<sfh, lsÍu i|yd Ndú; lrk ùÿre
WmlrK fudkjd o?
ye`Èkaùu:
1 mol dm-3 idkaøKh we;s ødjKhl 1 dm3 la ;=< øjHfhka 1 mol la wvx.= fõ¡ ta wkqj
idkaøKh c mol dm-3 ødjKhl 1 dm3 la ;=< øjHfhka ujq, c wvx.= fõ¡ wmg idod .;
hq;= mßudj ;=< wvx.= ujq, .Kk okafka kï wjYH idkaøKfhka hq;a ødjKfhka
wjYH mßudj idod .; yels fõ¡ WodyrK jYfhka 1 mol dm-3 Na2CO3 ødjKhl 250
cm3 la idod .; hq;= hehs is;uq'
Na2CO3 ujq, 0.25 l ialkaOh = 106 g mol-1 x 0.25 mol

= 26.5 g
fï ialkaOh f.k uq¿ mßudj 250 cm3 jk mßos c,fha Èhl, úg wjYH ødjKh
,efí¡
wjYH WmlrK yd ridhk øjH (
WmlrK ridhk øjH

3
· mßudñ;sl ma,dial=j (250 cm ) Na2CO3(s)
· îlr
· mqkS,
· Trf,daiq ;eáh
· isõ o~q ;=,dj
· fojqï fnda;,h
wdrlaIs; mshjr : ridhk øjH iam¾Y lsÍfuka j<lskak¡ ødjKh iEoSug .kakd ùÿre
WmlrK fyd|ska msßisÿj ;sìh hq;= h¡
21
l%uh : 1 mol dm-3 Na2CO3 ødjKfhka 250 cm3 la ms<sfh, lsÍu'
• isõ o~q ;=,dfõ ;eáh u; Trf,daiq ùÿrej ;nd tys ialkaOh ukskak¡ th
w g hhs is;uq¡
• ta ialkaOhg lsrd .; hq;= Na2CO3 ialkaOh tl;= lrkak¡ (26.5+ m) g.
• fï ialkaOh oelafjk mßÈ ;=,d o~qj, r|jd we;s wdfrdayl iSreudre
lrkak¡ túg o¾Ylh Y+kH ,l=Kg jvd my;g meñfKa¡
• o¾Ylh kej; Y+kH ,l=Kg iumd; jk ;=re Trf,daiq ùÿrej u;g Na2CO3
>kh iaj,amh ne.ska tl;= lrkak¡ túg Trf,daiq ùÿrej u; yrshgu
Na2CO3 26.5 g la ;sfí¡
• mßudñ;sl ma,dial=j u; mqkS,h ;nd" th ;=<g Trf,daiq ùÿrej u; we;s
Na2CO3 >kh tl;= lrkak¡ Trf,daiq ùÿrej fojqï fnda;,fha we;s wdi%e;
c,h uÕska ma,dial=j ;=<g fidaod yßkak¡ bka miq mqkS,h o wdi%e; c,h
uÕska fidaod yrskak¡
• bka miq mqkS,h bj;a lr" wenh jid Na2CO3 osh jk f;la ødjKh fid,jd
ma,dial=fõ 250 cm3 mrsud i,l=K f;la wdi%e; c,h mßiaifuka tl;=
lrkak¡ wjidk mßudj ilia lsÍug fojqï fnda;,h fyda ùÿre nghla
fhdod .kak¡
• ødjKh f,an,a lrkak¡ tys ødjKfha idkaøKh" tys we;s ridhk øjHh yd
ødjKh idod .;a oskh i|yka l< hq;= h¡
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak:
1. my; ødjK ms<sfh, lr .kafka flfia oe hs fláfhka úia;r lrkak.

a. 2 mol dm-3 NaOH 500 cm3 la. (Na = 23, O = 16, H = 1)
b. 0.2 mol dm-3 K2C2O4 ødjK 100 cm3 la. (K = 39, C = 12, O = 16)
2. (i) a) ys i|yka ødjKfha idkaøKh l=vd m%udKhlska fjkia úh yels

nj YsIHfhla mjihs¡ NaOH uÕska ksjerÈ idkaøKfhka hq;a iïu;
ødjKhla ms<sfh, lr .; fkdyelafla ukaoehs idlÉPd lrkak'
3. ksjeros idkaøKfhka hq;a ødjK ms<sfh, lsÍug Ndú; l< yels m%d:ñl
m%dudKsl øjH kï lrkak.
22
mÍlaIKh 5( jdhqjl ujq,sl mßudj mÍlaIKd;aulj ks¾Kh lsÍu
wruqKq :
1. úoHd.drfha § jdhqjla tl;= lr .ekSu iy jdhq mßudjla uek .ekSug wjYH
oekqu yd l=i,;dj ,nd oSu'
2. tfuka u fuys § úoHd.dr ;;a;aj hgf;a Tlaiscka jdhq ujq,hl mßudj .Kkh
lsÍug isiqkag yels jkq we;'
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak:

1. úoHd.dr ;;a;aj hgf;a Tlaiscka jdhqj msg jk m%;sls%hd j.=.; lrkak'
2. úoHd.dr ;;a;aj hgf;a Tlaiscka tl;= lr .ekSug yd uek .ekSug Tn by;
iòyka lrk ,o m%;sls%hdj,ska l=ula jvd;a iqÿiq fõ oehs idlÉPd lrkak.
wfkla tajd iqÿiq fkdùug fya;= olajkak'
3. iïu; WIaK;aj yd mSvkfha § jdhqjl ujq,sl mßudj l=ula o?
ye`Èkaùu:
jdhqjl ujq,sl mßudj hkq 0°C oS 1atm mSvkhl § jdhq ujq, tll mßudj fõ¡
(tkï iïu; WIaK;ajfha § yd mSvkfha § (STP)). ujq,sl mßudj WIaK;ajh yd
mSvkh wkqj úp,kh fõ. fï mÍlaIKfha § Tlaiscka jdhqfõ ujq,sl mßudj
ks¾Kh lrkq ,efí' my; m%;sls%hdj u`.ska Tlaiscka jdhqj ms<sfh, lr .; yels
h'
2KMnO4 (s) → K2MnO4(s) + MnO2(s) + O2 (g)
fï m%;sls%hdfõ § tlu jdhquh M,h Tlaiscka jdhqj fõ. ta ksid m%;sls%hdj isÿ
jk w;r;=r isÿ jk ialkaO wvq ùu Ndú; lr iEfok O2 ialkaOh fidhd .kq
,nk w;r" Tlaiscka jdhqfõ mßudj fidhd .ekSug c, úia:dmk l%uh Ndú;
l< yels h'
úh<s Tlaiscka jdhqfõ mSvkh (PO2), wdxYsl mSvkh ms<snò fvda,agka kshufhka
.Kkh l< yels h.
Piuia; = PO + PH O
2 2
tneúka PO = Piuia; – PH O
2 2
my; j.=fõ oelafjk wdldrhg fuys Piuia; hkq jdhqf.da,Sh mSvkh o PH2O hkq
c,fha jdIAm mSvkh o fõ.
23
WIaK;ajh (oC) c,fha jdIam mSvkh WIaK;ajh (oC) c,fha jdIam mSvkh
(torr) (torr)
20 17.5 29 30.0
21 18.7 30 31.8
22 19.8 40 55.3
23 21.1 50 92.5
24 22.4 60 149.4
25 23.8 70 233.7
26 25.2 80 355.1
27 26.7 90 525.8
28 28.3 100 760.0
i.W'mS'ys § Tlaiscka jdhqfõ mßudj fidhd .ekSug ixhqla; jdhq iólrKh Ndú; l<
yels h'
fuys § P1, V1 yd T1 hkq i'W'mS ;;a;aj jk w;r P2 (O2 jdhqfõ wdxYsl mSvkh PO2), V2
(ukskq ,nk Tlaiscka jdhq mßudj) iy T2 (ldur WIaK;ajh) úoHd.dr ;;a;aj fõ. i'W'mS'ys
§ V1 ;;a;aj .Kkh l< úg" ksmofjk Tlaiscka jdhq ujq, .Kk wkqj Tlaisckays
ujq,sl mßudj .Kkh lrkq ,efí'
wjYH WmlrK yd ridhk øjH:
WmlrK
· ñkqï irdj (1L) · WIaK;ajudkh
· îlrh 1L · nefrdaógrh
· wen iys; lelEreï k,h · isõ o`vq ;=,dj
· úi¾ck k,h · mq¿ka
· wen iys; ùÿre fnda;,h ridhk øjH
· rn¾ k, · fmdgEishï
· lelEreï k, w~q m¾uex.fkaÜ
· KMnO4
· wdOdrl
· nkaika odylh
24
mÍlaIK wegjqu
my; mÍlaIK wegjqu u`.ska c,h ;=<ska úia:dmkfhka Tlaiscka jdhqj tla /ia lr
.kq ,efí.
I wegjqu
mq¿ka wenh
c,h c,h
II wegjqu
5.1 rEmh( mÍlaIKd;aul wegjqu
25
wdrlaIs; mshjr: weia wdjrK m,`Èkak' úh<s KMnO4 Ndú; lsÍfï § ie,ls,su;a jkak'
l%uh:
· úh<s KMnO4 5 g la muK lsrd f.k úh<s lelEreï k,hlg oud .kak.
· lelEreï k,fha Wv fl<jr wdikakhg lmq mq¨ka iaj,amhla we;=¿ lrkak'
· lelEreï k,fha uq¿ ialkaOh, KMnO4 yd mq¿ka iuÕ uek .kak' (m1)
· by; rEmfha olajd we;s mßÈ WmlrK ilid lelEreï k,h fifuka r;a
lrkak'
· Tlaiscka jdhqj ksid c,h 350 – 400 cm3 muK úia:dmkh jk ;=re r;a lr"
bka miq lelEreï k,h ldur WIaK;ajhg isis,a jk ;=re ;nkak'
· lelEreï k,h yd tys wvx.= øjHj, ialkaOh kej; uek .kak' (m2)
· n`ÿka foflys c, uÜgï iudk jk úg" B me;af;ys rn¾ k, bj;a lrkak' B
k,fha b;sß c,h îlrhg jegqKq nj iaÒr lr .kak'
· ñkqï irdjla Ndú;fhka úia:dmkh jQ c, mßudj uek .kak.
· ldur WIaK;ajh yd mSvkh igyka lr .kak'
m%;sM,(
wjYH WmlrK m%;sM,

· r;a lsÍug fmr lelEreï k,h iy tys
wvx. øjHj, ialkaOh (m1)/g
· r;a l< miq lelEreï k,h iy tys wvx.=
øjHj, ialkaOh (m2)/g
· úia:dmkh jQ c, mßudj (Tlaiscka mßudj)
(cm3)
· WIaK;ajh /oC
· mSvkh/ mmHg
.Kkh lsÍï:
a) úh<s O2 ys mSvkh (PO2) ks¾Kh lrkak' II wegjqu fhdod .kafka kï uq¿ mSvkfhka
c,fha jdIam mSvkh wvq lrkak'
Piuia; = PO2 + PH2O
PO2 = Piuia; - PH2
Piuia; hkq uq¿ jdhqf.da,Sh mSvkh jk w;r" PH2O hkq ldur WIaK;ajfha § c,fha
jdIam mSvkh fõ' c,fha jdIam mSvkh fidhd .ekSug § we;s j.=j Ndú; lrkak'
PO2 = _____________________mmHg
b) fï mSvkh mmHg isg Nm-2 j,g mßj¾;kh lrkak'

(760.0 mmHg = 1.01 x 105 Nm-2)
PO2 = _____________________Nm-2
26
c) i.W'mS'ys § Tlaiscka jdhqfõ mßudj .Kkh lsÍu iòyd ixhqla; jdhq iólrKh
Ndú; lrkak'
i.W'mS'ys § O2 mßudj = _____________________dm3
d) iEÿKq Tlaiscka jdhq ujq, .Kk

mÍlaIKfha § iEÿKq Tlaiscka jdhq ujq, =(m1 – m2) / 32 g/mol = ___________
e) Tlaiscka jdhqfõ ujq,sl mßudj
_______________ dm3 mol-1
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak(
1. idlÉPd lrkak'
a. lelEreï k,hg lmq mq¨ka we;=¿ lrkafka wehs@
b. lelEreï k,fha wvx.= øjH uekSug fmr ldur WIaK;ajhg isis,a ùug ;eîu
jeo.;a jkafka wehs@
c. k,h bj;a lsÍug fmr c, uÜgï iudk lsÍu jeo.;a jkafka wehs@
2' i;H w.h iu`. ixikaokh lr" fodaI m%;sY;h .Kkh lrkak'
27
mÍlaIKh 6 : yhsv%ckaj, ujq,sl mßudj fhdod .ksñka Mg j, idfmalaI
mrudKql ialkaOh mÍlaIKd;aulj ks¾Kh lsÍu'
wruqK : f,dayj, idfmalaI mrudKql ialkaO ks¾Kh lsÍu iòyd wjYH

l=i,;dj
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak :

1. c,h iu`. m%;sls%hd fkdlrk úúO jdhq ,ehsia;=.; lrkak'
2. ;kql wï, iu`. fõ.fhka m%;sls%hd lrk f,day ,ehsia;=.; lr" tajd iòyd
;=,s; ridhksl iólrK ,shkak'
3. mßmQ¾K jdhq kshuh iy wdxYsl mSvk ms<snò fvda,agka kshuh m%ldY lrkak'
ish¨ mo w¾: olajkak'
4. úoHd.drfha § jdhq tla /ia lr .ekSug Ndú; lrk úúO l%ufõo ,ehsia;=.;
lrkak¡
ye`Èkaùu:
jdhquh m%;sls%hd iòyd" jdhq mßud ñkqï tajdfha iafgdhslsfhdñ;sl iïnkaO;d

ks¾Kh lsÍu iòyd myiqlula ,nd foa' iuyr f,day wï, iu`. m%;sls%hd lr
yhsv%cka jdhqj ksoyia lrhs' fï mÍlaIKfha § ue.akSishï ;kql HCl iu`.
m%;sls%hdfjka iEfok yhsv%cka jdhq m%udKh" ue.akSishïys idfmalaI mrudKql
ialkaOh .Kkh lsÍug Ndú; flf¾'
Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
fï m%;sls%hdfõ § ksmofjk yhsv%cka jdhqj" c,fha hál=re úia:dmkfhka

jdhqmßududkh kñka y`ÿkajkq ,nk È." isyska" l%udxlkh lrk ,o ùÿre
k,hlg fyda ìhqfrÜgqjlg tl;= lr.kq ,efí' Mg wï,h iu`. m%;sl%shd lrk
úg" c,fha úia:dmkfhka tl;= lr .kakd ,o mßudj uek .kq ,efí' jdhqfõ
WIaK;ajh ta yd iïnkaOj mj;akd c,fha WIaK;ajh iudk f,i i,lkq
,nkafka fok ,o m%udKj;a ld,hla ;=< § c,h yd jdhqj hk fol u ;dmuh
jYfhka iu;=,s;;djg t<öu ksid h' jdhqmßududkh fha c, uÜgu" msg;
c, uÜgug iudk jk fia ilikq ,efí' fuu`.ska jdhqmßududkh fha mSvkh
mj;sk jdhqf.da,Sh mSvkhg iudk jk nj ;yjqre lr .; yels h' H2 jdhqj c,
uÜgug Wäka tl;= lrk neúka" c,hg úfYaIs; jQ jdIam mSvkhla mj;sk w;r"
msßisÿ H2 j, (úh<s H2 j,) mSvkh ,nd .ekSug kï c,fha jdIam mSvkh wvq l<
hq;=hs'
fvda,agkaf.a jdIam mSvk kshuh Ndú;fhka" úh<s yhsv%cka jdhqfõ mSvkh

.Kkh lrkq ,efí'
Piuia; = PH2 + PH2O tneúka PH2 = Piuia; – PH2
P iuia; hkq jdhqf.da,Sh mSvkh (jdhqmßududkh ;=< mSvkh) jk w;r
PH2O hkq c,fha jdIam mSvkh (jdhqmßududkh ;=<g jdIam jQ c,jdIam u`.ska
we;s lrk mSvkh)
tla tla WIaK;ajhg wod< jk c,fha jdIam mSvkh my; j.=jg wkqj ,nd .;
yels h'
28
WIaK;ajh (oC) c,fha jdIam mSvkh WIaK;ajh (oC) c,fha jdIam mSvkh
(torr) (torr)
20 17.5 29 30.0
21 18.7 30 31.8
22 19.8 40 55.3
23 21.1 50 92.5
24 22.4 60 149.4
25 23.8 70 233.7
26 25.2 80 355.1
27 26.7 90 525.8
28 28.3 100 760.0
H2 jdhqfõ mßudj (v) okakd neúka" tl;= lrk ,o H2 jdhq ujq, .Kk (n) mßmQ¾K jdhq
kshuh weiqfrka .Kkh l< yels h'
Mg yd H2 jdhqj w;r iafgdhslsfhdñ;sl wkqmd;h 1:1 neúka" HCl iu`. m%;sls%hd lrk
,o Mg j, ujq, m%udKh .Kkh l< yels h' m%;sls%hd lrk ,o Mg máfha ialkaOh
okakd neúka, my; wdldrhg" Mgj, idfmalaI mrudKql ialkaOh .Kkh l< yels h'
WmlrK yd ridhksl øjH:
WmlrK ridhk øjH

· jdhqmßududkh · ue.akSishï má
· 1L îlrh · Cu lïì
lene,a,la
· ìhqfrÜgq w~q · 2 M HCl
· ìhqfrÜgq wdOdrl
· WIaK;ajudkh
· nefrdaógr
mÍlaIK wegjqu:
my; mÍlaIK wegjqu Ndú;fhka c,fha hál=re úia:dmkfhka yhsv%cka jdhqj

tla /ia lr .kq ,efí.
29
jdhqmßududkh fjkqjg hál=re lrk ,o ìhqfrÜgqjla jqj o Ndú;d l< yels h¡
rn¾ uQäh
kQ,
rn¾ uQäh
rEmh 6'1( mÍlaIKd;aul wegjqu

wdrlaIs; mshjr: wï, Ndú;fha § w;ajeiqï m,`Èkak'
l%uh:
· 10 cm3 l%udxls; is,skavrhlg 2 mol dm-3 HCl ødjKfhka 5 cm3la j;a lr .kq
,efí'
· tu HCl u;g mßiaifuka c,h tla lr .ksñka (c,h yd HCl ñY% fkdjk fia)
is,skavrh iïmQ¾Kfhka c,fhka mqrjd .kak'
· 1 cm jk ue.akSishï máhla (~ 0.05g ) wenfha fl<jrg iïnkaO lr" wenh
l%udxls; is,skavr u; iú lr .kak'
· is,skavrh laIKslj hál=re lr" tys my< fldgi c,h mqrjd .;a 1L jk c,h
iys; îlrhl .s,ajkak'
· HCl, f,dayh iu`. m%;sls%hd lrñka" hál=re lrk ,o is,skavrh ;=<g jdhqj tl;=
ùu isÿ jk w;r" m%;sls%hdj wjika jQ miq" is,skavrh ;=< iy îlrh ;=< c,
uÜgï iudk lr" jdhqfõ mßudj ks¾Kh lr.kq ,efí' fï mÍlaIKh f;j;djla
isÿ lrkak'
m%;sM,(
01 mÍlaIKh 02 mÍlaIKh 03 mÍlaIKh idudkH w.h

Mgj, ialkaOh (g)
ksmojQ H2 jdhqfõ mßudj (cm3)
WIaK;ajh (oC)
H2O j, wdxYsl mSvkh (torr)
30
.Kkh lsÍï (
a) úh<s H2 jdhqfõ mSvkh (P H2), uq¿ mSvkfhka" c,fha jdIam mSvkh wvq lr
.ekSfuka iuia; mSvkh ks¾Kh lr .ekSu'
Piuia; = PH2 + PH2O
PH2 = Piuia; – PH2O
P iuia; hkq (jdhqmßududk mSvkh) jdhqf.da,Sh mSvkh yd P H2O hkq (c, jdIam mSvkh)
jdhqmßududkh ;=<g jdIam jQ c, jdIam uÕska we;s lrk mSvkh. WIaK;ajh wkqj c,fha
jdIam mSvkh fidhd .ekSug 29 jk msgqfõ we;=<;a lr we;s j.=j fhdod .kak.
P H2 = _____________________Hgmm
b) fï mSvkh Hgmm j,ska Nm-2 j,g mßj¾;kh lr .kak'

(760.0 Hgmm = 1.01 x 105 Nm-2)
P H2 = _____________________ Nm-2
c) mÍlaIKfha § ksmojd.;a H2 jdhqfõ ujq, .Kk .Kkh lr .ekSug mßmQ¾K jdhq

iólrKh fhdod .kak' (R) ys tall yd .e<fmk mßÈ ksjerÈ tall Ndú; lsÍug
j.n,d .kak'
H2 jdhq ujq, .Kk = _____________________mol
d) wk;=rej Mg yd H2 j, iafgdhslsfhdñ;sh Ndú;fhka" Mg j, ujq, .Kk fidhd

f.k" Mg j, idfmalaI mrudKql ialkaOh .Kkh lrkak'
Mg j, idfmalaI mrudKql ialkaOh = _____________________g/mol
idlÉPdj:
· fodaI úh yels wdldrhka .ek idlÉPd lrkak'
· .Kkh lrk ,o w.h" iïu; w.h yd ixikaokh lr fodaI m%;sY;h .Kkh
lrkak'
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak:

1. fï mÍlaIKfha § fhdod.; yels f,dayj, kï ,ehsia;=.; lrkak'
2. ;U lïìh" H2 jdhqj ksmofjk m%udKh flfrys n,mdhs o@ fya;= olajkak'
3. ms;a;, lene,a,l wvx.= Cu yd Zn m%;sY;hka .Kkh lsÍug fï mÍlaIKd;aul
wegjqu Ndú; l< yels o@
31
mÍlaIKh 7( wï, - Niau WodiSkSlrK tka;e,amsh mrSlaIKd;aulj ks¾Kh lsÍu
(NaOH -HCl, KOH - HNO3, NaOH - CH3COOH, NH4OH - HCl)
wruqKq:
1. ridhksl m%;sls%hdjl § isÿ jk WIaK;aj fjki uek .kakd wkaou oek .ekSu
2. wï, - Niau WodiSkslrK tka;e,amsh mÍlaIKd;aulj ks¾Kh lsÍu
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak:

1. m%;sls%hl yd M,j, tka;e,ams w.hka okakd úg m%;sls%hdjl tka;e,ams
úm¾hdih ksudkh lrkafka flfiaoehs úia;r lrkak'
2. wjia:d Y%s;hla hkq l=ulaoehs meyeÈ<s lr ta iòyd WodyrK lSmhla fokak'
ye`Èkaùu:
fndfyda ridhksl yd fN!;sl úm¾hdi isÿ jkafka fyda isÿ lrkq ,nkafka ksh;
mSvk ;;a;aj hgf;a h' WodyrK f,i úoHd.drfha § idudkHfhka mÍlaIK
isÿ lrkafka újD;j we;s îlr" ma,dial= fyda mÍlaId k, ;=< h' tu ksid tu
mÍlaIKj, § ndysr mSvkh wdikak f,i jdhqf.da,Sh mSvkhg iudk fõ' (1 atm,
~105 Pa). fuys § úfudapkh l< fyda wjfYdaIKh l< ;dm m%udKh ks¾Kh
lsÍfï § ksh; mSvkh hgf;a isÿ jk ;dm úm¾hdih" tka;e,ams úm¾hdihla
f,i w¾: oelafõ' (ixfla;h H). tkï ksh; mSvkfha oS ;dmh = tka;e,amsh
fõ' tka;e,amsh >gkd .=Khls' tkï tys ixLHd;aul w.h" fhdod .;a øjHfha
m%udKh u; ròd mj;S' hï øjHhla i;= tka;e,amsh ks¾Kh l< fkdyels jk
kuq;a tys § isÿjk tka;e,ams fjki (DH) mÍlaIKd;aulj fiúh yels fõ'
m%;sls%hdjl § isÿ jk tka;e,ams fjki DH m%;sls%hdj M,j, yd m%;sls%hlj, tka;e,ams

fjkig iudk fõ'
;dmh (Q)
ksh; mSvkfha § tka;e,amsh" ;dmhg (Q) iudk jk ksid wmg fuys § ;dm
úm¾hdih fiúh yels h' úoHd.drfha § fN!;sl yd ridhksl úm¾hdi j, § isÿ
jk ;dm úm¾hdi fiùu iòyd le,ßógrh Ndú; flf¾' fuh ;dm úm¾hdi
uekSu iòyd u ie,iqï lr ksmojQ ixjD; n`ÿkls' ;dm úm¾hdi ksudkh lsÍu
iòyd m<uqj ;dm Odß;dj yd úYsIag ;dm Odß;dj hk mo jgyd .; hq;= h'
úYsIag ;dm Odß;dj (c)

øjHfha .a?ï tll WIaK;ajh" fi,aishia fyda fl,aúka wxYl tllska by<
kexùu iòyd wjYH ;dm m%udKhhs'
;dm Odß;dj (C)

øjHfha § we;s m%udKhl WIaK;ajh fi,aih s ia fyda fl,aúka wxYl tllska by<
kexùu iòyd wjYH ;dm m%udKhhs' úYsIag ;dm Odß;dj >gkd .=Khla jk
w;r" ;dm Odß;dj ú;a;s .=Khla fõ' úYsIag ;dm Odß;dj yd ;dm Odß;dj w;r
iïnkaOh my; oelafõ'
32
C = mc
igyk( iuyr úg úYsIag ;dmh i|yd s fhdod.kq ,nhs'
hï øjHhl úYsIag ;dm Odß;dj (c), ialkaOh yd WIaK;aj fjki Dt,
^fi,aishia j,ska& fyda DT ^fl,aúkaj,ska& okakd úg" úfudapkh fyda
wjfYdaIKh l< ;dm m%udKh my; iólrK u`.ska .Kkh l< yels h'
Q = m c Dt fyda Q = m cDT
túg tka;e,ams fjki,
.=rejrhdg igykla: isiqka lKavdhï y;rlg fnod tla tla lKavdhug tla mÍlaIKhla
isÿ lsÍug Wmfoia oS wjidkfha § ,enqKq m%;sM, yqjudre lr
idlÉPd l< yels h'
wjYH WmlrK yd ridhk øjH(
WmlrK ridhk øjH

· 3
ma,diaála fldamam (fyda îlr) (100/200 cm ) 2.0 mol dm-3 NaOH ~ 250 cm3
· îlr 250/500 cm3 2.0 mol dm-3 HCl ~ 250 cm3
· WIaK;ajudk 2.00 mol dm-3 HNO3 ~ 100 cm3
· ùÿre l+rla 2.00 mol dm-3 KOH ~ 100 cm3
2.00 mol dm-3 CH3COOH~100 cm3 2.00
mol dm-3 NH4OH ~ 100 cm3
l%uh(
my; rEmigyfka wdldrhg wegjqu ilikak¡
rEmh 7'1 mÍlaIKd;aul wegjqu
33
HCl iy NaOH
· rEmfha wdldrhg ma,diaála fldamamh" 250 cm3 îlrhla ;=< ròjkak'
· 2.00 mol dm-3 HCl 50.0 cm3la fldamamhg oud tys WIaK;ajh ukskak.
· 2.0 mol dm-3 NaOH 50.0 cm3la îlrhg oud tys o WIaK;ajh uek .kak.
· by; NaOH ødjKh" HCl wvx.= ma,diaála fldamamhg tlajr u oud l,;ñka
;;amr 30lg jrla WIaK;ajh jd¾;d lrkak. fï wdldrhg WIaK;ajh Wmßuhlg
<`.d jk ;=re WIaK;ajh uekSu l< hq;= h'
· fï l%uh wfkla wï, - Niau hq., iòyd o tf,i u isÿ lrkak' iEu mÍlaIKhlg
u fmr" ma,diaála fldamamh" WIaK;ajudkh iy ùÿre l+r fyd`Èka msßisÿ l< hq;=
h'
mÍlaIK m%;sM, my; mßÈ jd¾;d lrkak'
mÍlaIK m%;sM,(
m%;sls%hdj: NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) ®NaCl(aq) + H2O (l)
HCl yd NaOH j, uq,a t<fUk WIaK;ajh / °C WIaK;aj fjki (Dt) /

WIaK;aj / °C * °C
m%;sls%hdj : KOH (aq) + HNO3(aq) ®KNO3(aq) + H2O (l)
HNO3 yd KOH j, uq,a t<fUk WIaK;ajh / °C WIaK;aj fjki (Dt) /

WIaK;ajh / °C * °C
m%;sls%hdj : NaOH(aq) + CH3COOH (aq) ®CH3COONa (aq) + H2O (l)
CH3COOH yd NaOH ys t<fUk Wmßu WIaK;aj fjki (Dt) /

uq,a WIaK;ajh / °C * WIaK;ajh / °C °C
m%;sls%hdj : HCl(aq) + NH4OH (aq) ®NH4Cl(aq) + H2O (l)
HCl yd NH4OH ys uq,a t<fUk Wmßu WIaK;aj fjki °C

WIaK;ajh / °C * WIaK;ajh / °C
* ødjKj, uq,a WIaK;aj fjkia kï" tajdfha uOHkH w.h uq,a WIaK;ajh f,i ie,lsh
hq;= h'
.Kkh lsÍï (
34
- tla tla wjia:dfõ § m%;sls%hd l< m%;sls%hl ujq, ixLHdj .Kkh lrkak'
- tla tla m%;sls%hdfõ § uqla; jk ;dmh .Kkh lrkak'
c,fha úYsIag ;dm Odß;dj = 4.2 Jg-1K-1
c,fha >k;ajh = 1.000 g cm-3
ødjKfha mßudj = 200 cm3.
Q = m c DT
Q = (100 cm3 ´ 1.000 g cm-3 )´ 4.2 Jg-1K-1´DT = …….. J
tla tla m%;sls%hdj iòyd DHneu (WodiSkslrK tka;e,amsh) .Kkh lrkak'
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak:

1. mÍlaIKd.drfha fï mÍlaIKh wdYs%;j isÿ úh yels fodaI idlÉPd lrkak.
2. Q iòyd RK ,l=Kla fhdod we;af;a wehs?
3. Tng 2.00 mol dm-3 NH4Cl oS we;ehs is;kak' ta ødjKh fhdod f.k mÍlaIKhla
isÿ fkdlr, HCl(aq) + NH4OH (aq) ®NH4Cl(aq) + H2O hk m%;sls%hdfõ tka;e,ams
úm¾hdih ksudkh lrkafka flfia oehs úia;r lrkak' fï w.h mÍlaIKd;aul
w.h iu`. ixikaokh lrkak'
35
mÍlaIKh 8( fyia kshuh mÍlaIKd;aulj i;Hdmkh lsÍu
wruqK:
1. ;dmodhl m%;sls%hdjl A m%;sls%hlj, isg B M, olajd tl u m%;sls%hdjla tlsfklg
fjkia ud¾. follska isÿ lr tu m%;sls%hdj, oS isÿ jk m%;sls%hd tka;e,amsh
ks¾Kh lsÍu'
2. by; m%;sls%hdj i|yd fyia kshuh wdo¾Ykh
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak:

1. m%;sls%hd tka;e,amsh w¾: olajkak'
2. Tn mÍlaIKd;aulj m%;sls%hd tka;e,amsh ks¾Kh lrkafka flfia o@
3. ;dmh iy tka;e,amsh tlsfklg iudk jkafka l=uk ;;a;aj hgf;a o@
4. my; o;a; fhdodf.k" NaOHj, ødjK tka;e,amsh (DHsoln) kJ mol-1 .Kkh
lrkak'
5. c,h 100.0 cm3 la wvx.= ma,diaála fldamamhlg NaOH 4.00 gla oud iïmQ¾Kfhka
Èh lsÍfï § WIaK;ajh 25°C isg 35 °C olajd by< hhs' c,fha úYsIag ;dm Odß;dj
4.2 Jg-1K-1. c,fha >k;ajh = 1.000 g cm-3 Na = 23; O = 16; H = 1 (g mol-1 j,ska)
ma,diaála fldamamh Wrd .;a ;dmh fkd.sksh yels l=vd ;rï fõ'
6. by; wdldrfha mÍlaIK iòyd le,ß ógrhla Ndú; lsÍfï jeo.;alu l=ula o@
ye`Èkaùu(
;dm ridhkfha §" tla mshjrlska isÿ l< fkdyels ridhksl ls%hdj,shl tka;e,ams
úm¾hdih fiùu iòyd fyia kshuh Ndú; lrkq ,efí' fyia kshuhg wkqj
wdrïNl øjH njg m;a ùfï § isÿjk tka;e,ams úm¾hdih (DH), th isÿ l<
ud¾.fhka iajdh;a; fõ ^m%;sls%hdj iïu; wjia:d hgf;a isÿ jk úg iïu;
wjia:dfõ § tka;e,ams úm¾hdih" DH° iòyd o fuh fhÈh yels h')
fï mÍlaIKfha §" fjkia m%;sl%shd ;=kl § msg jk ;dmh uekSu i|yd ma,diaála
fldamamhla (;dm mrsjdrl n÷kla f,i i,ld) Ndú; lrkq ,efí¡ fï m%;sl%shd
;=klska tla m%;sls%hdjla wfkla m%;sl%shd foflys tl;=jla f,i oelaúh yels h¡
fï mÍlaIKfha wNsu;d¾:h jkafka tla tla m%;sls%hdfõ oS isÿ jk WIaK;aj

fjki uek .ekSfuka tajdfha m%;sls%hd tka;e,ams w.hka .Kkh lr" fyia kshuh
i;Hdmkh lsÍu fõ' fuys § my; m%;sls%hd ud¾. fol fhdod .kS'
I ud¾.h (
A. m%;sl%shdj NaOH (s) {10 g} + H2O (l) {125 cm3} ® NaOH (aq) : DH1
B. m%;sl%shdj NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) {2 M, 125 cm3} ® NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) ) : DH2
36
II ud¾.h
C. m%;sl%shdj HCl (aq){2 M, 125 cm3} +H2O (l){125 cm3}® HCl (aq){1 M, 250 cm3}: H3
D. m%;sl%shdj NaOH (s) {10 g} + HCl (aq) {1 M, 250 cm3} ® NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) : H4
by; m%;sls%hdj, § I yd II ud¾.j, m%;sl%shd u.ska tl u M, ,ndfoa¡ tneúka" fyia

kshuhg wkqj ;dmh" Q ys w.hka yd tka;e,ams w.hka tlg tl;= l< yels h¡
fï ud¾. fol iòyd u wdrïNl øjH f,i Ndú; lr we;af;a" >k NaOH
10.00 gla" 2 mol dm-3 HCl 125.0 cm3la iy H2O(l) 125 cm3ls' tfia u ud¾.
foflysu wjidk m%;sM,h jkafka 1 mol dm-3 NaCl(aq) ødjKhlska 250 cm3ls'
by; m%;sls%hd c,Sh udOHhl oS isÿ jk neúka moaO;sfhka uqodyßk ^fyda wjfYdaIKh
lrk& Yla;sh" c,h fj; yqjudre fõ hehs i,lkq ,efí ^fï ødjK ;kql neúka"
tajdf.a ;dmc .=K c,hg iudk hhs Wml,amkh lrkq ,efí& WodyrK jYfhka
m%;sls%hdjl oS ;dmh ksoyia fõ kï ^tkï ;dmodhl m%;sls%hdjla& túg c,fha
WIaK;ajh by< hhs' wfkla w;g ;dm wjfYdaIl m%;sls%hdj, oS m%;sls%hdj isÿ
ùu iòyd c,fhka ;dmh Wrd .kakd neúka c,fha WIaK;ajh my< niS' fï
wkqj ir, .Kkh lsÍula u`.ska m%;sls%hl tka;e,amsh fiúh yels h' fï iòyd
m<uqj c,fha WIaK;aj fjki fidhd .; hq;= jk w;r" bka miq my; iólrKh
Ndú; lrñka c,h Wrd .;a ^fyda msg l<& ;dm m%udKh fiúh hq;= fõ' tla tla
m%;sls%hdfõ oS isÿjk ;dm úm¾hdih fiùug Q = m.c. ΔT iólrKh Ndú; lrkq
,efí'
fï iólrKfha m u`.ska c,fha ialkaOh o îr,j lsj fyd;a c,h 1.00 cm3 la
ialkaOh 1.00 g fõ& C u`.ska c,fha úYsIag ;dm Odß;dj 4.2 Jg-1K-1, DT u`.ska uek
.;a WIaK;aj fjki o olajkq ,efí' ;j o fï mÍlaIKfha ma,diaála n`ÿk u`.ska
;dm ydkshla isÿ fkd fõ hehs Wml,amkh lrkq ,efí ^fï Wml,amkh iïmQ¾K
i;Hhla fkdfõ'& tkï ma,diaála n`ÿk ;dm mßjdrlhla f,i Wml,amkh lrhs
(Qn`ÿk = 0). tkï m%;sls%hdfõ § uqod yßk ;dmh uq¿ukska u ødjKfha we;s c,h
u`.ska Wrd .kakd nj o wjg mßirhg fyda n`ÿk Wrd .ekSu ksid ;dmh wmf;a
fkdhk nj o Wml,amkh flf¾'
Q m%;sls%hdj = -Q c,h
tu ksid" m%;sls%hdfõ tka;e,ams úm¾hdih" ΔH jkafka"
WmlrK ridhk øjH

3
· îlrh 250/500 cm · >k NaOH fm;s 20 g ûd¾.
folg u&
· WIaK;ajudkh · 1.00 mol dm-3 NaOH~250cm3
· ùÿre l+r
· ridhksl ;=,dj · 2.00 mol dm-3 HCl ~ 500 cm3
· ñkqï ird 2 (100 cm3)
· ma,diaála n`ÿkla (100/200 cm3) · wdi%e; c,h
37
.=rejrhdg igykla( isiqka lKavdhï y;rlg fnod tla tla lKavdhug tla mÍlaIKhla
isÿ lsÍug Wmfoia oS wjidkfha § ,enqKq m%;sM, yqjudre lr idlÉPd
l< yels h'
mßlaIKd;aul wegjqu(
my; rEmigyfka wdldrhg wegjqu ilikak¡
rEmh 8'1( mÍlaIKd;aul wegjqu
l%uh(
I ud¾.h:
A m%;sl%shdj. NaOH (s) {10 g} + H2O (l) {125 cm3} ® NaOH (aq) (125 cm3) : DH1
i. rEmigyfka olajd we;s wdldrhg ma,diaála n`ÿk 500 cm3 îlrh ;=< ;nkak¡
ii by; ma,diaála n`ÿkg wdi%e; c,h 125.0 cm3 la oud tys WIaK;ajh uek .kak'
(t1).
iii >k NaOH 10.00 g la ksjerÈj lsrd f.k by; úia;r lrk ,o n÷kg tlajru
oud ùÿre l+rlska l,;kak¡ Wmßu WIaK;ajh (t2) <Õd jk f;la iEu ;;amr
;syl § u WIaK;ajh uek .kak¡
B m%;sl%shdj. NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) {2 M, 125 cm3} ® NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) ) : DH2
-3 3
i. îlrhlg 2.00 mol dm HCl ødjK 125.0 cm la uek f.k" tys WIaK;ajh igyka
lr .kak¡ (t3).
ii. A m%;sl%shdfõ (iii) § idod .;a NaOH ødjK 125.0 cm3lg by; HCl (t4) ødjKh
oukak'
iii. fyd|ska l,;d Wmßu WIaK;ajh (t5) <Õd jk f;la iEu ;;amr ;syl oS u
WIaK;ajh uek .kak¡
C m%;sl%shdj. HCl (aq){2 M, 125 cm3} +H2O (l){125 cm3}® HCl (aq){1 M, 250 cm3} : DH3
i. ma,diaála n`ÿk" WIaK;ajudk yd ùÿre l+r wdi%e; c,fhka(t6) fyd|ska fidaod
yßkak¡
ii. 2.00 mol dm-3 HCl 125.0 cm3 la uekf.k (t7) wdi%e; c,h 125.0 cm3la wvx.=
ma,diaála n`ÿkg oud fmr mßÈ WIaK;ajh igyka lr .kak(t8).
38
II ud¾.h
D m%;sl%shdj. NaOH (s) {10 g} + HCl (aq) {1 M, 250 cm3} ® NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) : DH4
i. >k NaOH 10.00 g la ksjerÈj lsrd f.k by; C ii ys úia;r lrk ,o n÷kg
tlajru oud f.k ùÿre l+rlska l,;kak¡ (T9 (iii) iii Wmßu WIaK;ajh (t10) ,Õd
jk f;la iEu ;;amr ;syl § u WIaK;ajh uek .kak¡
my; oelafjk wdldrhg m%;sM, igyka lrkak¡
mrSlaIKd;aul m%;sM,(
A m%;sl%shdj. NaOH (s) {10 g} + H2O (l) {125 cm3} ® NaOH (aq) : DH1
NaOH ys ialkaOh c,fha wdrïNl ødjKfha wjidk ødjKfha Dt / °C

WIaK;ajh / °C (t1) WIaK;ajh / °C (t2) t2 - t1
10.00 g
B m%;sl%shdj. NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) {2 M, 125 cm3} ® NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) ) : DH2
NaOH ys wdrïNl HCl ys wdrïNl ødjKfha wjidk ødjKfha Dt / °C

WIaK;ajh / °C (t3) WIaK;ajh / °C (t3`) WIaK;ajh / °C (t5) t4 – {(t3+ t4`)/2 }
C m%;sl%shdj. HCl (aq){2 M, 125 cm3} +H2O (l){125 cm3}® HCl (aq){1 M, 250 cm3} : DH3
H2O ys wdrïNl HCl ys wdrïNl ødjKfha wjidk ødjKfha Dt / °C

WIaK;ajh / °C (t6) WIaK;ajh / °C (t7`) WIaK;ajh / °C (t8) t8 – {(t6+ t7`)/2 }
D m%;sl%shdj. NaOH (s) {10 g} + HCl (aq) {1 M, 250 cm3} ® NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) : DH4
NaOH ys ialkaOh HCl ys wdrïNl ødjKfha wjidk ødjKfha Δt / °C

WIaK;ajh °C (t9) WIaK;ajh / °C (t10) T10 – t9
.Kkh lsÍï(
tla tla wjia:dfõ oS HCl yd NaOH ujq, .Kk ksudkh lrkak' tys §
iSudldß m%;sldrlh fidhkak'
A, B, C yd D m%;sls%hdj, oS ksoyia jk ;dm m%udKh ksudkh lrkak' c,fha
úYsIag ;dm Odß;dj = 4.2 J g-1 K-1 iy c,fha >k;ajh 1.000gcm-3
Q = mcΔT
Q = (V cm3 × 1.000 g cm-3) × 4.2 J g-1 K-1 × ΔT = J (øjKfha iuia; mßudj V&
tla tla mshjr wdYs%;j isÿ jk tka;e,ams úm¾hdi y÷kd .ekSu
39
a. A m%;sl%shdj i|yd ΔH1 NaOH i|yd kJ g-1 j,ska .Kkh lsÍu } '''''''''''' kJ g-1
iy' my; iólrKh Ndú;fhka NaOH i|yd kJ mol-1 j,ska'
Q
ΔH1 = = .......... kJ mol-1
m%;sl%shlh îSudldÍ& ujq, .Kk
b. B m%;sl%shdj i|yd ΔH2 NaOH i|yd kJ g-1 j,ska .Kkh lsÍu } '''''''''' kJ g-1
iy my; iólrKh Ndú;fhka NaOH i|yd' kJ mol-1 j,ska'
Q
ΔH2 = = .......... kJ mol-1
m%;sl%shlh îSudldÍ& ujq, .Kk
tfiau
c. C m%;sl%shdj i|yd ΔH3 kJ mol-1 .Kkh lsÍu NaOH } '''''''''' kJ mol-1
d. D m%;sl%shdj i|yd ΔH4 kJ mol-1 .Kkh lsÍu NaOH } '''''''''' kJ mol-1
fyia kshuh wdo¾Ykh lsÍu: iqÿiq wdldrhlg by; ud¾. fol w;r iïnkaO;dj fyia
kshuhg wkqj wdo¾Ykh lrkak¡
fyia kshuh i;H kï"
ΔH1 + ΔH2 = ΔH3 + ΔH4 jkq we;'
igyk: Wml,amkhla f,i fï mrSlaIKfha oS ma,diaála n`ÿk uÕska Wrd .;a

;dmh fkdi,ld yeÍu fhdod .ekSu ksid tka;e,amsh ks¾Kh lsÍfï ie,lsh
hq;= fodaIhla mj;S¡ fï ma,diaála n`ÿfka ;dm Odrs;dj ir, mÍlaIKhla uÕska
ks¾Kh lr th" ;dmh .Kkh lsÍu i|yd fhdod .ekSfuka fodaIh uÕ yrjd
.; yels h¡
ma,diaála n`ÿfka ;dm Odß;dj ksudKh lsÍu:
by; mÍlaIKhg fhdod .;a wegjqu Ndú;d lrkak¡

1. by; ma,diaála n`ÿkg wdi%e; c,h 100.0 cm3 la oud tys WIaK;ajh uek
.kak' (t11).
2. c,h 200.0 cm3la fjk;a îlrhlg f.k 80 °C olajd r;a lrkak¡
3. WKq c,h 100.0cm3 la ;j;a îlrhlg uek f.k tys WIaK;ajh igyka lr
.kak¡ (t12).
4. le,ß ógrh ;=< ldur WIaK;ajfha mj;sk c,hg by; i|yka WKq c,h
laIKslj tla lr fyd|ska l,;ñka iEu ;;amr 30lg jrla u ñks;a;= 5la
muK WIaK;ajh igyka lr .kak' ksh; WIaK;ajh ^t13& ,nd .kak'
5.
40
.Kkh lsÍï
• WKq c,h u.ska isÿ jk ;dm ydksh Q1
Q = ( 100 cm3 × 1 g cm-3 ) × 4.2 J g-1 K-1 × ( t12 – t13 ) K × ( 1kJ / 103 J )
• le,ßógrh u.ska Wrd.;a ;dmh (Qc)
Qc = Cc J K-1 × ( t13 – t11 ) K × ( 1 kJ / 103 J. )
• isis,a c,h u.ska Wrd.;a ;dmh (Q2)
Q2 = ( 100 cm3 × 1 g cm3 ) × 4.2 J g-1 K-1 × ( t13 – t11 ) K × ( 1 kJ / 103 J )
• Qc + Q3 = Q hk iólrKfhka Cc .Kkh lrkak'
le,ßógrfha ;dm Odß;dj Cc ksudkh lsÍfuka miq" my; iólrK fhdod.ksñka

m%;sl%shdj, tka;e,ams úm¾hdi .Kkh lrkak'
Qrxn = – [ c,h u.ska Wrd.;a ;dmh + le,ßógrh u.ska Wrd.;a ;dmh ]
Qrxn = – [ ( m c Δt ) + Cc Δt ]
tkhska" ^le,ß ógrfha ;dm Odß;d Ndú;d fkdlr& kj tka;e,ams úm¾hdih kJ

mol-1 j,ska .Kkh lr" l,ska ,nd.;a w.hhka iu. ikaikaokh lrkak'
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak

1' mÍlaIKfha fodaI wju lr.kafka flfia o@
2' A, B, C yd D m%;sl%shdj, iïu; tka;e,ams w.hhka" ΔHrxn. ksudkh lrk ,o
w.hkaf.ka wm.ukh ùu idlÉPd lrkak'
ΔH3 hk w.h .ek woyia olajkak'
3' ish¨ m%;sl%shd i|yd zi;HZ Hrxn w.hka .Kkh lsÍug iïu; W;amdok tka;e,ams
w.hka Ndú;d lrkak' ish¨ m%;sl%shd i|yd .Kkh lsÍug iEu m%;sl%shdjl u
c,Sh whksl iólrK i,lkak'
4' my; iólrK 3 Tng § we;' tajd Ndú;d lr fyia kshuh wdo¾Ykh lsÍug
mÍlaIKd;aul l%uhla f.dvkxjkak'
P m%;sl%shdj NaOH(s) → NaOH(aq)
Q m%;sl%shdj NaOH(s) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
R m%;sl%shdj NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
41
mÍlaIKh 9( jd;h" c,h iy wï, iu`. s f.dkqfõ f,dayj, m%;sls%hd ixikaokh
wruqKq:
1. s f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH jd;h" c,h yd wï, iu`. isÿ lrk m%;sls%hd y`ÿkd
.ekSu
2. by; m%;sls%hdj, mÍlaIK iòyd ;=,s; ridhksl iólrK ,sùu
3. 1 yd 2 ldKavj, my<g hEfï § yd wdj¾;hla Èf.a jfï isg ol=Kg
hEfï § ksÍlaIKh lrk ,o uQ,øjHj, wdj¾;s; rgd y`ÿkd .ekSu yd
meyeÈ,s lsÍu
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak:

1. s f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH jd;fha we;s O2 iu`. olajk m%;sls%hd iòyd ;=,s;
ridhksl iólrK ,shkak'
2. s f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH isis,a c,h yd WKq c,h iu`. olajk m%;sls%hd iòyd
3. s f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH ;kql HCl iu`. olajk m%;sls%hd iòyd ;=,s;
ye`Èkaùu:
ixhqc;d ljpfha we;s s ldlaIslhg wjidk bf,lafg%dakh we;=¿ jk uQ,øjH s
f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH fõ' tneúka wdj¾;s;d j.=fõ 1 yd 2 ldKav muKla s f.dkqjg
wh;a fõ' ldKavfha my<g hEfï § yd wdj¾;hla Èf.a bÈßhg hEfï § s f.dkqfõ
uQ,øjH jd;h" c,h iy ;kql wï, iu`. olajk m%;sls%hdYS,s;ajfha ksÍlaIKh
l< yels úp,k mj;S' fï mÍlaIKh u`.ska tu rgd mÍlaIKd;aulj ksÍlaIKh
flf¾'
WmlrK ridhk øjH

• mÍlaId k, • s f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH (Na, Mg, Ca) 0.5 g ne.ska
• lelEreï k, • ;kql HCl fyda ;kql H2SO4 (25 ml)
• ìkaÿ fy<kh • msfkdama;,Ska o¾Ylh (ìkaÿ lSmhla)
• ùÿre l+re
• îlr (400 ml)
• nkaika odylh
• mÍlaId k, ròjk
• fmryka lvodis" je,s
lvodis
wdrlaIs; l%fudamdhhka:
· Na j, m%;sls%hd b;d fõ.j;a msmsfrk iq¨ úh yels ksid mßyrKfha § mßiaiï
jkak'
· Na lene,a,la lsis úfgl wï, ødjKhlg fkdoukak'
· ridhk øjH mßyrKfha § weia wdjrK iy w;a wdjrK m,¢kak'
42
l%uh(
mÍlaIKh isÿ lr ksÍlaIK jd¾;d lsÍu iòyd my; § we;s j.=j Ndú; lrkak'
ksÍlaIK yd ks.uk:
mÍlaIKh ksÍlaIKh ;=,s; ridhksl

iólrK iu`. ks.uk
1 s f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH .nvd lr we;s Na = fya;=:
wdldrh jd¾;d lrkak' Mg =
2 Na f,day lene,a,la lmd w¨;a w¨;a mDIaGh:

mDIaGh ksÍlaIKh lrkak' úkdä
5la muK jd;hg ksrdjrKh
úkdä 5 lg miq:
lrkak'
3 5 cm muK È.ska hq;= Mg máhla w¨;a mDIaGh:
f.k je,s lvodishlska msßisÿ
lrkak' th úkdä 15la muK
úkdä 5 lg miq.:
jd;hg ksrdjrKh lr ksÍlaIK
jd¾;d lrkak'
4 Mg má lene,a,la jd;fha oykh
lrkak' ksÍlaIK jd¾;d lrkak'
5 wvla c,h msrjQ fødaksldjlg
msfkdama;,Ska o¾Ylh iaj,amhla
tl;= lrkak' fmryka lvodishla
u`.ska msßisÿ l< b;d l=vd Na
lene,a,la (uqx weghl m%udKh)
c,hg oukak' ^wdrlaIs; weia
wdjrK m,`Èkak& ksÍlaIK jd¾;d
lrkak'
6 je,s lvodishla u`.ska msßisÿ lrk

,o Mg máhla c,h yd msfkdma;,Ska
wvx.= mÍlaIK k,hlg oukak'
ksÍlaIK jd¾;d lrkak'
7 c,h yd msfkdma;,Ska wvx.= fjk;a

mÍlaIK k,hlg msßisÿ Mg má
lene,a,la oukak' r;a lr kej;
ksÍlaIKh lrkak' ksÍlaIK jd¾;d
lrkak'
8 msßisÿ Mg má lene,a,la mÍlaIK
k,hlg oud thg ;kql HCl
wï,h tl;= lrkak' ksÍlaIK
jd¾;d lrkak'
43
idlÉPdj:
· Na jeks m%;sls%hdYS,s uQ,øjH úoHd.drfha .nvd lr ;eîfï § iuyr wdrlaIs;
mshjr wkq.ukh l< hq;af;a wehs@
· Na f,dayh ;kql wï, iu`. olajk m%;sls%hdj úoHd.drfha § isÿ fkdlrkafka
wehs@
· Mg f,day máhla c,h iu`. m%;sls%hdj wOHhkfha oS msfkdma;,Skaj, ld¾hh
l=ula o@ c,fha j¾K fjkila wfmalaId lrhs o@ fya;=j olajkak'
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak(
c,h, wï, iu`. m%;sls%hd lsÍfï § yd jd;hg ksrdjrKh lsÍfï § 1 jk

ldKavfha yd 2 jk ldKavfha f,dayj, m%;sls%hdYS,s;ajh ixikaokh lrkak'
44
mÍlaIKh 10( myka is¿ mÍlaIdfjka ixfhda.j, we;s Li, Na, K, Ca, Sr, Ba uQ,øjH
y`ÿkd .ekSu'
wruqKq:
1. iqÿiq l%u Ndú;h u`.ska úúO f,day ,jK mÍlaIdj
2. oe,af,a j¾Kh u`.ska f,day whkh y`ÿkd .ekSu
3. f,dayh u; mokï jQ úúO j¾K ksÍlaIKh ùfï úoHd;aul miqìu meyeÈ,s
lsÍu
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak:

1. úoHq;a pqïNl j¾Kdj,sfha úúO l,dm fudkjd o@
2. oDYH l,dmfha ;rx. wdhdu mrdih kefkdaógrj,ska olajkak'
3. mrudKql j¾Kdj,shla hkq l=ula o@ yhsv%cka ksoiqkla f,i .ksñka
j¾Kdj,shl úúO f¾Ld ksÍlaIKh ùu meyeÈ,s lrkak'
ye`Èkaùu:
oDYH wdf,dalh hkq úoHq;a pqïNl j¾Kdj,sfha wmg b;d iqmqreÿ l,dmhls' úoHq;a
pqïNl j¾Kdj,sfha oDYH l,dmfha mj;sk úúO ;rx. wdhdu fya;=fjka wmg úúO
j¾K oelsh yels h. mrudKqjl we;s bf,lafg%dak Yla;sh ,ndf.k my, Yla;s uÜgul
isg by, Yla;s uÜgulg .uka lrhs' mykais¿ mÍlaIdfõ oS bf,lafg%dak ixl%uK j,g
wjYH Yla;sh ;dmh u`.ska ,nd foa' by, Yla;s uÜgï j, we;s bf,lafg%dak my, Yla;s
uÜgug meñKSfï oS úoHq;a pqïNl úlsrKhla f,i Yla;sh ksoyia fõ' fuu úoHq;a
pqïNl úlsrK j, ;rx. wdhduh oDYH l,dmhg wh;a fõ kï" wmg j¾K oelsh yels
h' úúO f,day uqla; lrk úlsrK oDIH l,dmfha úúO mrdij, msysgk neúka f,dayhg
wdfõKsl jQ úúO j¾K oe,af,a oelsh yels fõ' fuh f,day y`ÿkd.ekSfï l%uhla f,i
fhdod .kS'
WmlrK ridhk øjH

• Trf,daiq ;eáh • Li+, Na+,K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+ wvx.= ,jK
• ìxÿ fy,kh • ^c,fha ødjH ,jK&
• ùÿre l+r • idkaø HCl wï,h
• ma,eákï lïìhla/ ksfl%daï
lïìhla/ ñksrka l+rla
• nkaika odylh
• fldfnda,aÜ ùÿre
wdrlaIs; l%fudamdh:
· idkaø HCl mßyrKfha oS ms,siaiSïj,ska wdrlaId ùug mßiaiï úh hq;= h'
· tla;rd f,dayhla iòyd mÍlaId lsÍug fmr ksfl%dafrdaï lïìh$ ma,eákï
lïìh$ ñksrka l+r oe,af,a j¾Khla fkdfmkajk ;=re msßisÿ lr .; hq;= h'
45
l%uh:
· ksfl%daï fyda ma,eákï lïìh idkaø HCl ys .s,ajd msßisÿ lr nkaika oe,a,g
w,a,kak' oe,af,a j¾Khla fkdfmkajk ;=re fuh isÿ lrkak'
· ma,eákï fyda ksfl%daï lïìh idkaø HCl j,ska f;;a lrk ,o f,day ,jKfha
.s,ajkak. bkamiq ma,eákï lïìh fyda ksfl%daï lïìh nkaika oe,af,a ks,a
l,dmhg w,a,d oe,af,a j¾Kh jd¾;d lrkak.
· ksÍlaIK jd¾;d lsÍu iòyd my; j.=j Ndú; lrkak' oe,af,a j¾Kh igyka
lsÍug mdg mekai,a Ndú; lrkak'
ksÍlaIK iy ks.uk:
ixfhda.h oe,af,a j¾Kh

1 Li2CO3
2 NaCl
3 Na2SO4
4 Na2CO3
5 KCl
6 MgCl2
7 MgSO4
8 CaCl2
9 SrCl2
10 BaCl2
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak:

1. idkaø HCl wï,h Ndú; lr Pt lïìh fyda ksfl%daï lïìh msßisÿ lr .kafka
wehs oehs meyeÈ,s lrkak'
2. nkaika oe,a,g we,a,Sug fmr f,day ,jKh wvx.= Pt fyda ksfl%daï lïìh
idkaø HClj,ska f;;a lrkafka wehs oehs meyeÈ,s lrkak.
3. oe,a,g j¾Khla ,nd fkdfokafka l=uk uQ,øjHh u.ska o@
4. úúO wekdhk yd tl u legdhkh wvx.= f,day ,jK iòyd oe,af,a tl u
j¾Kh fyda úúO j¾K Tng ksÍlaIK fõ o@ (Wod( NaCl, Na2SO4)
5. Tn nkaika oe,af,a ks,a l,dmh mykais¿ mÍlaIdj iòyd Ndú; lrkafka wehs@
6. hlv fyda Cu lïìhla fjkqjg Pt fyda ksfl%daï w;ßka jvd iqÿiq f,dayh l=ula
o@
7. úúO legdhk wvx.= f,day ,jK ñY%Khla iòyd mykais¿ mÍlaIdj Ndú; l<
yels o?
8. s f.dkqjg wh;a fkdjk kuq;a nkaika oe,a,g j¾Khla fok fjk;a
uQ,øjHhla kï lrkak.
9. K+whk yd Na+ whk fjka lr y÷kd .ekSug fldfnda,aÜ ùÿre fhdod .kafka
flfia o? meyeÈ,s lrkak'
46
mÍlaIKh 11( wekdhk y`ÿkd .ekSu (SO42-, SO32-, S2O32-, S2-, CO32-, NO3-, NO2-)
wruqKq:
1. c,Sh ødjKhl we;s SO42-, SO32-, S2O32-, S2-, CO32-, NO3-, NO2- y`ÿkd .ekSu
2. ldnkavfhdlaihsâ jdhqj y`ÿkd .ekSu
3. úi¾ck k, Ndú; lsÍfï l=i,;dj ,nd .ekSu
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak:

my; m%;sl%shd iïmQ¾K lr ;=,s; whksl iólrK ,shkak.
1. S2O3) 2-(aq) + H+ (aq)
-
2. SO32 (aq) + H+ (aq)
-
3. S2 (aq) + H+(aq)
4. NO2-(aq) + H+(aq)
5. CO32-(aq) + H+(aq)
WmlrK ridhk øjH

• mÍlaId k, • AgNO3 ødjKh (0.10 moldm-3)
• lelEreï k, • SO42-, SO32-, S2O32-, S2- ,NO3-, NO2- whk j, Na+
fyda K+ ,jK (1.0 mol dm-3)
• ìkaÿ fy<kh • ;kql NaOH c,Sh ødjKh
• ùÿre l+re • ;kql HCl wï,h
• îlr (400 ml) • BaCl2 ødjKh (0.01 mol dm-3)
• nkaika odylh • Ni2+(aq) yd Cu2+c,Sh ødjKh (0.01 mol dm-3)
• mÍlaId k, ròjk • Pb(NO3)2 (aq)
• fmryka lvodis • idkaø H2SO4 wï,h
• c, ;dml • Fe2+c,Sh ødjKh (1.0 mol dm-3)
• r;=$ ks,a ,sÜuia • we¨ñkshï l=vq
• whsia leg • idkaø NaOH
• fla;= ma,dial= • idkaø HCl
• WIaK;aj udkh • weks,Ska fyda p-aminosulphonic wï,h , *Sfkda,a
• úi¾ck k, • Na2CO3 (c, ødjH ldnfkag)
• yqkq Èhr
• CaCl2 c,Sh ødjKh
47
l%uh: mÍlaIKh isÿ lr ksÍlaIK jd¾;d lsÍug my; j.=j Ndú; lrkak'
mÍlaIKh ksÍlaIKh( j¾Kh" ;=,s; ridhksl

wjlafIamh" jdhq iólrK iu`. ks.uk
msgùu wdÈh
SO4 , SO , S2O , S y`ÿkd .ekSu (iEu wekdhk ødjKhlska u 1 cm3 ne.ska mÍlaId
2-
3
2-
3
2- 2-
k,hg oud.kak')
1 SO42- whk iòyd:
BaCl2 ødjK 1 cm3 la muK tl;=
lrkak' bka miq ;kql HCl tl;=
lrkak'
2 SO32- whk iòyd:

(i) BaCl2 ødjK 1cm3la tl;=
lrkak' bka miq ;kql HCl
tl;= lrkak'
(ii) >k ixfhda.fha 0.5 glg
;kql HCl l=vd m%udKhla
tl;= lr WKqiqï lrkak¡
lelEreï k,fha újD;
fl<jrg wdï,slD;
K2Cr2O7j,ska fmdÕjk ,o
fmryka lvodishla w,a,kak¡
3 S2- whk iòyd:
(i) AgNO3 ødjKh fyda CuSO4
ødjKh tl;= lrkak'
(ii) >k ixfhda.hg ;kql
HCl ødjKh tl;= lrkak.
Pb(CH3COO)2j,ska fmdÕjk
,o fmryka lvodishla
w,a,kak¡
4 S2O32- whk iòyd:

(i) ;kql HCl ødjKh tl;=
lrkak' tl;= l< jydu yd
ál fõ,djlg miqj ,efnk
ksÍlaIK igyka lrkak¡
îi& lelEreï k,fha újD;
fl<jrg wdï,slD;
K2Cr2O7j,ska fmdÕjk ,o
fmryka lvodishla w,a,kak¡
(iii) AgNO3 ødjKh tl;= lr
ødjKh WKqiqï lrkak¡
(iv) Pb(CH3COO)2 ødjKh tl;=
lr ,efnk ødjKh r;a
lrkak'
48
mÍlaIKh ksÍlaIKh ;=,s; ridhksl
iólrK iu`. ks.uk
NO3-, NO2- y`ÿkd .ekSu( iEu wekdhk ødjKhlska u 1 cm3 la mÍlaId k,hg oud
.kak
1 NO3- iòyd:
NO3–(aq) whk ødjK 2 cm3lg
w¨; idok ,o ix;Dma; FeSO4
ødjK 3 cm3 la muK oud idkaø
H2SO4 3 - 4 cm3 la mÍlaId k,h
Èf.a fifuka tl;= lrkak (ÿUqre
j,h mÍlaIdj) ødjKh fi,jQ úg
fyda ødjKh WKqiqï l< úg ÿUqre
j,h fkdfmfka¡
2 NO2- iòyd:
>k ixfhda.hg ;kql HCl
tl;= lrkak'
3 NO3- whk yd NO2- whk iòyd
NO2- /NO3- ødjKfhka 1 cm3
la f.k Al l=vq$ fvjd¾vd ñY%
f,dayh Zn ¥ú,s tl;= lr bka miq
idkaø NaOH (aq) tl;= lrkak.
wjYH kï ødjKh fifuka r;a
lrkak' ksoyia jk jdhqj f;; r;=
,sÜuia lvodishla fyda fkia,¾
m%;sldrlh fm`.jQ fmryka
lvodishla u`.ska mÍlaId lrkak'
CO32- whk y`ÿkd .ekSu
1 >k ldnfkaghg (~0.5 g) ;kql

HCl tl;= lrkak. msg jk jdhqj"
úi¾ck k,hla Ndú;fhka yqkq
Èhr ;=<g hjkak' jeämqr jd;h
yqkq Èhr ;=<g È.gu hjkak'
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak(
(1) my; whk fjka lr y÷kd .kafka flfia o? (>k ixfhda. imhd we;)
(i) SO42- yd SO32-
(ii) SO32- yd S2O32-
(iii)NO3- yd NO2-
(2) khsfÜ%g yd khsg%hsg ødjK fjka lr y÷kd.ekSu i|yd by; úia;r lrk ,o
ÿUqre j,h mÍlaIdj Ndú; l< yels o@ fya;= olajkak'
49
mÍlaIKh 12( jd;fha khsg%cka we;s nj mrSlaIKd;aulj fmkaùu
wruqKq( Mg jd;h iu`. olajk m%;sls%hd yd Mg3N2 iEoSu wdo¾Ykh lsÍu'
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak:

1. Mg máhla jd;hg ksrdjrKh l< úg iy jd;fha oykh l< úg isÿjk m%;sls%hd
iòyd ;=,s; ridhksl iólrK ,shkak'
2. Mg f,dayh isis,a c,h yd WKq c,h iu`. isÿ lrk m%;sls%hd iòyd ;=,s; iólrK
,shkak'
ye`Èkaùu:
wm wdYajdi lrk jd;h jdhq lSmhl ñY%Khls' jd;fha m%Odk ix>glh jk khsg%cka
79% muK jk w;r fojkqj jeämqr u we;s Tlaiscka 20%la muK fõ' wfkla jdhQka
jk ldnkavfhdlaihsâ yd ksIalS%h jdhQka wdÈh 1%la muK wvx.= fõ' tneúka jd;h
khsg%cka ,nd fok m%Odk m%Njh f,i ls%hd lrhs' fï mÍlaIKfha oS jd;fha khsg%cka
we;s nj wdo¾Ykh lrkqfha Mg máhla jd;fha oykh lsÍfuka Mg3N2 ,nd .ekSu u`.sks'
túg Mg3N2 c,h iu`. idok wefudakshd jdhqj y`ÿkd .ekSu u`.ska Mg3N2 iE÷k nj
iaÒr lr tu`.ska jd;fha khsg%cka we;s nj iaÒr l< yels h'
WmlrK ridhk øjH

• mshk iys; fldaj • Mg má
• ueá ;%sfldaKh • fkia,¾ m%;sldrlh
• ìkaÿ fy<kh
• ùÿre l+r
• nkaika odylh
• veys w`vqj
• je,s lvodis
• ,sÜuia lvodis
• f;mdj
mÍlaIK wegjqu(
rEmh 12'1 - mÍlaIKd;aul wegjqu
50
wdrlaIs; mshjr:
· fldaj Ndú;fha oS mßiaiï jkak'
· Mg máh oykh jk úg fldaj foi Rcqj fkdn,kak'
· wdrlaIs; weia wdjrK iy w;a jeiqï Ndú; lrkak'
l%uh:
· Mg má lene,a, je,s lvodishla u`.ska msßisÿ lr .kak'
· th l=vd len,sj,g lmd .kak¡
· Mg len,s fldaj ;=< ;nd mshfkka jid meh ½l muK ld,hla r;a lrkak' r;a
lrk w;r;=r mshk újD; fkdlrkak¡
· fldaj ldur WIaK;ajhg meñfKk ;=re ;nkak'
· fkia,¾ m%;sldrlfhka iaj,am mßudjla iqÿ wjlafIamhg tl;= lrkak¡
· j¾K úm¾hdi ksÍlaIKh lrkak'
m%;sM,(
1. wjlafIamhg fkia,¾ m%;sldrlh tl;= l< úg ksÍlaIKh lrk j¾K úm¾hdih
l=ula o@
………………………………………………………………………………………
2. by; m%;sM,h wkqj msg jQ jdhqj y`ÿkd .kak'
………………………………………………………………………………………
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak(

1. mÍlaIKh weröug fmr Mg máh msßisÿ lr.; hq;af;a wehs@
2. Mg3N2 c,h iuÕ olajk m%;sl%shdj i|yd ;=,s; ridhksl iólrKh
,shkak¡ f;;a lrk ,o r;= ,sÜuia lvodishla msg jk jdhqjg we,aÆ úg
ksÍlaIKh jk j¾K úm¾hdih l=ula o@
51
mÍlaIKh 13( fya,hsv y`ÿkd .ekSu
wruqK: laf,darhsv" fn%dauhsv yd whvhsv whk tajd fjka fjka j ødjKj, wvx.=j
we;s úg y`ÿkd .ekSfï l=i,;dj j¾Okh lr .ekSu
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak:

1. laf,darhsv" fn%dauhsv yd whvhsv whk laf,daÍka Èhrh" is,aj¾ khsfÜ%g yd f,â
weisfÜÜ iu`. olajk m%;sl%shd i|yd ;=,s; ridhksl iólrK ,shkak

WmlrK ridhk øjH
• mÍlaId k, • Cl-, Br-, I- j, Na+ fyda K+ fyda NH4+ ,jK(0.10
• lelEreï k, moldm-3 ødjK)
• ìxÿ fy<kh • AgNO3 ødjKh (0.1 moldm-3)
• ùÿre l+re • idkaø H2SO4 wï,h
• îlr (400 ml) • Pb(NO3)2 (aq) fyda Pb(CH3COO)2 (aq)
• nkaika odylh • laf,daÍka Èhr
• mÍlaId k, w`vq • laf,dfrdf*daï fyda ldnka fgg%dlaf,darhsâ
• fmryka lvodis • ;kql NH4OH ødjKh (1.0 moldm-3)
• c, ;dmlh • ;kql HNO3 wï,h
• ,sÜuia m;% • msIag ødjKh
l%uh( laf,darhsv" fn%dauhsv yd whvhsâ iòyd my; j.=fõ oelafjk mÍlaIK fjk
fjk u isÿ lr ksÍlaIK igyka lrkak'
mÍlaIKh ksÍlaIKh ks.ukh

;=,s; ridhkh
u`.ska
mÍlaIKh 1: 1 cm3 fya,hsv ødjK fjk fjk u mÍlaId k,j,g oud .kak'
laf,darhsv iòyd(
(i) is,aj¾ khsfÜ%Ü ødjK iaj,amh ne.ska
tl;= lr" wjlafIamhla we;s jkafka oehs
ksÍlaIKh lrkak' ;kql HNO3 wï,h tla
lrkak¡
(ii) fï wjlafIamhg ;kql wefudakshd
ødjKh tl;= lr ksÍlaIK igyka lrkak.
fn%dauhsv iòyd:
lrkak¡
(ii) fï wjlafIamhg idkaø wefudakshd
52
whvhsâ iòyd(
lrkak¡
(ii) fï wjlafIamhg idkaø wefudakshd
mÍlaIKh 2: fya,hsv ødjK fjk fjk u k,j,g .kak'
laf,darhsv iòyd:
(i) Pb(CH3COO)2 ødjKh fya,hsvh
wvx.= mÍlaId k,hg tl;= lr" we;s jk
wjlafIamfha j¾Kh ksÍlaIKh lrkak'
(ii) c,h u`.ska wjlafIamh ;kql lr" r;a
lr" wk;=rej isis,a ùug bv yßkak'
fn%dauhsv iòyd(
(ii) c,h u`.ska wjlafIamh ;kql lr"
r;alr wk;=rej isis,a ùug bv yßkak'
whvhsâ iòyd:
(ii) c,h u`.ska wjlafIamh ;kql lr" r;a
lr" wk;=rej isis,a ùug bv yßkak'
mÍlaIKh 3: fya,hsv ødjK fjk fjk u k,j,g .kak'
laf,darhsv iòyd:
laf,darf*daï Èhr iaj,amhla tl;= lr
wk;=rej laf,daÍka Èhr ìkaÿ lsysmhla tl;=
lr" fydòska fid,jd" ldnksl ia;rfha
j¾Kh ksÍlaIKh lrkak'
fn%dauhsv iòyd:
laf,darf*daï Èhr iaj,amhla tl;= lr"
whvhsâ iòyd:
laf,darf*daï Èhr iaj,amhla tl;=lr
igyk : HCl wï,h uÕska ;kql lrk ,o fidaähï yhsfmd laf,darhsÜ ødjKh laf,daÍka
Èhrh f,i Ndú; l< yels h¡
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak(
>k NaCl, NaBr yd NaI ixfhda. idkaø H2SO4 iuÕ r;a l< úg isÿ jk m%;sls%hd i|yd
53
mÍlaIKh 14: KIO3 yd KI Ndú; lr ;fhdi,af*aÜ ødjKhla m%dudŒlrKh lsÍu
wruqK: frfvdlaia wkqudmkhla isÿ lsÍug wjYH oekqu ,nd .ekSug
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak:

1. hï ixfhda.hla m%d:ñl iïu;hla f,i fhdod .ekSug ;sìh hq;= w;HjYH
,laIK fudkjd o@
2. m%d:ñl iïu; f,i nyq,j Ndú; lrk ridhk øjH ,ehsia;=.; lrkak'
ye`Èkaùu:
fidaähï ;fhdi,af*aÜ ødjK myiqfjka m%dudKsl lr .kq ,nkafka iïu; fmdgEishï

whfâÜ ødjK okakd mßudjlg jeämqr fmdgEishï whvhsâ tl;= lsÍfuka iEfok
whãka wkqudmkh lsÍu u`.sks'
IO3-(aq) + 5I-(aq) + 6H+(aq) → 3I2(aq) + 3H2O (aq)
whãka idudkHfhka iïu; fidaähï ;fhdi,af*aÜ ødjKhla iu`. wkqudmkh lrkqfha

msIagh o¾Ylh f,i we;s úg § h'
2 S2O32- (aq) + I2(aq) → S4O62--(aq)+ 2I- (aq)
iïu; fmdgEishï whfâÜ ødjKfha idkaøKh okakd ksid whãka m%udKh .Kkh l<
yels h' túg wkqudmkfha mdGdxl iu`. iïnkaO lr ;fhdai,af*aÜ ødjKfha idkaøKh
.Kkh l< yels h'

WmlrK ridhk øjH
• ìhqfrÜgqj • ;kql H2SO4 wï,h (1 mol dm-3)
• msfmÜgqj • wdi%e; c,h
• ms`.ka .fvd< • msIag o¾Ylh
• wkqudmk ma,dial= • iïu; KIO3 ødjKh (0.02 mol dm-3)
• ùÿre l+re • KI ødjKh (0.5 mol dm-3)
• mqkS,h • K2S2O3 ødjKh (idkaøKh 0.02 mol dm-3 muK)
mÍlaIKd;aul wegjqu:
fidaähï ;fhdai,af*aÜ ødjKh
fla;= ma,dial=j
whäka ødjKh
iqÿ msÕka .fvd<
rEmh 14'1 mÍlaIKd;aul wegjqu
54
wdrlaIs; l%fudamdh: iïu; ødjKhla ms<sfh, lsÍfï § úh<s KIO3 Ndú; lsÍug j.
n,d .kak'
l%uh:
· 25 cm3 msfmÜgqj KIO3 ødjKfhka fidaod yßkak' bka miq KIO3 ødjKfhka 25 cm3
la uek wkqudmk ma,dial=jg oud .kak'
· thg ;kql i,a*shqßla wï,h 20 cm3 la tl;= lr bka miq KI ødjK 10 cm3 la
oukak'
· ìhqfrÜgqj K2S2O3 ødjKfhka fidaod yer th kshñ; i,l=K f;la K2S2O3
ødjKfhka mqrjd f.k iqÿ fmdaisf,aka ghs,a tl Wv wkqudmk ma,dial=j ;nd" tys
we;s ødjKh <d ly meye jk f;la wkqudmkh lrkak¡
· ;o ks,a - l¿ j¾Khla ,nd .ekSug msIag ødjK iaj,amhla tl;= lrkak'
· wka; ,laIHfha § wj¾K ødjKhla ,efnk ;=re K2S2O3 ødjKh ìkaÿj ne.ska
tl;= lrkak' ìhqfrÜgq mdGdxlh igyka lr" wkqudmkh ;=kajrla isÿ lrkak'
m%;sM,(
01 jdrh 02 jdrh 03 jdrh uOHkHh

ìhqfrÜgq mdGdxlh (cm3)
.Kkh:
(i) KI ødjKh" KIO3 ødjKh iu`. m%;sl%shd l< úg iEfok I2 ujq, .Kk .Kkh lrkak'
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) wkqudmkh l< ødjKfha wvx.= S2O32- whk ujq, .Kk .Kkh lrkak'
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
(iii) S2O32- whk ødjKfha idkaøKh .Kkh lrkak'

……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
55
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak(
1. fï mÍlaIKfha § ;kql H2SO4 ys ld¾hh l=ula o@
2. msIag o¾Ylh wka; ,laIHh wdikakfha § tl;= lrkafka wehs@
3. msfmÜgqj" ìhqfrÜgqj iy wkqudmk ma,dial=j hk wkqudmk WmlrK ;=fkka

l=ula tys wvx.= lsÍug n,dfmdfrd;a;= jk ødjKfhka fidaod yeÍu fkdl< hq;=
o@ fya;= olajkak'
4. fï mÍlaIKfha § ic, KIO3 Ndú; l< fkdyelafla wehs@
5. KIO3 ødjKh Ndú; lsÍu fjkqjg I2 idod .ekSu iòyd úl,am l%uhla meyeÈ,s
lrkak'
56
mÍlaIKh 15: wefudakshd jdhqj yd wefudakshï ,jK y`ÿkd .ekSu
wruqK: wefudakshd jdhqj yd wefudakshï ,jK we;s nj y`ÿkd .ekSug wjYH oekqu
,nd .ekSu
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak(

1. wefudakshd jdhqj ksmojd .ekSug Ndú; l< yels ridhksl m%;sls%hd ,ehsia;=.;
lrkak'
2. wefudakshd wvx.= jk fyda wefudakshd ,nd .; yels f.orfodf¾ Ndú; l<
yels øjH ,ehsia;=.; lrkak'
yeòskaùu(
wefudakshd hkq iajdNdúlj iEfok iy ñksiqka u`.ska ksmojd .kq ,nk khsg%cka wvx.=
ixfhda.hls' th wj¾K jdhqjla jk w;r" thg wdfõKsl wm%ikak .kaOhla we;'
wefudakshd Ndiañl ødjKhla idoñka b;d myiqfjka c,fha Èh fõ' nelaàßhd u`.ska"
Ydl iy i;a;aj fldgia Èrdm;a ùfuka iy i;a;aj wmøjH u`.ska iajdNdúlj wefudakshd
ksmofõ' ld¾ñlj fyan¾ l%ufhka wefudakshd ksmojd .kakd w;r" tys Ndú; b;d mq¿,a
mrdihl mj;S' tkï YS;ldrl" fmdfydr" mqmqrk øjH" j¾Kl" rEm,djKH øjH" msßisÿ
ldrl wdÈh iEoSug fhdod .kS'
wefudakshd c,fha Èh ùfuka ÿn, Ndiañl wefudakshï yhsfv%dlaihsâ iEoSug wkqj f;;
r;= ,sÜuia lene,a,la u`.ska wefudakshd we;s nj iaÒrj y`ÿkd .; yels h' tfuka u
fkia,¾ m%;sldrlh (K2HgI4) o wefudakshd jdhqj iy wefudakshï ,jK iaÒrj y`ÿkd
.ekSug Ndú; lrk w;r tys oS ;o ÿUqre j¾Khla fyda wjlafIamhla ,nd foa' NH3 jdhqj
idkaø HCl u;ska hejQ úg NH4Cl iqÿ ÿudrh mÍlaIKd.drfha § wefudakshd jdhqj y`ÿkd
.ekSfï mÍlaIdjla f,i Ndú; fõ'
WmlrK ridhk øjH

• mÍlaId k, • idkaø NH4OH
• lelEreï k, • >k (NH4)2 CO3
• úi¾ck k, • >k NH4 Cl
• nkaika odylh • idkaø HCl
• ùÿre l+re • fkia,¾ m%;sldrlh
• iameáhq,dj
• ,sÜuia lvodis
• fmryka lvodis
57
wdrlaIs; mshjr( wefudakshd wm%ikak jdhqjla neúka wd>%dKh fkdl< hq;= w;r"
iu iy weia iam¾Y ùu j<lajd .; hq;= h' tfuka u idkaø yhsfv%dlaf,daßla wï,h Ndú;
lsÍfï § ms,siaiSfuka je<lSug j. n,d .; hq;= h' fkia,¾ m%;sldrlfhys riosh ,jK
wvx.= ksid úI iys; jk neúka ifuys iam¾Y ùu j<lajd .ekSug úoHd.drfhka msg
ùug fmr" fyd`Èka w;a fidaod .; hq;= h' idkaø wefudakshd fnda;,h újD; l< hq;af;a
fyd`Èka jd;dY%h ,efnk ia:dkhl h'
l%uh( mÍlaIKh isÿ lsÍug iy ksÍlaIK jd¾;d lsÍu iòyd my; oS we;s j.=j Ndú;
lrkak'
mÍlaIdj ksÍlaIK
f;; idkaø HCl fkia,¾ ks.uk iy
ks,a fnda;,fha m%;sldrlh ridhksl
,sÜuia uQäh iu`. fm`.jQ fmryka m%;sls%hd
yd r;= lvodish
,sÜuia iu`. fyda
iu`. m%;sldrfhka
ìkaÿ lSmhla
tl;= lsÍu
1 idkaø wefudakshd fnda;,fha
lg <`.g fkia,¾
m%;sldrlh fm`.jQ fmryka
lvodish we,a,Su" idkaø HCl
fnda;,fha uQäh we,a,uS iy
f;; ,sÜuia lvodis we,a,Su
2 lelEreï k,hlg >k
wefudakshï ,jKhlska
iaj,amhla f.k" thg
c,Sh NaOH tl;= lrkak¡
msg jk jdhqj fkia,¾
m%;sldrlfhka fm`.jQ
fmryka lvodishla u`.ska"
idkaø HCl fnda;,fha uQäh
u`.ska iy ,sÜuia lvodis
u`.ska mÍlaId lrkak'
3 wefudakshdys ;kql ødjKhla
ms<sfh, lr" th ,sÜuia
lvodis u`.ska iy fkia,¾
m%;sldrlh ìkaÿ lSmhla
tl;= lsÍu u`.ska mÍlaId
lrkak'
4 >k NH4Cl iaj,amhla
c,fha Èh lr" ,sÜuia
m;% u.ska yd fkia,¾
m%;sldrlh ìkaÿ lSmhla
tl;= lsÍu u`.ska mÍlaId
lrkak'
58
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak(
1. wefudakshd jdhqj y`ÿkd .ekSfï § ,sÜuia lvodis f;;a l< hq;af;a wehs@
2. my; l=ula r;a lsÍfï § wefudakshd jdhqj ksoyia fõ o@ ;=,s; ridhksl iólrK
u`.ska meyeÈ,s lrkak'
a) (NH4)2 CO3 b) (NH4) NO3 c) NH4NO2 d) (NH4)2 Cr2O7
3. my; m%;sl%shd i|yd ;=,s; ridhksl iólrK ,shkak¡
a. NH4Cl + NaOH à
b. (NH4)2CO3 + KOH à
4. fkia,¾ m%;sldrlh iEoSu i|yd Ndú; lrk ridhksl øjH fudkjd o@
59
mÍlaIKh 16( s f.dkqfõ uQ,øjHj, ,jKj, ødjH;d mÍlaId lsÍu
wruqK( fmdÿ wekdhk iu`. c,fha § wjlafIam idok s f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH

idok ,jK y`ÿkd .ekSug wjYH oekqu yd l=i,;d ,nd .ekSu'
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak(

· my; wekdhk iu`. s f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH idok ixfhda.j, ridhksl iQ;% ,shkak'
^fya,hsv, OH-, CrO42− , PO43−, C2O42−,SO42−, SO32−, S2−, CO32−, HCO3− NO3−,
NO2−)
yeòskaùu(
uQ,øjH w;r we;s fjkialï iy wdj¾;s; rgd wjfndaO lr .ekSu iòyd s f.dkqfõ
uQ,øjH legdhk úúO wekdhk iu`. idok ixfhda.j, ødjH;dj ms<snò wOHhkh lsÍu
b;d jeo.;a fõ'
WmlrK ridhk øjH

mÍlaId k, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+,jK j,
lelEreï k, 1.0 mol dm-3 ødjK ^c,fha ødjH
ìkaÿ fy,kh ,jK)
ùÿre l+re
îlr (400 ml) 1.0 mol dm-3 jQ my; wekdhkj,
Na+ ,jK ødjK fya,hsv" CrO42− ,
PO43−, C2O42−,SO42−, SO32−, S2−,
CO32−, HCO3− NO3−, NO2− " OH−
l%uh(
· mka;sfha ish¨ isiqkag m%udKj;a jk mßÈ by; iòyka ødjK ms<sfh, lr .kak'
· mÍlaId k,j,g fjk fjk u legdhk ødjKj,ska 1 cm3 ne.ska oud.kak'
· my; j.=fõ wdldrhg iEu k,hlg u iEu wekdhkhlg u Na+ ,jKh tl;=
lr fyd`Èka fid,jkak'
· hï wjlafIamhla fyda j¾Khla fyda ,efí kï jd¾;d lrkak'
60
61
62
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak(
1. 1 jk ldKavfha uQ,øjH idok ixfhda.j, ødjH;d rgd meyeos,s lrkak'
2. 2 ldKavfha legdhk yhsfv%dlaihsv" ldnfkag yd i,af*ag iu`. idok ixfhda.j,
ødjH;d rgdjka c,SlrK tka;e,amsh yd oe,sia tka;e,amsh weiqfrka meyeÈ,s
lrkak'
3. by; mÍlaIKfha § j¾Kj;a wjlafIam iEfoa kï tajd ,ehsia;=.; lr" j¾Kh
we;s ùu meyeÈ,s lrkak' (legdhkh fyda wekdhkh wkqj
63
mÍlaIKh 17# s f.dkqfõ uQ,øjHj, khsfÜ%g" nhsldnfkag yd ldnfkagj, ;dm
ia:dhS;dj mÍlaId lsÍu
wruqK# s f.dkqfõ uQ,øjHj, khsfÜ%g" ldnfkag yd nhsldnfkagj, ;dm

ia:dhS;dfõ rgd y`ÿkd .ekSug wjYH oekqu ,nd §u
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak(

1. fílsx mjqv¾ yd frÈ fidaok fidavdj, (washing soda) wvx.= ridhksl ixfhda.h
l=ula o@
2. ldnfkag" nhsldnfkag iy khsfÜ%g wvx.= ixfhda.j, úfhdack WIaK;aj fidhd"
tajdfha n,dfmdfrd;a;= úh yels idfmalaI ;dm ia:dhS;d rgd mqfrdal:kh lrkak'
ye|skaùu(
fojk ldKavfha nhsldnfkag >k;ajfha fkdmj;S' tu ksid NaHCO3 muKla
my; mÍlaIdjg Ndckh lrkak'
WmlrK ridhk øjH

mÍlaId k, Na2CO3, NaHCO3, NaNO3
lelEreï k, K2CO3, KNO3
,sÜuia m;% MgCO3, Mg(NO3)2
ùÿre l+re CaCO3, Ca(NO3)2
nkaika odylh SrCO3, Sr(NO3)2
mÍlaId k, ròjk BaCO3, Ba(NO3)2
wdrlaIs; mshjr#
lelEreï k, oe,a,g we,a,Sfï § tl È.g È.= ld,hla we,a,Su fkdl< hq;= w;r"
fid,jñka oe,a,g we,a,Sug j. n,d .kak' tfuka u úi¾ck k,h Ndú; lsÍfï oS"
m<uqj yqkq Èhrhg hjd we;s me;a; bj;a lr" bka miq nkaika odylh bj;a lsÍug j.
n,d .kak' tu`.ska lelEreï k,h ;=<g yqkq Èhr .uka lsÍu j<ld .; yels h'
l%uh#
mÍlaIKh isÿ lsÍu iy ksÍlaIK jd¾;d lsÍu iòyd my; iòyka j.=j Ndú; lrkak'
mÍlaIKh 1( ldnfkag yd nhsldnfkag

>k ldnfkagh$ nhsldnfkagh 1 gla muK lelEreï k,hlg f.k úi¾ck k,hla
wvx.= wenhla iú lrkak' úi¾ck k,fha ksoyia fl<jr ½ cmla muK Wig yqkq Èhr
msrjQ mÍlaId k,hl .s,ajkak' lelEreï k,h r;a lrkak' jdhqjla ksoyia fõ kï th
iy mÍlaId k,fha we;s yqkq Èhrfhys j¾K úm¾hdih igyka lr .kak' jdhqj ksoyia
ùug .; jk ld,h o igyka lr .kak'
64
mÍlaIKh ksÍlaIKh ;=,s; ridhksl iólrK
iu`. ks.uk
1 Na2CO3
2 NaHCO3
3 K2CO3
4 MgCO3
5 CaCO3
6 SrCO3
7 BaCO3
mÍlaIKh 2: khsfÜ%g
iEu khsfÜ%ghla u lelEreï k,hg f.k r;a lrkak' k,fha lg <`.g mq,s`.= l+rla
w,a,kak' j¾Kj;a jdhqjla msg fõ kï ta iòyd .; jk ld,h ixikaokh lrkak'
wj¾K jdhqjla msg fõ kï" mq,s`.= l+r oe,aùug .; jk ld,h ukskak¡
1 NaNO3
2 KNO3
3 Mg(NO3)2
4 Ca(NO3)2
5 Sr(NO3)2
6 Ba(NO3)2
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak(

1. ,enqKq m%;sM, iy jHQyd;aul .=K i,lñka I yd II ldKavfha ldnfkag"
nhsldnfkag yd khsfÜ%gj, idfmalaI ia:dhs;d idlÉPd lrkak'
2. tÈfkod Ôú;fha § fhdod .kakd by; iuyr ixfhda.j, Ndú;hka idlÉPd
lrkak'
3. ish¨ wjlafIamK m%;sl%shd i|yd ;=,s; ridhksl iólrK ,shkak.
65
mÍlaIKh 18 ( c,Sh udOHfha ixlS¾K whkj, j¾K y`ÿkd .ekSu
wruqK ( c,Sh udOHfha oS d f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH uÕska idok whkj, j¾K

y`ÿkd .ekSu
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak(

1. CuSO4 c,Sh ødjKfha j¾Kh l=ula o@
2. tu c,Sh ødjKfha wvx.= ixlS¾K legdhkfha iQ;%h ,shkak'
3. d f.dkqfõ we;eï f,day whk c,Sh ødjKfha oS j¾K fmkajk w;r" we;eï
f,day whk c,Sh ødjKfha oS j¾K fkdfmkajhs' Bg fya;=j WodyrK u`.ska
meyeÈ,s lrkak'
ye`Èkaùu(
d f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH idok ixfhda.j, iqúfYaI ,laIKhla jkafka tajdfha c,Sh ødjK
j¾Kj;a ùuhs' d f.dkqfõ uQ,øjHj,ska iEfok whk i;=j w¾O jYfhka msreKq d
ldlaIsl mj;S kï tu f,day wdka;ßl f,day f,i ye`Èkafõ' fï wdka;ßl f,day whkj,
iqúfYaI ,laIKhla jkqfha c,Sh ødjKj, § tajd j¾Kj;a ùuhs' fï whk u`.ska iqÿ
wdf,dalhg wh;a f;dard.;a ;rx. wdhdu wjfYdaIKh lr W;af;að; wjia:djg m;a ù
wkqmQrl j¾K fmkajhs'
3d uQ,øjH ie,lSfï oS Zn yd Sc úhq.au bf,lafg%dak iys; whk fkdidok neúka tajdfha

c,Sh ødjK j¾Kj;a fkd fõ' fuys oS H2O ,s.khla f,i yeisfrk w;r" f,day legdhk
iu`. odhl nkaOk idohs'
wjYH WmlrK yd øjH(
WmlrK ridhk øjH

mÍlaId k, CrCl3,
ùÿre l+re MnSO4
ñkqï irdjla (10 cm3) FeCl3 , FeSO4
Co(NO3)2, ZnSO4
CuSO4, Ni(NO3)2
wdi%e; c,h
l%uh(
• by; olajd we;s ridhksl ixfhda.j,ska 0.5 g muK lsrd f.k mÍlaId k,j,g
fjk fjk u oud f,an,a lrkak'
• ta k,j,g wdi%e; c,h 10 cm3 ne.ska tl;= lr ùÿre l+r Ndú;fhka ixfhda.h
fyd`Èka Èh lrkak'
• my; j.=fõ oelafjk c,Sh ødjKj, j¾K igyka lrkak'
66
c,Sh ødjKfha
ixfhda.h whkh
j¾Kh
CrCl3 Cr3+
MnSO4 Mn2+
hlv u, Èh lr
yeÍfuka miq hlv
Fe2+
l=vq ;kql HCl j,
osh lsrSu
FeCl3 Fe3+
Co(NO3)2 Co2+
CuSO4 Cu2+
NiNO3 Ni2+
ZnSO4 Zn2+
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak(

1. by; whkj, c,Sh ixlS¾Kj, ridhksl iQ;% yd jHQy fokak'
2. ta whkj, IUPAC kï ,shkak'
3. (a) wj¾K c,Sh ødjK idok whkh kï lrkak'
(b) ta c,Sh ødjKh wj¾K ùug fya;=j tys bf,lafg%dak úkHdih
weiqfrka meyeÈ,s lrkak'
67
mÍlaIKh 19 ( wdï,slD; fmdgEishï m¾uex.fkaÜ Ndú;fhka f*ria whk
ødjKhl idkaøKh ks¾Kh lsÍu
wruqKq (
1. iajhx o¾Yl wkqudmkhla wjYH ±kqu ,nd .ekSug
2. mßudñ;sl ma,dial=jla wdOdrfhka fok ,o Fe2+ whk ødjKhla ms<sfh,
lsÍug wjYH l=i,;djh ,nd .ekSug
3. frfvdlaia wkqudmkhla Ndú;fhka Fe2+ whk ødjKhl idkaøKh ks¾Kh
lsÍu iòyd wjYH oekqu ,nd .ekSug
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak(
i. c,Sh ødjKhl § Fe2+ whk yd Fe3+ whkj, j¾K fudkjd o@

ii. 0.02 mol cm-3 l idkaøKfhka hq;a KMnO4 ødjK 250 cm3 la ms<sfh, lr
.kafka flfia o?
ye`Èkaùu#
frfvdlaia wkqudmkhl § j¾Kj;a ixfhda. wvx.= fõ kï" tla m%fNaohla

wkqudmkfha wka; ,laIHh ,nd .ekSug o¾Ylhla f,i ls%hd lrhs' Fe2+ whk
iy MnO4- whk w;r wkqudmkfha § my; m%;sls%hd isÿ fõ'
MnO4- (aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e → Mn2+(aq) + 4 H2O(l)
Fe2+(aq) → Fe3+(aq) + e
wka; ,laIHfha oS ødjKfha we;s Fe2+ whk ish,a, Fe3+ whk njg TlaislrKh fõ' túg
jeämqr tl;= lrk KMnO4 u`.ska oï meyehla ,nd foa (KMnO4 ys ;kql ødjK iòyd
frdai meyehla ksÍlaIKh fõ).
wjYH WmlrK yd ridhk øjH#
WmlrK ridhk øjH

wkqudmk ma,dial= >k FeSO4 (w¨;a)/ f*ria wefudakshï
i,af*aÜ
mßudñ;sl ma,dial=j (100 cm3) KMnO4 ødjKh (0.02 mol dm-3)
ìhqfrÜgqj H2SO4 wï,h (2 mol dm-3)
msfmÜgqj idkaø H3PO4 wï,h
iqÿ ms`.ka .fvd< wdi%e; c,h
l%uh#
• Fe2+ whk ødjKh ms<sfh, lsÍu( FeSO4 3.5 gla muK f.k" 100 cm3 mßudñ;sl
ma,dial=jlg oud .kak' 2 mol dm-3 H2SO4 wï,h 50 cm3 la iaj,amh ne.ska ,jKh
iïmQKfhka Èh jk ;=re l,;ñka tl;= lrkak' bka miq ma,dial=fõ 100 cm3
i,l=K f;la wdi%e; c,h tl;= lrkak'
68
• Fe2+ whk ødjKfhka 25.00 cm3 la wkqudmk ma,dial=jg oud .kak' thg 2 mol
dm-3 H2SO4 wï,h 25 cm3 la iy idkaø H3PO4 wï,h 5 cm3 la tl;= lrkak'
• wkqudmk ma,dial=fõ we;s ødjKh frdai meyehg yefrk f;la Fe2+ whk ødjKh"
ìhqfrÜgqfõ we;s KMnO4 ødjKh iu`. wkqudmkh lrkak ^frdai meyeh ;;amr
30lg jvd ia:dhsj ;sìh hq;= h&' wka; ,laIHfha ìhqfrÜgq mdGdxlh igyka lr
.kak'
• wka; ,laIHfha ìhqfrÜgq mdGdxlj, fjki 0.1 cm3g jvd wvq jk ;=re mÍlaIKh
;=ka jrla isÿ lrkak' túg .Kkh iòyd mdGdxlj, uOHkH w.h .; hq;= h'
m%;sM, :
uOHkH
01 jdrh 02 jdrh 03 jdrh
w.h
KMnO4 mßudj (cm3)
.Kkh:
(i) fï wkqudmkh iòyd ;=,s; frfvdlaia m%;sls%hdj ,shkak'
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
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(ii) fï wkqudmkfha § Ndú; jQ KMnO4 ujq, .Kk fidhkak'
……………………………………………………………………………………………
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(iii) Fe2+ whk ødjKfha idkaøKh .Kkh lrkak'
……………………………………………………………………………………………
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69
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak#
1. Ndú; l< FeSO4 idïm,h w¨;a oehs Tn oek.kafka flfia o@
2. Fe2+ whk ødjKh ms<sfh, lsÍfï § Tn ;kql H2SO4 wï,h tl;= lrkafka
wehs@
3. fï wkqudmkfha § idkaø H3PO4 wï,fha ld¾hh l=ula o@
4. fï mÍlaIKfha § isÿ úh yels fodaI fudkjdoehs idlÉPd lrkak'
5. fï mÍlaIKhg wkqj “iajhx o¾Ylh” hk moh meyeÈ,s lrkak'
6. Fe2+ yd Fe3+ whk wvx.= ødjK ñY%Khl tla tla m%fNaofha idkaøKh fiùu
iòyd fï mÍlaIKh Tn fjkia l< hq;af;a flfia o@
70
mÍlaIKh 20 ( wdï,slD; iïu; K2C2O4 ødjKhla u.ska KMnO4 ødjKhl
idkaøKh ks¾Kh lsÍu
wruqKq (
1. okakd idkaøKhlska hq;a m%d:ñl iïu; ødjKhla ms<sfh, lsÍu
2. frdfvdlaia wkqudmkhla Ndú;fhka MnO4- whk ødjKhl idkaøKh ks¾Kh
lsÍug wjYH oekqu ,nd .ekSug
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak#

1. K2C2O4 m%d:ñl iïu;hla f,i Ndú; lrkafka wehs@
2. m%d:ñl iïu;hl .=Kdx. ,ehsia;=.; lrkak.
3. Tn okakd m%d:ñl iïu; kï lrkak.
4. wdï,sl udOHfha oS Mn j, jvd;a u ia:dhs TlaislrK wjia:dj l=ula o@
ye`Èkaùu#
fmdgEishï m¾uex.fkaÜ hkq m%n, Tlaisldrlhls' thg MnO4- ksid ;o oï

meyehla we;s w;r Mn2+ whk njg TlaisyrKh jQ úg <d frdai/ wj¾K meyehla
.kS' wkqudmkfha wka; ,laIHh ks¾Kh lsÍu iòyd fï j¾K fjki fndfyda
úg fhdod .kS' KMnO4 m%d:ñl iïu;hla fkdjk ksid tys ksYÑ a ; idkaøKh
fidhd .ekSu iòyd th Na2C2O4 jeks m%d:ñl iïu;hla iu`. wkqudmkh lsÍu
jeo.;a fõ' fï mÍlaIKfha oS isÿjk frfvdlaia m%;sls%hdj my; mßÈ fõ'
2MnO4- (aq) + 5C2O42-(aq) + 16H+(aq) → 2Mn2+(aq) + 10CO2(g) + 8H2O(l)
WmlrK ridhk øjH

wkqudmk ma,dial= K2C2O4 ødjKh (0.050 moldm-3)
mßudñ;sl ma,dial=j (100 cm3) KMnO4 ødjKh (0.02 moldm-3 muK)
ìhqfrÜgqj H2SO4 wï,h (2 moldm-3)
msfmÜgqj wdi%e; c,h
iqÿ ms`.ka .fvd<
Trf,daiq ùÿrej
l%uh#
• iïu; K2C2O4 ødjKh mss<sfh, lsÍu ^fyda K2C2O4 ke;s kï Tlaie,sla wï,h&(
0.05 moldm-3 idkaøKhla we;s K2C2O4 ødjK 250 cm3la ms<sfh, lsÍug wjYH
m%udKh ksjerÈj .Kkh lr uek .kak' msßisÿ úh<s Trf,daiq ùÿrejla fhdod
.kak' mqkS,hla wdOdrfhka fï øjH 250 cm3 mßudñ;sl ma,dial=jlg oud .kak'
wdi%e; c,h iaj,am m%udKhla tl;= lr ,jKh iïmQ¾Kfhka Èh jk ;=re
fyd`Èka fid,jkak' bka miq 250 cm3 i,l=K f;la wdi%e; c,h tla lr 0.05 mol
dm-3 Tlaie,sla whk ødjKh idod .kak'
71
• wkqudmkh#
msfmÜgqjla wdOdrfhka Tlaif,aÜ whk 25.00 cm3l mßudjla uek th wkqudmk
ma,dial=jg oud .kak' thg ;kql H2SO4 wï,h 15 cm3 la tl;= lr ødjKh
WKqiqï lrkak' bka miq ìhqfrÜgqj KMnO4 ødjKfhka mqrjd wkqudmk ma,dial=fõ
we;s ødjKh frdai meyehla ,efnk ;=re ^frdai meyeh ;;amr 30lg jvd ia:dhSj
;sìh hq;= h'& wkqudmkh lrkak' fï m%;sls%hdj ldur WIaK;ajfha § fiñka isÿ
jk neúka KMnO4 ødjKh tl;= lrk w;r;=r wkqudmk ma,dial=j fifuka r;a
l< hq;= h' wka; ,laIHfha § ìhqfrÜgq mdGdxlj, fjki 0.1 cm3g jvd wvq jk
;=re wkqudmkh ;=ka jrla isÿ lrkak' bka miq tajdfha uOHkH w.h .Kkh
iòyd .; hq;= h'
m%;sM,
01 jdrh 02 jdrh 03 jdrh uOHkHh

3
Ndú;d l< KMnO4 mßudj (cm )
.Kkh:
MnO4- whk ødjKfha idkaøKh .Kkh lrkak'
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miq mÍlaIK m%Yak#

1. fï mÍlaIKfha § isÿ úh yels fodaI idlÉPd lr ksrjoH;dj jeä lr .ekSu
iòyd fhdackd bÈßm;a lrkak'
2. K2Cr2O7 ødjKhla m%udKSlrKh lsÍug K2C2O4 iu`. m%;sls%hdj fhdod .; yels
o@ meyeÈ,s lrkak'
72
mÍlaIKh 21 ( Cu(II), Ni(II) iy Co(II) yhsfv%dlaf,daßla wï,h iy wefudakshd
iu`. idok ixfhda.j, j¾K TlaislrK yd TlaisyrK m%;sls%hd
weiqfrka ksÍlaIKh
wruqKq(
1. d f.dkqfõ uQ,øjHj,g ix.; ixlS¾K iE§ug we;s yelshdj meyeÈ,s lsÍug
2. ixlS¾K ixfhda. lSmhla ms<sfh, lsÍug
3. ixlS¾K ixfhda. j, ic, whk j¾Kj;a nj m%ldY lsÍug" wjYH oekqu ,nd oSu
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak#

1. Cu(II), Ni(II) iy Co(II) whkj, bf,lafg%dak úkHdih ,shd olajkak'
2. d f.dkqfõ f,dayj,g ixlS¾K iEÈh yels ùug fya;= olajkak'
ye`Èkaùu#
3 isg 12 olajd ldKAvj, uQ,øjH idudkHfhka d f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH f,i

j¾.SlrKh flf¾' fndfyda wdka;ßl f,day whkj, c,Sh ødjKj,g úoHq;a
pqïNl j¾Kdj,sfha oDYH l,dmfha we;s úlsrK wjfYdaIKh lr úúO j¾K ,nd
oSug yelshdjla we;' fï yelshdj we;s jkafka tajdfha we;s w¾O jYfhka msreKq
d Wm Yla;s uÜgï ksid h' flfia jqj o d0 fyda d10 úkHdi iys; whkj, c,Sh
ødjK wj¾K fõ' w¾O jYfhka msreKq 3d Wm Yla;s uÜgï iys; fï uQ,øjHj,g
tlir bf,lafg%dak hq., m%;s.%yKh lr .ksñka ixlS¾K whk iE§fï yelshdj
we;' bf,lafg%dak hq., uOH f,day whkj,g ^¨úia wï,& odhl l< yels m%fNao
^¨úia Niau& “,s.k” f,i y`ÿkajkq ,efí' uOH f,day whkhg ix.; jk ,s.k
ixlS¾Kfha iuia; j¾Kh ks¾Kh lsÍfï oS m%uqL ;ekla .kS' fï mÍlaIKfha
oS Cu(II), Ni(II) iy Co(II) whk H2O, NH3 yd Cl- whk iu`. ixfhda. iEoSu yd
tajdfha j¾K ksÍlaIKh flf¾'
wjYH WmlrK yd ridhk øjH
WmlrK ridhk øjH

mÍlaId k, ;kql CuSO4 ødjKh
ùÿre l+re Ni2+ whk ødjKhla
Co2+ whk ødjKhla
idkaø HCl wï,h
;kql yd idkaø NH3 ødjKh
l%uh : iEu whk ødjKhlska u 1 cm3lg idkaø HCl iy wefudakshd ødjK tl;= lrkak'
ødjKj, j¾K jd¾;d lsÍug my; j.=j Ndú; lrkak'
73
idkaø HCl
f,day c,Sh ødjKfha ;kql NH4OH ìkaÿ idkaø NH4OH
ìkaÿ lSmhla
whkh j¾Kh lSmhla iu`. ìkaÿ lSmhla iu`.
iu`.
Cu2+
Ni2+
Co2+
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak#

1. by; f,day whk idok ixlS¾K whkj, jHQyh iy ridhksl iQ;% ,shkak'
2. IUPAC wdldrhg ta ixlS¾K whk kï lrkak¡
74
mÍlaIKh 22 ( frfvdlaia m%;sls%hd Ndú;fhka Mnj, úúO TlaislrK wjia:d
(+2, +4, +6, +7) iys; ixfhda.j, j¾K ksÍlaIKh lsÍu'
wruqKq:
Mnj, úúO TlaislrK wjia:d iys; ixfhda. j, j¾K ksÍlaIKh lsÍu yd
TlaislrK wjia:d tlsfkl w;r yqjudre lrk whqre wOHhkh lsÍu
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak(

1. Mnj, úúO TlaislrK wjia:d i|yd bf,lafg%dak úkHdi ,shkak'
2. MnO4– whk wvx.= m%;sls%hdj, § wdï,sl udOHfha § yd Ndiañl udOHfha §
ksÍlaIKh l< yels TlaislrK wjia:dj, fjki l=ula o@ Tfí ms<s;=r iaÒr
lsÍug fhdod .; yels m%;sls%hd iòyd ksoiqka ,nd fokak'
ye`Èkaùu (
uex.kSia hkq (Ar)3d54s2 hk bf,lafg%dak úkHdih iys; d f.dkqfõ uQ,øjHhls'

tuksid Mnj, TlaislrK wxl 0 isg +7 olajd ksÍlaIKh fõ' TlaislrK
wjia:d fjkia jk úg Mn idok ixfhda.j, j¾K o YS>%fhka fjkia fõ' iqÿiq
Tlaisydrl fhdod .ekSfuka Mn idok ixfhda.j, TlaislrK ;;a;aj md,kh
l< yels h'
KMnO4 c,Sh ødjKhl we;s Mn(VII) ys j¾Kh oï meye;s h' idkaø fmdgEishï
yhsfv%dlaihsâ u`.ska uex.kSiaj, +7 TlaislrK wjia:dj +6 wjia:djg m;a l<
yels w;r tys j¾Kh fld< meye;s h'
2KMnO4(aq) + 2KOH(aq) ® 2K2MnO4(aq) + H2O(l)
yhsv%cka fmfrdlaihsâ K2MnO4, MnO2 njg TlaisyrKh lrk w;r Mn(IV) ys

j¾Kh ÿUqre meye;s h'
MnO2 j,g idkaø HCl tl;= l< úg th Mn2+ njg m;a jk w;r Mn2+ whk
wdikak jYfhka wj¾K fõ'
MnO2(s) + 4HCl(aq) ® MnCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + Cl2(g)
tkï" uex.kSiaj, úúO TlaislrK wjia:d úúO j¾K fmkajhs'
WmlrK ridhk øjH

mÍlaId k, ;kql KMnO4 ødjKh
ùÿre l+re ;kql H2SO4 wï,h
idkaø NaOH ødjKh / >k NaOH
H2O2 ødjKh
idkaø HCl wï,h
75
l%uh#
• mÍlaIKh isÿ lsÍug yd j¾K igyka lsÍug my; j.=j Ndú; lrkak'
mÍlaIKh ksÍlaIKh ridhksl m%;sls%hd iy ks.uk
1 ;kql fmdgEishï mZuex.fkaÜ

ødjK 2 cm3 la muK lelEreï
k,hlg f.k tys j¾Kh jd¾;d
lrkak'
2 lelEreï k,hlg ;kql
fmdgEishï mZuex.fkaÜ ødjK 2
cm3 la muK f.k ;kql i,a*shqßla
wï,h u`.ska hka;ñka wdï,sl lr
idkaø fmdgEishï yhsfv%dlaihsâ
ødjKh j¾K fjkila ,efnk
;=re tl;= lrkak' j¾K fjki
jd¾;d lrkak'
3 by; ødjKhg yhsv%cka
fmfrdlaihsâ ìkaÿ 2la muK tl;=
lrkak' j¾K fjki ksÍlaIKh
lrkak'
4 by; ødjKhg idkaø
yhsfv%dlaf,daßla wï,h tl;= lr"
j¾K fjki ksÍlaIKh lrkak'
•
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak(

1. by; mÍlaIKfha tla tla mshjr i|yd ;=,s; w¾O whksl iólrK ,shkak'
2. MnO4– whk my; Tlaisydrl iu`. isÿ lrk m%;sls%hd iòyd ;=,s; ridhksl
iólrK ,shkak'
(a) H2O2 ^wdï,sl udOHfha §& (b) H2S ^Ndiañl udOHfha §&
(c) SO2 ^wdï,sl udOHfha §&
76
mÍlaIKh 23: Ni2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Cu2+ iy Cr3+ y`ÿkd .ekSfï mÍlaId
wruqKq:
1. c,Sh ødjKhl we;s Ni2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Cu2+ iy Cr3+ whk y`ÿkd .ekSug
2. fok ,o legdhk i|yd y`ÿkd .ekSfï mÍlaId ixfhda.j, ødjH;d
fjkialï Ndú;fhka meyeÈ,s lsÍug
3. iuyr legdhkj, ixlS¾K iEoSu y`ÿkd .ekSug
4. "d" f.dkqfõ uQ,øjH idok legdhkj, j¾K y`ÿkd .ekSug
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak#

1. Ni2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Cu2+ iy Cr3+ hk whkj, bf,lafg%dak úkHdi ,shkak'
2. Ni2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Cu2+ iy Cr3+ whkj, c,fha ødjH ixfhda. fudkjd o@
ye|skaùu( fuu whk fjka lr y÷kd .ekSu i|yd tajdfha øjH;dj, fjki yd r;a
lsÍug fmr yd miq j¾K fhdod .; yels h' ;jo Ni2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Cu2+ iy Cr3+ whk
wefudakshd iu`. idok ixlS¾K o fïjd fjka lr y÷kd .ekSfï § b;d jákd o;a;
f,i fhdod .kS'
WmlrK ridhk øjH

mÍlaId k, Ni2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Cu2+ iy Cr3+ whk wvx.=
ùÿre l+re c,Sh ødjK (0.1 mol dm-3)
nkaika odylh ;kql H2SO4 wï,h (2 mol dm-3)
NaOH ødjKh (4 mol dm-3)
NH4OH ødjKh (4 mol dm-3)
K3Fe(CN)6, K4Fe(CN)6, KSCN/ NH4SCN,
j, c,Sh ødjK H2O2 vhs fu;s,a
.a,fhdlaisï (DMG)
l%uh: mÍlaIKh isÿ lsÍug yd ødjKj, j¾K igyka lsÍug my; j.=j Nú;
lrkak' iEu f,day whk c,Sh ødjKhlska u 1 cm3 m%udKhla fj; fjk
fjk u mÍlaId k,j, oud mÍlaIKh isÿ lrkak'
77
mÍlaIKh ksÍlaIK
Ni2+ Fe2+ Fe3+ Cu2+ Cr3+
1 (i) NaOH ìkaÿ jYfhka tl;=
lr wjlafIam iEfoa kï
jd¾;d lrkak'
(ii) wjlafIam iEfoa kï"
NaOH ;jÿrg;a tl;= lr
ksÍlaIK igyka lrkak'
2 (i) NH4OH ìkaÿ jYfhka
tl;= lr wjlafIam iEfoa kï
jd¾;d lr j¾K o igyka
lrkak'
(ii) wjlafIam iEfoa kï"
NH4OH ;jÿrg;a tl;= lr
ksÍlaIK igyka lrkak'
3 K3Fe(CN)6 ìkaÿ lsysmhla
tl;= lrkak¡
4 K4Fe(CN)6 ìkaÿ lsysmhla
tl;= lrkak¡
5 KSCN/ NH4SCN ìkaÿ
lsysmhla tl;= lrkak¡
6 NaOH ødjK 1 cm3la yd H2O2
ødjKh tl;= lrkak¡
7 DMG ødjK iaj,Amhla tl;=
lrkak¡
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak(
1. by; ksÍlaIK meyeÈ,s lsÍug ;=,s; ridhksl iólrK ,shkak'

2. laIdÍh Cr3+ c,Sh ødjKhg" H2O2 ødjKh ìkaÿ lsysmhla tl;= lrk úg
n,dfmdfrd;a;= jk ksÍlaIK meyeÈ,s lrkak' ta iòyd ;=,s; ridhksl iólrK
o ,shkak'
3. by; mÍlaIKfha § iEfok ixlS¾K whkj, iQ;% ,shd IUPAC wdldrhg kï
lrkak.
78
mÍlaIKh 24 ( we,alSk yd we,alhskj, m%;sls%hd yd .=Kdx. ksÍlaIKh
wruqKq : t;Ska yd t;hska j, m%;sls%hd yd .=Kdx. ksÍlaIKh lsÍug
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak (

1. ika;Dma; yd wika;Dma; yhsfv%dldnkj, fjkialï idlÉPd lrkak'
2. yhsfv%dldnkhla (a) we,aflak (b) we,alSk (c) we,alhsk (d) wefrdaueál f,i
y`ÿkd .ekSug yels jkafka l=uk jHQyd;aul fjkila u`.ska o@
3. we,alhskj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sls%hd fudkjd o@
4. (a) hkq wNHka;r we,alhskhls' (b) hkq w.%ia: we,alhskhls¡ tajd tlsfklska
fjka lr y÷kd .ekSfï l%u fhdackd lrkak¡
ye`Èkaùu#
hï ixfhda. l=,lhl fN!;sl yd ridhksl ls%hdldß;ajhg fya;= jk mrudKqjla

fyda ldKavhla" ta ixfhda. l=,lfha ls%hdldÍ ldKavh f,i ye`Èkafõ' ir,;u
ldnksl ixfhda.j, ldnka yd yhsv%cka muKla wvx.= jk w;r" fï ldnksl
ixfhda. yhsfv%dldnk f,i y÷kajkq ,efí'
WmlrK ridhk øjH

lelEreï k, t;fkda,a
c, ;dml we¨ñkd (we¨ñkshï Tlaihsâ)
úi¾cl k, le,aishï ldnhsâ
nkaika odylh laIdrSh KMnO4
lmq mq¨ka wdï,sl KMnO4
wefudakSh lshqm%ia laf,darhsâ
wdrlaIl l%fudamdhka(
· ldnksl ixfhda. jyd .sks weúf<k iq¨ nj i,lkak¡ tu ksid l=vd m%udK
Ndú; l< hq;= w;r" újD; oe,a,g ksrdjrKh fkdlsÍug j. n,d .; hq;= h' ;j
o ldnksl ixfhda. úI iys; nj;a iu ;=<ska YÍr.; úh yels nj;a i,lkak¡
mÍlaIKd;aul wegjqu(
we,alSkj, m%;sl%shd ksÍlaIKh lsrSu" by< WIaK;ajfha oS we¨ñkd uÕska t;fkda,aj,

úc,kfhka idod .kakd t;Ska fhdod .ekSu isÿ lrkq ,nhs¡
79
t;Ska ms<sfh, lr .ekSfï wegjqu 24.1 rEmfha oelafõ¡
rEmh 24.1 t;Ska ms<sfh, lsÍug fhdod .kakd WmlrK lÜg,h

l%uh(-
· lelEreï k,hl 2 cm muK Wilg t;fkda,a .kak' ùÿre l+rl wdOdrfhka

t;fkda,aj,ska fm`.ùug m%udKj;a ;rï lmq mq¨ka thg we;=¿ lrkak' k,h
;sriaj ;nd we¨ñkd 1 gla muK k,fha ueo fldgig we;=¿ lrkak'
· lelEreï k,h wdOdrlhlg iú lr" rEmfha wdldrhg wegjqu ilia lrkak'

bka miq lelEreï k,fha we¨ñkd we;s ia:dkh r;a lrkak' uqla; jk jdhqj
lelEreï k, lSmhlg c,h hál=re úia:dmkfhka tl;= lrkak' ta k,
;=< t;Ska jdhqj we;' ksmojd .;a tf;aka jdhqj i|yd my; mshjr wkq.ukh
lrkak¡
(a) fn%daóka Èhrfhka ìkaÿ lSmhla tl;= lrkak'
(b) laIdÍh fmdgEishï m¾uex.fkaÜ iaj,amhla tl;= lrkak'
(c) wdï,sl fmdgEishï m¾uex.fkaÜ iaj,amhla tl;= lrkak'
(d) wefudakSh is,aj¾ khsfÜ%Ü ødjKh tl;= lrkak'
(e) wefudakSh lshqm%ia laf,darhsâ ødjKh tl;= lrkak'
igyk#
by; i|yka mÍlaIK" mÍlaIK k,hlg 1 cm3 muK Wig oeuQ m%;sldrlh ;=<ska jdhqj
nqnq<kh lsÍfuka o isÿ l< yels h'
80
rEmh 24'2 t;hska ms<sfh, lsÍu iòyd wegjqu
lelEreï k,hlg le,aishï ldnhsâ iaj,amhla oud .kak' rEmfha wdldrhg WmlrK
iú lr" thg jßka jr c,h iaj,amh ne.ska tl;= lrkak'
1) my; m%;sldrlj,ska 2.5 cm3 ne.ska muK mÍlaIK k,j,g oud by; rEmfha
wldrhg wegjqï ilia lr" ødjK ;=<ska t;hska nqnq<kh lrkak'
• fn%daóka Èhrh
• laIdÍh fmdgEishï m¾uex.fkaÜ
• wdï,sl fmdgEishï m¾uex.fkaÜ
• wefudakSh lshqm%ia laf,darhsâ
• wefudakSh is,aj¾ khsfÜ%Ü
mÍlaIK isÿ lsÍfuka miq" ksÍlaIK igyka lr f.k mÍlaIK k, fyd`Èka

fidaod yßkak'
2) úi¾cl k, fl<jrg oe,a,la we,a,Sfuka t;hska jdhqj oeùug bv yßkak'
81
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak#
my; m%;sls%hdj, m%Odk M, ,shd olajkak'
4' mrSlaIKh i|yd b;d ;kql laIdÍh fmdgEishï m¾uex.fkaÜ ødjKhla

Ndú; lsÍfï wjYH;dj l=ula o?
82
mÍlaIKh 25 ( we,afldfyd,j, .=K mÍlaId lsÍu
wruqKq# we,afldfyd,j, -OH ldKavfha m%;sls%hd ksÍlaIKh lsrSu
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak#

we,afldfyd, j, ,dlaIKsl .=Kdx. fudkjd o ?
ye`Èkaùu#
we,afldfyd," ldfndlais,sla wï, iuÕ m%;sl%shd lsÍfuka ,dlaIKsl iqj|la we;s
tiagr ,ndfoa¡ fkdfhla Tlaisldrl uÕska ;D;Shsl we,afldfyd, yereKq úg
we,afldfyd, TlaislrKh l< yels h¡
WmlrK ridhk øjH

,sÜuia m;% t;fkda,a
c, ;dmlh fu;fkda,a
nkaika odylh fnkais,a we,afldfyd,a iy fjk;a imhd .;
yels we,afldfyd,
weisála wï,h
fidaähï ie,sisf,aÜ fyda ie,sis,sla wï,h
wdï,sl fmdgEishï vhsfl%dafïÜ

wdï,sl fmdgEishï m¾uex.fkaÜ
laIdrSh fmdgEishï m¾uex.fkaÜ

fidaähï ldnfkaÜ
mÍlaIKd;aul wegjqu#
oS we;s we,afldfyd,j,ska tllska 1 cm3 ne.ska f.k mÍlaIK k, ;=klg oud .kak'
bka miq my; ls%hdldrlï isÿ lrkak'
rEmh 26.1: we,afldfyd, mÍlaIdj i|yd jk mÍlaIKd;aul wegjqu
83
wdrlaIl l%fudamdhka#
idkaø wï, m%n, úLdol wï, fõ' th hï wdldrhlska bysrefKa kï jyd u

c,fhka fidaod yeßh hq;= h' m%;sls%hd ñY%K yd jeämqr we;s m%;sldrl iqÿiq
n`ÿkaj, oud" Tnf.a .=rejrhdf.a Wmfoia wkqj neyer l< hq;= h'
l%uh#
• ks,a iy r;= ,sÜuia Ndú; lr we,afldfyd,h mÍlaId lrkak'
• >k fidaähï ldnfkaÜ oud ksÍlaIKh lrkak'
• t;fkda,a" whsfid fm%dmhs,a" ìhqghs,a we,afldfyd,j,ska 1 cm3 la ne.ska f.k

ffyu weisála wï,h (glacial acetic-acid) 1 cm3 la thg tl;= lrkak' thg
idkaø i,a*shqßla ìkaÿ 5la tl;= lr WKqiqï lrkak' ,efnk M, isis,a c,h
iys; mÍlaIK k,hlg tl;= lr tys .kaOh mÍlaId lrkak' fn%daóka oshrh
ìkaÿ lSmhla o tl;= lrkak'
fyda
• we,afldfyd,fhka 1 cm3la muK f.k" thg fidaähï ie,aisf,aÜ fyda ie,ais,sla

wï,h 0.5 g muK tl;= lrkak' thg idkaø i,a*shqßla wï,h ìkaÿ myla muK
oud WKqiqï lrkak' ,efnk M,h isis,a c,h wvx.= mÍlaIK k,hlg oud tys
.kaOh mÍlaId lrkak'
• mÍlaIK k, ;=klg wdï,sl fmdgEishï vhsfl%dafïÜ" wdï,sl fmdgEishï

m¾uex.fkaÜ iy laIdrSh fmdgEishï m¾uex.fkaÜj,ska 1 cm3 ne.ska oud .kak'
tajdg we,afldfyd,fhka ìkaÿ ;=k ne.ska oukak' wfkla we,afldfyd, iòyd o
by; mÍlaIK isÿ lrkak' ødjK ;=< l=uk j¾K úm¾hdi ksÍlaIKh l< yels
o@ Tn fï j¾K úm¾hdi meyeÈ,s lrkafka flfia o@ ,efnk M,j, .kaOh
mÍlaId lrkak'
igyk
we,afldfyd,a .sks weúf<k iq¨ neúka tajd odylj,ska wE;aj ;nd .; hq;= h'
84
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak#
1. my; tla tla m%;sls%hdfjka ,efnk m%Odk ldnksl M, ,shd olajkak'
2. we,afldfyd, yd we,alSk fjka lr y`ÿkd .ekSu iòyd fhdod .; yels ir,

mÍlaIdjla ,shkak'
3. tiagÍlrK m%;sl%shdfõ § idkaø i,a*shqßla wï,fha l%shdj l=ula o?
85
mÍlaIKh 26 ( *Sfkda,aj, .=K mÍlaId lsÍu
wruqKq ( 1' *Sfkda,aj, wdï,sl .=K ksÍlaIKh lsÍug

2' *Sfkd,aj, m%;sl%shd ksÍlaIKh lsÍug
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak#

1. we,afldfyd,hla *Sfkd,aj,ska fjka lr y÷kd .ekSu i|yd fhdod .; yels
mÍlaIK úia;r lrkak¡
2. *Sfkd,a we,afldfyd,j,g jvd wdï,sl jkafka wehs oehs úia;r lrkak¡
ye`Èkaùu#
we,afldfyd, yd *Sfkda, hk foflys u OH ldKavh we;¡ flfia kuq;a *Sfkda,j,

OH ldKavh wefrdaueál j,hg neòS we;s neúka tys .=Kdx. we,afldfyd,j,g
jvd fjkia fõ'
WmlrK ridhk øjH

,sÜuia m;% *Sfkd,a
c, ;dmlh fidaähï yhsfv%dlaihsâ ødjKh
nkaika odylh ;kql yhsfv%dlaf,daßla wï,h
fidaähï ldnfkaÜ ødjKh
øj fn%daóka
;kql wefudakshd ødjKh
;kql f*ßla laf,darhsâ ødjKh
laIdÍh fmdgEishï m¾uex.fkaÜ
fidaähï ldnfkaÜ
wdrlaIl l%fudamdhka(
*Sfkda,aj, idkaø ødjK úI iys; h" ifuys iam¾Y jQ úg ;on, ms,siaiSï we;s fõ'
tneúka tajd mßiaifuka mßyrKh l< hq;= h.
l%uh#
01. mÍlaIK k,j,g *Sfkda,a iaj,amh ne.ska oud my; mÍlaIK isÿ lrkak'
· c,h 1 cm3 oud fid,jkak' fï ødjKh ks,a yd r;= ,sÜuia u`.ska mÍlaId
lrkak'
· øj fn%daóka 1 cm3 la oukak¡
· fidaähï ldnfkaÜ ødjKfhka 1 cm3 la tl;= lrkak'
· WodiSk f*ßla laf,darhsâ ødjKhlska ìkaÿ lsysmhla tl;= lr j¾K
úm¾hdih ksÍlaIKh lrkak¡ fï ødjKhg ;kql HCl ìkaÿ lsysmhla oud
j¾K úm¾hdih ksÍlaIKh lrkak¡ ksÍlaIK igyka lrkak'
86
igyk(
• WodiSk f*ßla laf,darhsâ ødjKhla ms<sfh, lsÍu¡
;kql f*ßla laf,darhsâ ødjKhlg iaÓr f*ßla yhsfv%dlaihsâ wjlafIamhla hka;ñka

,efnk f;la ;kql wefudakshï yhsfv%dlaihsâ tl;= lrkak¡ ÿUqre f*ßla yhsfv%dlaihsâ
wjlafIamh fmrd bj;a lr .kak¡ ly ÿUqre meye;s WodiSk f*ßla laf,darhsâ ødjKh
,efí¡
m%;sM,(
tla tla mÍlaIdfjka ,efnk ksÍlaIK jd¾;d lrkak¡
idlÉPdj(
ridhksl m%;sl%shd Ndú; lr *Sfkda,a i|yd lrk ,o iEu mÍlaIKhlska u

,efnk ksÍlaIK úia;r lrkak¡
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak(
ridhksl mÍlaIK u`.ska my; oS we;s ixfhda. tlsfklska fjka lr y`ÿkd

.kafka flfia oehs myokak'
yd
yd
yd
87
mÍlaIKh 27( we,aäyhsv yd lSfgdak iòyd mÍlaId
wruqKq: we,aäyhsv yd lSfgdakj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sls%hd ksÍlaIKh lr .ekSu'
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak
1. my; i|yka m%;sldrl iuÕ we,aäyhsv yd lSfgdak olajk m%;sl%shdjkaf.a fjki

idlÉPd lrkak¡
a. 2,4-DNP (c, ødjH) / fí%ä m%;sldrlh (fu;fkda,a)
b. H+ / K2Cr2O7
c. NH3 / AgNO3(aq)
2. we,aäyhsv yd lSfgdakj, jHQyd;aul ,laIK tajdfha c, ødjH;dj flfrys
n,mdk wdldrh idlÉPd lrkak¡
ye`ÈkAùu
we,aäyhsv yd lSfgdakj, m%;sl%shd tlsfklg fjkia jkfka we,aäyhsvj,

ldfndkhs,a ldKavh iu`. yhsv%cka mrudKq tlla j;a neòS we;s w;r lSfgdakj,
tl u yhsv%cka mrudKqjla j;a ldfndkhs,a ldKavhg neòS ke;s ksid h' tkï(
lSfgdakj, ldfndkhs,a ldKavhg we,als,a ldKav (-R) muKla neòS we;'
WmlrK ridhk øjH

,sÜuia m;% fu;ke,a ^f*daue,aäyhsâ&
c, ;dmlh t;ke,A ^weisge,aäyhsâ&
nkaika odylh fnkaie,aäyhsv
mÍlaId k, 2 - fm%dmfkdaka
weisfgd*sfkdaka
wdï,sl fmdgEishï m¾uex.fkaÜ
wdï,sl fmdgEishï vhsfl%dafïÜ
wefudakSh is,aj¾ khsfÜ%Ü (fgd,ka m%;sldrlh)
2, 4 vhskhsfg%dfmks,a yhsv%iska (2, 4- DNP)
f*a,sx ødjK (A yd B)
wdrlaIl l%fudamdh(
we,aäyhsv iy lSfgdak úI iys; neúka mßiaifuka mßyrKh lrkak'
88
l%uh:
² c, ødjH;dj
fnkaie,aäyhsâ" fm%dmfkdaka iy weisfgd*sfkdaka hk lSfgdak iòyd my;
mÍlaIK isÿ lrkak' mÍlaIK k,hlg 1 cm3 muK c,h f.k by; ixfhda.
fjkfjku tl;= lrkak' tajd c,fha Èh fõo ke;akï ia;r fjka fõ oehs
mÍlaId lrkak' ^0'5 cm3 g jvd fkd.; hq;=hs'&
² 2" 4 - DNP iu. m%;sl%shd'
² weisge,aäyhsv yd weisfgdaka c,fha Èh lrf.k 2" 4 - DNP iaj,amhla
tl;= lr isÿ jk fjkialï ksÍlaIKh lrkak'
² fnkaie,aäyhsâ yd weisfgd*sfkdaka l=vd m%udKhla fjkfjku
fu;fkda,a l=vd mßudjla ñY% lr" fí%ä m%;sldrlh l=vd mßudjla tl;=
lrkak'
² weisge,aäyhsâ" weisfgdaka yd fnkaie,aäyhsâ j,ska 0'5 cm3 la muK f.k
mÍlaIK k, 3 l fu;fkda,aj, Èh lr.kak' iEu mÍlaIK k,hlg wdï,sl
KMnO4 tl;= lr isÿ jk fjkialï ksÍlaIKh lrkak' fuu mÍlaIKh H+
/ KMnO4 fjkqjg H+ / K2Cr2O7 iu. o isÿ lrkak'
² f*a,sx A ødjKfhka 1 cm3 la yd f*a,sx B ødjKfhka 1 cm3 la ñY% lr
f*a,sx ødjKh ms<sfh, lr" fuu ødjKj,ska 1 cm3 ne.ska fjkfjku tl;=
lr" úkdä 1-2 la kgjkak' weisge,aäyhsâ fukau weisfgdaka iu. o fuu
mÍlaIKh isÿ lrkak'
² wefudakSh AgNO3 ødjK 1-2 cm3 la weisge,aäyhsâ 1 cm3 la muK wvx.=
mÍlaIK k,hg oud fuu ødjK ñY%Kh' c, ;dmlhl úkdä mylg fkdjeä
ld,hla WKq lrkak'
² weisfgdaka iu. o fuu mÍlaIKh isÿ lrkak'
² wefudakSh AgNO3 ^fgd,kaia m%;sldrlh& my; l%uh wkqj" w¨f;ka idod.;
hq;=hs'
² msßisÿ k,hlg AgNO3 1 cm3 la muK f.k" NaOH ødjKfhka ìkaÿjla
muK oud miqj Ag2O wjlafIamh Èh jk f;la thg NH4OH ødjKfhka
ìkaÿj ne.ska oukak'
igyk(
c,Sh 2, 4 DNP m%;sldrlh c,fha ødjH ldfndkhs,a ixfhda. iòyd o fu;fkda,ays

Èh l< 2, 4 DNP m%;sldrlh c,fha wødjH ldfndkhs,a ixfhda. iòyd o Ndú;
lrkak'
m%;sM,(
tla tla mrSlaIdfjka ,efnk ksrSlaIK jd¾;d lrkak¡
idlÉPdj:
we,aäyhsv iy lSfgdak olajk m%;sl%shdj, ksÍlaIK úia;r lrkak¡
89
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak:
my; ixfhda. fgd,ka m%;sldrlh" f*a,sx m%;sldrlh" 2, 4- DNP yd wdï,sl

KMnO4 iuÕ olajk m%;sls%hdj,ska ,nd fok ksÍlaIK fudkjd o?
90
mÍlaIKh 28 ldfndlais,sla wï,j, .=K mÍlaId lsÍu
wruqqKq: ldfndlais,sla wï,j, ridhksl .=K ksÍlaIKh lsÍu.
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak:

1. tiagr úúO rifhka yd iqj`Èka hqla; fõ' tajdhska lSmhla iòyka lr" tajd
iE§ we;s we,afldfyd, yd ldfndlais,sla wï, o iòyka lrkak'
2. c, ødjH ldfndlais,sla wï, 2l jHQy ,shkak¡
3. fnkafidhsla wï,h yd NaOH w;r m%;sl%shdfjka iEfok m%Odk M,h ,shkak¡
4. úkdlsßj," foys hqIj, yd ;lald,sj, iajdNdúlj wvx.= jk ldfndlais,sla
wï, kï lrkak¡
ye`Èkaùu(
ldfndlais,sla wï, ls%hdldß ldKavh wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda. ldfndlais,sla

wï, f,i ye`Èkafõ' fndfyda iajdNdúl m%Njj, ldfndlais,sla wï, olakg
,efí¡ ldfndlais,sla wï, fndfyda wdydrj,g weUq,a rihla f.k foa¡
ldfndlais,sla wï, ÿn, wï, jk w;r c,fha § Nd.slj ú>gkh fõ'
WmlrK ridhk øjH

fla;= ma,dial= idkaø H2SO4
mÍlaI k, wefudakSh is,aj¾ khsfÜ%Ü ødjKh
lelEreï k, wdï,sl fmdgEishï m¾uex.fkaÜ ødjKh
îlr fu;fkdhsla wï,h
t;fkdhsla wï,h
fnkafidhsla wï,h
fidaähï ldnfkaaÜ
fidaähï yhsfv%dlaihsâ ødjKh
fidaähï nhsldnfkaaÜ
wdrlaIl l%fudamdh(
i,a*shqrsla wï,h ;on, ms,siaiqï we;s lrhs¡ bysÍul § c,h wêl m%udKhla
uÕska fidaod y< hq;=hs¡
l%uh(
my; mÍlaIK fu;fkdhsla wï,h" t;fkdhsla wï,h iy fnkafidhsla wï,h fhdod
.ksñka isÿ lrkak' ksÍlaIK j.=.; lrkak'
91
1. c,h 1 cm3la muK oud th Èh fõ oehs n,kak'
2. ;kql NaOH 2 cm3 la iuÕ ñY% lrkak¡ meyeos,s ødjKhla ,efí oehs ksÍlaIKh
lrkak¡
3. Na2CO3 ødjKhg tl;= lr" jdhq nqnq¿ msg fõ oehs n,kak'
4. t;fkda,a 1 cm3la muK f.k" thg ldfndlais,sla wï,h oud idkaø H2SO4
wï,fhka ìkaÿ lSmhla oud ñks;a;=jla muK fifuka r;a lrkak' fï ñY%Kh
o< jYfhka 5% NaHCO3 c,Sh ødjKh wvx.= îlrhlg j;a lr m%ikak iqjòla
,efí oehs ksÍlaIKh lrkak'
5. wdï,sl KMnO4 ødjKh tl;= lrkak' fyd`Èka ñY% lr j¾K úm¾hdihla isÿ
fõ oehs ksÍlaIKh lrkak'
6. wefudakshd AgNO3 2 cm3 la muK oud ^fgd,ka m%;sldrlh& c, ;dmlhl ;nd

r;a lrkak' ßoS levm;la ,efí oehs ksÍlaIKh lrkak'
m%;sM,(
wï,h mÍlaIdj ksÍlaIKh ks.ukh
ldfndlais,sla wï, iòyd isÿ lrk ,o iEu mÍlaIdjl u ksÍlaIK meyeÈ,s lrkak'
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak(
1. by; mÍlaIKj,g mokï jQ m%;sls%hd idlÉPd lrkak'

2. ldfndlais,sla wï, iy tiagr tajdfha ridhksl iy fN!;sl .=K wkqj
fjkia jkafka flfia o@
3. fnkafidhsla wï,h iy vhs*Skhs,a lSfgdak hk fol u c,fha wødjH fõ' fï
ixfhda. wvx.= ñY%Khlska tajd fjka lr .ekSug l%uhla fhdackd lrkak'
92
mÍlaIKh 29( weks,ska y÷kd .ekSfï mrSlaId'
wruqKq(
1. vhfidakshï ,jKj, m%;sl%shd weiqfrka wefrdueál m%d:ñl weók y÷kd
.ekSug
2. vhfidakshï ,jK uÕska wefidavhs (azodyes) j¾. ms<sfh, lsÍu
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak(
1. by; m%;sl%shdfjka ,efnk vhfidakshï ,jKfha jHQyh w|skak¡

2. by; m%;sl%shdfjka iEoSug bv we;s w;=reM, fudkjd o?
3. WIaK;ajh 10 °C g jvd jeä jk úg iEfok M, fudkjd o?
4. my; i|yka m%;sl%shdfõ M,h ,shkak.
ye`ÈkAùu(
wdydr" frosms<s iy idhï wdÈ l¾udka;j, § jdKsc jYfhka olakg ,efnk

ldnksl idhï j¾. Ndú; fõ. ixYaf,aIs; idhï w;r wefida vhs jvd;a iq,Nj
Ndú; jk j¾.h fõ. ish¨ wefida vhs j¾.j, Ar-N=N-Ar¢ hk uQ,sl jHqyh
wka;¾.; fõ. fuys Ar yd Ar’hkq wefrdueál ldKav folls. fï mrSlaIKfha oS
weks,Ska" vhfidakshï ,jK njg mßj¾;kh lr" bka miq naphthalen-2-ol iuÕ
m%;sl%shd lrjd wefida vhs (2-kemaf;da,a, -kemaf;da,a) ksmojkq ,efí.
WmlrK ridhk øjH

mrSlaId k, NaOH
whsia ;dmlh weks,ska
2-kemaf;da,a fyda *Sfkda,
NaNO2
idkaø HCl
wdrlaIl l%fudamdh(
weks,ska úI iys; øjHhls. ifuys iam¾Y ùug bv fkd;eìh hq;= h.
93
l%uh(
1. 2- kemaf;da,a 0.2 g la muK 10% NaOH ødjK 5 cm3 la ;=< osh lrkak. isis,a
ùu i|yd whsia ;dmlh ;=< ;nkak.
2. NaNO2 0.2 g la muK c,h 2 cm3 l muK oshlr isis,a ùu i|yd whsia ;dmlh
;=, ;nkak.
3. weks,ska 0'5 g la muK c,h 2 cm3 muK Èh lr.kak'
fï mshjr wjidkfha oS ,efnk <d ly meye;s ødjKh fnkaiska vhfidakshï

,jK ødjKhhs.
uq,ska ms<sfh, lr.;a laIdrSh naphthalen-2-ol ødjKh whsia ;dmlh ;=< ;nd
f.k fnkaiska vhfidakshï ,jK ødjKh fifuka tl;= lrkak. fï mshjr
mqrd ñY%Kh uka:kh l< hq;=hs. oSma;su;a ;eô,s-r;= wjlafIamhla iEfoa.
4. weks,ska 0.5 g la iuÕ idkaø HCl 3 cm3 la yd c,h 1 cm3 la ñY% lr isis,a ùu
i|yd whsia ;dmlh ;=< ;nkak.
5. whsia ;dmlh ;=< we;s weks,ska -HCl ñY%Khg isis,a NaNO2 ødjKh uka:kh
lrñka tl;= lrkak.
[igyk: tl;= lsrSu YS>%fhka isÿ lf<a kï m%;sl%shd ;dmh vhfidakshï ,jKh
úfhdackh lr N2 jdhq nqnq¿ we;s lrhs.]
idlÉPdj:
j¾K úm¾hdihla fmkajk iEu mshjrla i|yd u ksrSlaIK úia;r lrkak
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak:
1. j¾Kj;a M,h l=ula o? fï M,h iE§u i|yd jk ridhksl iólrKh ,shkak.

2. we,s*eál weók Ndú;fhka óg iudk vhs ms<sfh, l< yels o? Tnf.a ms<s;=r
meyeos,s lrkak.
3. vhs ms<sfh, ùfï m%;sl%shd laIdrSh udOHhl § isÿ l< hq;af;a wehs oehs úia;r
lrkak.
94
mÍlaIKh 30: ue.akSishï iy wï, w;r m%;sls%hdfõ wï, idkaøKh m%;sls%hdfõ
YS>%;dj flfrys n,mEu mÍlaIKd;aulj ks¾Kh lsÍu
wruqKq:
1. m%;sls%hdjl YS>%;dj flfrys m%;sls%hl idkaøKfha n,mEu .fõIKh lsÍu
2. ksoyia jk H2 jdhqfõ mßudj uekSu u`.ska Mg iy HCl wï,h w;r m%;sls%hdfõ
fm< ks¾Kh lsÍu
fmr mÍlaK m%Yak(

1. m%;sls%hdjl § ld,h;a iu`. m%;sls%hl idkaøKh wvq ùu fmkakqï lrk
idïm%odhsl yevh iys; m%ia;drh weò" tys wdrïNl YS>%;dj" hï fudfyd;l
YS>%;dj iy uOHkH YS>%;dj i,l=Kq lrkak.
2. A®B hk ir, m%;sl%shdj i|yd
(i) Y+kH fm<
(ii) m<uq fm<
(iii) fojk fm< jk úg idkaøKh yd ld,h w;r idïm%odhsl yevh iys;
m%ia;drh w|skak.
3. CaCO3 100.0 gla îlrhlg f.k" thg 1.0 mol dm-3 HCl wï,h 100 cm3 tl;=
lrkak. ;;amr 30lg miq b;sß jQ CaCO3 ialkaOh 70.0 g nj fidhd .kakd ,§'
(i) m%;sls%hdfõ uOHkH YS>%;dj .Kkh lrkak.
(ii) ;;amr 10.0l ld,hla ;=< oS CaCO3 jeh ùfï uOHkH YS>%;dj 0.2 mol s-1
kï" túg fldmuK CaCO3 ialkaOhla b;sßj mj;S o?
ye`Èkaùu(
ridhksl m%;sls%hdj, YS>%;d iy tajd md,kh lsÍug we;s yelshdj ms<snò wOHhkh
lsÍu pd,l ridhkfha wruqKq fõ' idkaøKh" WIaK;ajh" W;afm%arl" m%;sls%hlj,
fN!;sl iajNdjh hk idOl iy m%;sls%hd hka;%K" m%;sls%hdjl YS>%;dj flfrys
n,mdhs. hï ridhksl m%;sls%hdjlg jeä YS>%;djla we;a kï fok ,o ld,hla
;=< oS jeä wKq m%udKhla m%;sls%hd lr M, idohs' hï ridhksl m%;sls%hdjlg wvq
YS>%;djla we;akï l=vd wKq m%udKhla fok ,o ld,hla ;=< oS m%;sls%hdlr M,
idohs' m%;sls%hl jeh jk YS>%;dj fyda M, iEfok YS>%;dj tu m%;sls%hdfõ YS>%;dj
f,i fmdÿfõ w¾: olajkq ,efí' A ® P iy ir, m%;sls%hdj iòyd iS>%;dj –
fyda f,i ,súh yels h' tkï hïlsis ld, mrdihla ;=< isÿ jk m%udKd;aul
fjki fõ' flfia jqj o iuyr wjia:dj, § m%;sls%hdfõ wdrïNl ,laIHfha § tys
YS>%;dj w¾: olajkq ,efí' ta ksid fï iòyd uQ,sl w¾: oelaùu iy ld,h;a iu`.
m%;sls%hd YS>%;dj fjkia jk wdldrh ms<snò wjfndaO lr .ekSu m%fhdackj;a fõ'
ir, mÍlaIK u`.ska yd tajdfha o;a;j, m%ia;dßl ksrEmK u`.ska jvd fydò
wjfndaOhla ,nd .; yels h'
m%;sls%hdjl YS>%;dj iy m%;sls%hd idkaøKh w;r Rcq iïnkaO;djla we;s nj wm

okakd neúka th my; mßÈ bÈßm;a l< yels h' A + B ® C + D hk m%;sls%hdj
iòyd:
YS>%;dj a [A]n [B]m fyda YS>%;dj = k [A]n [B]m
95
fuh YS>%;d kshuh fyda YS>%;d m%ldYkh f,i y`ÿkajk w;r" n yd m hkq
ms<sfj<ska A yd B m%;sls%hlj,g idfmaCIj fm< fõ.
fï m%;sls%hdfõ oS HClj,g idfmalaI m%;sls%hdfõ fm< fiùug mÍlaIKhla ilid

.kakd whqre iy m%;sls%hl idkaøK iu`. YS>%;dj úp,kh jk whqre .Kkh
lsÍu wruqKq nj wjfndaO jkq we;'
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq ) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) yd m%;sls%hdj iòyd YS>%;d m%ldYkh"

YS>%;dj =k [Mg(s)]n [HCl(aq)]m f,i ,súh yels h'
[Mg(s)] >khla neúka ksh;hls.
YS>%;dj a [HCl(aq)]m
fuys § H2 jdhqj iEfok neúka" HCl(aq) idkaøKh fjkia lrñka tall

ld,hl oS iEfok H2(g) mßudj uekSu u`.ska fï m%;sls%hdfõ pd,l
ridhkh ms<snò wOHhkh l< yels h'
YS>%;dj a [HCl(aq)]m
YS>%;dj α [H2 mßudj /ld,h (t)]m
H2 mßudj ksh;hla neúka

YS>%;dj a [1/t]m

WmlrK ridhk øjH
lelEreï k, 1.0 mol dm-3 HCl wï,h 500 cm3
rn¾ wen msßisÿ Mg má (3 cm muK È.)
ùÿre ng
úrdu >áldj
îlr
l%uh:
1. m<uqj lelEreï k,fha m;=f,a isg 3 cm muK Wäka mEklska i,l=Kq lrkak.
2. 31.1 rEmfha wdldrhg WmlrK ilid" wenh iys; ùÿre k,fha fl<jrg Mg
máh iú lr .kak (tlu os.ska hq;a Mg máhla iEu mÍlaIK jdrhla iòyd u
Ndú;d lsÍu wjYH fõ).
3. lelEreï k,h 1. 0 mol dm-3 HCl wï,fhka iïmQ¾Kfhka u mqrjd Mg máh
iú l< ùÿre ngh iys; rn¾ wenh iú lrkak.
4. lelEreï k,h wfkla me;a; yrjk ú.i u úrdu >áldj ls%hd;aul lrkak.
5. lelEreï k,fha i,l=K f;la øj uÜgu <`.d ùug .; jk ld,h jd¾;d
lrkak.
6. HClj, úúO idkaøK iòyd (ksoiqkla f,i 0.80, 0.60, 0.40 iy 0.20 mol dm-3)
w¨;a Mg máhla iu`. 3 iy 5 mshjr kej; isÿ lrkak'
(Note: HCl ys úúO idkaøK ms<sfh, lsrSu i|yd 1.00 mol dm-3 HCl ødjKfha iqÿiq
mrsud lelEreï k,hg oud k,h msfrk f;la wdi%e; c,h tl;= lsrSu l< yels h&'
HCl j, úúO idkaøK iòyd ksh; H2(g) mßudjla tl;= ùug .; jQ ld,h
iòyd ,nd .;a o;a; my; j.=fõ igyka lr" iEu idkaøKhla iòyd u YS>%;dj
.Kkh lrkak.
96
rEmh 30.1 mÍlaIKd;aul wegjqu
[HCl] /mol dm-3 ld,h / s iS>%;dj mol dm-3 s-1

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
by; o;a; Ndú;fhka [HCl(aq)] g idfmalaIj m%;sls%hdfõ fm< .Kkh lrkak.

by; o;a; iòyd iqÿiq m%ia;drhla weò" ta ms<snò woyia olajkak.
úl,am mÍlaIK wegjqu(
fï mÍlaIKh iòyd my; ieliqu o Ndú; l< yels h.
rEmh 30.2 w;sf¾l mÍlaIKd;aul wegjqu
97
w;sf¾l mÍlaIKh( - CaCO3(s) yd HCl wï,h w;r m%;sls%hdfõ fm< mÍlaIKd;aulj
ks¾Kh lsÍu
wruqK( - ialkaOfha wvq ùu uekSu uÕska CaCO3(s) yd HCl wï,h w;r m%;sls%hdfõ fm<
ks¾Kh lsÍug'
ye|skaùu( - CaCO3" HCl wï,h iu`. m%;sls%hd lr CaCl2, CO2 yd H2O idohs.
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq ) ® CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
fï mÍlaIKfha § CaCO3 j, ialkaOfha wvq ùu uekSu uÕska YS>%;dj ks¾Kh lrhs.
WmlrK ridhk øjH

îlr CaCO3 (s)300 g
bf,lafg%dksl ;=,dj idkaøKh 1.0 mol dm-3, 1.5 mol dm-3
úrdu >áldj yd 2.0 mol dm-3 HCl ødjK 300 cm3
ne.ska (fuu ødjK ;kQlrKh uÕska
ms<sfh, lr .; yelsh.)
l%uh(
1. CaCO3 leg 100 g muK îlrhg f.k uq¿ ialkaOh uek .kak (CaCO3 ialkaOh
+ ysia îlrfha ialkaOh).
2. ñY%Kh wvx.= îlrh bf,lafg%dksl ;=,dj u; ;nd 1.0 mol dm-3 HCl 100 cm3 la
oud iEu ;;amr 20 la ;=<oS u ialkaOh jd¾;d lrkak'
3. 1.5 mol dm-3 yd 2.0 mol dm-3 HCl ødjK iòyd by; mshjr fol kej; isÿ
lrkak'
my; j.=fõ mßÈ Tfí m%;sM, jd¾;d lrkak.
ld,h /s ialkaOh wvq ùu /g

CaCO3(s) CaCO3(s) CaCO3(s)
iuÕ iuÕ iuÕ
1.0 mol dm-3 1.5 mol dm-3 2.0 mol dm-3
HCl HCl HCl
98
o;a; úYaf,aIKh(
1. CaCO3 l=vq yd 1.0 mol dm-3 w;r m%;sls%hdj iòyd ialkaO fjki iy ld,h w;r
m%ia;drh w|skak' ;;amr 100 yd 200 w;r ld, mrdifha § m%;sls%hdfõ uOHkH
YS>%;dj .Kkh lrkak'
2. iEu mÍlaIK jdrhla iòyd u ialkaO fjki iy ld,h w;r m%ia;dr tl u
igykl weò Tnf.a ksÍlaIK ms<snò woyia olajkak.
3. ;;amr 20 ld, mrdij, § m%;sls%hd YS>%;djka .Kkh lrkak'
4. HCl idkaøKh yd YS>%;dj w;r m%ia;dr w`Èkak'

5. HCl wï,hg idfmalaIj m%;sls%hdfõ fm< ks¾Kh lrkak.
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak

1. by; CaCO3(s) yd HCl wï,h w;r mrSlaIKfha § HClj,g idfmalaIj
m%;sls%hdfõ fm< fiúh yelsfõ o? woyia olajkak.
2. CaCO3 l=vq 2.0 mol dm-3HCl iu`. m%;sls%hdfõ § uq,a ;;amr 50 ;=, § 2.0 gl
ialkaO fjkila isÿ jQfha kï" 50 s oS HCl idkaøKh .Kkh lrkak'
3. NO2(g) + CO(g) NO(g) + CO2(g) hk m%;sls%hdj iòyd ldur
WIaK;ajfha oS ,nd .;a o;a; my; j.=fõ oelafõ'
fï o;a; Ndú;fhka" iEu m%;sls%hlhlg u idfmalaIj m%;sls%hdfõ fm< ks¾Kh
lr m%;sls%hdj iòyd YS>%;d kshuh ks¾Kh lrkak' Tnf.a fidhd .ekSï ms<snò
woyia olajkak'
wdrïNl iS>; % dj
mÍlaIKh [CO]/ mol dm-3 [NO2]/ mol dm-3
mol dm-3 s-1
1 0.1 0.1 0.005
2 0.1 0.4 0.080
3 0.2 0.1 0.005
99
mÍlaIKh 31: Na2S2O3 iy HNO3 wï,h w;r m%;sls%hdfõ YS>%;dj flfrys
m%;sls%hl idkaøKfha n,mEu mÍlaIKd;aulj ks¾Kh lsÍu
wruqKq: 1. m%;sls%hd YS>%;dj flfrys m%;sls%hlj, idkaøKh n,mdkafka flfia oehs

wOHhkh lsÍug
2. m%;sls%hdfõ fm< fiùu yd m%;sls%hdj iòyd YS>%;d iólrKh ,sùug
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak(

1. Na2S2O3 yd HNO3 w;r m%;sls%hdj iòyd ;=,s; ridhksl iólrKh ,shkak¡
2. by; m%;sl%shdfõ ksrSlaIK fudkjd o?
ye`Èkaùu(
fï mÍlaIKfha oS Na2S2O3 iy wï, HNO3 w;r m%;sls%hdj Ndú; lrkq ,efí.

Na2S2O3(aq) + 2HNO3 (aq ) ® S(s) + 2NaNO3(aq) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)
by; wruqKq bgq lr .ekSu iòyd m%;sls%hdfõ oS iEfok >k i,a*¾ ksh; m%udKhla
iE§ug .; jk ld,h myiqfjka uek .ekSug yels fõ' tneúka i,a*¾ >kh
iE§fï YS>%;dj" m%;sls%hdfõ YS>%;dj f,i ie,lsh yels h'
m%;sls%hdfõ fm< fiùu iòyd mÍlaIKd;aul m%;sM, úYaf,aIKh lrkq ,efí.
tu`.ska m%;sls%hdj iòyd YS>%;d iólrKh f.dvke`.sh yels h'

WmlrK ridhk øjH
îlr 3.0 mol dm-3 HNO3 wï, ødjKh
l¿ l;srhla ,l=Kq l< iqÿ lvodish 40 g dm3 (fyda 0.15 mol dm-3) fidaähï
úrdu >áldj ;fhdai,af*aÜ ødjKh
l%uh(
iEu mÍlaIKhla iòyd u “X” i,l=K u; îlrh ;eìh hq;= h. wï,h tl;=
l< ú.i m%;sls%hdj wdrïN jk neúka m<uqj îlrh ;=<g wjYH Na2S2O3 mßudj
oud .; hq;= h' bka miq kshñ; HCl mßudj tl;= l< hq;= h' iEu mÍlaIKhl §
u wï,h tl;= l< ú.i úrdu Trf,daiqj ls%hd;aul lsÍug j. n,d .; hq;= h'
iEfok i,a*¾ fya;=fjka l;sr i,l=K fkdfmkS hEug .; jk ld,h uek .kak'
wj¾K ødjKh" ly meyehg yqre j,djla njg m;a fõ'
31.1 j.=j Na2S2O3 mßudj fjkia lsÍfuka m%;sls%hd YS>%;dj ks¾Kh lsrSu
mÍlaIKh 0.15 mol dm-3 3.0 moldm-3 wdi%e; c,h “X” l;srh iS>%;dj
Na2S2O3 HNO3 mßudj/ cm3 fkdfmkS hdug
mßudj/ cm3 mßudj/ cm3 .;jk ld,h /s
1 25.0 5.0 0.0
2 20.0 5.0 5.0
3 15.0 5.0 10.0
4 10.0 5.0 15.0
5 5.0 5.0 20.0
100
31.2 j.=j HNO3 mßudj fjkia lsÍfuka m%;sls%hd YS>%;dj ks¾Kh lsÍu
mÍlaIKh 0.15 mol 3.0 moldm-3 wdi%e; c,h “X” l;srh

dm-3 Na2S2O3 HNO3 mßudj/ cm3 fkdfmkS hEug YS>;
% dj
mßudj/ cm3 mßudj/ cm3 ld,h /s
1 25.0 5.0 0.0
2 25.0 4.0 1.0
3 25.0 3.0 2.0
4 25.0 2.0 3.0
5 25.0 1.0 4.0
igyk; tl u ksÍlaIlhl= úiska tl u Wilska wei ;nd f.k “X” ,l=K foi
ne,Su wjYH fõ'
by; o;a; Ndú; lr HNO3 yd Na2S2O3 idkaøKj,g idfmalaIj m%;sls%hdfõ fm<

ks¾Kh lrkak. tuÕska YS>%;d iólrKh f.dv kÕkak. by; o;a; m%ia;dßlj
ksrEmKh lrkak.
miq mrSlaIK m%Yak(

1. by; mrSlaIKfha § Na2S2O3 idkaøKhg idfmalaIj HNO3 idkaøKh by<
uÜgul ;nkafka wehs?
2. ta mÍlaIKfha § ,nd .;a o;a; fhdod f.k my; m%ia;dr w|skak.
101
mÍlaIKh 32: Fe3+ yd I– w;r m%;sls%hdj i|yd Fe3+j,g idfmalaIj m%;sls%hdfõ fm<
mÍlaIKd;aulj ks¾Kh lsÍu
wruqK: m%;sls%hdjl fm< yd iS>%;d m%ldYkh mÍlaIKd;aul j ks¾Kh lsÍu.
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak:
1. m%;sls%hdjla iòyd YS>%;d m%ldYkh = k[A]2[B] kï,

(a) m%;sls%hdfõ uq¿ fm< lSh o?
(b) A yd B hk foflys u idkaøK fo.=K lf<a kï, m%;sls%hd YS>%;dj flfrys fuh
flfia n,mdhs o?
(c) ksh; WIaK;ajfha § B ys idkaøKh ksh;j ;nd f.k A ys idkaøKh fo.=K l<
úg k ys w.h flfrys flfia n,mdhs o?
ye`Èkaùu
fï mÍlaIKfha oS"
2I–(aq) + 2Fe3+(aq) ® I2(aq) + 2Fe2+(aq),
hk m%;sls%hdfõ pd,lh .ek wOHhkh lrkq ,efí' fï iòyd a, b yd k ys w.hka

mÍlaIKd;aulj ksudkh lr m%;sls%hdj iòyd YS>%;d iólrKh f.dvk`.kq ,efí'
YS>%;dj = k [Fe3+(aq)]a [I-(aq)]b
my; oS we;s mÍlaIKd;aul l%ufõoh by; ld¾hh id¾:l lr .ekSug WmldÍ

fõ. fï m%;sls%hdfõ fyda fjk;a m%;sls%hdjl fyda pd,lh wOHhkh lsÍu iòyd
hg;a msßfihska tla m%;sls%hlhl fyda m%;sM,hl j;a" idkaøKh ld,h iu`.
fjkia jk wkaou uek .; yels úh hq;= h' by; m%;sls%hdfõ m%;sls%hlj, (tkï
Fe3+ yd I- j,) idkaøKh uek .ekSu myiq ld¾hhla fkdfõ. flfia fj;;a fjk;a
WÑ; l%uhla wmg i,ld ne,sh yel' fï m%;sls%hdfõoS I2(aq) iEfok ksid" iEfok
I2(aq) iu`. m%;sls%hd lsÍug" Fe3+fyda I- flfrys n,mEula we;s fkdlrk fojk
m%;sls%hlhla fhdod .; yels h. fojk m%;sls%hlh jYfhka I2(aq) iu`. m%;sls%hd
lrk S2O32-(aq) whk iqÿiq fõ.
I2(aq) + 2S2O32-(aq)®2I-(aq) + S4O62-(aq)
fï m%;sls%hdj" wm wOHhkh lrk m%;sls%hdj iu`. tl úg u isÿ fõ. m%;sls%hd

ñY%Khg msIag ødjKhlska iaj,amhla oeuQ úg fojk m%;sls%hdj" ld,h uek .;
yels "Trf,daiqjla" S2O32-(aq) njg m;a lr .; yels h' oeuQ S2O32-(aq) m%udKh
uq¿ukska u wjidk jQ úg ñY%Kh ks,a mdgg yef¾' S2O32-(aq) m%udKh wjika
jQ jyd u" Fe3+(aq) yd I2(aq) u`.ska iEfok ødjKhg ksoyia jk w;r" tajd msIagh
iu`. m%;sls%hd lr ,dlaIKsl ks,a mdgla we;s ixlS¾Kh idohs. fï ksid okakd
ksh; S2O32-(aq) m%udKhla iy msIagh m%;sls%hd ñY%Khg tl;= lrk w;r" tu
S2O32- m%udKh iEfok I2(aq) iu`. m%;sls%hd ùug bv yßkq ,efí. fï wkqj my;
m%;sls%hd fol u ñY%Kh ;=< § tla úg u isÿ fõ.
102
2I–(aq) + 2Fe3+(aq) ® I2(aq) + 2Fe2+(aq) fifuka
I2(aq) + 2S2O32-(aq)®2I-(aq) + S4O62-(aq) fõ.fhka
ks,a meyeh Èia jk wjia:dfõ §" wdrïNl wjia:dfõ isg Fe3+ ys idkaøKfha we;s jk wvq
ùu" ñY%Khg tl;= l< S2O32-(aq) ys wdrïNl idkaøKhg iudk fõ.
fuys hkq wdrïNl (ksh;) ;fhdai,af*aÜ idkaøKh jk w;r dt hkq ks,a meyeh
Èia ùug .; jk ld,h (;;amr) fõ' by; iïnkaO;dj ,nd .ekSug ;fhdai,af*aÜj,
wdrïNl idkaøKh Fe3+(aq) yd I-(aq)j,g idfmalaIj wjYH ;rï my;a úh hq;= h'
m<uqfjka u a yd b hk o¾Ylj, w.h mÍlaIKkd;aulj ks¾Kh lsÍu isÿ lrk w;r

bka miq wdrïNl YS>%;d l%ufhka fõ. ksh;h k .Kkh lrkq ,efí.
WmlrK ridhk øjH

îlr wdï,sl lrk ,o 0.10 moldm-3
ñkqï ird wefudakshï whka (III) i,af*aÜ ødjKh
úrdu >áldj 0.2 mol dm-3 yd 3.0 mol dm-3
fmdgEishï whvhsâ ødjKh
0.006 mol dm-3
fidaähï ;fhdai,af*aÜ ødjKh'
msIag ødjKh
wdi%e; c,h
l%uh:
igyk : wdï,sl wefudakshï whk (III) i,af*aÜ ødjKh idokafka wjYH ialkaOh"
1.00 mol dm-3H2SO4 ødjKhl Èh lsÍfuks.
msIag ødjKh ms<sfh, lsÍug msIagh 5 g la WKq c,h 100 cm3 l Èh lrkak.
m%;sls%hdj wdrïN lrkq ,nkafka wj¾K wdï,sl Fe3+(aq) ødjKhla fidaähï
;fhdai,af*aÜ" fmdgEishï whvhsâ iy msIagh ìkaÿ myla muK wvx.= wj¾K
ødjKhla ñY% lsÍfuks'
A. Fe3+(aq)j,g idfmalaIj m%;sls%hdfõ fm< fiùu

1 A mÍlaIKhg wjYH ñY%K" j.=j - 1 ys iòyka wkaoug 100 cm3 îlr ;=<
ms<sfj<ska ñY% lrkak'
îlrh I: Fe3+(aq) ødjKh" ;kql H2SO4
îlrh II: I–(aq) + S2O32-(aq) + msIaGh + wdi%e; c,h
103
mÍlaIKh wdi%e; c,h/ 0.1 mol dm-3 3 mol dm-3 0.006 mol dm-3 ks,a meyeh
cm3 wdï,sl KI(aq)/ cm3 S2O32-(aq)+ we;s ùug
Fe3+(aq)/ msIaGh/ cm3 .; jk
cm3 ld,h (t)
1 0.0 25.0 10.0 15.0
2 5.0 20.0 10.0 15.0
3 10.0 15.0 10.0 15.0
4 15.0 10.0 10.0 15.0
5 20.0 5.0 10.0 15.0
j.=j 32.1
I - îlrh ;=< we;s ødjKh" II - îlrhg tl;= lr ta iu`. u úrdu >áldj

ls%hd;aul lrkak' ñY%Kh o fyd`Èka le,;sh hq;= h' ks,a meyeh Èia jk m<uq
wjia:dfõ § u úrdu >áldj kj;ajd ld,dka;rh (dt) uek .kak. ish¨ mÍlaIK
iòyd by; ls%hdms<sfj< wkq.ukh lrkak'
B - I-(aq)j,g idfmalaIj m%;sls%hdfõ fm< fiùu
fuys § A fldgfia § wkq.ukh l< ls%hdud¾.h tf,i u wkq.ukh lrkak' isÿ

lrk tl u fjki kï f*ßla whk idkaøKh ksh;j ;nk w;r whvhsâ whk
idkaøKh my; j.=fõ wkaoug fjkia lsÍu muKs'
mÍlaIKh wdi%e; c,h/ 1 mol dm-3 0.2 mol dm-3 0.006 mol dm-3 ks,a meyeh
cm3 wdï,sl KI(aq)/ cm3 S2O32-(aq)+ we;s ùug
Fe3+(aq)/ starch/ cm3 .; jk
cm3 ld,h (t)
1 0.0 25.0 10.0 15.0
2 2.0 25.0 8.0 15.0
3 4.0 25.0 6.0 15.0
4 6.0 25.0 4.0 15.0
5 8.0 25.0 2.0 15.0
j.=j 32.2
.Kkh: .
1. iEu mÍlaIKhl § u ksh;j mj;sk [S2O32-(aq)] .Kkh lrkak.
2. A yd B j.=j, § fidhd .;a fjkia ld,dka;rj, oS [Fe3+(aq)] yd [I-(aq)] fjk
fjk u fidhkak.
3. by; o;a; Ndú;fhka wdrïNl m%;sls%hd YS>%;dj .Kkh lrkak. .Kkh lrk
,o YS>%;djh w.h u.ska myiqfjka ,nd .; yels nj meyeos,s fõ (fuh
S2O32-(aq) idkaøKfha fjkia ùfï m%;sY;h ksudkh lsÍfuka ;yjqre lr .;
yels h. th b;d l=vd w.hla neúka th ksh;hla nj Wml,amkh l< yels h).
4. bÈßfha [Fe3+(aq)] iy bÈßfha [I-(aq)] fjk fjk u m%ia;dr.; lr
m%ia;drj, yevh .ek woyia olajkak'
5. a, b iy k ys w.hka by; o;a; Ndú; lr .Kkh lrkak' tu`.ska m%;sls%hdj
i|yd YS>%;d m%ldYkh ,nd .kak.
104
igyk(
.Kkh lrk ,o wdrïNl YS>%;d w.hka, uksk ,o ld,hkaf.a mriamrhg
wkqf,dauj iudkqmd;sl nj olakg ,efí. tneúka w.hhka m%;sls%hd iS>%;dj f,i
Ndú; l< yels h. óg wu;rj m%;sls%hd ñY%Kfha uq¿ mßudj mÍlaIKh isÿ lrk
w;r;=r oS ksh; neúka wod< úfYaIj, idkaøKhka tla tla mrSlaIKfha Ndú;
l< tajdfha mßudjkag (v) wkqf,dauj iudkqmd;sl fõ. tneúka g bÈßfha v
m%ia;drfhka tla tla m%;sl%shlhg idfmalaIj fm< myiqfjka ,nd .; yels w;r"
myiqfjka f;areï .; yels h.
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak(

1. H2O2 ys whãka W;afm%arl úfhdackh iòyd ridhksl iólrKhla ,shkak.
2. A fyda Bys idkaøK fo.=K l< úg tal wKql m%;sls%hdjl m%;sls%hd YS>%;dj y;r
.=Khla jk nj fidhd f.k we;' 2A + B ® C. m%;sls%hdj iòyd YS>%;d m%ldYkhla
,shkak.
3. hï øjHhl idkaøKh fo.=K l< úg my; wjia:dj, § m%;sls%hd YS>%;dj flfrys
th n,mdkafka flfia oehs olajkak'
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2
4. Fe3+ yd S2O32- tl úg tl;= l< yels o? fya;= olajkak.
5. H2SO4 yd S2O32- tl úg tl;= l< yels o? fya;= olajkak.
6. A mrSlaIKfha § wfkla ødjKj, idkaøKhkag jvd KI idkaøKh
by< uÜgul mj;ajd .; hq;af;a wehs oehs fya;= olajkak.
7. ñY%Khg c,h tl;= l< hq;= jkafka wehs?
105
mÍlaIKh 33: Fe3+ yd SCN¯moaO;sh Wmfhda.S lr .ksñka .;sl iu;=,s;;dfõ
mj;akd moaO;shl ,dlaIKsl .=K mÍlaIKd;aulj wOHhkh lsÍu
wruqKq(
1. .;sl ridhksl iu;=,s;;dj ms<snò wjfndaOh j¾Okh lsÍug
2. iu;=,s; ,laIH flfrys we;s lrk fjkialï u`.ska iu;=,s; moaO;shg isÿ
jk n,mEu wOHhkh lsÍug
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak(

whka (III) iòyd ix.; wxlh f,i 6 mj;sk w;r" whka (III) ,jK tajdfha
legdhkj, yhsfv%dlaihsfvd ixlS¾K we;s neúka c,Sh ødjKfha oS idudkHfhka
ly j¾Khla olajk w;r" tajd wï, yuqfõ oS wj¾K c,Sh ixlS¾K njg m;a fõ'
1. by; iu;=,s; moaO;sh iòyd ;=,s; iólrKh ,shkak'
2. c,Sh ixlS¾Kh yd SCN-(aq) c,Sh whk w;r isÿ jk m%;sls%hdj iòyd ;=,s;
iólrKh ,shkak'
ye`Èkaùu(
moaO;shlg n,mEï isÿ lsÍfuka tys iu;=,s; ,laIHh wjYH ÈYdjg .uka lrúh
yels h' fuh f,a peg,sh¾ uQ,O¾uh u`.ska úia;r lrhs' tkï" “iu;=,s;;dfõ
mj;sk moaO;shlg n,mEula we;s l< úg" ta n,mEu wju lsÍug moaO;sh ls%hdlrhs'”
moaO;shlg n,mEï l< yels wdldr iòyd WodyrK jYfhka idkaøKh ^jeä lsÍu
yd wvq lsÍu&" mSvkh ^jdhquh moaO;s iòyd& yd WIaK;ajh oelaúh yels hs'
igyk:
m%;sls%hl yd M,j, idkaøKh fjkia lsÍu u`.ska m%;sls%hdfõ iu;=,s;;d ksh;h

fjkia fkd fõ' fï mÍlaIKfha oS WIaK;ajfha yd idkaøKfha fjkialï u`.ska
we;sjk n,mEu ksÍlaIKh lrkq ,nhs'
Fe3+(aq) + SCN¯(aq) ⇌ [FeSCN]2+(aq) moaO;sh iòyd iu;=,s;;d ksh;h"
iu;=,s;;d ,laIHh flfrys idkaøKfha n,mEu úoyd oelaùu iòyd ms<s.;a

WodyrKhla jYfhka Fe3+(aq) + SCN¯(aq) ⇌ [FeSCN]2+(aq) hk m%;sls%hdjg wod,
iu;=,s; ñY%Khg fjk;a m%;sls%hlhla tla lsÍfuka isÿjk j¾K úm¾hdihka
ksÍlaIKh lrkq ,nhs'
by; iu;=,s; moaO;sfha uq,a j¾Kh jkafka ;eô,s mdg h ^th <d ly yd
r;= hk j¾Kj, ñY%Khls&' by; iu;=,s;;dfõ iu;=,s; ,laIHh" ødjKfha j¾Kh
u`.ska ks¾Kh l< yels neúka" ødjKfha ;snQ j¾Kh fjk;a ksjerÈ m%;sldrlhla tla
lsÍfuka fjkia l< yels h' tu`.ska iu;=,s; ,laIHh p,kh lrhs' iu;=,s;;dj
106
ol=Kg .uka lrhs kï" ødjKh ;o r;= meye fõ' iu;=,s;;dj jug .uka lrhs kï"
ødjKh <d ly meye fõ'
fuh my; úia;r lrkq ,nk ir, mÍlaIKh u`.ska wOHhkh l< yels h'

WmlrK ridhk øjH
mÍlaId k, 100 cm3 of 0.05 mol dm-3 whka (III) khsfÜ%g (Fe(NO3)3)
fyda 0.5 mol dm-3 HNO3 ;=, FeCl3
100 cm3 of 0.005 mol dm-3 fmdgEishï ;fhdaihfkaÜ
(KSCN) fyda fidaähï ;fhdaihfkaÜ fyda wefudakshï
;fhdaihfkaÜ
;kql (1.0 mol dm-3) fidaähï yhsfv%dlaihsâ (NaOH)
>k Fe(NO3)3 fyda FeCl3 iy KSCN
l%uh
· mÍlaId k,hg" whka (III) ødjK 5 cm3 la iy ;fhdaihfkaÜ ødjK 5 cm3 ne.ska
tla lr fyd`Èka fid,jkak ^j¾K ;Sj%;dj b;d by< kï" <d ;eô,s meye;s
ødjKhla ,efnk fia ;kql lrkak&' tu ødjKh fldgia 4lg fnod mÍlaId k,
4lg oukak'
· tla mÍlaId k,hl wvx.= ødjK ñY%Khla lsisÿ fjkila isÿ fkdlr md,lh
f,i ;nd .kak'
· fojk mÍlaId k,hg 0.1 mol dm-3 fidaähï yhsfv%dlaihsâ ødjKfhka ìkaÿ l0 la
tl;= lrkak' Tnf.a ksÍlaIK igyka lr.kak'
· f;jk mÍlaIK k,hg >k Fe(NO3)3) iaj,am m%udKhla tl;= lr Èh lrkak'
fyda whka khsfÜ%Ü ìkaÿ l0 la&' Tnf.a ksÍlaIK igyka lr.kak'
· y;rjk mÍlaIK k,hg KSCN iaj,am m%udKhla tl;= lrkak (fyda fmdgEishï
;fhdaihfkaÜ ìkaÿ 10 la&' Tnf.a ksÍlaIK igyka lr.kak'
ksÍlaIK
my; j.=fõ wdldrhg Tnf.a ksÍlaIK igyka lr.kak'
mÍlaId k, wxlh NaOH tla l< miq Fe3+ tla l< miq SCN- tla l< miq
j¾Kh j¾Kh j¾Kh
1 (md,lh) ;eô,s$ r;= ;eô,s ;eô,s
2
3
4
33'1 j.=j
miq mrSlaIK m%Yak(
1. by; ksÍlaIK úia;r lsÍug f,a peg,sh¾ uQ,O¾uh fhdod.kak'
2. by; wOHhkh lrk ,o moaO;sh iòyd wdï,sl udOH wjYH jkafka wehs@
3. mÍlaIKhl § 2.0 ´ 10-3mol dm-3 Fe(NO3)3 10.0 cm3 3 la yd 2.0 ´ 10-3mol
dm-3 KSCN 10.0 cm3 la ñY% lr iu;=,s;;djg t<UqKq miq ldur WIaK;ajfha§
tu ødjKfha [FeSCN]2+ idkaøKh 1.5 ´ 10-4 mol dm-3 nj fidhd .kakd ,oS'
m%;sl%shdfõ iu;=,s;;d ksh;h .Kkh lrkak.
107
mÍlaIKh 34: NO2(g) ⇌ N2O4(g) moaO;sh flfrys WIaK;ajfha n,mEu
mÍlaIKd;aulj wOHhkh lsÍu
wruqKq (
1. jdhquh moaO;sj, .;sl ridhksl iu;=,s;;dj fyd|ska wjfndaO lr .ekSu
myiq ùug wod< mÍlaIK isÿ lsÍug
2. iu;=,s; moaO;shlg l=vd ixfrdaë;djla fh¥ úg moaO;sfha iu;=,s;;d
,laIHg ta fjki n,mdk whqre fidhd ne,Sug'
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak (

1. úoHd.drfha § NO2 jdhqj ksmoùu i|yd fhdok l%uh l=ula o@
2. by; ridhksl m%;sls%hdj i|yd ;=,s; ridhksl iólrKh ,shkak'
3. NO2 jdhq idïm,fha j¾Kh l=ula o@
ye`Èkaùu:
iu;=,s; moaO;shl idkaøKh" WIaK;ajh yd mSvkh isÿ jk fjkialï iu;=,s;

moaO;shlg n,mEï we;s lr iu;=,s; ,laIHfha fjkia ùula isÿ lrjhs' fï
mÍlaIKfha oS iu;=,s; moaO;shla flfrys WIaK;ajfha n,mEu fmkakqï lrhs'
khsg%cka vfhdlaihsâ jdhqj NO2 yd N2O4 j, iu;=,s; ñY%Khla f,i mj;S'
2 NO2(g) ⇌ N2O4(g)DH = -58 kJ mol-1

ÿUqre wj¾K
by; m%;sls%hdfõ bÈß m%;sls%hdj ;dm odhl jk w;r" ^N2O4 iEoSu& wdmiq m%;sls%hdj
;dm wjfYdaIl fõ' fuhg fya;=j NO2 j,g jvd N2O4 jvd;a ia:dhS ùuhs (N2O4 j,
nkaaOk NO2 j, nkaOkj,g jvd Yla;su;a h). WIaK;ajh jeä lsÍu u`.ska jeämqr
;dmh m%fhdackhg .kakd osYdjg m%;sls%hdj isÿù ^;dm wjfYdaIl m%;sls%hdj jeä
ÈhqKq lrhs'& WIaK;ajh wvq lsÍu u`.ska jeämqr ;dmh ksmoùfï ÈYdjg m%;sls%hdj
isÿ fõ' ^;dm odhl m%;sls%hdj jeä ÈhqKq lrhs& my; mÍlaIKd;aul l%ufõoh u`.ska
moaO;sfha fï iajNdjh mÍlaId lr ne,sh yels h'
WmlrK ridhk øjH

mÍlaId k, idkaø khsá%la wï,h
rn¾ wen whsia
úi¾cl k, WKq c,h
îlr ;U iqrexvq
108
l%ufõoh
· fldm¾ iqrexvq 5 gla muK lelEreï k,hlg oud" thg idkaø HNO3
wï,fhka 5 cm3la muK oukak'
· wenh iú lrk ,o úi¾ck k,h blaukska u iú lr" msg jk jdhqj
mÍlaId k, 4lg tl;= lr .kak' ^tl iudk ÿUqre mdgla ;sìh hq;= h'&
· rn¾ wenj,ska mÍlaId k, fyd`Èka jid .kak' tla k,hla md,lh f,i
;nd .kak'
· wfkl=;a NO2/N2O4 k, 3 isis,a c,h ldur WIaK;ajfha we;s c,h yd
W;=rk c,h we;s îlrj, ms<sfj<ska ;nkak'
· tajdfha j¾Khkaf.a idfmalaI ;Sj%;d úp,kh ksÍlaIKh lrkak' ^ldur
WIaK;ajfha mj;sk c,h ;=< we;s k,h iu`. ii|ñka&
· iu;=,s; ,laIHfha ÈYdj ks¾Kh lrkak'
· WIaK;aj ;=k i|yd ,efnk ksÍlaIK ;yjqre lr .kak'
2 NO2(g) ⇌ N2O4(g)
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak(
1. my; iòyka fjkialï isÿ l< úg 2 NO2(g) ⇌ N2O4(g) iu;=,s; moaO;sfha

NO2(g) yd N2O4(g) j, idkaøKhkaf.a we;s jk fjki iqÿiq m%ia;dr weò úia;r
lrkak'
a) NO2(g) jeämqr tl;= lsÍu
b) NO2(g) bj;a lsÍu
c) N2O4(g) jeämqr tl;= lsÍu
d) N2O4(g) bj;a lsÍu
e) WIaK;ajh jeä lsÍu
f) WIaK;ajh wvq lsÍu
2. by; moaO;sfha mSvkh jeä l< fyd;a Tn n,dfmdfrd;a;= jk ksÍlaIK meyeos,s

lrkak.
3. iu;=,s;;dj kej; we;s jk ;=re fjkialï isÿ lsÍu bÈß yd miq m%;sls%hdj,g
n,mdk wdldrh m%ia;dßlj fmkajd fokak'
109
w;sf¾l mÍlaIKh: Co(H2O)62+(aq) / CoCl42—(aq) moaO;sh flfrys WIaK;ajfha n,mEu
mÍlaIKd;aulj wOHhkh lsÍu
wruqKq: Co(H2O)62+(aq) + 4Cl—(aq) ⇌ CoCl42—(aq) + 6H2O(l)

frdai ks,a
moaO;sh weiqfrka f,a peg,sh¾ uQ,O¾uh ms<snò wjfndaOhla ,ndoSug
WmlrK ridhk øjH

mÍlaId k, >k fldafnda,aÜ (II) laf,darhsâ (CoCl2.6H2O)
lelEreï k, >k le,aishï laf,darhsâ (CaCl2)
îlr (250 cm3) 0.1 mol dm-3 is,aj¾ khsfÜ%Ü (AgNO3)
ìkaÿ fy,kh 12 mol dm-3 yhsfv%dlaf,daßla wï,h (HCl)
t;fkda,a
whsia, WKq c,h
l%uh:
• t;fkda,a 25 cm3 la uek 50 cm3 jk îlrhg oukak'
• tu t;fkda,a ødjKfha j¾Kh ks,a meyejk f;la" fldafnda,aÜ (II) laf,darhsâ
iaMál 4 fyda 5la tla lrkak' wjYH kï jeämqr iaMál tla lrkak'
• by; ødjKfhka 150 cm3 ne.ska lelEreï k, 4lg tl;= lrkak'
• 3 jk mshjfrys iòyka k,hlg wdi%e; c,h ìkaÿ jYfhka tl;= lr iEu
ìkaÿjla tla lsÍfï § isÿ jk ksÍlaIK igyka lrkak'
• by; 3 jk mshjfrys iòyka k,j,ska tla k,hlg idkaø yhsfv%dlaf,daßla
wï,h ìkaÿj ne.ska tl;= lr ksÍlaIK igyka lrkak'
• fojk k,hg" >k le,aishï laf,darhsâ iaj,am m%udKhla tl;= lrkak'
• ;=kajk k,hg" 0.1 mol dm-3 is,aj¾ khsfÜ%Ü ødjK ìkaÿ 10la muK tl;= lrkak.
• y;rjk mÍlaIK k,h md,lh jYfhka fhdod.kak'
• îlrfha b;sßj we;s ødjKhg" oï meyehla ,efnk fia ^ks,a - frdai w;r j¾Khla&
wjYH m%udKhg wdi%e; c,h tl;= lrkak'
• by; 9 jk mshjfrys iòyka ødjK ñY%Kh whsia wvx.= n`ÿkl ;nd isis,a lr
ksÍlaIK ,nd f.k j¾K úm¾hdih iòyka lrkak'
• my; j.=fõ wdldrhg Tnf.a ksÍlaIK igyka lr.kak'
110
mÍlaIKh j¾Kh
fmr miq
wdi%e; c,h
–
CoCl2. 6H2O
CaCl2
HCl
AgNO3
r;a lsÍu
isis,a lsÍu
by; ksÍlaIK úia;r lsÍug f,a peg,sh¾ uQ,O¾uh fhdod .kak.
miq úuiqï m%Yak:
1. by; l%ufõofha oS tla tla m%;sldrlh tl;= lsÍu u`.ska ljr fldafnda,aÜ
ixlS¾Khka iEoSu isÿfõ o@.
2. by; l%ufõofha îlrh WKqiqï lsÍu u`.ska iEfok fldafnda,aÜ ixlS¾Kh ljrla
o@ tu m%;sls%hdj iòyd iólrKh Yla;s úm¾hdih we;=<;a lrñka ,shkak' by;
ls%hdj,sh iòyd ΔH ys w.h +50 kJmol-1 fõ. by; r;a lsÍfï § yd isis,a lsÍfï
§ isÿ jk j¾K úm¾hdi úia;r lsÍu iòyd f,a peg,sh¾ uQ,O¾uh yd Tn úiska
by; ,shk ,o iólrKh fhdod .kak'
111
mÍlaIKh 35 : pH w.h mÍlaId lsÍfuka c,Sh ,jK ødjKj, wdï,sl" Ndiañl
yd WodiSk iajNdjh mÍlaIKd;aulj ks¾Kh lsÍu
wruqK:
c,Sh ,jK ødjKj, pH w.h weiqfrka wod< ,jK wdï,sl" Ndiañl yd WodiSk
f,i j¾. lsÍug
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak(

1. tÈfkod Ôú;fha § Ndú; lrkq ,nk ,jK j¾. 3la kï lrkak'
2. my; iòyka ,jK wï, yd Niau w;r WodiSkSlrK m%;sls%hd u.ska iEfok
whqre ;=,s; ridhksl iólrK weiqfrka olajkak'
NaCl, (NH4)2 SO4, CH3COONa
ye`Èkaùu:
wï, yd Niau w;r WodiSklrK m%;sls%hdfjka ,jK jHq;amkak fõ' ,jK legdhk yd
wekdhkj,ska iukaú; iaMálrEmS >k whksl ixfhda. fõ' tajdg by< øjdxl we;'
,jKj, ú,Sk fyda c,Sh ødjK m%n, úoHq;a úÉfþoH fõ' ix>gl whk c, úÉfþokh
jk iajNdjh wkqj ,jK wdï,sl" Ndiañl yd WodiSk f,i j¾. 3lg fnÈh yels h'
WmlrK ridhk øjH

mÍlaId k, fidaähï laf,darhsâ
ñkqï irdjla (10 cm3) fidaähï weisfÜÜ
;=,djla wefudakshï weisfÜÜ
iqÿ lvodishla wefudakshï laf,darhsâ
iskala laf,darhsâ
we¨ñkshï laf,darhsâ
ue.akSishï i,af*aÜ fjk;a iqÿiq ,jK
mQ¾K mrdi o¾Ylh fyda pH m;%
wdi%e; c,h
l%uh:
· ,jKj,ska wdikak jYfhka 0.5 g ne.ska fjk fjk u lsrd f.k msßisÿ lrk
,o mÍlaId k,j,g oukak'
· tajdg wdi%e; c,h 10 cm3 ne.ska tla lr ,jKj, c,Sh ødjK idod .kak'
· wdi%e; c,h 10 cm3 fjk;a mÍlaIK k,hlg o oud.kak'
· iEu mÍlaIK k,hlg u mQ¾K mrdi o¾Ylh ìkaÿ folla fyda pH m;%
lene,a,la fyda oukak'
112
· j¾K meyeÈ,sj n,d .ekSug mÍlaIK k,hg msgqmiska iqÿ lvodishla ;nkak'
· wod< j¾Kfla;h Ndú; lr tla tla ødjKfha wdikak pH w.h ksÍlaIKh
lrkak'
· tla tla k,fha oelafjk meyeh c,h wvx.= k,fha meyeh iu`. iiòñka c,Sh
,jK ødjKj, wdikak pH w.h ks¾Kh lr j.=.; lrkak'
· c,h wvx.= k,h i<ld ne,Sfï § hï ,jKhla c,fha Èh lsÍfuka pH w.h
fjkia jk nj ksÍlaIKh lrkak'
· my; j.=j iïmQ¾K lrkak'
,jK Tn f;dard.;a
NaCl CH3COONa CH3COONH4 NH4Cl ZnCl2 AlCl3 MgSO4 c,h
ødjKh fjk;a ,jK
o< pH w.h
idlÉPdj(
· o< pH w.h wkqj Tn Ndú; l< ,jK wdï,sl Ndiañl yd WodiSk jYfhka
j¾. lrkak'
· ,jKh jHq;amkak ùug iyNd.S jQ wï,fha yd Niaufha iajNdjh yd ,jKfha
wdï,sl" Ndiañl yd WodiSk iajNdjh w;r iïnkaO;djla f.dv k`.kak'
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak(

1. úoHd.drfha we;s wdï,sl" Ndiañl yd WodiSk ,jK iòyd ksoiqka fol
ne.ska fokak'
2. ,jKh iEoSug iyNd.S jQ wï,fha yd Niaufha iajNdjh yd jHq;amkak jQ
,jKfha iajNdjh w;r iïnkaO;djla ,shkak'
3. my; oelafjk ,jK wdï,sl" Ndiañl yd WodiSk jYfhka j¾. lr j.=.;
lrkak'
C6H5COCl, CH3COOK, Na3PO4, BaSO4, KBr, Na2CO3, NaNO3,
(NH4)2SO4
113
mÍlaIKh 36: *sfkdma;,ska iy fu;s,a Tf¾kaÊ o¾Yl Ndú; lr Na2CO3 yd HCl
w;r wkqudmkh
wruqKq (
1. oaúfm%daàl Niauhla f,i ls%hd lrk Na2CO3 ødjKhka yd HCl w;r isÿ
jk wkqudmkh iòyd jQ wkqudmk jl%h wOHhkh lsÍug
2. iu;=,s; ,laIHj, pH mrdi ,nd .ekSu iy tajd iqÿiq o¾Yl u`.ska y`ÿkd
.ekSug'
ye`Èkaùu(
ldnfkaÜ whkh, CO32-(aq), oaúfm%daàl Niauhla jk w;r, c,Sh ødjKfha oS my;

iòyka wdldrhg u mshjr foll § whkSlrKh fõ' iEu iu;=,s;;djla iòyd
Niauhla iòyd jk whkSlrK ksh; iy w¾: oelaúh yels h'
tneúka" Na2CO3, HCl iu`. m%;sls%hd lsÍfï oS" WodiSkSlrKh wkqhd; mshjr
foll § isÿ fõ' wkqmudkh wdrïNfha oS" HCl(aq) j,ska ,efnk H+(aq) whk"
CO32-(aq) whk iu`. m%;sls%hd lrhs' thg fya;=j jkafka wdrïNl ñY%Kfha wvx.=
ÿn,;u Niauh jkafka ldnfkaÜ whk ùu h'
H+(aq) + CO32-(aq) → HCO3-(aq)
wk;=rej fojk m%;sls%hdfõ oS HCl(aq)j,ska ,efnk fm%dafgdak m<uq m%;sls%hdfõ §

iEfok yhsv%ckaldnfkaÜ whk iu`. m%;sls%hd lrhs'
H+(aq) + HCO3-(aq) → H2CO3(aq)
CO32-(aq) whk ish,a, talfm%daàl HCO3-(aq) njg m;a jQ úg yd HCO3-(aq) whk

ish,a, iïmQ¾Kfhka u H2CO3(aq) njg m;a jQ úg hk wjia:d fol iòyd iul;d
,laIH 2la y`ÿkd.; yels h'
m<uq iul;d ,laIHfha § ñY%Kh ;=< my; iu;=,s;;dj we;s jk nj meyeÈ,s h'
ta ksid pH w.h HCO3-(aq) whkj, c, úÉfþokh weiqfrka ks¾Kh l< yels h'
HCO3-(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H2CO3(aq) + OH-(aq)
fojk iul;d ,laIHfha § ñY%Kh ;=< my; iu;=,s;;dj we;s jk w;r" tneúka
pH w.h H2CO3 (aq) wï,fha c, úÉfþokh ^m<uq whkSlrKh& weiqfrka
ks¾Kh l< yels h'
H2CO3 (aq) + H2O(l)⇌ HCO3-(aq)+ H3O+(aq)
by; m%;sls%hd fol ie,lSfï oS" m<uq iul;d ,laIHfha oS ñY%Kh Ndiañl jk
114
nj;a" fojk iul;d ,laIHfha oS ñY%Kh wdï,sl jk nj;a flkl=g is;d .;
yels h'
fï mÍlaIKfha §" ksjerÈj lsrd .kakd ,o >k fidaähï ldnfkaÜ idïm,h"

wdi%e; c,fha okakd mßudjl Èh lr 0.1 mol dm-3 l muK o< idkaøKfhka
hq;a HCl ødjKhla iu`. wkqudmkh lrkq ,efí. m<uqj *sfkdma;,ska yd fojkqj
fu;s,a Tf¾kaÊ o¾Ylh iul;d ,laIHh wdikakfha § tl;= lsÍu isÿ lrkafka
wka; ,laIHhla o¾YShj msysgk nj ;yjqre lsÍu iòyd h' pH w.h 9.8 oS"
*sfkdma;,ska o¾Ylfha j¾Kh frdai meyefha isg wj¾K olajd fjkia fõ' m<uq
iul;d ,laIHfhka Tíng udOHh wdï,sl ksid" *sfkdma;,ska wj¾K jk w;r"
tneúka" fu;s,a Tf¾kaÊ o¾Ylh tl;= lsÍfï oS pH w.h 3.8 § tys j¾Kh ;eô,s
meyefha isg r;= meyeh olajd fjkia fjhs' fojk iul;d ,laIHfha oS pH w.h
msysgkafka fï j¾Kh úm¾hdi mrdih ;=< h' fojk iul;d ,laIHfha § CO2j,
n,mEu wfydais lsÍu iòyd ñY%Kh WKqiqï lsÍu wjYH fõ'
WmlrK ridhk øjH

3
250 cm wkqudmk ma,dial=j 0.20 isg 0.22 g Na2CO3 idïm,h
msfmÜgqj *sfkdma;,ska
ìhqfrÜgqj 0.100 mol dm-3 HCl ødjKh
l%uh(
1. Na2CO3 0.20 isg 0.22 g olajd ialkaOfhka hq;a idïm,hla ma,diaála lsreï
§ishlg lsrd .kak' fï >kh 250 cm3 wkqudmk ma,dial=jg oud .kak'
wdi%e; c,h 50.00 cm3la wkqudmk ma,dial=jg msfmÜgqjl wdOdrfhka oud .kak'
msfmÜgqj .kakd ,o c,h wdOdrfhka" lsreï §isfha >k ixfhda.fhka iaj,amhla
fyda /òS we;akï" th o ma,dial=jg oud .kak' >k ixfhda.h Èh lr .ekSu iòyd
uka:kh lrkak' *sfkdma;,ska o¾Ylfhka ìkaÿ 4-5la oud .kak'
0.100 mol dm-3HCl ødjKfhka cm3 iaj,amhla oud 50 cm3 ìhqfrÜgqj fidaod
.kak' 0.100 mol dm-3HCl ødjKfhka ìhqfrÜgqj mqrjd .kak' ìhqfrÜgq ;=fvys
jdhq nqnq¿ ke;s nj ;yjqre lr .kak'
Na2CO3 wvx.= wkqudmk ma,dial=j ìhqfrÜgq ;=vg háka ;nd" HCl ødjKh
wkqudmk ma,dial=jg fifuka tl;= lrkak'
ødjKh wj¾K jk wjia:dfõ § wï,h tl;= lsÍu kj;d" ìhqfrÜgq mdGdxlh
igyka lr .kak'
j¾K úm¾hdih ksÍlaIKh lsÍfuka wk;=rej" fu;s,a Tf¾kaÊ o¾Ylh ìkaÿ
lSmhla tl;= lr" HCl ødjKh iu`. wkqudmkh È.g u isÿ lrkak'
ødjKh r;= meye jk wjia:dfõ § ^;eô,s isg r;=& wï,h tl;= lsÍu kj;ajd
ìhqfrÜgq mdGdxlh igyka lr.kak'
wju jYfhka wkqudmkh ;=ka j;djla isÿ lr" wka; ,laIHhl oS ,efnk mßudfõ
uOHkHh w.h ,ndf.k my; j.=fõ we;=<;a lrkak'
115
wkqudmk m<uq wka; ,laIHh iòyd wjYH fojk wka; ,laIHh iòyd wjYH
wxlh 0.100 mol dm-3 HCl mßudj cm3 0.100 mol dm-3 HCl mßudj cm3
1
2
3
uOHkh w.h
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak(
1. ma,dial= follg Na2CO3 ødjK 50 cm3 ne.ska jQ idïm, folla f.k" tla
ma,dial=jlg fu;s,a TfrkaÊ o¾Ylh yd wfkla ma,dial=jg *sfkdma;,ska o¾Ylh
tl;= lr fï ødjK 0.2 mol dm-3 HCl iuÕ wkqudmkh lrkq ,efí¡ ìhqfrÜgq
mdGdxl .Kkh lrkak¡
2. NaOH yd Na2CO3 wvx.= ødjK ñY%Khl 25 cm3la uq,ska *sfkdma;,ska o¾Ylh

yd fojkqj fu;s,a TfrkaÊ o¾Ylh fhdod 0.2 mol dm-3 HCl iuÕ wkqudmkh
lrkq ,efí¡ *sfkdma;,ska o¾Ylh we;s úg ìhqfrÜgq mdGdxlh 25 cm3 ls¡
fu;s,a Tf¾kaÊ o¾Ylh we;s úg ìhqfrÜgq mdGdxlh 30 cm3 ls¡ [NaOH (aq)] yd
[Na2CO3(aq)] w;r wkqmd;h .Kkh lrkak¡
116
mÍlaIKh 37 : Ca(OH)2 j, ødjH;d .=Ks;h mÍlaIKd;aulj ks¾Kh lsÍu'
wruqK : 1. Ca(OH)2 j, ødjH;d .=Ks;h mÍlaIKd;aul j ks¾Kh lsÍu

2. Ca(OH)2 j, ødjH;dj flfrys fmdÿ whkj," WIaK;ajfha yd
pH w.fha n,mEu wOHhkh lsÍug
fmr úuiqï m%Yak
''le,aishï yhsfv%dlaihsâj, ika;Dma; ødjKhla'' hkafkka ljrla woyia fõ

o@ Tnf.a ms<s;=r iu;=,s; iólrKhla u`.ska myokak'
ye`Èkaùu
le,aishï yhsfv%dlaihsâ hkq whksl ixfhda.hla jk w;r" th c,fha uò

jYfhka ødjH jk w;r" fok ,o WIaK;ajhl § my; iu;=,s;;djg t<fò'
Ca(OH)2(s) ⇌ Ca2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq)
fï m%;sls%hdj iòyd iu;=,s;;d ksh;h" ødjH;d .=Ks; ksh;h" KSP jk w;r

th my; wdldrhg oelaúh yels h'
Ksp = [Ca2+(aq)][OH –(aq)]2
fï iu;=,s;;dj flfrys fkdfhla idOl n,mdhs' WodyrKhla jYfhka Ca2+(aq)

idkaøKh jeä l< úg" f,a peg,sh¾ uQ,O¾uhg wkqj" ksh; WIaK;ajfha §
iu;=,s;;d ksh;h (Ksp) ksh;j mj;ajd .ekSug iu;=,s;;dj jug nr fõ'
Ca2+(aq) idkaøKh jeä lsÍu uq,ska mej;s iu;=,s;;djg CaCl2 jeks ødjH
,jKhla tl;= lsÍfuka fyda okakd idkaøKfhka hq;a CaCl2 ødjKhl Ca(OH)2
Èh lsÍfuka isÿ lr .; yels h' tfia u OH-(aq) idkaøKh jeä lr .ekSug okakd
idkaøKfhka hq;a NaOH ødjKhla tl;= lsÍfuka fyda okakd idkaøKfhka
hq;a NaOH ødjKhl >k Ca(OH)2 Èh lr .ekSfuka isÿ lr .; yels h' fï
u.ska >k Ca(OH)2 jeämqr iEfok ÈYdjg m%;sls%hdj fhduq ùfuka >k Ca(OH)2
j, ødjH;dj wvq fõ' iu;=,s;;djg odhl ù we;¡ whkhkag îu;=,s;;djg fmdÿ
jk whkhla& tl;= lrk neúka" fuh fmdÿ whk wdprKh f,i y`ÿkajhs'
tfia u" f,a peg,sh¾ uQ,O¾uhg wkqj" thg m%;súreoaO;dj o i;H fõ' tkï"
wmg iu;=,s;;dj ol=Kg fhduq lsÍfuka iaMálSlrK fõ.hg jvd ødjK.;
ùu jeä ùfuka >k Ca(OH)2 jeämqr Èh ù ødjH;dj jeä fõ' fuh Ca2+(aq)
fyda OH-(aq) m%fNao iu`. m%;sls%hd lrk m%;sldrlhla tl;= lsÍfuka isÿ lr
.; yels h' fuhg myiq u`.la jkafka wï,h (H+(aq) whk) ksh; WIaK;ajfha
§ moaO;shg tl;= lsÍuhs' pH w.h ødjH;dj flfrys n,mdk nj wjfndaO lr
.ekSug moaO;sfha fï yeisÍu Wojq fõ' j;auka ;;a;ajfha § idkaøKh okakd úúO
HNO3 ødjK ;=< >k Ca(OH)2 Èh lsÍfuka yd Ca(OH)2 j, ødjH;dj .Kkh
lsÍfuka pH ys n,mEu ks¾Kh l< yels h' ;jÿrg;a Ca(OH)2 (s) wdi%e; c,h ;=<
^úúO WIaK;ajhkays §& Èh lsÍfuka iu;=,s; ksh;h (Ksp) flfrys WIaK;ajfha
n,mEu ks¾Kh l< yels h'
fï mÍlaIKfha § Ca(OH)2 j, ødjH;dj flfrys by; úia;r lrk ,o idOlj,

n,mEu mÍlaIKd;aulj úoHd.drh ;=< § wOHhkh l< yels fõ'
117
WmlrK ridhk øjH
3
250 cm wkqudmk ma,dial= >k Ca(OH)2
msfmÜgq 0.100 mol dm-3 HCl ødjKh
ìhqfrÜgq 0.100, 0.01 yd 1.0 mol dm-3 HNO3 ødjK
îlr 0.050 yd 0.025 mol dm-3 NaOH ødjK
ñkqï ird 0.050 yd 0.025 mol dm-3 CaCl2 ødjK
WIaK;ajudkh msfkdma,sma;,ska o¾Ylh
wdi%e; c,h
l%uh(
Ca(OH)2 j, ix;Dma; iafgdla ødjKhla ms<sfh, lrkak'
Ca(OH)2 1 gla muK f.k my; iòyka tla tla ødjKfhka 100 cm3 la ;=< fjk
fjk u Èh lr.ekSfuka iafgdla ødjK ms<sfh, lr.; yelsh¡
igyk - Èh lr .ekSfuka wk;=rej" îlrh m;=f,a >k Ca(OH)2 ixfhda.h b;sßj

mej;sh hq;= h'
iafgdla ødjKh ix;Dma; Ca(OH)2 ødjKh
1 ldur WIaK;ajfha § (25 0C) wdi%e; c,h

2 50 0C WIaK;ajfha § mj;sk wdi%e; c,h
3 90 0C WIaK;ajfha § mj;sk wdi%e; c,h
4 0.05 mol dm-3 CaCl2 ødjKh
5 0.025 mol dm-3 CaCl2 ødjKh
6 0.05 mol dm-3 NaOH ødjKh
7 0.025 mol dm-3 NaOH ødjKh
8 1.0 mol dm-3 HNO3 ødjKh
by; tla tla ødjKfhka 25.00 cm3 ne.ska fjk fjk u wkqudmk ma,dial=j,g
msfmÜgqjla wdOdrfhka oud f.k msfkdma;,ska o¾Ylfhka ìkaÿ lsysmhla tl;= lr"
0.1 mol dm3 HCl ødjKhla u`.ska wkqudmkh lrkak'
wkqudmkh ;j;a foj;djla isÿ lrkak'
.Kkh lsÍu(
1. tla tla wjia:dfõ § OH-(aq) idkaøKh .Kkh lrkak' ^ìhqfrÜgq mdGdxlfha
idudkH w.h fhdod .kak'&
2. uq,ska u ldur WIaK;ajfha mj;sk wdi%e; c,h (iafgdla ødjKh wxl 1) iòyd
jk Ksp w.h ksudkh lrkak'
3. wfkl=;a ødjK iòyd jk Ksp .Kkh lrkak'
4. 3 jk mshjf¾ § ,efnk w.hhka" 2 jk mshjf¾ § ,efnk w.h yd ikaikaokh
lr" ksÍlaIK újrKh lrkak'
118
miq ksÍlaIK m%Yak(
1. OH-(aq) idkaøKh jeä jk úg ika;Dma; Ca(OH)2 ødjK ;=< Ca2+(aq) idkaøKfha

isÿ jk úp,kh úia;r lrkak'
2. legdhk iòyd jk ldKav úYaf,aIKfha oS Ksp j, Ndú;h idlÉPd lrkak'
3. ix;Dma; Ca(OH)2 ødjKhlska 20 cm3 la 0.1 mol dm-3 HCl ødjKhla iuÕ
wkqudmkh lrk ,§' wka; ,laIHfha § ìhqfrÜgq mdGdxlh 12.5 cm3 fõ¡ Ca(OH)2
j, Ksp w.h .Kkh lrkak'
4. 0.1 mol dm-3 NaOH ødjKhlska 25 cm3 la wdiQ; c,h 75 cm3 la iuÕ ñY% fldg
idod .;a ødjKh Ca(OH)2 j,ska ix;Dma; lrkq ,efí¡ tf,i Ca(OH)2 j,ska
ika;Dma; lrk ,o ødjKfhka 20 cm3 0.1 mol dm -3 HCl la iuÕ wkqudmkh
lrkq ,efí¡ wka; ,laIHfha § ìhqfrÜgq mdGdxlh 14.3 cm3 fõ¡ Ca(OH)2 j, Ksp
w.h .Kkh lrkak'
119
mÍlaIKh 38 ( c,h yd 2-ìhqgfkda,a w;r t;fkdhsla wï,fha jHdma;s ix.=Klh
mÍlaIKd;aulj ks¾Kh lsÍu
wruqKq( wñY% øj foll" ødjHhla øjKh ùu yd jHdma; ùu wjfndaO lr

.ekSug'
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak(

jHdma;s ix.=Klh" hkafkka ljrla woyia fõ o@ iu;=,s; iólrKhla
bÈßm;a lrñka Tnf.a ms<s;=r meyeÈ,s lrkak'
ye`Èkaùu(
wm okakd mßÈ wñY% ødjl 2la jk A yd B îlrhlg oeuQ úg" tajd tlsfkl ñY%
fkdù ia;r follg fjka fõ' ksh; WIaK;ajfha § ia;r foflys u Èh jk" ia;r
foflys u tl u wKql iajNdjfhka mj;sk yd tajd iuÕ m%;sls%hd fkdlrk X
kï ødjlhla tl;= lr" moaO;sh fyd`Èka fi,jQ úg" X kï ødjHh tla tla ødjlh
;=< tys ødjH;djg wkqj ødjH fõ' wmú;% ñY%Khla ,efnk mÍlaIKj, § thska
ixY=oaO øjH ,nd.ekSug ødjl ksiaidrKh Ndú; flf¾¡ tys § by; lS ls%hdj
fhdod .efka' WodyrKhla jYfhka m%;sls%hd fkdlrk wdrïNl øjH yd wkjYH
w;=re M, we;s jk wjia:dj, § fï ls%hdj,sh c,Sh ødjK ;=< § yd m%;sls%hdj
wjidkfha § isÿ l< yels h' c,Sh ødjKh c,h iu`. ñY% fkdjk ;j;a wødjH
ødjlhla yd ñY% lr fid,jkq ,efí' wjYH øjHh Èh jk yd wfkl=;a øjHh
c, ia;rfha mj;sk f,i wñY% ødjlh f;dard .ekSu isÿ l< yels h' ldnksl
ødjlh jeämqr c,Sh ia;rhg tl;= lsÍu" ødjK ñY%Kh fi,ùu" tajd fjka lsÍu
yd wod< c,h wvx.= ødjKh fjka lsÍu jYfhka fï l%uh kej; kej;;a isÿ
l< yels h'
wñY% øj foll fok ,o WIaK;ajfha § fok ,o ødjHhla Èh lrk wjia:dfõ

tla tla ødjlfha we;s ødjHfha m%udKh$ idkaøKh ks¾Kh lsÍu w;HjYH fõ'
tjeks wjia:djla jHdma;s kshuh u`.ska úia;r lrkq ,nk w;r" tla tla ødjlh
;=< ødjH idkaøK w;r wkqmd;h iu;=,s;;d ksh;h fyda jHdma;s ix.=Klh KD
f,i úia;r lrhs'
fï mÍlaIKh u`.ska wñY% ødjl 2la fia i,lk butan - 1 – ol yd c,h w;r
t;fkdhsla wï,fha jHdma;sh úoyd oelafõ' wï, ødjKh yd ødjl fol tlg
fid,jd" ia;r fjka ùug bvyer" tla tla ia;rfha idïm, fidaähï yhsfv%dlaihsâ
ødjKhla u`.ska wkqudmkh lsÍfuka úYaf,aIKh lrkq ,nhs' fï ls%hd ms<sfj,
lsysm j;djla wï,fha úúO idkaøK Ndú; lsÍfuka isÿ l< yels jk w;r"
túg" tla tla ødjlh ;=< we;s wï, idkaøKh w;r iïnkaO;djla ;sfí o hkak
ks¾Kh l< yels h'
120
WmlrK ridhk øjH

3
msfmÜgq(10cm /25cm ) 3
butan-1-ol 150 cm3
ìhqfrÜgq 2 mol dm-3 t;fkdhsla wï,h 150 cm3
fírk mqkS,h ~ 0.50 mol dm-3 NaOH 150 cm3
m%;sldrl fnda;,a (250 cm3) *sfkd,sma;,ska o¾Ylh
wkqudmk ma,dial= (250ml)
îlr
ñkqï ird (10/25ml)
l%uh(
1. t;fkdhsla wï,h" (CH3COOH), ìhqgfkda,a yd wdi%e; c,h wod< mßud uek

fírk mqkS,hlg fyda m%;sldrl fnda;,hlg oud my; iòyka ñY%K ms<sfh,
lr .kak'
ñY%Kh Butan-1-ol / t;fkdhsla c,h / 0.50 mol dm-3 NaOH mßudj

cm3 wï,h cm3 / cm3
(CH3COOH) ldnksl c,Sh ia;rh
/ cm3 ia;rh
1 20 10 25
2 20 15 20
3 20 20 15
4 20 25 10
5 20 30 5
2. ñks;a;= 5la muK ñY%K fyd`Èka fid,jd" t;fkdhsla wï,h ia;r foflys u Èh
ùug yd jHdma; ùug bv yßkak' fi,ùfuka wk;=rej" fírk mqkS,$ m%;sldrl
fnda;,h fïih u; ;nd ia;r fjka ùug bv yßkak' fï wjia:dfõ" by<ska we;s
ia;rh butan-1-ol jk w;r" c, ia;rh my<ska msysghs'
3. msfmÜgq mqrjkh iys; msfmÜgqjla Ndú;fhka by< ia;rfhka (butan-1-ol)

10 cm3la wkqudmk ma,dial=jlg oud .kak' ñkqï irdjla Ndú;fhka c,h
25 cm3la tu ma,dial=jg oud" *sfkdma;,ska o¾Ylfhka ìkaÿ lsysmhla o oud
.kak ^0.5 mol dm3 NaOH ødjKh;a iu`.&' ,efnk by; ñY%Kh wkqudmkh
lrkak'
4. fojk msfmÜgqjla Ndú;fhka by<ska we;s ia;rh yryd my<ska we;s c,Sh
ødjKfhka 10 cm3 la wkqudmk ma,dial=jlg oud f.k" thg wdi%e; c,h
25 cm3la oud 0.5 mol dm3 NaOH ødjKh;a iu`. fmr mßÈ wkqudmkh lrkak'
5. fï mÍlaIKh by; ms<sfh, lrk ,o wfkl=;a ñY%K iu`.;a isÿ lr" m%;sM,
fok ,o j.=fõ wod< ;Srefõ jd¾;d lrkak'
121
igyk - úoHd.drfha Pipette fillers ke;s kï" 3 yd 4 mshjr my; wdldrhg
isÿ l< yels h' 2 jk mshjf¾ oS" m%;sldrl fnda;,h ;=< we;s ñY%Kh fyd`Èka
fi,ùfuka wk;=rej ia;r fjka ùug bvy< miq" ta ødjK ñY%Kh l,ska msßisÿ
lr .;a ìhqfrÜgqjlg oud f.k" ia;r fjka ùug bv yßkak' oeka fuhska
uq,ska u c,Sh ia;rfhka ^my<ska we;s ia;rh& wod< mßudj ,nd .kak' tu c,Sh
ia;rh wkqudmkfhka wk;=rej" b;sß c, ia;rh bj;a fldg" ldnksl ia;rfhka
idïm,hla tl;= lr" wkqudmkh lrkak'
tla tla wkqudmkhg wkqj" tla tla ia;rh i|yd t;fkdhsla wï,fha idkaøKh
.Kkh lr" my; j.=fõ igyka lrkak' (CH3COOH) c,h w;r wkqmd;h
ñY%Kh [CH3COOH]ìhqgfkda,a [CH3COOH] c,h
1
2
3
4
5
(CH3COOH)ìhqgfkda,a (CH3COOH)c,h iòyd ,enqKq w.hhka újrKh lrñka

(CH3COOH)c,h ìhqgfkda,a yd c,h w;r t;fkdhsla wï,fha jHdma;s ix.=Klh
KD iòyd w.hla ,nd .kak'
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak
1. t;fkdhsla wï,h wkqudmkh lsÍug m%:u wñY% øj fjka l< hq;af;a wehs@
122
mÍlaIKh 39: iq,N f,day lSmhl úoHq;a ridhksl fY%aKsfha mj;sk idfmalaI
ia:dkh mÍlaIKd;aulj ks¾Kh lsÍu
wruqKq:
1. f,day yd f,day whk w;r isÿ jk úia:dmk m%;sls%hd ksÍlAIKh lsÍug
2. idfmalaI m%;sls%hdYS,s;ajh wkqj f,day m%;sls%hdYS,s;ajh jeä jk wdldrhg
fY%AKshla f,i ilia lsrSu'
3. úoHq;a ridhksl fY%aKsfha f,dayj, idfmalaI msysàu ks¾Kh lsÍug
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak:
1. my; m%;sls%hd iòyd TlaislrK - TlaisyrK w¾O m%;sls%hd ,shkak'

(a) >k Mg yd Al2(SO4)2 c,Sh ødjKh w;r m%;sls%hdfjka Al(s) yd MgSO4 c,Sh
ødjKh iE§u
(b) >k Al yd MgSO4 c,Sh ødjKh w;r m%;sls%hdfjka Mg(s) yd Al2(SO4)3 c,Sh
ødjKh iE§u
2. Mg, Al g jvd m%;sls%hdYS,s fõ' ridhksl m%;sls%hdjla isÿ ùug idlaIshla f,i
my; iòyka ljr f,dayhla yd f,day whk w;r iïnkaO;djla mej;sh hq;= oehs
ks¾Kh lrkak'
Mg yd Al2(SO4)3 c,Sh ødjKh w;r
Al yd MgSO4 c,Sh ødjKh w;r
ye`Èkaùu:
il%sh;d fY%aKsh" f,day TlaislrKh ùug we;s yelshdj fY%AKs.; lrk moaO;shls'
f,day folla w;r m%;sls%hdj ks¾Kh lsÍug ils%h;d fYa%Ksh fhdod .; yels h'
by< m%;sls%hdYS,s;ajfhka hq;a f,dayhla TlaislrKh ù my< m%;sls%hdYS,s;ajfhka
hq;a f,day whkhla TlaislrKh lrhs' f,dayj, idfmalaI m%;sls%hdYS,s;ajh c,h"
wï, fyda f,day whk iu`. m%;sls%hd wkqj ks¾Kh l< yels h'
wdrlaIs; mshjr:
· ridhk øjH iu iu`. iam¾Y jQ úg" tajd úYd, c, mßudjla fhdod fiaÈh hq;= h'
WmlrK yd øjH ridhk øjH

mÍlaId k, 1moldm-3 iskala i,af*aÜ ødjKh
fldm¾" f,â"ue.akSishï" 1mol dm-3 f*ria i,af*aÜ ødjKh
iskala yd hlv f,dayj, len,s 1mol dm-3 fldm¾ i,af*aÜ ødjKh
1mol dm-3 f,â khsfÜ%Ü ødjKh
1moldm-3 ue.akSishï i,af*aÜ ødjKh
1moldm-3 fidaähï i,af*aÜ ødjKh
123
l%uh:
· ish¨ mÍlaIK k, wdi%e; c,fhka fidaod msßisÿ lrkak' tajd f,an,a lr" my;
j.=fõ oelafjk wdldrhg l=vd f,day lene,a,la ne.ska ta mÍlaIK k,j,g oud
.kak' ta tla tla mÍlaIK k,hg f,day whk ødjKj,ska 5 cm3 ne.ska j.=fõ
iòyka wdldrhg oud .kak'
A-01 tube A-02 tube A-03 tube A-04 tube A-05 tube A-06 tube
Cu + Zn2+ Cu + Fe2+ Cu + Cu2+ Cu + Pb2+ Cu + Mg2+ Cu + Na+
B-01 tube B-02 tube B-03 tube B-04 tube B-05 tube B-06 tube
2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+
Pb + Zn Pb + Fe Pb + Cu Pb + Pb Pb + Mg Pb + Na+
C-01 tube C-02 tube C-03 tube C-04 tube C-05 tube C-06 tube
Mg + Zn2+ Mg + Fe2+ Mg + Cu2+ Mg + Pb2+ Mg + Mg2+ Mg + Na+
D-01 tube D-02 tube D-03 tube D-04 tube D-05 tube D-06 tube
Fe + Zn2+ Fe + Fe2+ Fe + Cu2+ Fe + Pb2+ Fe + Mg2+ Fe + Na+
· úkdä 5 - 10l ld,hla ;=< § ksÍlaIK ,nd f.k" tla tla mÍlaIK k,h ;=< §
ridhksl m%;sls%hdjla isÿ jQ njg idlaIs jd¾;d lrkak'
· m%;sls%hdjla isÿ fkdjkafka kï" th NR (No Reaction) f,i igyka lrkak'
m%;sM,:
ZnSO4 FeSO4 CuSO4 Pb(NO3)2 MgSO4 Na2SO4

Cu
Pb
Mg
Fe
Zn
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak:
1. f,dayuh whk ødjK jeä ixLHdjla iu`. m%;sls%hd lrkafka l=uk f,dayh o@
2. f,dayuh whk ødjK wvq ixLHdjla iu`. m%;sls%hd lrkafka l=uk f,dayh o@
3. Cu, Fe, Mg, Pb yd Zn j, m%;sls%hdYS,s;ajh ixikaokh lrñka jvd;a m%;sls%hdYS,s

f,dayfha isg m%;sls%hdYS,s;ajfhka wvq f,dayh f;la fm< .iajkak'
4. fuu mÍlaIKfha § jvd;a m%;sl%shdYS,S f,day olajk ,o m%;sl%shd i|yd ;=,s;

124
mÍlAIKh 40: iïu; Ag(s), AgCl(s) | Cl– (aq) bf,lafg%davh ms<sfh, lsÍu
wruqK: iïu; Ag(s), AgCl(s) | Cl– (aq) bf,lafg%davhla ilia lr .kakd

wkaou jgyd .ekSug
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak:

1. iïu; bf,lafg%davhla hkq l=ula o@
2. Zn/ Zn whk bf,lafg%davhlg iïu; yhsv%cka bf,lafg%davhla iïnkaO lr
idok ,o úoHq;a ridhksl fldaIhl wefkdav m%;sls%hdj" lef;dav m%;sls%hdj yd
iïmQ¾K fldaI m%;sls%hdj iòyd ;=,s; ridhksl iólrKh ,shkak'
3. by; (2) fldgfia iòyka úoHq;a ridhksl fldaIh iòyd fldaI wxlkh ,shkak'
4. iïu; yhsv%cka bf,lafg%davhg idfmalaIj" iïu; Ag(s), AgCl(s), CI-(aq)
bf,lafg%davfha yd le,u,a bf,lafg%davfha iïu; bf,lafg%dav úNjhka fudkjd
o@
ye`Èkaùu:
iïu; bf,lafg%dav iei`ÿï bf,lafg%dav f,i y`ÿkajhs' iïu; bf,lafg%davj,g

tajdfha ks¾Kh lrk ,o ia:dhS úNjhka wvx.= fõ' iïu; yhsv%cka bf,lafg%davh
(SHE) idod we;af;a tys úNjh O jk mßÈ h' SHE hkq f.da,Sh jYfhka Ndú;
jk ms<s.;a iei`ÿï bf,lafg%davhhs' iei`ÿï bf,lafg%dav ldKav follg fjka
l< yels h'
1. m%d:ñl iei`ÿï bf,lafg%dav - iïu; yhsv%cka bf,lafg%davh
2. oaú;Shsl iei`ÿï bf,lafg%dav - iïu; yhsv%cka bf,lafg%davhg wu;rj

we;s iei`ÿï bf,lafg%dav
WodyrK jYfhka( is,aj¾ - is,aj¾
laf,darhsâ bf,lafg%davh yd iïu;
le,u,a bf,lafg%davh ms<sfh, lsÍug yd
Ndú; lsÍug myiq neúka oaú;Shsl iei`ÿï
bf,lafg%dav nyq,j Ndú; lrhs'
wdrlaIs; mshjr:
idkaø HNO3 iïmQ¾Kfhka u ydksodhl h' idkaø HNO3 Ndú;fha
oS weia wdrlaIs; wdjrK me,`Èh hq;= h'
125
wjYH WmlrK yd ridhksl øjH(
WmlrK" øjH ridhk øjH

úp,H ir, Odrd úNj iemhqu idkaø KCl ødjKh
is,aj¾ lïìh (1 mm úIalïNh iys;) idkaø HNO3
is,sfldaka iS,¾
mEiaiqï hlv
ma,diaála mEkl úksúo fmfkk ndysr
wdjrKh
mßm: lïìh (1 m)
mßjdrl fÜma máh
.a/*hsÜ bf,lafg%davh (fome;a; u W,a
lrk ,o mekai,la)
l%uh:
· 5 cm l is,aj¾ lïì lene,a,la fjka lr f.k" ishqï je,s lvodishlska ueo
.kak' tys tla fl<jrlg tys mßm: lïìhl 30 cm muK l=vd lene,a,la iú
lr .kak' tys wfkla fl<jr idkaø HNO3 j,ska fidaod .kak' miqj lïìh
wdi%e; c,fhka fidaod .kak'
· 100 cm3 l îlrhla f.k" thg 3 mol dm-3 KCl ødjK 20 cm3la yd wdi%e; c,h
40 cm3la tla lr ;kql KCl ødjKhla idod .kak' is,aj¾ lïìfha ksoyia fl<jr
yd fome;a; u W,a lrk ,o mekai, fï ødjKfha .s,ajkak' ir, Odrdjl + w.%h
is,aj¾ lïìhg iïnkaO lrk ,o mßm: lïìhg;a wfkla w.%h mekai,a ;=vg;a
iïnkaO lrkak'
· nqnq¿ we;s ùu wdrïN jk f;la úNjh jeä lr úkdä lsysmhla fï wegjqu
n,iemhqug iú lr ;nkak' ld,h;a iu`. is,aj¾ lïìfha .s,ajQ fldgi AgCl
iE§u ksid ÿUqre meyehla .kS. fï is,aj¾ lïìh jgd AgCl iïmQ¾Kfhka u
j¾Okh jk úg n, iemhqu úikaê lrkak'
rEmh 40.1 is,aj¾ oKav jgd AgCl j,ska wdf,ams; ia;rhla we;s lsÍu
· mEka wdjrKfha 7 cm l fldgila fjka lr f.k th wdi%e; c,fhka fidaokak'

· ta.d¾ fc,a iy 3 moldm-3 KCl ñY% lr fyd|ska r;a lrkak¡ lelEreï k,hl 2
cm muK Wilg msÍ mej;Su iEfya¡ ysia mEka fldmqj lelEreï k,h ;=< isriaj
nyd bka miq meh 24la muK isis,a lrkak¡
126
igyk(
1. ysia mEka fldmqj fjkqjg ffjoH isßxchla/ msfmÜgqjl w.%hla Ndú; l<
yel¡
2. msßisÿ l< lïìh" úrxck l=vq osh l< ødjKhl úkdä 1-2 muK .s,ajd
;eîfuka o Ag lïìh u; AgCl(s) ;ekam;a fõ¡
rEmh 40'2( ta.d¾ fmakqj ms<sfh, lsÍu
· idkaø KCl ødjKfhka ma,diaála mEka wdjrKh mqrjd .kak' tla fl<jrla ta.d¾
uÕsska iS,a jk fia ma,diaála wdjrKhg is,aj¾ lïìh we;=¿ lrkak¡
· miqj mEka wdjrKfha by< fl<jr rEmfha mßÈ ;Èka iú jk fia fÜma yd
Silicone sealer fhdod iS,a lr .kak¡
mßm: lïìh
mßjdrl fÜma máh
KCl ødjK uÜgu
>K AgCl wdf,ams; ia;rh
rEmh 40'3( ksu lrk ,o Ag(s) / AgCl(s) / Cl- bf,lafg%davh
127
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak:
1. Ag/ AgCl bf,lafg%davh ieliSfï oS mj;sk iSudjka idlÉPd lrkak'

(b`.sh: iuyr wys;lr ;;a;aj hgf;a oS ksrdjrKh jQ is,aj¾ lïìh m%;sls%hdjg
Ndckh fõ')
2. ilik ,o Ag$ AgCl bf,lafg%davh Ndú;fhka" f,day$ f,day whk bf,lafg%davfha

úNjhka uek.kak'
3. msrùug Ndú;d lrk KCl ødjKfha idkaøKh fkdfjkia j mj;ajd .ekSf.u

jeo.;alu idlÉPd lrkak'
4. Ag/ AgCl bf,lafg%davh ;ekSu iòyd 3 moldm-3 KCl ødjKh fjkqjg" ix;Dma;
KCl ødjKhla Ndú;d lf<a kï" bf,lafg%dav úNjhg l=ula isÿ fõ o@
5. Zn/ Zn whk bf,lafg%davhlg iïu; Ag/ AgCl bf,lafg%davhla iïnkaO lsrSfuka

iEfok úoHq;a ridhksl fldaIhlg wefkdav m%;sls%hdj" lef;dav m%;sls%hdj yd
iïmQ¾K m%;sls%hdj iòyd ;=,s; iólrK ,shkak'
6. by; 2 jk fldgfia iòyka úoHq;a ridhksl fldaIhla iòyd fldaI wxlkh

,shkak'
128
mÍlaIK wxlh 41- úoHd.drfha § inka idïm,hla ms<sfh, lsÍu
wruqKq( mÍlaIKd.dr ;;a;aj hgf;a § inka ksIamdokh iòyd

l=i,;d ixj¾Okh lr .ekSug
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak(
1. inka ksIamdokfha § isÿ jk m%;sls%hdj iòyd jk my; oelafjk ridhksl

iólrKh iïmQ¾K lr ;=,s; lrkak'
2. inka ksIamdokfha § Ndú; jk fmd,af;,aj, wvx.= m%Odk ix>gl yd

tajdfha ridhksl jHQy olajkak'
3. tiagr c, úÉfþokhg wod< ridhksl iólrKh ,shkak.
4. i;a;aj fïo wï, iy Ydl f;,a w;r we;s fjkialï idlÉPd lrkak'
5. inka laId,lj,ska fjkia jk wdldrh" jHQy wkqidrfhka úia;r lrkak.
ye`Èkaùu(
inka ksIamdokh ls%hdj,shg ls%'mQ' 600 olajd Èfjk w;S;hla we;' Ydl f;,aj,
wvx.= jk fïo wï, jk f,daßla fyda md¾uála inka ksIamdok ls%hdj,sfha § b;d
jeo.;a fjhs' Ydl f;,a yd i;a;aj fïo g%hs.a,sirhsv fõ' iefmdkSlrKh hkq
tiagr c, úÉfþokh uÕska ldfndlais,sla wï, ,jK iy we,afldfyd, Ndiañl
W;afma%rl yuqfõ ksmoùu fõ. È. ldnka odu wvx.= fïo wï,hkays fidaähï
fyda fmdgEishï ,jK inka ksIamdokfha § ,nd .ekSu iòyd NaOH iy KOH
Niau nyq,j Ndú; lrkq ,nhs' inka c,fha Èh jQ úg" c, úÉfþok ls%hdj,sfhys
m%;sM,hla f,i hï ;rula È. ldnka odu iys; fïo wï, ksmojhs'
c,fha we;s wï, fyda Ca2+ iy Mg2+ whk yuqfõ" c,fha ødjH inka wKq" c,fha
wødjH inka wKqj,g mßj¾;kh fjhs' fuh inkaj, msßisÿ ldrl .=Kh wvq
lrhs'
129
wdrlaIl l%fudamdh:
idkaø fidaähï yhsfv%dlaihsâ m%n, úLdol .=K fmkajk ixfhda.hls' th Ndú;

lsÍfï § YsIHhka wdrlaIl weia wdjrK iy w;ajeiqï Ndú; l< hq;= h'
WmlrK ridhk øjH

nkaika odylh fmd,af;,a
nqlak¾ mqkS,h NaOH
îlr NaCl
l%uh:
· 250 cm3 wkqudmk ma,dial=jla f.k" t<j¿ f;,a fyda fmd,af;,a 25 cm3la
t;fkda,a 20 cm3 iy 6 mol dm-3 NaOH 25 cm3 la ma,dial=jg tla lrkak' tu
ñY%Kh uka:hla wdOdrfhka fyd`Èka ñY% lr .kak'
· c, ;dmlhl wdOdrfhka ñY%Kh r;a lr .kakd w;r u fkdlvjd uka:kh
lsÍu uÕska fmK ke.Su je<elaùug my; rEmigyfka wdldrhg wegjqu ilid
.kak'
rEmh 41'9 inka ksIamdokh iòyd Ndú; lrk mÍlaIKd;aul wegjqu
· ñY%Kh ñks;a;= 10 - 15 muK ld,hla ;=< r;a lr .kak' fï ld,h w;r;=r r;a
lsÍu wjidkfha ñY%Kh ;,mhla njg mßj¾;kh fjhs'
· oeka inka njg m;a jQ ñY%Kh" c, ;dmlfhka bj;g f.k" isis,a lr .ekSu
iòyd whsia iys; n`ÿkl .s,ajkak'
130
· ika;Dma; NaCl 150 cm3 muK isis,a lr .;a inka ñY%Khlg tla lr nqlak¾
mqkS,hla wdOdrfhka nr lsrd .;a fmryka lvodishla Ndú; lrñka inka fmrd
fjka lr .kak' ta iòyd Ndú; lrk mÍlaIK wegjqul o< rEmigykla my; §
we; (fï fmrd .ekSu iòyd .=re;ajh hgf;a fmÍu o Ndú;d l< yelsh).
rEmh 41'2 inka fmrd fjka lsÍu iòyd Ndú; lrk wegjqul rEmigyk
· fmrd fjka lr .;a inka iys; fmryka lvodish úh<s lvodis" ;=jd Ndú;
lrñka f;rmñka úh<d .kak'
.Kkh lsÍï(
1. ujq,sl mßudj 221.3 cm3 mol-1 jk f,daßla wï,h wvx.= fmd,af;,a 25
cm3 l ffiOdka;sl M,h .Kkh lrkak. fmd,af;,a ys 80% f,daßla
wï,h yd 20% inka fkdjk ixfhda. wvx.= fõ hhs Wml,amkh lrkak'
2. by; i|yka fmd,a f;,a fhdod .ksñka inka ksIamdok l%shdj,sfha
ld¾hlaIu;dj .Kkh lrkak'
idlÉPdj:
a. inka ksIamdok ls%hdj,sfha § t;fkda,ays ls%hdldß;ajh meyeÈ,s lrkak'
b. inka ksIamdokfha mdßißl n,mEï úia;r lr" ta n,mEï wju lr .ekSug .;
hq;= ls%hdud¾. idlÉPd lrkak'
c. Ca iy Mg ,jK wvx.= wjia:dj, (ner c,h) msßisÿ ldrlhla f,i laId,l
Ndú;h idlÉPd lrkak'
d. mßirh flfrys laId,lj, n,mEu" inkaj, n,mEug jvd ydksodhl ùug fya;=
meyeÈ,s lrkak'
131
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak
1. inka wKqj,g l=Kq wxY= iy c, wKq iu`. iEÈh yels wka;¾ wKql wdl¾IK
n, fudkjd o@
2. by< pH w.hla we;s inka ñksiqkaf.a Ndúhg kqiqÿiq nj ks¾foaY lr we;'

inkaj, jeämqr we;s NaOH bj;a lsÍu iòyd Ndú; l< yels l%uhla fhdackd
lrkak'
3. jeäuk;a CaCl2 iu`. m%;sls%hd l< úg inka (100% sodium laurate) 1 glska
,ndfok wjlafIamfha nr .Kkh lrkak'
4. inka ksIamdokfha § ,nd fok m%Odk w;=reM,h l=ula o@ fï w;=reM,h wdrïNl

wuqøjH f,i Ndú; lrñka l< yels ;j;a ld¾ñl ksIamdokhla úia;r lrkak'
132
mÍlaIKh 42- yqud, wdijkh Ndú; lr l=re`ÿ fld<j,ska l=re`ÿ f;,a
ksiaidrKh
wruqKq: f;dard .;a iajdNdúl m%Nj Ndú;fhka i.kaO f;,a

ksiaidrKh lsÍfï l=i,;dj j¾Okh lsÍu
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak:
1. my; j.=fõ i|yka i.kaO f;,aj, wvx.= m%Odk ix>gl iòyka lrñka j.=j
iïmQ¾K lrkak'
m%Odk
f;,a j¾.h Ndú;h
ix>glh
l=re`ÿ f;,a
lrdnqkeá f;,a
fodvï f,,af,ka ,efnk
f;,a
me`.sß f;,a
2. i.kaO f;,a ksiaidrKh iòyd yqud, wdijkh fhdod .kafka flfia oehs
úia;r lrkak'
3. i.kaO f;,a ksiaidrKhg idudkH wdijk l%uhlg jvd yqud, wdijkh jvd;a
iqÿiq jkafka wehs@
4. i.kaO f;,a ksiaidrKh iòyd fhdod .; yels fjk;a l%u 2 la iòyka lrkak'
ye`Èkaùu:
yqud, wdijkh" fkdfhla Ydluh øjHj,ska i.kaO f;,a ,nd .ekSug Ndú;
lrk tla l%uhla f,i fhdod .kS' by< ;dmdxlfhka hq;a jdIamYS,s øjH
ksiaidrKh iòyd yqud, wdijkh fhdod .kS' wñY% øj folla tl úg wdijkh
lsÍfï oS" wdi%e;fha wvx.= tla tla ix>glfha idkaøKh ksh;hls' tfuka u"
ñY%Kfha ;dmdxlh tla tla ix>glfha ;dmdxlhg jvd wvq w.hla .kS' fuuÕska
by< ;dmdxlfhka hq;a ix>gl ;ksj kegjqj fyd;a isÿ jk úfhdackh ùu
j<lajd" 100 0C g my< WIaK;ajhl § ksiaidrKh lsÍu iòyd bv ,nd fohs'
tneúka f;,aj, yd c,fha ixY=oaO jdIam mSvkh (P f;,a yd P c,h) jdhqf.da,Sh
mSvkhg iudk jk úg" c,h + f;,a ñY%Kfha keàu isÿ fõ' P0 c,h >> P0 f;,a
ksid" c,fha idudkH ;dmdxlhg jvd wvq WIaK;ajhl § ñY%Kh keàu isÿ fõ'
fuuÕska i.kaO f;,aj, jdIam ùu uDÿ ;;a;aj hgf;a § isÿ ùu ;yjqre lrhs'
my; iólrKh u`.ska wjidk wdi%e;fha ujq, w;r wkqmd;h oelaúh yelss h'
n (f;,a) P (f;,a)
=
n (c,h) P (c,h)
133
WmlrK ridhk øjH

nkaika odylh f;dard .;a l=¿nvq
jk yd fudfyd, (l=re÷/ lrdUq/ foys fyda fodvï)
5 g muK
jgwä ma,dial=j (wdijk ma,dial=j)
ma,dialj
= úh,k ldrlh
îlr
wdijk WmlrK wegjqu
WIaK;ajudkh
lkafvkairh
fíreï mqkS,h
odylh
yqud, ;dmlh
ùÿre l+r
ñkqï ird
l%uh(
m<uq mshjr(
• f;dard .;a l=¿nvq j¾.hlska (l=re`ÿ fyda lrdnqkeá) fyda foys$ fodvï f,,sj,ska
5.0 g lsrdf.k l=vd len,sj,g lmd .kak (fyda wUrd .kak). ta idïm,h 250
cm3 jg wä ma,dial=jlg (fyda wdijk ma,dial=jg) oud f.k" wdi%e; c,h 50
cm3 muK tl;= lrkak'
· rEmfha oelafjk wdldrhg wdijk WmlrK wegjqu ms<sfh, lrkak' îlrhla

fyda ;j;a jg wä ma,dial=jla ksiaidrKh ,nd .kakd ma,dial=j f,i fhdod
.kak'
· lkafvkairh yryd c,h fifuka .e,Sug i,iajd" øj ñY%Kh taldldrj kgk

fia Rcq oe,a,lska fyda odylhlska ma,dial=j r;a lrkak' m<uq wdijk ìkaÿj
,efnk úg" WIaK;ajh igyka lr.kak' wdi%e;h ;;amr 2"3l § ìkaÿ 1la ,efnk
fia wdijkh iòyd ia:djr YS>%;djla ,nd .kak' wdi%e;h 30 cm3la muK ,efnk
f;la wdijkh isÿ lrkak' wdi%e;h tl;= lr .ekSu wjYH jQ úg WIaK;ajh
igyka lr .kak¡
· ma,dial=j odylfhka bj;a lr odylh ksjd.kak'
2 jk mshjr(
· wdi%e;h fíreï mqkS,hlg oud.kak' vhslaf,dafrdfuf;aka fyda vhst;s,a B;r

10 cm3la tl;= lr" fydòska fid,jd ia;r fjka ùug i,ikak' ldnksl ia;rh
msßisÿ fldaKsl ma,dial=jlg tl;= lr.kak' fï ksiaidrK mshjr ;j;a foj;djla
isÿ lr" ldnksl ødjK fldgia 3 u îlrhlg tl;= lrkak'
· úh<k ldrlhl ^ks¾c,Sh fidaähï i,af*aÜ& iaj,am m%udKhla ne.ska tl;=
134
lrkak' fi,ùfï oS úh<k ldrlh ;jÿrg;a tlg .=<s ùu kj;sk f;la th
tl;= lrkak' ^ysu .=<shla fuka Èiaúh hq;= hs& ñks;a;= 10 -15 muK ld,hla mqrd
jßka jr fid,jkak'
· ødjKh jg wä ma,dial=jlg oud f.k îlrh vhslaf,dafrdfuf;aka$ vhst;s,a

B;r fjka lr .ekSug wdijk WmlrK wegjqu ms<sfh, lr .kak¡ ldnksl
ia:rh wvx.= jg wä ma,dial=j yqud, ;dmlhl wdOdrfhka r;a lr ødjlh
(vhslaf,dafrdfuf;aka$ vhst;s,a B;r) tl;= lr.kak'
· ødjlh ,eîu wjika jk f;la wdijkh os.g u lr f.k hkak¡
· wdijk wegjqu odylfhka bj;a lr" jg wä ma,dial=fõ msg; ì;a;sfha c, ì|s;s

úh<kak¡ fYaI jQ ødjlh keàfuka bj;a lsÍug úkdä lsysmhlg jg wä ma,dial=j
jdIam ;dmlh u; ;nkak¡
rEmh 42.1 yqud, wdijkh i|yd fhdod .kakd wegjqu
idlÉPdj:
a. YdLuh m%Njhlska iajdNdúl ksIamdokhla ksiaidrKh lsÍu iòyd wdijkh

iqÿiq l%uhla fõ oehs ;SrKh lsÍu iòyd Tn fhdod .kakd ks¾Kdhlh idlÉPd
lrkak'
b. fï ls%hdj,sh jvd;a mßir ys;ldój isÿ lr .ekSu iòyd fhdod .; yels l%u
idlÉPd lrkak'
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak:
135
1. wdrïNfha oS tl;= lr.kakd ,o wdi%e;h wmeyeÈ,s iajNdjfhka mj;skafka wehs@
2. úh,k ldrlhla hkq l=ula o@ tys ls%hdldß;ajh flfia o@
3. fï mÍlaIKfhka ksiaidrKh lr .;a i.kaO f;,aj, jdIam mSvkfhka nd.hl

w.hla iys;j 1000 C oS ksiaidrKh lsÍula isÿ lsÍug we;s nj i,lkak'
iajdNdúl M,fha ujq, 1 la ,nd .ekSug wjYH wdi%e;fha m%udKhg fuys ljr
jeo.;alula ;sfí o@
136
mÍlaIKh 43 - ffcj ãi,a ksIamdokh
wruqKq( 1¡ mßir ys;ldñ øj bkaOk m%Njhla W;amdokh lsÍu

2¡ ffcj äi,aj, jdis ms<snò wjfndaOhla ,nd .ekSu
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak:

ffcj ãi,aj, jdis wjdis fudkjd o@
ye`Èkaùu(
ffcj ãi,a ksIamdokh NaOH u`.ska W;afm%arK ls%hdjls' tys m<uq mshjf¾ §" NaOH,
fu;fkda,a iu`. m%;sls%hd lr fuf;dlaihsâ wekdhk idohs' fojk mshjf¾ §" fuf;dlaihsâ
kshqla,sfhda*hs,h t<j¿ f;,aj, ldfndkhs,a ldnka mrudKqjlg iïnkaO ù fu;s,a
tiagr idohs' fï ls%hdj,sh wjidkfha §" NaOH kej; iEfoa' ffcj ãi,a ksIamdok
ls%hdj,sfha oS" m%Odk w;=re M,h f,i .a,sifrda,a iEfoa' fjk;a fndfyda ld¾ñl ls%hdj,s
iòyd wuq øjHhla f,i .a,sifrda,a Ndú;d fõ' úúO wdydr ksIamdok ls%hdj,s iòyd Ndú;
jk YdL f;,a" ffcj ãi,a ksIamdokh lsÍu iòyd m%;splS%lrKh l< yels h'
wdrlaIs; mshjr
mÍlaIKh isÿ lrk w;r;=r" YsIHhka weia wdrlaIs; wdjrK me,ò isáh hq;= h'
WmlrK ridhk øjH

3
fla;= ma,dial=j 250 cm t<j¿ f;,a
^mdúÉÑ l< fyda mdúÉÑ fkdl<
fíreï mqkS,h (250 cm3)
NaOH
îlr (250 cm3)
fu;fkda,a
137
l%uh(
1. 250 cm3 jk fla;= ma,dial=jlg NaOH 0.5 g la yd fu;fkda,a tl;= lr NaOH

iïmQ¾Kfhka Èh jk ;=re fyd`Èka l,;kak'
2. mdúÉÑ fkdlrk ,o t<j¿ f;,a 100 cm3 la 250 cm3 îlrhlg oud 400 0C la
muK WIaK;ajhlg WKqiqï lrkak' ffcj ãi,a ksIamdokfha oS mdúÉÑ lrk
,o t<j¿ f;,a Ndú; lsÍug m%:u fmrd .; hq;= jk w;r" tys wvx.= c,h o
bj;a lr .; hq;= h'
3. NaOH fu;fkda,a ñY%Kh l,;k w;r;=r t<j¿ f;,a idïm,h thg tl;=
lrkak' ia;r 2la we;s jk ;=re le,;Su fkdlvjd isÿ lrkak'
4. îlrfha wvx.= ñY%Kh fírk mqkS,hg oud tys by<ska we;s ia;rh fjka lr
.kak' my<ska we;s ia;rh .a,sifrda,a jk w;r" by<ska we;s ia;rh fu;s,a tiagr
fõ'
5. lvodis ;Srejla fmd`.jd oykh lr oykh ùfï YS>%;dj ksÍlaIKh lrkak'
m%;sM, yd ksÍlaIK(
3 yd 4 mshjr iòyd ksÍlaIK ,shkak'
idlÉPdj(
· ffcj ãi,aj, yd fjk;a mqk¾ckkSh øj bkaOkj, jeo.;alu idlÉPd lrkak'
· úúO rgj, fudag¾ r: iòyd mqk¾ckkSh øj bkaOkj, Ndú;h idlÉPd lrkak'
miq ksÍlaIK m%Yak(
1. fï m%;sl%shdfõ oS f;,a 30 cm3 la (ujq,sl ialkaOh 900 g/ mol yd >k;ajh

0.92 g cm-3) yd fu;fkda,a 8 cm3 (>k;ajh = 0.79 g/ cm3) Ndú; lrk ,§' fï
m%;sls%hdfõ § iSudldß idOlh l=ula o@
2. .a,sißka wdrïNl øjH f,i Ndú; flfrk fjk;a l¾udka; ,ehsia;=.; lrkak'
138
mÍlaIKh 44: úkdlsßj, weisála wï, m%;sY;h ks¾Kh lsÍu
wruqKq: úkdlsßj, wvx.= weisála wï, idkaøKh yd ialkaO

m%;sY;h fidaähï yhsfv%dlaihsâ iu`. wkqudmkh u`.ska
ks¾Kh lsÍug
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak:

1. CH3COOH yd NaOH w;r m%;sls%hdj iòyd ;=,s; ridhksl iólrKh ,shkak'
2. wï, - Niau wkqudmkhla hkq l=ula o@ th ksjerÈ wkqudmkhla iòyd flfia
bjy,a fõ o@
3. wkqudmkhl wka; ,laIHh yd iul;d ,laIHh w;r fjki myod fokak'
4. CH3COOH yd NaOH w;r wkqudmkh iòyd o¾Ylhla kï lrkak¡
yeòskaùu:
fok ,o idïm,hl wvx.= wï,h fyda Niauh m%udKh ks¾Kh lsÍu iòyd wï, Niau
wkqudmkh fhdod .kS' fï mÍlaIKfha oS idïm,fha wvx.= weisála wï,h iïmQ¾Kfhka
WodiSk lsÍug okakd idkaøKfhka hq;a NaOH ødjKhla Ndú; lsÍfuka úkdlsßj,
wvx.= weisála wï, m%udKh ks¾Kh lrhs' wï,h iïmQ¾Kfhka WodiSk jk ,laIHh
ks¾Kh lsÍu iòyd wï, - Niau o¾Ylhla fhdod .kS' weisála wï, idkaøKh ks¾Kh
lsÍu iòyd" idïm,hg tl;= lrk NaOH mßudj oek .; hq;= h'
iul;d ,laIfha § ish¨ weisála wï, m%udKh NaOH u`.ska WodiSk fõ.
wkqudmkh iòyd uq,ska fhdod .;a

tl;= lrk ,o NaOH ujq, ixLHdj =
mßudj ;=< wvx.= CH3COOH ujq, ixLHdj
wdrlaIs; l%fudamdh:
mÍlaIKh lrk w;r;=r" isiqka weia wdrlaIs; lKaKdä me,`Èh hq;= h'
139
WmlrK ridhk øjH

ìhqfrÜgq m%dudKsl 0.2 mol dm-3 NaOH ødjKh
wkqudmk ma,dial= msfkdma;,ska o¾Ylh
mßudñ;sl msfmÜgqj úkdlsß
l=vd mqkS,
îlr
l%uh:
1. ìhqfrÜgqj 0.2 mol dm-3 NaOH ødjKfhka mqrjd .kak'
2. mßudñ;sl msfmÜgqjla Ndú;fhka úkdlsß 5.0 cm3 la 100 cm3 wkqudmk
ma,dial=jlg oud .kak' ma,dial=jg msfkdma;,ska o¾Ylfhka ìkaÿ lsysmhla yd
wdi%e; c,h 10 cm3 muK tl;= lrkak' wdi%e; c,h tl;= lrkafka iuyr
jdKscuh úkdlsßj, mj;sk iajdNdúl j¾Kh ;kql lsÍu iòyd h'
45¡1 rEmh úkdlsß yd NaOH w;r wkqudmkh iòyd jQ wegjqu
3. wkqudmkh wdrïN lr <d frdai meyehla ,efnk f;la wkqudmkh isÿ lrkak'
4. úkdlsß idïm,fhka 5.00 cm3 ne.ska f.k wkqudmkh ;j;a foj;djla isÿ
lrkak'
140
m%;sM, 01 mshjr 02 mshjr 03 mshjr
úkdlsß idïm,fha mßudj ……………. ……………. …………….
NaOH ødjKfha idkaøKh ……………. ……………. …………….
wdrïNl ìhqfrÜgq mdGdxlh ……………. ……………. …………….
wjidk ìhqfrÜgq mdGdxlh ……………. ……………. …………….
wkqudmkh iòyd jeh jQ NaOH mßudj ……………. ……………. …………….
wkqudmkh iòyd jeh jQ uOHkHh …………….

NaOH mßudj
úkdlsßj, weisála wï, idkaøKh …………….
.Kkh lsÍï:
1. úkdlsßj, weisála wï, ialkaO m%;sY;h .Kkh lrkak'
2. ksIamdol úiska úkdlsß fnda;,fha iòyka lr we;s w.fha fodaI m%;sY;h
.Kkh lrkak'
idlÉPdj:
· fï mÍlaIKh iòyd ms<sfh, lrk ,o NaOH ødjKfha idkaøKfha ksrjoH;dj
idlÉPd lrkak'
· mÍlaIKd;aul ialkaO m%;sY;h yd úkdlsß fnda;,fha iòyka ialkaO m%;sY;
w.h w;r fjkig fya;= idlÉPd lrkak'
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak:

1. YsIHfhla mÍlaIKh isÿ l< kuq;a" ,shk ,o Wmfoia ksYaÑ;j wkq.ukh
fkdlf<a h'
my; ls%hd mÍlaIKhg flfia n,mdhs o@
a. úkdlsß 5 cm3la mßudñ;sl msfmÜgqjla u`.ska wkqudmk ma,dial=jg tl;=
lr msöfuka ish¨ ødjK mßudj msfmÜgqfjka bj;a lrk ,È'
b. msfmÜgqj NaOH ødjKfhka msrùfï § tl;= jQ jdhq nqnq¿ bj;a
fkdlrk ,È' wdrïNl ìhqfrÜgq mdGdxlh f.k" wk;=rej wkqudmkh
141
w;r;=r § jdhq nqnq¿ msg;g meñKs w;r wkqudmkh wka; ,laIHhg
meñKs úg" wjidk mdGdxl .kakd ,§'
c. msfkd,sma;,ska o¾Ylh fjkqjg fu;s,a TfrkaÊ o¾Ylh fhdod .kakd
,§'
2. iqmsß fjf<òi,l úkdlsß 500 cm3 fnda;,a wf,ú lrhs' tla fnda;,hl wvx.=
weisála wï, .a?ï .Kk" Tn ,nd .;a m%;sM, weiqfrka .Kkh lrkak'
3. úkdlsß yd NaOH w;r wkqudmkh iòyd jQ pH w.h yd NaOH mßudj w;r
úp,kh m%ia;dr.; lrkak'
142
mÍlaIKh 45: úkala,¾ l%uh u`.ska c,fha ødú; Tlaiscka uÜgu ks¾Kh lsÍu
wruqK: c, idïm,hl Èh ù we;s Tlaiscka uÜgu úkala,¾ l%uh u`.ska

ks¾Kh lsÍug
fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak:
1. mßirfha we;s c,h idïm,hl we;s ødú; Tlaiscka uÜgu jeo.;a jkafka wehs
oehs meyeÈ,s lrkak'
2. c,fha ødú; Tlaiscka w.h jeä ùug odhl jkafka fudkjd oehs meyeÈ,s
lrkak'
3. c,fha ødú; Tlaiscka uÜgu flfrys n,mdk m%Odk ¥Il j¾. fudkjd o@
ye`Èkaùu:
øú; Tlaiscka (DO) uÜgu hkq c,fha .=Kd;aul nj ukskq ,nk mrdñ;sj,ska jvd;a u
jeo.;a mrdñ;shhs' c,hg neyer lrk WKqiqï wm c,h u`.ska c, m%Njj, DO uÜgug
m%n,j n,mEula we;s lrhs' tfuka u c,hg uqodyefrk ldnksl wm øjH fyda fmdaIl
øjH ksid o c,fha DO uÜgu wvq fõ' c,c moaO;sh jd;h iys; ùu (iajdhq ;;a;aj) fyda
jd;h rys; ùu (ks¾jdhq ;;a;aj) u`.ska c,c Ôùkaf.a meje;aug iqÿiq fõ oehs ks.ukh
lsÍu iòyd c,fha DO uÜgu Ndú; l< yels h'
wdrlaIs; mshjr:
mÍlaIKh isÿ lrk w;r;=r isiqka weia wdjrK me,òSu wksjd¾h fõ'
WmlrK ridhk øjH

ÿUqre mdg m%;sldrl fnda;, 3 mol dm-3 MnCl2
l%udxlsl msfmÜgqj (1 cm3, 10 cm3 iy 50 cm3) 4 mol dm-3 KI (8 moldm-3 NaOH ;=,
wvx.=)
wkqudmk ma,dial=
50 % H2SO4 ødjKh
îlr
msIaG ødjKh
0.18 mol dm-3 Na2S2O3 (wdikak f,i)
0.00167 mol dm-3 m%dudKsl KIO3
ødjKh
KI >Kh
143
l%uh:
c, idïm, tl;= lr.ekSu
● c, idïm,fhka fnda;,h mqrjd .ekSug fmr tu c, idïm,fhka u fnda;,h

fojrla fidaod yßkak' bka miq jdhq nqnq¿ fkd/fòk fia b;d fifuka fnda;,h
c,fhka mqrjd .kak' fnda;,hg uQäh iú lrkak'
● c, idïm,h mqrjd .;a jyd u" 3 mol dm-3 MnCl2 1 cm3 la iy KI (8 mol dm-3
NaOH ;=< we;s) 1 cm3 la thg tl;= lrkak' fuh isÿ l< hq;af;a msfmÜgqfõ
;=v c, idïm,h ;=<g .sf,k mßÈ fõ'
Na2S2O3 ødjKh m%dudKsl lsÍu'
● wkqudmk ma,dial=jg KIO3 10 cm3 la iy H2SO4 1 cm3 la oud .kak' KI 1 cm3

la oud fyd`Èka ñY% lr Trf,daiq ùÿrejlska jid ñks;a;= 5 - 10l ld,hla w`ÿf¾
;nkak'
● fï ñY%Kh Na2S2O3 iu`. <d ly meyehla ,efnk f;la wkqudmkh lrkak'

msIaG ødjKfhka ìkaÿ lSmhla oud" ødjKh wj¾K jk f;la wkqudmkh È.g
u isÿ lrkak'
● tl;= l< Na2S2O3 mßudj igyka lr .kak'
idïm,h úYaf,aIKh(
● úYaf,aIKh lsÍug fmr idïm,h wvx.= fnda;,hg 50% H2SO4 2 cm3la muK
ùÿre nghl wdOdrfhka tl;= lrkak' bka miq uQäh jid idïm,h iys;
fnda;,h lSm jrla há me;a; yrjñka fyd`Èka fid,jkak' fï wjia:dj, oS c,
idïm,h ÿUqre meye úh hq;= h'
● m%dudKsl Na2S2O3 Ndú; lrñka c, idïm,h <d ly mdg jk ;=re wkqudmkh

lrkak¡ bka miq msIaG ødjKfhka 3 cm3 la muK tl;= lr ødjKh ks,a mdg
isg wj¾K jk ;=re wkqudmkh lr ìhqfrÜgq mdGdxlh ,nd .kak¡ tu.ska c,
idïm,fha osh jQ O2 m%udKh .Kkh lrkak¡
m%;sM, iy ksÍlaIK:
idïm, wxl 01
idïm,fha WIaK;ajh '''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
Ndú; l< idïm, mßudj '''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
m<uq m%;sldrl fol tl;= l< miq iEÿKq wjlafIamfha j¾Kh ''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
Na2S2O3 ødjKfha ksjerÈ idkaøKh ''''''''''''''''''''
144
idïm,h ìhqfrÜgq mdGdxlh (cm3) DO idkaøKh" mg dm-3
1
2
idlÉPdj:
i. DO ks¾Kh lsÍfï l%ufha § isÿ jQ m%;sls%hd iòyd ;=,s; ridhksl iólrK

,shkak'
ii. DO c,fha WIaK;ajh u; yd jdhq f.da,fha Tlaisckaj, wdxYsl mSvkh u; r|d

mj;skafka flfia oehs úia;r lrkak¡
miq mÍlaIK m%Yak:
i. c,fha DO uÜgu c, idïm,h ,nd .;a ld,h wkqj fjkia fõ o@ tjeks

fjkilg fya;= úh yelafla fudkjd o@
ii. idïm,h ,nd .;a ú.i u th ;sr lsÍu jeo.;a jkafka wehs@
145
Azide - Winkler Method
Micropipette
2cm3 manganese
sulphate just
below surface of
liquid
Rapeat
procedure using
alkai- iodido
water reagent in the
same manner
DO bottle with
field sample
Titrate 200cm3
of sample
with sodium
thisuophate
2cm3sulphuric to pale. straw
acid just above colour stir
surface of sample and swirl
invert continually
sample
to mix
Aluminum
Mix by inverting Coil brown
several times
check for air
bubbles Remx Rubber
aer precipitale ha band sample can be stored
settled to bottom for up to 8 hr in a cool
dark place
Distilled H2O
Calculate DO
concentration
DO(mgL-1) = xmL
of titrant X 1mgDO/
1cm3
2cm3 starch Continue titration
Solution stirring continuously
until until sample is clear
blue colour
forms
White paper
blue
yellow
146

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w'fmd'i' ^Wiia fm<&

© cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh

fï m%dfhda.sl w;afmd; ilia lr we;af;a m%dfhda.sl mÍlaIK ukdj ie,iqï lsÍu"

cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kfha wdh;k iNdfõ iy wOHhk lghq;= uKav,fha idudðlhkag;a"

wdpd¾h à'ta'wd¾'fÊ' .=Kfialr ñh

1' úoHd;aul ixl,am ^oekqu iy wjfndaOh& f.dvkexùug Wmldr ùu iy ffioaOdka;sl

• jev lrk ia:dkh msßisÿj ;nd .ekSu

fï wjia:dj m%dfhda.sl w;afmd; ilia lsÍfï m%h;akh id¾:l lr .ekSug odhl jQ

wdpd¾h' ta'ã' wfidal o is,ajd

wNHka;r iïm;a odhl;ajh

NdId ixialrKh - ch;a mshoiqka uhd

úúO iyh - moaud ví'mS'mS' ùrj¾Ok ñh - cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'

wOHlaI ckrd,a;=ñhf.a mKsúvh iii

mÍlaIK tallh msgq

01 01 lef;dav lsrKj, .=K wdo¾Ykh lsÍu 10

Sr2+, Ba2+ uQ,øjH y÷kd .ekSu 45

úoHd.dr lghq;= i`oyd iQodkï ùu

úoHd.drfha lghq;= lrk ld,h ;=< wkq.ukh l< hq;= ls%hdud¾.

wmøjH neyer lsÍu

úoHd.drfhka msg ùug fmr msßisÿ lsÍu

úoHd.drfha we;s úI iys; øjH

úLdol øjH mßyrKh i`oyd wdrlaIl ls%hdud¾.

úI úLdol .sks.kakdiq¨ msmsfrkiq¨ Tlaisldrl úlsrKYS,s øjH

1 rEmh - wka;rdodhl ixfla;

1.2 rEmh - ridhk øjH f,an,j, we;s wx.

úoHd.dr ùÿre WmlrK

mÍlaId k, lelEreï k, îlr

fla;= ma,dial= wkqudmk ma,dial= mßudñ;sl ma,dial=

m%;sldrl fnda;,a ñkqï ird ìhqfrÜgq msfmÜgq

msfmÜgq mqrjk mÍlaIK k, wdOdrl Trf,daiq uqyqK;a

mÍlaIK k, w~q veys w~q fmdafima w~qj iame;shq,dj

fmá% §is jk iy fudfyd,

3 rEmh - ridhk úoHd.drfha we;s iq,n ùÿre WmlrK yd Wmdx.

lelEreï k,hl we;s ødjKhla r;a lsÍu

4 rEmh - nkaika oe,af,a m%Odk fldgia

1 jk wdldrh - jd isÿr iïmQ¾Kfhka jeiQ úg - §ma;su;a ly (luminous)

3 jk wdldrh - jd isÿr w¾Oj újD; l< úg - ¨ñkia ;=vla iys; we;=<;

4 jk wdldrh - jd isÿr iïmQ¾Kfhka újD; l< úg - ¨ñkia fkdjk

5 rEmh - fmÍu i`oyd fmryka lvodish kjk wdldrh

6 rEmh - jdhq Ndú;h i`oyd wjYH WmlrKh

jdIamSNjkh u.ska ødjK úh,d .ekSu

7 rEmh - jdIamSlrK §ish

8 rEmh - ìhqfrÜgq mdGdxlhla ,nd .ekSfï ksjerÈ l%uh

mßudñ;sl ma,dial=j Ndú;h

ødjKhla ksjerÈj ms<sfh, lr .ekSug mßudñ;sl ma,dial= Ndú; flf¾' ødjKhla

9 rEmh ( bf,lafg%dksl ;=,dj iy isõ o`vq ;=,dj

miq mÍlaIK m%Yak(

(i) wdrlaIl WmlrKj, ia:dk.; lsÍï fmkaùug ìï ie,eiaula w|skak'

fmr mÍlaIK m%Yak:

2. Wm mrudKql wxY= fidhd .ekSug odhl jQ úoHd{hka ,ehsia;=.; lrkak'

3. lef;dav lsrKj, e/m wkqmd;h fidhd .;af;a ljqre o@

1.1 rEmh( úúO wdldrfha lef;dav lsrK k,

1'2 rEmh( lef;dav lsrK ksÍlaIKhg wod< mÍlaIKd;aul wegjqu

mQ¾j wdrlaIs; mshjr:

· lef;dav lsrKj, .=K ksÍlaIKh fkdlrk úg § mßm:h ;=<ska Odrdj .,dhEu

lef;dav lsrKj, l=uk .=Kh fï mÍlaIKfhka wdo¾Ykh fõ o@

lef;dav lsrKj, l=uk .=Kh fï mÍlaIKfhka wdo¾Ykh fõ o@

lef;dav lsrKj, l=uk .=Kh fï mÍlaIKfhka wdo¾Ykh fõ o@

miq mÍlaIK m%Yak(