STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

1. PROPERTIES OF METALS, STRESS AND STRAIN

IMPORTANT MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

• It is the property by virtue of which a material deformed under the load is
enabled to return to its original dimension when the load is removes.

If body regains Completely its original shape it is called Perfectly elastic body
Elastic limit marks the partial bream down of elasticity beyond which removal of load
result is a degree of Permanent Deformation.
Steel, Aluminium, copper, may be considered to be perfectly elastic Within Certain
Limit.

• Plasticity
The characteristic of the material by which it undergoes inelastic strain beyond those
at the elastic limit is known as plasticity.

This property is particularly useful in operation of Pressing and Forging.

When large deformation occurs in a Ductile material loaded in plastic region, the
material is said to undergo Plastic Flow.

• Ductility
It is the property which permits a material to be drawn out longitudinally to a reduced
section, under the action of tensile force.

A ductile material must possess a high degree of plasticity and strength.

Ductile material must have low degree of elasticity.
This is useful in wire drawing.
 • Brittleness

It is lack of ductility. Brittleness implies that it cannot be drawn out by tension to

smaller section

In brittle material failure take place under load without significant deformation.
Ordinary glass is nearly ideal brittle material.
Cast iron, concrete and ceramic material are brittle material.

• Malleability
It is the property of a material which permits the material to be extended in all
direction without rupture.

A malleable material possess a high degree of plasticity, but not necessarily great
strength.

• Toughness
It is the property of material which enables it to absorb energy without fracture.

Modulus of toughness UT =
𝜎𝑢 +𝜎𝑦
𝐸1
2

It is desirable in material which is subjected to cyclic or shock loading.

It is represented by area under stress – strain curve for material up to fracture.
Bend test used for common comparative test for toughness.
 • Hardness
It is the ability of a material to resist indentation or surface abrasion.

Brinnell hardness test is used to check hardness.

Brinell hardness number = p

(𝐷 − √D2-d2]
𝜋𝐷
2

Here, P = Standard load

D = Diameter of steel ball(mm)
d = Diameter of indent (mm)

• Strength
This property enables material to resist fracture under load.

This is most important property from design point of view.

 Load required to cause fracture, divided by area of test specimen, is termed as
ultimate strength.

• Creep
Creep is a permanent deformation which is recorded with passage of time at constant
loading. it is plastic deformation (permanent and non-recoverable) is nature.
Note: The temperature at which creep is uncontrollable is called
Homologous Temperature.

• Fatigue
Due to cyclic or reverse cyclic loading fracture failure may occur if total accumulated
stain energy exceeds the toughness. Fatigue causes rough fracture surface even in
ductile metals.
• Resilience
It is the total elastic strain energy which can be store in the given volume of metal
and can be released after unloading.
It is equal to area under load deflection curve within elastic limit.

STRESS ANS STRAIN

STRESS (N/m2)
it is the resistance offered by the body to deformation

Nominal stress (engineering stress) =

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
•
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

Actual/true stress =
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
•
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑑 (𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
STRAIN
Deformation per unit length in the direction of deformation is known as strain.

Strain =
∆𝐿
𝐿

∆𝐿
P P

It is a dimensionless Quantity.
ENGINEERING STRESS-STRAIN CURVE OF MILD STEEL FOR TENSION UNDER
STATIC – LOADING
__________________________________________________________________________

C’ – Upper yield point

D – Strain hardening starts
E – Ultimate point or maximum stress point
OA – straight line (proportional region, Hooke’s law is valid)
OB – Elastic region
BC – Elastic plastic region
CD – Perfectly plastic region
DE – strain hardening
EF – Necking region
 A – Limit of proportionality
B – Elastic limit
C – Lower yield point
F – Fracture point

• Limit of proportionality
It is the stress at which the stress – strain curve ceases to be a straight line.

Hooke’s law is valid up to proportional limit.

• Elastic limit
It is the point on the stress – strain curve up to which the materials remains elastic.

Upto this point there is no permanent deformation after removal of load.

• Plastic Range
It is the region of the stress – strain curve between the elastic limit and point of
rupture.

• Yield point
This point is just beyond the elastic limit, at which the specimen undergoes an
appreciable increase in length without further increase in the load.

• Rupture strength
It is the stress corresponding to the failure point ‘F’ of the stress-strain curve.

• Proof stress
It is the stress necessary to cause a permanent extension equal to defined percentage
of gauge length.
Slope of OA = Modulus of elasticity
(Young’s Modulus).
It is constant of proportionality which is defined as the intercity of stress that causes
unit strain.
Plastic strain is 10 to 15 time’s elastic strain.
Fracture strain (Ef) depends on percentage carbon in steel.
When carbon percentage increases then fracture strain decreases and yield stress
increases.

TYPE OF TENSION FAILURE IN METAL

A. Ductile metal (shear failure)
Failure plane is at 45o
Cup-cone fracture

Shear strength < tensile strength ≤ compressive strength

B. Brittle metal
90o

Failure plane at 90o with longitudinal direction necking is not formed and failure is due
to tension failure. tensile strength < Shear strength < Compressive strength
TYPE OF FAILURE IN COMPRESSION

A. Ductile material B. Brittle material

P
P Shear failure
Plane at 45o

Failure plane
At 90o
45o

P
P

STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM FOR VARIOUS TYPE OF STEEL/MATERIAL

All grades of steel have same young’s modulus but different yield stress.

DUCTILE MATERIAL
If post realistic strain is greater than 5%, it is called ductile material.
it undergoes large permanent strains before failure.
Large reduction in area before fracture
e.g. lead, mild steel, copper
BRITTLE MATERIAL
If post elastic strain is less than 5%. it is called brittle material.

It fails with only little elongation after the proportional limit is exceeded.
very less reduction in area before fracture, e.g. Bronze, Rubber, glass

Behaviors of various materials

σ σ σ
Linear elastic

Elasto Plastic Perfectly Plastic

∈ ∈ ∈

σ σ σ

Elasto plastic
with stain Ideal rigid
hardening Ideal
∈ ∈ ∈

Where σ = stress, 𝜖 = strain

‘Mild steel’ is more elastic than ‘Rubber’

HOOKE’S LAW

When a material behaves elastically and exhibits a linear relationship between stress
and strain, it is called linearly elastic. For materials stress (σ) is directly proportional to
strain (E).
Here, σ = Stress
σ α 𝜖 → σ = E. ∈ ∈ = Strain
E = Young modulus of elasticity
• Ecast iron ≈ ½ Esteel’
 • EAluminium ≈ 1/3 Esteel
Where ‘E’ is young modulus.

AXIAL ELONGATION (Δ) OF PRISMATIC BAR DUE TO EXTERNAL LOAD

Δ = Here,
𝑃𝐿
𝐴𝐸

P = Load applied A
L = Length of bar
A = Area of bar L

E = Young modulus

Δ= =
𝑃 𝑃
𝐸𝐴
𝐾
𝐿

Here, K = AE/L = Axial stiffness of bar P

AE = Axial rigidity
El/L = Flexural stiffness
El = Flexural rigidity

DEFLECTION OF BAR (Δ) DUE TO SELF-WEIGHT

A. Prismatic bar

𝑟𝐿2
Δ = =
𝑊𝐿
2𝐴𝐸 2𝐸

Here, W = Self weight

B. Conical bar

𝑟𝐿2
= X Ddeflection of prismatic bar of same length
1
Δ
6𝐸 3

Here,
r = Specific weight W
L = Length bar L
E = Young’s modulus

DEFLECTION (Δ) OF TAPERED BAR

A. Circular tapering bar

Δ =
4𝑃𝐿
𝜋𝐸 𝐷1 𝐷2

Here,
P = Load applied
L =length of bar
D1 and D2 are Diameter as shown in fig.

B. Rectangular tapering bar

𝐵
𝑃𝐿 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 (𝐵2 )
Δ = 1
𝐸.𝑡(𝐵2 −𝐵1 )

Here, t = thickness
P = Load applied
E = young modulus
EQUIVALENT YOUNG’S MODULUS OF PARALLEL COMPOSITE BAR

Equivalent =
𝐴1 +𝐸1 +𝐴2 +𝐸2
𝐴1 +𝐴2

(1) A1, E1
Here, P = Load
P P
A1 = Area of first bar
(2) A2, E2
A2 = Area of second bar
E1 = young’s modulus of first bar
L
E2 = Young’s modulus of second bar
L = Length of bar

ELASTIC CONSTANTS
Elastic constants are those factor whose determine the deformation produced by a
given stress system acting one material.

Modulus of elasticity (E) =

𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
•
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

Modulus of rigidity (G) =

𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
•
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

Bulk modulus (K) =

𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
•
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

POISSON’S RATIO (m)

−(𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛) |𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛|

m= m=
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

UNDER UNIAXIAL LOADING

0 ≤ m ≤ 0.5
m = 0 for cork
m = 0.5 For perfectly plastic body (Rubber)
m = 0.25 to 0.42 for elastic metals
m = 0.1 to 0.2 for concrete
m = 0.286 mild steel
m is greater for ductile metals than for brittle metals.
VOLUMETRIC STRAIN UNDER TRI-AXIAL LOADING
Here,
σx = Stress in x – Direction
σy = Stress in y – direction
σz = Stress in z – direction
∈v = Volumetric strain
∈v = ∈x + ∈y + ∈z
= σx +σy + σz (1-2m)
E

UNDER HYDROSTATIC LOADING

σx = σy = σz = σ

∴ ∈v = (1-2m)
3𝜎
𝐸

UNI-AXIAL LOADING ON RECTANGULAR PARALLELEPIPED

∈X = =
∆𝑙 𝜎𝑥
𝑙 𝐸

∈Y = =
∆𝑏 𝜇𝜎𝑥
𝑏 𝐸

∈z = =
∆𝑑 𝜇𝜎𝑥
𝑑 𝐸

Here, ∈x, ∈y and ∈z are strain in x, y and z directions respectively.

Δl, Δb and Δd are change in length, width and depth respectively.
l, b and d are original length, width and depth respectively.
TRIAXIAL LOADING ON RECTANGULAR PARALLELEPIPED

∈x = - - =
𝜎𝑥 𝜇𝜎𝑦 𝜇𝜎𝑧 𝛿𝑙
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝑙

∈y = - - =
𝜎𝑦 𝜇𝜎𝑥 𝜇𝜎𝑧 𝛿𝑏
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝑏

∈z = - - =
𝜎𝑧 𝜇𝜎𝑥 𝜇𝜎𝑦 𝛿𝑑
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝑑

Sing convention: tensile is positive, and compressive is negative.

VOLUMETRIC STRAIN OF CYLINDRICAL BAR

∈v = Longitudinal strain +(2 x Diametric strain)

RELATION BETWEEN E,G, K, m

• E = 3K (1-2m)

• E = 2G (1+m)
 • m = 9KG
3K + G

• m = 3K – 2G
6K + 2G

Here, E = Young’s modulus, G = shear modulus

K = Bulk modulus, m = Poisson ratio
Material Number of independent
Elastic constant
Homogeneous & isotropic 2
Orthotropic (Wood) 9
Anisotropic 21

STRAIN ENERGY
It is the ability of material to absorb energy when it is strained

U = ½ p x d = ½ T x ϴ

Here, P = applied load

d = Elongation due to applied load
T = Applied torque
ϴ = Angle of twist due to applied torque

• Resilience : ability of a material to absorb energy int the elastic region when it
is strained.
= Area under P-d curve = ½ p x d

• Proof resilience: Maximum energy absorbing capacity of a material in the elastic

region is called proof resilience.

= Area under P-d curve = ½PEL x dEL

 Here PEL = Load at elastic limit
dEL = Elongation up to elastic limit

Modulus of Resilience = Proof Resilience = σ2EL

Volume 2E

Here σEL = Strain at elastic limit

E = Modulus of elasticity

THERMAL STRESS AND STRAIN

σth-stress = EαT Here, σ = Thermal stress

Δ = L αT α = Coefficient of thermal expansion

Strain = L α T = αT T = Temperature change

L
∆ = Change in length
-6 o
αsteel = αconcrete = 12x10 / C

αAluminium > αBrass > αCopper > αSteel

When bar is free to expand than there will be no thermal stress due to change in
temperature.
BENDING MOMENT & SHEAR FORCE
Types of Loads

a) Point / concentrated Load

W (KN)

b) Uniformly Distributed Load

WKN/m

c) Uniformly Varying Load

-------*-----L/3→
𝐿
-----2 W (Kn/m)
3

L
Equilibrium Equations

Σ V = 0
Σ H = 0 Equation of static
Σ M = 0

→ These equations ensures the safety of a structure

Types of Supports/Reactions

Fixed Support

→ It has 3 unknown Reaction

Hinged/Pinned Support

⇒ It has 2 unknown Reaction.

Roller Support

⇒ It has 1 unknown Reaction.

Slider
case-1

⇒ It has 2 unknown Reaction.

case -2

In both the case, we have 2 unknown reactions. Moment is always unknown in this
support.
Types of Beams
(a) Determinate Beam (b) Indeterminate Beam
(i) Simply supported Fixed

(ii) Cantilever Propped Cantilever

(iii) Overhanging Continuous

1) Bending Moment At a Section

It is a product of force & 1 distance at a section due to all loads either from lift or
from right of the section.
Sign Conventions
Clockwise bending moment is always considered to be +ve and anticlockwise B.M is
always considered to be –ve.

SAGGING B.M. HOGGING B.M

 Sagging ⇒ Sagging B.M is always Hogging ⇒ Always considered to be -ve
considered to be +ve
means upar ki taraf mudna (Hog means niche ki taraf mudna)

Moment at a point
It is a product of Force and ⊥ distance at a point due to all loads exist.

NOTE:- Moment is always zero at any point but B.M. at a section may or may not be
zero.

Shear Force at a section

It is a net force at a section due to all loads either from left or from right of the
section.

Sign convention
Upward shear force is always +ve & downward shear Force is always –ve.

Variation of S.F.D and B.M.D with Load

S.No. Type of Load SFD BMD

1 No Load ---------- Rectangle
2 Point Load Rectangle(zero Triangle(1 degree curve)
degree curve)
3 UDL Triangle Parabola (Quadric Parabola)
4 UVL Parabola Cubic Parabola(3 degree curve)

Note:- 1) B.M.D. is always 1 degree higher than S.F.D.

2) Area of S.F.D = B.M.D.
Relationship b/w S.F., B.M. and Load Intensity

The rate of change of shear. Force becomes equal to load intensity.

𝑑𝑉
= -W
𝑑𝑥

dV= change in S.F.

dx = change in length

W = Load intensity

• Rate of change of B.M. = S.F.

𝑑𝑀
= V
𝑑𝑥

V → Shear force (Net Force)

dM → Change in B.M.

dM = Vdx

Area under SFD

MFinal – Minitial

⇒ Point of contraflexure is when B.M. changes from (+) to (-).

Case -1

When a simply supported beam subjected to a couple anywhere in the beam.

In this case SFD is always Rectangular & BMD is always Triangular (∆).

Case -2

A simply supported beam carries equal & opposite couples at their ends.

RA = 0

RB = 0
In this case SFD will always remains Zero (0) & BMO will always becomes Rectangular.

Point of contra flexure

It is a pint on the beam at which B.M. changes sign along the span:

Point of Minimum & maximum B.M.

It is a point on the beam at which SF becomes ‘0’ or changes its sign.

If a beam have an internal hinge then the B.M. at internal hinge is always considered
to be zero (0).

NOTE: 1) IN case of cantilever beam ⇒ clockwise couple is always considered (+ve)

or due to clockwise couple there is a sudden drop in BMD.
2) Due to Anti-clockwise couple, there is a sudden jump in BMD.

6KN 10KNm 10KN

2m 1m 1m
NOTE:- The span on which shear Force become ‘o’ that span is called Pure Bending
Span.

𝑊𝐿 𝑊𝐿
3 3

BENDING STRESS IN BEAMS

A beam is subjected to varying B.M. from support to center such that it is min. at
supports & max. At center.

• Due to max. B.M. a resistance of stress will induce in the member to resist that BM,
that stress is called Bending stress or Bending stress pair.
• Bending stress always occurs in pairs (both Tensile & compressive)

Flexure Equation OR Bending Equation

M 𝜎 𝐸
= =
I 𝑦 𝑅

M → Moment of Resistance or max. B.M.

𝜎 → Bending stress induced due to applied B.M.
E → Young’s modulus of Elasticity

R → Radius of Curvature
Bending moment = Lesser
Curvature = Lesser
Radius of curvature= Greater

B.M. = Greater
Curvature = Greater
Radius of curvature= Lesser

Curvature =
1
𝑅

NOTE:-
1) If B.M. is increases, its curvature increases. As a result, Radius of curvature will
decrease.
2) If B.M. decreases, its curvature decreases/ As a result, Radius of Curvature will
increases.
→ It is the distance from Neutral Axis (NA) to Extreme Fiber.

σI
M =
ymax

𝐼 = It is moment of inertia of whole section about Neutral Axis.

Unit → mm4

Section Modulus (Z)

𝐈 𝐦𝐦𝟒
Z = = = mm3
𝐲 𝐦𝐦
∴ unit → mm3

It is a ratio of moment of inertia of whole section about neutral axis to distance from
neutral axis to extreme fiber.

=
moment of Inertia of whole Section about N.A 𝐼
Z =
Distance from N.A to extreme Fibre 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥

M = 𝜎 Z

NOTE:-
1) As the section modulus increases, strength increases. As a result, moment of
Resistance will increase.
2) While comparing the strength of two sections always compare their section modulus
(Z).
Sections Moment of Distance Section
Inertia about from NA to Modulus
NA(I) extreme (Z= )
𝑰
𝒚𝒎𝒂𝒙
fiber ymax
𝑎4 𝑎 𝑎3
12 2 6

𝑏𝑑 3 𝑑 𝑏𝑑 2
12 2 6

𝑏ℎ3 2ℎ 𝑏ℎ2
36 3 24
 𝜋𝑑 4 𝐷 𝜋𝑑 3
64 2 32

4 4 𝐷 𝜋(𝐷4 − 𝑑 4 )
𝜋(𝐷 −𝑑 )
2 32𝐷
64

Zcircular 𝐷4
=
ZHollow (𝐷4 −𝑑4 )

For Rectangular Section

Strength can be increased by increasing in width or depth but the most effective particular
for increase in strength is Depth.

𝐼𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝐼𝑁𝐴 + 𝐴𝑦 2 [∵ y = where NA is to be

𝑏𝑑 3
𝐼𝑁𝐴 = calculated]
12
𝑏𝑑 3
𝐼𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 =
3
 INA 1
Ratio of =
ITOP 4

Variation of Bending Stress

N.A. will have stress 𝜎 = 0

Linear = Bending Stress
Hole to made at NA due to bending because 𝜎 = 0

𝜎 comp
C =
𝑀 𝜎
𝐼 𝑦

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 𝜎 = ( )
𝑀
𝐼
𝜎 𝛼𝑦

i. The variation of Bending stress is always considered to linear.

ii. At neutral axis, Bending stress will always remain 0 (Zero).
iii. At extreme fiber bending stress will always be maximum.
iv. It is desirable to create a hole at N.A. because stresses will always 0 (Zero) at
N.A.

FLEXURAL RIGIDITY (FI)

It is the moment of Resistance for unit radius of curvature.

𝑀 𝐸 I mm4
= I → mm4 Z = = = mm3
𝐼 𝑅 Y mm
E → N/mm2

M = EI IF R =1
For a given stress, compare the moment of Resistance of a square beam placed:
(i) With two sides as horizontal.
(ii) With diagonal as horizontal (Diamond section)

(i) Two sides Horizontal

a

𝑎4
𝐼𝑁𝐴 = 12

𝑌𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑎
2
𝑎3
Z =
6

M = 𝜎𝑍
𝑀𝑆 = 𝜎𝑍𝑆
𝜎𝑎3
𝑀𝑆 =
6

a) When diagonal as Horizontal (diamond section)

𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 = 𝑎2
2𝑥 2 = 𝑎2
𝑥 =
𝑎
√2

𝑏ℎ3
𝐼𝑁𝐴 = 2 × 12
2( 𝑎√2) 𝑎3
𝐼𝑁𝐴 = ×
12 √2×√2×√2
𝑎4
𝐼𝑁𝐴 =
12
𝑎
𝑌𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
√2
𝐼 𝑎4 √2
𝑍𝐷 = = ×
𝑌 12 𝑎
 𝑎3 √2 √2
𝑍𝐷 = ×
12 √2

𝑎3
𝑍𝐷 =
6√2

𝑀𝐷 ⇒ 𝜎𝑍𝐷

𝜎𝑎3
𝑀𝐷 ⇒
6√ 2

Base Width

b = 2𝑥

b =
2𝑎 √2
×
√2 √2

b = 𝑎 √2

Compare Moment of Resistance

Msquare σa3 σa3

= / 6
MDiamond 6 √2

Msquare
1) = √2
MDiamond

2) Msquare = 1.414 MDiamond

⇒ Strength or Moment of Resistance of Square section is 41.4% more than Diamond

section.
 [MDiamond Msquare ]
MDiamond
3) = = 0.707 = 0.707
1
Msquare √2

MDiamond = is weaker is 0.293 or 29.3%

Strength / moment of Resistance of Diamond section in 29.3% less than square section.

NOTE: Compare the weight of two beams of same material of same length & have
equal strength:
(i) Circular section having diameter (d).
(ii) Hollow circular having external diameter (D) and internal diameter is D.
3
4

Ans: compare the Weight.

r = r = unit wt.
W
V
𝑊𝑆 𝑟𝑠 𝐴𝑆 𝐿𝑆
=
𝑊𝐻 𝑟𝐻 𝐴𝐻 𝐿𝐻 𝜋 7
𝐴𝐻 = 𝐷2 ×
4 16
𝐿𝑆 = LH , rH , rH
{𝐷 4 −( 𝐷)4}
𝜋 3
𝑊𝑆 𝐴𝑆 𝐼𝑁𝐴 =
= 64 4
𝑊𝐻 𝐴𝐻

𝐷 4 ( 1- )
𝜋 81
𝐼𝑁𝐴 =
Solid circular section 64 256

𝜋 175
𝐼𝑁𝐴 = 𝐷4 ×
64 256

D
𝑌𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2
2
AS = d
𝜋
4
𝜋 175
Ymax =
𝑑
2
𝑍𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝐷3 ×
32 256

𝑍𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 =
𝜋
𝑑3
32
 Given → Strength of both section is same
Hence,
Follow circular section 𝑍𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 = 𝑍𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤

𝜋 𝜋 175
𝑑3 = 𝑑3 ×
32 32 256

= 0.88
𝑑
𝐷

∵ From (1)
D
3
4

𝑑2/
𝑊𝑆 𝜋 𝜋 7
= 𝐷2 ×
AH = [ 𝐷2 − ( 𝐷)2] 𝑊𝐻 4 4 16
𝜋 3
4 4

( )2
𝑊𝑆 16 𝑑 16
AH = 𝐷2 [ 1- ] = = (0.88)2
𝜋 9
4 16 𝑊𝐻 7 𝐷 7

𝑊𝑆
= 1.77
𝑊𝐻

⇒ WS = 1.77 WH
⇒ Hollow section is more economical section for same strength.

Q. Determine the strongest depth and width of a strongest section that can be cut out
from a cylindrical log of wood having diameter ‘D’. What will be ration of strongest depth
to width?
Ans:
Section Modulus of Strongest Section
𝑥𝑦 2
Z=
6

Strongest Depth = D√
2
3

1 𝐷
Strongest Width = D√ or
3 √3

Depth
Strongest = √2
Width

Depth = 1.414 width

Depth is 41.4% more than strongest width

Width 1
Strongest =
Depth √2

Width = 0.707 Depth

Strongest width is 29.3% less than strongest depth.

Composite Sections
Composite section can be analyzed by two equations:

1) Equilibrium Equation
This eqn states that the total B.M. must be shared by both the members in diff proportion.
 𝑀1 + 𝑀2 = M
WL2
M =
8

2) Compatibility Equation
This eqn states that both the members behaves like a single unit when curvature of both
the members must be same.

Curvature 1 = Curvature 2

1 1 𝑀1 𝑀2
= =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐸1 𝐼1 𝐸2 𝐼2
BEAM OF UNIFORM STRENGTH
A Beam is said to be uniform stress if it is subjected to const. bending stress or have
the same sending stress resisting ability throughout the section.

Case -1
When a simply supported beam is subjected to a point load of WKN at the center.

a) When Depth is constant & Width varies.

𝑏𝑥𝑑 2
Z =
6

3𝑤𝑥
1) 𝑏𝑥 =
𝜎𝑑 2

2) 𝑏𝑥 ∝ 𝑥

3) At x , 𝑏𝑥 = 𝑏𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐿
2

3WL
𝑏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2σd2

b) When width is constant & Depth varies

3𝑊𝑥
1) 𝑑𝑥 = √
𝜎𝑏
2) 𝑑𝑥 ∝ √𝑥
3) 𝑥 = , 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐿
2

3𝑊𝐿
𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √
2𝜎𝑏
Case-2
A cantilever beam carries a point load of W KN at its free end.

a) When Depth is constant & width varies

6𝑊𝑥
1) 𝑏𝑥 =
𝜎𝑑 2

2) 𝑏𝑥 ∝ 𝑥

3) At 𝑥= L, 𝑏𝑥 = 𝑏𝑚𝑎𝑥

6𝑊𝐿
𝑏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜎𝑑 2

b) When Width is constant & Depth varies

√6Wx
1) 𝑑𝑥 = 2) 𝑑𝑥 α √𝑥
σb

3) 𝑥 = L, 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥
 √6WL
𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
σb

Case -3

A cantilever beam carries a UDL of W KN/m throughout its span.

a) When depth is constant & Width varies

(W𝑥)
𝑥
2

3𝑊𝑥 2
1) 𝑏𝑥 = ⇒ little much similar to case 1(point load).
𝜎𝑑 2

2) 𝑏𝑥 ∝ 𝑥 2

3𝑊𝐿2
3) 𝑏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜎𝑑 2

b) When width is constant & depth varies

𝑏𝑑𝑥 2
Z =
6
 3𝑊𝑥 2
1) 𝑑𝑥 = √
𝜎𝑏

2) 𝑏𝑥 ∝ 𝑥

3) 𝑥 = L, 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥

3𝑊𝐿2
𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √
𝜎𝑏
SHEAR STESS IN BEAMS
A beam is subjected to varying shear force from support to centre such that it is max
at supports & min. at centre.

Due to max. shear force, particles have the tendency to move upward. To avoid this, a
resistance will induce along the surface. That resistance is called shear stress.

Induced shear stress is always accompanied by complimentary shear stresses.

Complimentary shear stress

Shear Equation

V = Max. shear force on the beam

𝜏 = Shear stress induces due to max. shear Force.

I = Moment of Inertia of whole section about Neutral Axis.

b = Width of the section at that point at which shear stress is required.

A = Area of cross section away from the Neutral Axis from that point at which shear
stress is required.

y = It is the distance from Neutral Axis to the centroid of considered area.

Variation of Shear Stress
The variation of shear stress is always parabolic with the depth & always rectangle or
horizontal with the width.

Shear Span
A span is said to be shear span if it is subjected to const. shear force throughout that
span.

Shear stress variation for Rectangular Section

𝑑
( − 𝑦)
2

V = Shear stress

𝑏𝑑 3
𝐼𝑁𝐴 =
12

Width = b

𝑑
= ( − 𝑦)𝑏
2

=
1 𝑑
[ − 𝑦] + 𝑌
2 2

𝑑 𝑦
= − +𝑦
4 2
 [ + 𝑦]
1 𝑑
=
2 2

→ At a ‘y’ distance from N.A. shear stress is ‘𝜏’

𝑉𝐴𝑦
𝜏 =
𝐼𝑏

𝜏 = V × ( − 𝑦) b ×
𝑑 1 𝑑
( + 𝑦)
2 2 2

𝑑2
[ − 𝑦2]
V
𝜏 =
2I 4

(1) At y = , 𝜏 =
𝑑
2
τTOP
τTOP = 0

(2) At y = , 𝜏 =
𝑑
2
τbottom
τbottom = 0

3 𝑉
(3) τNA = τmax =
2 𝑏𝑑

V
τavg =
bd

Imp. Results

τmax = τavg = 1.5 τavg

3
1)
2
→ max. shear stress is 50% more
than average shear stress.

τmax
2) = 1.5
τavg

3) τavg = 0.67τmax

→ Avg. shear stress is 33.33% less

than max. shear stress.

Note:
1) The variation of Nominal shear stress or Average shear stress is always considered
to be rectangular.
2) The variation of shear stress is always Parabolic.
Shear stress variation for Triangular Section

1) at y = 0, τ = τTOP

τTOP = 0

2) At y = h, τ = τbottom

τbottom = 0

, τ = τNA
2ℎ
3) At y =
3

2𝑉ℎ2
τNA =
27𝐼

8𝑉
τNA =
3𝑏ℎ
 F 𝑉 2𝑉
τavg = = =
A 1/2𝑏ℎ 𝑏ℎ

4
τNA = τavg
3

τNA =
8𝑉
3𝑏ℎ

4
τNA τavg = 1.33 τavg
3

→ Shear stress at N.A is 33.33% more than average shear stress.

τavg = 0.75τNA

→ Average shear stress is 25% less than shear stress at N.A.

τ𝑁.𝐴.
= = 1.33
4
𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 3

To get max. shear stress differential e.q.n 1) w.r.t. ‘y’

4) At y ,
ℎ
2
τ = τmax

𝑣ℎ2
τmax =
12𝐼

Imp. Results
 τmax =
3𝑉
1)
𝑏ℎ

2) Multiply & divide by 2

( )
3 2𝑉
τmax =
2 𝑏ℎ

3
τmax = τavg = 1.5 τavg
2

Max. shear stress is 50% more than average shear stress

τmax
3) = 1.5
τavg

4) τavg = 0.67τmax

→ Average shear stress is 33.33% less than max. shear stress.

Variation of shear stress of Various Section

 VAY
τ =
IB
Shear stress variation for Diamond section

Shear Force = V Width = Z

1 b−2y
A = zy y =
2 3

𝑏4
𝐼𝑁𝐴 =
3

τ = - ) ___________(1)
𝑉 2𝑦
y (b
2𝐼 3

1) At y = 0, τ = 𝜏𝑡𝑜𝑝

𝜏𝑡𝑜𝑝 = 0

2) At y = b, τ = 𝜏𝑁𝐴
 𝑉𝑏2
𝜏𝑁𝐴 =
6𝐼

τavg = 𝜏𝑁𝐴 =
𝑉
2𝑏2

τavg =
𝑉
2𝑏2

𝜏𝑁𝐴 - τavg

For diamond section shear stress at N.A bcomes equal to avg shear stress.

To get Max shear stress, differentiate eqn (1) w.r.t. ‘y’

3𝑉𝑉 2
τmax =
16𝐼

τavg =
9 9
τmax = 𝜏
8 8 𝑁𝐴
τmax 9
=
τavg 8

b =
𝐵
√2
Shear stress variation for circular section

τmax =
4
3
τavg

→ τmax = 1.33τavg

→ Max shear stress is 33.33% more than τavg

→ Average shear stress is 25% than max. shear stress.

τmax 4
→ =
τavg 3

TORSION
• Torsion refers to the twisting of a structure when it is loaded by couples that produce
rotation about its longitudinal axis.
• Twisting in a member will only occur if the applied couple is to longitudinal axis.

Torsion Equation

= =
𝑇 𝜏 𝐺𝜃
𝐽 𝑟 𝐿

T = Applied Twisting moment

𝜏 = Shear stress induces due to applied twisting moment.

G = Modulus of Rigidity.

L = Length of shaft

r = Distance from centroid to that point at which shear stress is required.

I = Polar moment of Inertia ➔ J = 𝐼𝑋𝑋 + 𝐼𝑌𝑌

Assumptions of Torsion Equation

1) Material is homogeneous and isotropic.

2) Plane section remains plane before twisting & after twisting.

3) It must obey Hooke’s law.

4) This equation is only valid for circular or hollow circular section.

5) Member always carries couples ⊥ to its longitudinal.

Polar Moment of Inertial & Polar Section Modulus

Relationship b/w Bending stress & shear stress

1. 𝜎 =
32𝑀
d 𝜋𝐷3

2.
1
𝜎∝
𝑑3

𝜋𝐷3
Z =
32

3. D = √
3 32𝑀
𝜋𝜎

𝜏 =
16𝑇
1)
𝜋𝐷3
 1
𝜏 D 2) 𝜏 ∝
𝑑3

3 16𝑇
3) D = √ 𝜋𝜏

Ratio Bending Stress to Shear Stress

σ 2M
=
τ T

Ratio of shear stress to Bending stress

τ T
=
σ 2M

=
2𝜏 𝑀 𝜎
=
𝑇
𝑀 𝜎 𝑇 2𝜏

Torsional Rigidity (GJ)

=
𝑇 𝐺𝜃
𝐽 𝐿

𝑇𝐿
= GJ Unit → Nmm2
𝜃

If L = 𝜃 = 1 ∴ Twisting moment = Torsional Rigidity.

It is the twisting moment for unit length & unit angle of Twist.

Design of Shaft

Shaft can be designed on the basis of two criteria:

Strength Criteria Stiffness (serviceability) Criteria

= =
𝑇 𝜏 𝐼 𝐺𝜃
𝐽 𝑟 𝐽 𝐿

While designing the diameter, always adopt max., diameter as design diameter.

While designing the torque, always adopt the min. torque as design torque.

Power

2𝜋𝑁𝑇
P =
60

N = Revolution per minute.

⇒ If P is in KW, then T will be in KN-m.

Composite section/Shaft in parallel

Analysis

Composite section can be analyzed by 2 eqns

i). Equilibrium equation

This equation states that the total torque must be resisted by both members in diff
proportion

T1 + T 2 = T

ii). Compatibility equation

This equation states that both the members behave like a single unit that means
angles of twist in both the members must be some.

𝛳1 = 𝛳2 =
𝑇 𝐺𝛳
𝐽 𝐿

= ϴ =
𝑇1 𝐿1 𝑇2 𝐿2 𝑇𝐿
𝐺1 𝐽1 𝐺2 𝐽2 𝐺𝐽
Shaft in Series

When shafts are arranged in series than the total angle of twist becomes equal to
algebraic summation of all the angle of twist on individual members

ϴAD = ϴAB + ϴBC + ϴCD

Use right hand thumb rule to solve Questions

Sign Convention
❖ Outward torque is always positive 7 inward torques is always negative.

Columns & springs

Column
❖ it is a structural member which generally used to carry axial load
 ❖ Column can be classified as:
1. Short column – Generally fails due to crushing.
2. long column – Generally fails due to buckling
3. Intermediate column – may be fails due to bucking or crushing.

Euler’s Theory
Assumptions of Euler’s Theory
1). Material is homogeneous & isotropic.
2). It must obey Hooke’s law.
3). This theorem is valid for long column.
4). Load is assumed to be purely axial.

Euler buckling load.

It is the min or lower limit of load at which column is subjected to buckling.

𝜋2 𝐸𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
P =
𝐿2𝑒𝑓𝑓

P = Euler buckling load

Leff = Effective length of a column
Imin = Minimum moment of inertia among x axis & y axis
Imin = Min(Ixx, Iyy)

Effective length
It is the unsupported length over which column is subjected to buckling.

If the rigidity increases, effective length of the column increases.

If a column is rigidly held from all the sides, then its effective length is always
considered to be zero.
End condition Effective length Euler’s Buckling load
1). Other ends are fixed

L 4π2EImin
𝐿
2
L2

2). One end is fixed

other is hinged

L 2π2EIMin
𝐿
√2
L2

3). Both ends are hinged

L L π2EIMin
L2

4). One end is free

Other is Fixed/Hinged

L L 2L π2EIMin
4L2
Euler’s Critical Stress/Euler buckling stress

slenderness Ratio(X)
It is the ratio of effective length to least (min) radius of gyration.

λ = effective length Leff

Least radius of gyration rmin

It is a dimensionless quantity.

rmin = √𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
A

first moment of Area ➔ Ar2 = section modules

 Unit = mm3
Second moment of Area ➔ Ar2 = moment of inertia
 unit = mm4
Note:-
1. The first moment of area is called section modulus (mm3)
2. The second moment of area is called moment of inertia (mm4)

Euler critical stress

σc = π2E
λ2

Euler critical stress depends upon;

I. End condition
II. intensity of load
III. Type of material
IV. Geometry of section
Rankine theory
This theory is only valid for intermediate column.

Pr = Rankine load
Pc = Crushing load
PB = Buckling load

PR = PBPC
PB+PC

Rankine Merchant theory

This theory is only valid for column carries eccentric loading.

No Tension Zone

it is a region in column at which is load is applied then there will be no tension is

that region. This region is also called core or kern.

It is assume that if load is applied at a distance ‘e’ from C.G. Then there will be No
tension.

1). Direct stress → Always positive =

𝑃
𝐴

2). Bending stress → Compression = Positive

𝑀
𝑍
Tension = negative
For No tension

E =
𝑍
𝐴

1). Eccentricity =
𝐷
8

2). Dia of core or kern =

𝐷
4

3). Core dia of circle is determined by middle fourth rule

No tension zone for hollow circular zone.

1). Eccentricity = (D2 + d2)

8D

2).Core Diameter = (D2 + D2)

4D

Strain Energy

It is the total internal energy stored in a member throughout its volume upto
proportional limit (if proportional limit not in option)

Strain Energy Due to Axial loading or direct loading

Strain Energy (u) = Resilience x Volume
Total energy
Stored

Resilience = Strain Energy

Volume
 Resilience is the strain energy per unit volume.

In Energy per at Strain Energy Strain Energy Strain energy due to

volume sudden loading
• ½ Eσ U=resilience x Vol U = ½ PΔL U = ½ σE x Volume
U = ½σE x Volume
½ ( )σ U = x x vol. ΔL = U = ½ x x x Volume
𝜎 1 𝑊 𝐷𝐿 𝑃𝐿 2𝑃 𝐷𝐿
•
𝐸 2 𝐴 𝐿 𝐴𝐸 𝐴 𝐿

σ2 U = PΔL U = ½ P( ) U = PΔL
1 𝑃𝐿
•
2 𝐴𝐸
2E LEARN U = P2L If for instantaneous
2AE Loading
σ =
𝑃
𝐴
E = elastic modulus
Springs
Springs are the structural members which generally used to carry dynamic loading

Springs have the ability to absorb energy after application of load & Recover it after
removal of load.

Springs can be classified as

Closed coiled spring
• If the angle of helix is less than 10o, then the spring is said to be closed coiled
spring.
• There springs are primarily subjected to direct force & twisting moment. (Direct
stress & shear stress resp).
Open coiled spring.
• If the angle of helix is more than 10o then the spring is said to be open coiled
spring
These springs are primarily subjected to direct force & bending moment ( &
𝑀
•
𝑧
respectively).
𝑃
𝐴

Strain Energy Defection in spring (d) Stiffness of spring (K) Flexibility(f)

Dia of wire (d)

 𝑑𝑢
d=
𝑑𝑝

R=Radius of Helix

d = 64PR3n K = Gd4 f = 64R3n

Gd4 64R3n Gd4

U = 32P2R3n
Gd4

Note: -
If the spring is cut down by “K” times, then its strain energies, deflection & flexibility is
decreases by 1/K times, & its stiffness is increases by K times.

Arrangement of springs
Springs can be arranged in two ways;

1). Series arrangement

2). Parallel arrangement.

Springs in series

Keq = K1K2
K1+K2

Springs in parallel
Keq = K1 + K2

Thin and thick shell

A section is said to be thin shell it its thickness lies b/w to
𝐷 𝐷
•
15 10

A section is said to be thick shell if its thinness is more than

𝐷
•
10

t
t

≤ t ≤
𝐷 𝐷
➔ Thin shall
15 10

𝐷
t> ➔ Thick shall
10

Thin Cylindrical shell

Hoop stress (σn)
(Circumferential or medicinal stress)
Longitudinal stress (σl)

hoop stress
• It is the stress induces due to radial pressure to the length or longitudinal
direction
• This stress is also called circumferential or meridinal stress or bursting stress
• This stress is uniform throughout the length
• For external pressure, hoop stress hill always compressive & for internal
pressure, hoop stress is always tensile.

σh =
𝑝𝑑
2𝑡

P = Radial pressure
t = thickness of shall
d = diameter of shall

Longitudinal stress

It is the stress induces due to radial pressure & flow of water or liquid along the
longitudinal direction.
Longitudinal stress is uniform throughout the circumference.
σl =
𝑝𝑑
4𝑡

Q. Longitudinal stress is
I. 50% less than hoop stress

Note. 1. Longitudinal stress is 50% less than hoop stress

2. Hoop stress is 100% more than longitudinal stress

Hoop stain and longitudinal strain

Hoop strain(En) Longitudinal strain(El)

Eh = (2-m) El = (1-2m)
𝑝𝑑 𝑝𝑑
4𝑡𝐸 4𝑡𝐸

Ratio of hoop strain to longitudinal strain

m = poisson ratio
Eh = 2-m
El 1-2m

Thick cylindrical shell

• Thick Shall can be analyzed by lame’s theorem.
• Lame’s used 2 coefficients (A & B) to analyze the thick shell.
• Lane’s coefficients are always considered to be +Ve if member is subjected to
internal pressure & always considered to be –ve for external pressure.

Theory Member
1. Euler theory Long column
 2. rankine theory Intermediate column
3. lami’s Theory Column carry eccentric loading
4. Lame’s Theory Coplanar forces
5. Lame’s theory Thick shell
6. Yield line theory Slabs

Principle stresses
A beam is subjected to varying shear force & B.M. From supports center

b/W supports & center, both bending stress & shear stress will exist.

Hence, it is more appropriately say that the failure will take place on the plane at
which the applied stress is more than the strength of the member

hence, there are infinite no of planes out of which one plane is subjected to max
shear stress & other plane is subjected to max bending stress.

The plane at which failure takes place is called principle plane the stresses on that
plane are called principle stresses.

Normal & Tangential stress on a Particular plane

σn = σx + σy + (σx – σy) cos2ϴ + ‫ﺡ‬xy sin2ϴ

2 2

‫ﺡ‬n = -(σx +σy) sin2ϴ +‫ﺡ‬xy cos2ϴ

 2

ϴ → always with major axis

1). normal stress

σn = σx + σy + σx – σy cos2ϴ + ‫ﺡ‬xy sin2ϴ
2 2

Tangential stress
‫ﺡ‬n = - σx – σy sin2ϴ + ‫ﺡ‬xycos2ϴ
2

ii). Resultant
σr = √σn2 + ‫ﺡ‬n2 + 2σn‫ﺡ‬ncosϴ

Case – 1
when member is subjected to uniaxial tensile stress
using principal stress formulas:

σn = + cos2ϴ
𝜎 𝜎
2 2
σn = (1 + cos2ϴ)
𝜎
2

σn = σcos2ϴ ‫ﺡ‬n = sin2ϴ

𝜎
2
Case – 2:
When member is subjected to biaxial stress of equal magnitude & direction
σ

σn = σ ‫ﺡ‬A = o

In this case, the normal & tangential stress will always remain same for any angle of
inclination

Case – 3 :
- When member is subjected to biaxial stress of equal magnitude but different direction
σ

σn = σcos2ϴ ‫ﺡ‬n = σsin2ϴ

4: Pure shear case

‫ﺡ‬
σn = ‫ﺡ‬sin2ϴ ‫ﺡ‬n = ‫ﺡ‬cos2ϴ

Mohr Circle

• It is a graphical representation in form of circle on co-ordinate axis.

• In Mohr circle, x axis is considered as principal plane on which normal stresses
are plotted.
• In Mohr circle, y axis is considered as shear plane on which shear stresses are
plotted.

Note : on principal plane, shear stress will always remain zero

Geometrical features of Mohr circle

Radius of mohr circle

R = σmax – σmin = ‫ﺡ‬max

2

Normal stress at location of max shear stress

σn = σmax + σmin
2

Note
 1. The radices of Mohr circle is half of the subtraction of principal stresses.
2. The normal stress at the location of max shear stress is half of the summation
of principal stress

Principal plan
It is the angle of inclination on which major & minor principal stresses will exist

σn = σx + σy + (σx-σy) Cos2ϴ + ‫ﺡ‬xysin2ϴ

2 2

To get max or min normal stress. Differentiate eqn 1). w.r.t ‘ϴ’

Tan2ϴp = 2‫ﺡ‬xy
σx - σy

Major principal plane

ϴp = ½ tan-1 2‫ﺡ‬xy
σx-σy

Minor principal plane

Other plane = ϴp + 90o

Shear plane
• It is the angle of inclination at which max shear stress will exist.
• The difference b/w shear plane & principal plane is 45o
ϴs = ϴp + 45o

ϴs-ϴp=45o

Maximum and minimum principal stress

 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 2
σmax/min = σx +σy + √( ) + ‫ﺡ‬xy2
2

2
Radius of Mohr circle or ‫ﺡ‬max

case 1 : when member is subjected to uniaxial tensile stress

𝜎 𝜎
σmax/min ±
2 2

𝜎
σn/‫ﺡ‬max =
2

I. Mohr circle passes through origin

II. the max principal stress becomes equal to applied stress.
III. The radius of Mohr circle or max shear stress becomes equal to half of the
major principal stress

case : - 2 when member is subjected to biaxial stress of equal magnitude &

direction.

σmax = σ
σmin = σ
‫ﺡ‬max = o (σ,o)

I. The radius of Mohr circle will always remain zero

II. The radius of Mohr circle reduces to a point.
 III. The principal stresses becomes equal in magnitude & direction
Case – 3 :
when member is subjected to biaxial stress of equal magnitude but different direction.
σ

σ
σmax/min = o ± σ
σmax = σ
σmin = -σ
‫ﺡ‬max = σ

I. The center of Mohr circle will lies at origin.

II. the Principal stresses becomes equal in magnitude but diff in direction
III. the radius of Mohr circle becomes equal to major principal stress.

case – 4: Pure shear case

‫ﺡ‬

σmax = ‫ﺡ‬

σmin = -‫ﺡ‬

‫ﺡ‬max = ‫ﺡ‬

 Same points as previous (case-3)

These are the stresses which considers the effect of both bending stress & shear
stress or (bending moment & twisting moment).
Combined or equivalent normal stress combined/ equivalent shear stress
σeq = 32Meq
πD3
M→σ

T→‫ﺡ‬ ‫ﺡ‬eq = 16Teq

πD3

σequivalent = [ m+ √𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 ] ‫ﺡ‬eq=

16 16
√𝑀2 + 𝑇 2
𝜋𝐷3 𝜋𝐷3

Equivalent Bending Moment Equivalent Torque

Meq = ½ [M + √(𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 ) Teq = √(𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 )

Radius of Mohr circle

R = σmax - σmin
2
Deflection in Beams
A beam is subjected to varying B.M. from support to center such that the max. B.M.
will occur at center due to which member is subjected to deflection & slope.

Slope & deflection in a beam can be determined by using 4 methods:

1). moment area method
2). stain energy method
3). double integration method
4). Conjugate beam method

Moment Area Method

In this method, slope & deflecting can be determined by using two theorems of Mohr’s
1). Mohr’s 1st theorem
This theorem states that slope b/w tangents to the defection curve are the area under
diagram.
𝑀
𝐸𝐼

or
Slope at a point in a beam is the area under diagram towards approaching max.
𝑀
𝐸𝐼

B.M

2). Mohr’s 2nd theorem

The deflection at a point from the tangent from the deflation curve is the area under
moment of area under diagram.
𝑀
𝐸𝐼

or
Deflection at a point is the first moment of diagram from that point at which slope
𝑀
𝐸𝐼

is determined.

case -1 ; A Cantilever beam carries point load of W KN at its free end

QB = Wl2
2EI

Deflection at B

dB = area under
𝑀
𝐸𝐼
Diagram towards x Distance of centroid of
𝑀
𝐸𝐼
diagram from that

approaching max B.M point at which slope is determined

dB = WL3
3EL

Strain energy = W2L3

6EI

∴Stiffness x
1
𝐿3

Case -2 : A cantilever beam carries, UDL of W kN/m

A = bh
n+1

1𝑏ℎ
A =
3

In UDL Because negative B.M is spindle & in this cue calculate in this way.
+ve B.M is parabola

ẋ =
3𝑏
4

Slope at B Deflection at B

QB = WL3 dB = WL4
6EI 8EI

Case3.
A cantilever beam carries a clock wise couple at its free end.

Slope at B Deflection at B

QB = WL dB = WL2
EI 2EI
case 4.
A simply supported beam carries point load at its center.

Slope at A Deflection at ‘C’

QB = WL2 dB = WL3
16EI 48EI

Case 5 :
A simply supported beam barriers UDL throughout its spam

A = bh
2
3

x = b
3
8

Slope at A Deflection at ‘C’

QA = WL3 dB = 5WL4
24EI 384EI
Case :- 6 beam subjected to uniformly varying load

QB = WL3 dmax = WL4

24EI 38EI

THEORY OF FAILURE

MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRESS THEROY (RANKINES THEROY)

According to this theory, permanent set takes place under a state of complex stress,
when the value of maximum principal stress is equal to that of yield point stress as
found in a simple tensile test.

𝜎1,2 ≤ 𝜎𝑌 For no failure.

σY
𝜎1,2 ≤ For design.
FOS
 Note: For no shear failure 𝜏 ≤ 0.57 𝜎𝑌

Graphical representation
For brittle materials which do not fail by yielding but fail by brittle fracture, this theory
gives satisfactory result. The graph is always square even for different of values of 𝜎1 ,
𝜎.
2
𝜎2

Rectangular
𝜎1

MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRAIN THEROY (ST.VENANT’S THEORY

According to this theory, a ductile material begins to yield when the maximum principal
strain reaches the strain at which yielding occurs in simple tension.

σY
𝜖1,2 ≤ for no failure in uni-axial loading.
E

σ1 σ2 σ2 σY
– 𝜇 - 𝜇 ≤ For no failure in tri-axial loading.
E E E E

𝜎𝑌
𝜎1 – 𝜇𝜎2 – 𝜇𝜎3 ≤ for design. Here, 𝜖 = principal strain
𝐹𝑂𝑆
𝜎1 , 𝜎2 and 𝜎3 = Principal stresses
Graphical Representation
This theory overestimate the elastic strength of ductile material.
𝜎2

𝜎1 (Rhombus
))))

MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS THEORY

(GUEST & TRESCA’S THEORY)
According to this theory, failure of a specimen subjected to any combination of loads
when the maximum shearing stress at any point reaches the failure value equal to that
developed at the yielding in an axial tensile or compressive test of the same material.

Graphical Representation 𝜎2

for no failure
𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≤
2

𝜎1 , 𝜎2 are maximum and minimum principal stresses 𝜎1 (Hezagon

respectively. Here, 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Maximum shear stress )
𝜎𝑦 = permissible stress
This theory is well justified for ductile materials.

MAXIMUM STRAIN ENERGY THEORY (HAIGH’S THEORY)

According to this theory, a body under complex stress fails when the total strain energy
on the body is equal to the strain energy at elastic limit in simple tension.

{𝜎12 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 - 2𝜇 (𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 )} ≤ 𝜎𝑦2 for no failure

 σy 2
{𝜎12 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 - 2𝜇 (𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 )} ≤ for design.
FOS

𝜎2
This theory does not apply to brittle
Material for which elastic limit stress
in tension and in compression are
𝜎1 (Ellipse)
quite different.

MAXIMUM SHEAR STRAIN ENERGY/DISTORTION ENERGY THEORY/MISES-

HENKY THEROY

It states that inelastic action at any point in a body, under any combination of stress
begins, when the strain energy of distortion per unit volume absorbed at the point is
equal to the strain energy of distortion absorbed per unit volume at any pint in a bar
stressed to the elastic limit under the state of uniaxial stress as occurs in a simple
tension/compression test.

[(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 + (𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2] ≤ 𝜎𝑦2 For no failure.

1
2

σy 2 For design.
[(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 + (𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2] ≤
1
2 FOS

𝜎2

𝜎1 (Ellipse)
• It can not be applied for material under hydrostatic pressure.
• All theories will give same result if loading is uniaxial.