Computer Assisted Language Learning and

Teaching
Instructor: Chi-Fen Emily Chen  陳其芬 
Department of English
National Kaohsiung First University of Science and Technology, Taiwan

Course Introduction
課程簡介
Course Contents
課程內容
Interactive Exercises
互動練習
Online Dictionaries
線上字典
Web Resources
網路資源
Student Blogs
學生網誌
Student Projects
學生作品
Discussion Forum
線上討論區

Unit 2.  Computer basics (I)

    Please read
Davies, G. (2004). ICT4LT Module 1.2: Introduction to computer
hardware and software: What the language teacher needs to
know. http://www.ict4lt.org/en/en_mod1-2

Part I.  Hardware: Physical components of a computer system

2.1   Overview of Computers

2.2   Inside the Computer: Processor and Memory

2.3   Storage Devices: Hard Drive, Floppy Drive, CD-ROM, CD-Burner, DVD-

ROM

2.4   Monitor: CRT and LCD

2.5   Video Card

2.6   Sound Card

2.7   Ports
 

2.1  Overview of Computers

  Two systems of computers:
1) PC – the Personal Computer; 2) Mac – the Apple Macintosh.
  Two designs of computers:
1) desktop 2) laptop
(notebook)




  Computer architecture:
Main
Other peripheral
components of a Multimedia devices
devices
computer
 1)  computer 1)  CD-ROM / DVD drive 1)  printer
2)  monitor 2)  video card 2)  scanner
3)  hard disk/ 3)  soundcard 3)  CD- burner (CD-
hard drive 4)  speakers recorder,
4)  keyboard 5)  headphones / headset      CD-R/CD-RW
5)  mouse / 6)  microphone drive)
trackball /    4)  modem
    touch pad 5)  USB flash drive
 
  6)  webcam
7)  digital camera
 
8)  digital voice
recorder
9)  camcorder
  
Question 1:  Can you divide the above devices into three types – storage devices, input
devices, and output devices?
 
Activity 1:  Please do the two exercises:  Exercise 2-1 Do you know what they are? (playing
with flash cards) and Exercise 2-2 Do you know what they are? (Matching)
  
2.2  Inside the Computer

1) Processor:

        The CPU (Central Processing Unit), a complete computation engine that is fabricated

on a single chip, is the computer’s brain. It is sometimes referred to as the central
processor, microprocessor, or just processor. Two typical components of a CPU are: 1) the
arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic and logical operations, and 2) the
control unit, which extracts instructions from memory and decodes and executes them,
calling on the ALU when necessary.
        Most newer PCs have Pentium processors. Pentium processors run faster than the
numbered processors found in older computers (286, 386, 486 processors). The speed of
processors, called the clock speed, is measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (1 GHz
= 1000 MHz). One MHz represents one million cycles per second. For example, a processor
that runs at 200 MHz executes 200 million cycles per second. Each computer instruction
requires a fixed number of cycles, so the clock speed determines how many instructions per
second the microprocessor can execute. To a large degree, this controls how powerful the
processor is.
 
2) Memory:

        ROM (Read Only Memory) is the computer’s permanent, long-term memory. It

doesn't disappear when the computer is shut off. It can not be erased or changed in
anyway. However, there are types of ROM called PROM that can be altered. The P stands
for programmable. ROM's purpose is to store the basic input/output system (BIOS) that
controls the start-up, or boot process.
       
        RAM (Random Access Memory) is a working area where the operating system
(e.g. Windows), programs and data in current use are kept, ready to be accessed by the
processor. It is the best known form of computer memory. However, RAM, unlike ROM, is
emptied when the computer is switched off. The more RAM you have, the quicker and more
powerful your computer is.
        There are two basic types of RAM: dynamic RAM (DRAM) and static RAM (SRAM).
The two types differ in the technology they use to hold data. DRAM, the more common
type, needs to be refreshed thousands of times per second. SRAM does not need to be
refreshed, which makes it faster, but it is also more expensive than DRAM.
        Memory is measure in the following units:
       -  1 byte = 8 bits (Each 1 or 0 is called a bit (i.e. binary digit). Each character (i.e. a
letter, a number, a space, or a punctuation mark) has its own arrangements of 8 bits, e.g.
01000001 = “A”, 01000010 = “B”.
-  1 KB (kilobyte) = 1024 (210) bytes
-  1 MB (megabyte) = 1024 (210) KB
-  1 GB (gigabyte) = 1024 (210) MB
       
        Cache (pronounced as "cash") is a buffer (made of a small number of very fast
memory chips) between main memory and the processor. It temporarily stores recently
accessed or frequently-used data. Whenever the processor needs to read data, it looks in this
cache area first. If it finds the data in the cache, then the processor does not need to do more
time-consuming reading of data from the main memory. Memory caching allows data to be
accessed more quickly.
 
2.3  Storage Devices

The most common forms of storage devices in a home computer are:

- Hard disk drive
- Floppy disk
- CD-ROM
- CD-R and CD-RW
- DVD-ROM
- USB flash drives
 
1) Hard disk and hard drive (HD)

        A hard disk is a magnetic disk on which you can store computer data on a more
permanent basis. The term “hard” is used to distinguish it from a soft, or floppy, disk. Hard
disks hold more data and are much faster than floppy disks and optical disks. A hard drive is
a mechanism that reads and writes data on a hard disk. The capacity of hard drives in newer
PCs ranges from 20GB to 60GB in size since all software, from operating systems to word
processors, and media files have grown tremendously in size over the last few years.
 
Activity 2.  Please do Exercise 2-3 What is a computer? (Cloze exercise)
 
2) Floppy disk and floppy drive

         A floppy disk (often called floppy or disk) is a soft magnetic disk and a floppy drive is
a mechanism that reads and writes data on a floppy. Unlike most hard disks, floppy disks are
portable, because you can remove them from a disk drive. Floppy disks are slower to access
than hard disks and have less storage capacity, but they are much less expensive.
        The common size of floppies for PCs made before 1987 was 5¼ inches. This type of
floppy was generally capable of storing between 100KB and 1.2MB of data. After 1987 the
size reduced to 3½ inches, but the data storage capacity increased, from 400KB to 1.44MB.
The most common sizes for PCs are 720KB (double-density) and 1.44MB (high-density).
 

3) Optical disk and optical drive

         Optical disks can store information at much higher densities than floppy disks. Thus,
they are ideal for multimedia applications where images, animation and sound occupy a lot
of disk space. Besides, they are not affected by magnetic fields. This means that they are
secure and stable; for example, they can be transported through airport metal detectors
without damaging the data. However, optical drives are slower than hard drives.
        There are various types of optical disks and drives:

        A) CD-ROM (short for “Compact Disk-Read-Only Memory”) and CD-ROM drive

A CD-ROM, an optical disk onto which data has been written via a laser, can store
everything, from shareware programs to dictionaries and encyclopedias, from
multimedia databases to 3-D games. CD-ROMs are considered the most
economical devices of storing and sharing information. For example, a CD-ROM
(700 MB) can replace 300,000 pages of text (about 50 floppies), which represents
a lot of savings in distributing materials and data. Yet, you can only read
information on a CD-ROM but cannot write anything on it.

A CD-ROM drive is used to play CD-ROMs and it can also play audio CDs. CD-
ROM drives are available in a variety of different speeds, the speed being
described thus: 12x, 16x, 24x, 32x, 48x, etc. This indicates the speed at which data
can be pulled off the CD-ROM drive. Higher-speed  CD-ROM drives help to
transfer data more quickly, which is crucial when playing sound or video.

        B) CD-R, CD-RW and CD-R/CD-RW drive (also called CD-burner or CD-

Recorder)
CD-R (short for “Compact Disk Recordable”) drives record data on CD-R disks
(but write once only), allowing you to create and duplicate CD-ROMs and audio
CDs. They can also be used to back up hard disks or to distribute and archive
information. CD-RW (short for “Compact Disk Rewritable”) drives can erase
and reuse data on CD-RW disks. In fact, to create CD-ROMs and audio CDs,
you'll need not only a CD burner, but also a CD-R/CD-RW software package.
 

        C) DVD-ROM (“DVD” is short for “digital video disk” or “digital versatile disk”)
A DVD-ROM (or just DVD) is a type of optical disk technology similar to the CD-
ROM. It can hold up to 17 GB of data, about 25 times an ordinary CD-ROM. For
this reason, a DVD-ROM can store a large amount of multimedia software and
complete movies in different languages. It can also play music CDs and CD-
 ROMs. DVDs are read-only devices. To avoid this limitation, companies also
produce DVD-R/DVD-RW disks and DVD-burners.
 
4) USB flash drive
 
        A USB flash drive is a small, portable flash memory card that plugs into a computer’s
USB port and functions as a portable hard drive with up to 2GB of storage capacity. USB
flash drives are easy-to-use because they are small enough to be carried in a pocket and can
plug into any computer with a USB drive. In addition, they are very durable because they do
not contain any internal moving parts. USB flash drives also are called pen drives, key
drives, or simply USB drives.
 
Activity 3.  Please find your computer’s processor speed, RAM memory size, hard drive
capacity, and what storage devices it has. Write down the information.
 
2.4  Monitor
 
        There are two types of monitors available for PCs: the traditional CRT (cathode ray
tube) and the newer LCD (liquid crystal display). The CRT is used for both televisions and
computers. It produces a good quality image at a number of different settings for a
reasonable price. LCD monitors, also known as flat panel displays, are used in laptop (or
notebook) computers and more frequently for desktops as well. They are lighter and smaller
(only inches thick) than CRTs with reduced electromagnetic emissions and power
consumption.
 
2.5  Video Card
 
        The card here is a jargon for an electronic circuit board. Video cards are also known
as graphics cards, which are responsible for displaying 2D and 3D images on your monitor.
2D graphics are the regular pictures and images that appear on your screen while 3D
graphics are mostly used in games and imaging.
        Video cards control the resolution of the text, pictures and video that appears on the
screen, i.e. the screen resolution (e.g., 800 x 600 pixels, 1024 x 768 pixels). Most modern
video cards are accompanied by the software that enables you to control the resolution of the
display screen according to the software that you are using. The lower the numbers, the
lower the resolution. Remember that getting the video card setting wrong is a common
reason for failing to get software to work properly.
 
Question 2:  Do you know where to find the screen resolution and how to set it?
 
2.6  Sound Card
 
        A sound card is an electronic circuit board that is mounted inside the computer
to control sound output to speakers or headphones, to record sound input from a microphone
connected to the computer, and to manipulate sound stored on a disk. Sound cards are
essential for multimedia applications and have become common on modern personal
computers.
        A popular make of soundcard is SoundBlaster, which has been the de facto standard
sound card. Most sound cards in the past have been Sound Blaster-compatible, which means
that they can process commands written for a Sound Blaster card, because most programs
that use a sound card have been designed that way. Nowadays, many sound cards are
also Windows-compatible. Many multimedia applications require the system to have
a Windows-compatible sound card to run properly.
 
2.7  Ports
 
        A port is an interface on a computer to which you can connect a device. Personal
computers have various types of ports. Internally, there are several ports for connecting disk
drives, monitors, and keyboards. Externally, personal computers have ports for connecting
modems, printers, mice, and other peripheral devices.
 
        There are three common types of external ports that usually come with a computer:
1) Parallel ports (for most printers)

2) Serial ports (for most modems and some

mice)
 
  
 3) USB (Universal Serial Bus) ports (for
about every peripheral made in a USB
version)
*Note: A “bus” is a set of conductors
that carry signals between different   
parts of a computer
 
        The USB (Universal Serial Bus) provides a single, standardized, easy-to-use way to
connect up to 127 devices to a computer. The USB connectors let you attach everything
from mice to printers to your computer more quickly and easily than the other two. The
operating system supports USB as well, so the installation of the device drives is quick and
easy, too.
 
Activity 4:  Please do Exercise 2-4 Functions of Hardware (Matching)
 
Activity 5:  Please do Exercise 2-5 Computer Acronyms – What do they stand for?
 
Activity 6:  Please click the following link and read a computer advertisement for IBM
ThinkCentre 818343U. Then answer the questions.
(Note: If you find some terms you don’t understand in the advertisement, you can click on “what’s this?”
beside the terms. The pop-up window will give you explanations).

                     1)  What is the memory size of this PC?

                     2)  How fast is the processor?
                     3)  What is the capacity of the hard drive?
                     4)  Which input devices are supplied?
                     5)  What multimedia features does the computer have?
                     6)  What operating system does the PC have?              
 
Web Resources:
 
- ICT4LT Module 1.2: Introduction to computer hardware and software: What the language
teacher needs to know http://www.ict4lt.org/en/en_mod1-2
- How PCs work  http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/pc.htm
- Computers and how they
work  http://www.crews.org/curriculum/ex/compsci/articles/howcomput.htm
- Computer lessons for kids and small
adults  http://www2.magmacom.com/~dsleeth/kids/lessons/starter.htm
- Computer training tutorials: Hardware http://www.ckls.org/~crippel/computerlab/tutorials/
- How do computers work? Computer
basics  http://www.factmonster.com/ipka/A0774696.html
- Guides About Computer Viruses  https://www.comparitech.com/antivirus/computer-virus-
resources/
 
 
This is the end of Part I of Computer Basics: Hardware.
Now please go to Part II: Software
 Unit 3.  The Internet Basics and Web Resources

   Please read
1. Walker, R., Hewer, S. & Davies, G. (2004). ICT4LT Module
1.5: Introduction to the
Internet. http://www.ict4lt.org/en/en_mod1-5.htm

2. Internet Tutorials, State University of New York at Albany

3. Finding Information on the Internet: A Tutorial, University of

California at Berkeley

3.1   Essential Vocabulary for the Internet

3.2   Finding Materials on the Web

3.2.1   Search Engines and Subject Directories

3.2.2   Online Dictionaries

3.2.3   Online Concordancers

3.3   Evaluating your Ability to Use Browsers

3.4   Evaluating Websites
 

3.1   Essential Vocabulary for the Internet

1. Do you know the following technical terms and acronyms related to
 the use of the Internet? Please find out what they mean and stand
for. You can use the following online glossaries or dictionaries to
help you.
  Glossary of Internet Terms by Walt Howe
  Glossary of Internet Terms by Matisse Enzer
  Glossary of Internet & Web Jargon by UC Berkeley
  Webopedia: Computer and Internet technology
definitions
  Computer Dictionary - Technology, Network &
Internet Terms 
 

browser navigation button WWW LAN

frame hypertext HTML WAN

server pull-down menu HTTP PDF

plug-in pop-up window URL GIF

applet scroll FTP JPEG

cookie search engine ISP MIDI

Telnet domain name TCP/IP CGI

netiquette spam BBS IRC

 
2. Do the Exercise 3.1 The Internet Vocabulary
 
3.2   Finding Materials on the Web

3.2.1   Search Engines and Subject Directories

 
Note:   You can use the following sites to help you learn more information
on Web search:
 1) Checklist of Internet Research Tips & Conducting Research on
the Internet by SUNY Albany
2) Boolean Searching on the Internet by SUNY Albany

3) Finding Information on the Internet: A Tutorial by UC Berkeley

4) The Spider's Apprentice: A Helpful Guide To Web Search Engines

 

I. Explore the following commonly used web search engines and

compare their functions. Also, take a look at each
engine's Advanced Search/Options or Help to find useful search tips
and strategies. 

1. Search
   

2.  
Submit

3.

   

Search
4.
 

5.
*You can submit questions in plain English and view
suggested relevant sites.

6.
*It searches multiple engines and directories and organizes
results into topical categories
 7.

II. Explore the following academic and professional directories.

1. Academic Info - gateway to college and research level

Internet resources maintained by former librarian Mike
Madin and a volunteer group of subject specialists

2. INFOMINE - large collection of scholarly Internet resources

collectively maintained by several libraries, including those
from the University of California

3. AllLearn: Academic Directories - guides to high quality

directories in the academic disciplines maintained by
Oxford, Stanford, and Yale Universities; also features a
small collection of Learning Guides in academic disciplines

4. The Best Information on the Net (BIOTN)  - collection of

academic resources maintained at St. Ambrose University
in Iowa

5. The Internet Public Library - large, selective collection

from the University of Michigan

6. BUBL Link - UK funded project of selective resources from

the University of Strathclyde Library in Glasgow, Scotland

7. Librarians' Index to the Internet - carefully chosen,

organized, and annotated directory maintained by a large
group of librarians in California

8. Resource Discovery Network - searchable interface to

major meta-sites in academic disciplines

9. The Scout Report Archives - searchable database of

10,000+ critical summaries of Internet resources for the
academic and research community

10. Subject Guides A to Z - extensive collection of subject

pages from the University of Delaware Library

11 - It provides free and easy access

. to government information of
Taiwan.
III.  

IV. Discuss the following questions with your group members.

1. Please list THREE search engines your group members use

more frequently. Compare the three search engines and
choose your favorite one and explain why this one is the
best. 
2. What difference does it make when you enter keywords or
phrases in quotes (e.g., "computer assisted language
learning") in your web search?
3. If you put the word "OR" between words/phrases in your web
search, what does it mean?
4. You can also use these signs " + ", " - ", and " ~ " in your web
search. What function does each sign have? Please give
examples. (Be sure to include a space before a sign, but no
space after a sign. e.g., movie -video)
5. There are different domain types in websites' URLs. What do
these domain types mean?
.com      .edu        .gov       .org        .net       .mil
6. If you want to find images or sound files on the Web, what
should you do?
7. In addition to providing easy access to billions of web pages,
many search engines also provide a number of special
features to help people find what they want more efficiently.
Please find what special features those search engines have
and choose THREE features that you like the most each
engine offers.
8. What web search problems have you encountered before?
Please share some with your group members and see if you
can find solutions now. Each group needs to report at least
two common problems and your solutions (if you have found
them).
9. Do the Exercise 3.2 Finding Materials on the Web
 web source page.)
4. You can also add "Word of the Day" (or other free content
including "Quote of the Day", "Article of the Day", "This day in
history", and "Today's Birthday" provided
by TheFreeDictionary.com) to your webpage (check option 3).

Word of the Day

Play
snippet discuss
Definition: (noun) A small piece of anything (especially a piece that
has been snipped off).
Synonyms: piece, scrap, fragment, part, particle, snatch, shred
Usage: She went round the farm-garden, nibbling off snippets of
all the different sorts of herbs that are used for stuffing
roast duck.
Word of the Day is a free service of The Free Dictionary

5. As a web surfer, you can download a free online dictionary to

your computer and use it at any time to help you find the
meaning of unfamiliar words on the web.
For example, you can download

- MSN Encarta Right-Click Dictionary

- TheFreeDictionary right-click add-on Dictionary

- CleverKeys for Windows (provides instant access to

definitions at Dictionary.com, synonyms
at Thesaurus.com)

- 1-Click Answers  for Windows

TM

3.2.3   Online Concordancers

1.   Definition: 

  A concordance is an alphabetical listing/index of the words

in a text, given together with the contexts in which they
appear.
  A concordancer is a computer program that allows users to
search a collection of authentic texts (i.e. a corpus) for
multiple examples of selected words or phrases.

  A corpus is a collection of either written or spoken texts

(The plural is corpora). In fact, the World Wide Web itself is a
huge corpus that we can take advantage of to find sufficient
occurrences of language elements.
2. Uses of concordancers for language learning and teaching:
  Users can use a concordancer to find examples of authentic
usage to demonstrate word collocations, word usage, or
even the structure of a text.
  Teachers can generate exercises (e.g., cloze tests) based
on authentic, interesting examples drawn from a variety of
corpora rather than made-up traditional grammar examples.
  Students can work out rules of grammar or
usage and lexical features for themselves by searching for
key words in context. This helps them to raise their language
awareness, particularly in word collocations.
3. Explore the following online concordancers.
 
o  VLC's Web Concordancer:  It is a simple online
concordancer available at the Virtual Language
Center of the Polytechnic University of Hong
Kong. It contains various types of corpora in English,
Chinese, French, and Japanese.

o   Online KWIC Concordancer (*KWIC: Keyword-in-

Context):  This concordancer allows users to search
for occurrences of selected words from many
business letter corpora (English only).   

o  國立清華大學 CANDLE Project - TOTALrecall, VN
Collocation (TANGO), and Collocation
 Checker:  It contains two English-and-Chinese bilingual
corpora: 1) Sinorama 光華雜誌語料庫 1990-2000 and 2)
Records of Hong Kong Legislative Council (English and
Chinese).

*Note: When you get to their website, please click on [研究

測試區] or [Beta Test]. You can try TANGO and Collocation
Checker without login, but you need to register and then
login in order to be able to use TOTALrecall.

o  淡江大學 Collocation Explorer: This site allows users to

search for occurrences of selected words in English.  

o  Simple Search of BNC (British National Corpus): This site

allows users to search for occurrences of selected words in
the BNC, a very large corpus of modern British English
designed to present as wide a range of modern English as
possible (English only).

o  WebCorp: This concordancer works right across

the Web as its corpus, riding on the back of different
search engines. It is slow but produces good, rich results.
Operated and maintained by the Research and
Development Unit for English Studies (RDUES) at the
University of Liverpook, UK. (English only).

o  Google: Using Google as a simple concordancer works

quite well, e.g. to check for possible collocations
(multilingual).

* Note:  For more information on using concordancers in

language learning and teaching, please see ICT4LT
Module 2.4.
 
 
3.3  Evaluating your Ability to Use Browsers
 
 Please download the form (designed by ICT4LT) to evaluate your
ability to use browsers. Then make sure you know how to do all the
things listed on the form. If you don't know how to do certain things,
please ask your group members or the instructor.
 
3.4   Evaluating Websites
 
The Internet is totally unregulated. There are huge amounts of good
material, but there are also amounts of material of poor and dubious
quality. There is no guarantee that the information of the websites
you found through search engines is accurate. Therefore, it is
important for you to determine whether the information in a
website is worth trusting and using.
1. Please read the following evaluation guidelines and compare
their criteria.
   Evaluating Web Pages: Techniques to Apply & Questions
to Ask by UC Berkeley (The Web Page Evaluation Checklist
PDF form is available)

- Look at the URL
- Scan the perimeter of the page (authorship, currency,
credentials on the subject)
- Examine the quality of information (sources of
information, completeness, authenticity, choice of links,
viewpoints)
- Check what others say
- Find out why the site/page was created
   Evaluating Internet Resources by SUNY Albany

- Purpose
- Source
- Content (accuracy, comprehensiveness, currency)
- Style and Functionality
   Evaluating Web Sites by Northwest Missouri State
 University

- Authority (credentials, impact of domain on content,

contact information)
- Accuracy (bias, verified content, appropriate date)
- Audience (relevancy, type of webpage, audience
characteristics)
2. Develop your own website evaluation criteria with your group
members and explain why the criteria you choose are
important.

3. Choose a language learning website and evaluate it together

with your group members. Then write your evaluation in the
message board and give a brief oral report to the class.

 
Unit 4.  Multimedia CALL and Evaluation of CALL
software

   Please read
1. Davies, G. (2004). ICT4LT Module 2.2: Introduction
to multimedia
CALL. http://www.ict4lt.org/en/en_mod2-2.htm
2. Scholfield, P. J. (2003). Evaluation of CALL
software. http://privatewww.essex.ac.uk/~scholp/
calleval.htm
 
 4.1   Introduction to Multimedia and MPC

4.2   Comparing Early CALL and Modern CALL

4.3   Pros and Cons of Multimedia CALL

4.4   Evaluating Multimedia CALL Software

4.5   Exploring CALL CD-ROMs

 
4.1  Introduction to Multimedia and MPC
   Multimedia:
Definition:
"Nowadays multimedia refers to computer-
based materials designed to be used on a computer that
can display and print text and high-
quality graphics, play pre-recorded audio and video materi
al, and create new audio and video recordings." (Davies
2004).

Two types of multimedia:

- Web-based multimedia
- Multimedia on CD-ROM or DVD-ROM

Because of its capacity of combining text, images,

animation, sound, and video in a variety of activities,
multimedia offers many exciting opportunities for language
learning and helps to integrate the learning of four language
skills - listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

Comparison of the two types of multimedia:

1. Web-based multimedia is rapidly growing but it has
not yet replaced CD-ROM or DVD-ROM technology.
Web-based multimedia may offer more in terms
of presentation rather than interaction (e.g., In a
web environment, it is not easy to record and
playback one's own voice, and it is not always smooth
to deliver/play sound and video), while CD-ROM
/DVD-ROM can provide more spontaneous human-
 machine interaction.

2. The use of web-based multimedia often

requires more technical preparation (e.g., Users
need to ensure that they have installed up-to-date
plug-ins and have broadband access to view webpages
more easily and successfully). Moreover, some
website may become congested at peak time, thus
causing difficulty to access them. This problem won't
occur when using multimedia on CD-ROM or DVD-ROM.

3. However, web-based multimedia materials are

usually free and can be accessed by every web user.
Also, the materials can be updated or modified by the
author at any time. Multimedia materials on CD-ROM
or DVD-ROM are usually commercial products and
once they are produced, no information can be
changed.  

4. Web-based multimedia can offer computer-mediated

communication (CMC), such as emailing, online
chatting, and online discussion, which helps to foster
an online learning community. This is what
multimedia on CD-ROM or DVD-ROM cannot do.

   MPC:
An MPC (multimedia computer) is basically the same as a
standard PC, with the following additions:
- a soundcard
- speakers or headphones
- a microphone
- a CD-ROM (or DVD-ROM) drive
 
 
4.2  Comparing Early CALL and Modern CALL
 
  Early CALL   Modern CALL
- behavioristic - communicative and integrative

- individualized drills - task-based, collaborative

- programmed-learning activities

- viewing language as - providing alternatives to

discrete components learners

- emphasizing the - viewing language as a whole

importance of control - emphasizing the importance of

- giving extrinsic feedback guidance

- giving both extrinsic and

intrinsic feedback
 
There is a close relationship between the use of different
types of CALL programs and the stages of language
acquisition (Butler-Pascoe and Wiburg, 2003, p. 9):

- In the pre-production stage: The behavioristic approach is
more emphasized. CALL software is used to provide
comprehensible input and ask learners to give limited
responses through controlled exercises.

- In the more advanced stage: The communicative and

integrative approach is more
emphasized. Telecommunications
activities and interactive video and simulation programs
of real-life experiences that foster critical thinking and
problem solving are more needed. Learners are encouraged
to manipulate technology to complete tasks or
communicate with real audiences around the world. 
 
 
4.3   Pros and Cons of Multimedia CALL
 
Before discussing the following questions with your group
members, read the twelve attributes considered essential to
the success of technology-enhanced language learning
environments (Butler-Pascoe and Wiburg, 2003, pp. 15-19):
Such environments
a. provide interaction, communicative activities, and real
audience
b. supply comprehensible input
c. support development of cognitive abilities
d. utilize task-based and problem-solving activities
e. provide sheltering techniques to support language and
academic development
f. are student-centered and promote student autonomy
g. facilitate focused development of English language skill
h. use multiple modalities to support various learning
styles and strategies
i. support collaborative learning
j. meet affective needs of students
k. foster understanding and appreciations of the target
and native cultures
l. provide appropriate feedback and assessment

Discussion Questions:

1. Based on your language learning experience with CALL

software/website, please discuss pros and cons of
multimedia CALL with your group members. Think about
what you like and what you do not like when using CALL
software/website to learn English or other languages. Then
come up with a list and examples.
2. Many multimedia CALL software packages claim their high
level of interactivity. What does "interactivity" mean to
you? Do you think they are truly interactive? Please give
 some examples to explain your opinion.

3. In the first article you read about "Some Pros and Cons"
(ICT4LT Module2.2), the author, Davies, writes, "There is a
danger, however, of relying too much on the computer's
ability to process the learner's input" and then he cites
Levy's (1998) words to support this point:

"Where the student is generally working alone

without the teacher, the computer has to reliably
give the student the right kind of guidance and
advice every time the program is used; there is no
second wave of feedback that can come with a
teacher's presence to act as backup. [...] The
success, therefore, of the computer in the tutorial
role, hinges on how reliably the program manages
the student's learning and on how timely,
accurate and appropriate is the feedback, help
and advice given." (Levy 1998:90)
 
Do you agree with this point? Discuss this issue with your
group members. Can you further elaborate this "danger"
with examples?
 
4. Davies also points out that many designers of CALL-based
programs were "more interested in control rather than
guidance". Do you agree? Can you give some examples to
support or refute this points?

5. At the end of this section, Davies makes a final comment

on multimedia CALL:
"Technology is racing ahead of pedagogy and,
unfortunately, often driving the pedagogy. Above all,
there is a need for further research into how language
students learn. We still know relatively little about the
learning process, but what little we know is often
 disregarded by multimedia developers."
 
Based on your own learning experience with CALL software,
did you find some that involve a high level of technology but
provide little help to language learning? Or did you find
some that involve simple technology but are really helpful to
language learning?
 
 
4.4   Evaluating Multimedia CALL Software
 
Many multimedia language learning programs rely on what may be
called the "point-and-click-let's-move-on-quick" approach. It is
also too easy to be deceived by flashy presentations. Therefore,
we need to make a critical evaluation of multimedia CALL
software before using it.
1. In the first article you read about "Evaluating multimedia"
(ICT4LT Module2.2), Davis (2004) suggests that we ask
ourselves the following questions when examining a new
multimedia program. Do you find some of the questions are
more important than others in choosing CALL software?
Why?
a. Is the level of language that the program offers clearly
indicated?
b. Is the user interface easy to understand? For example,
are there ambiguous icons that cause confusion?
c. Is it easy to navigate through the program? Is it clear
what point the learner has reached?
d. What kind of feedback is the learner offered if he/she
gets something wrong? Is the feedback intrinsic or
extrinsic?
e. If the learner gets something right without
understanding why, can he/she seek an explanation?
f. Can the learner seek help, e.g. on grammar,
vocabulary, pronunciation, cultural content?
g. Does the program branch to remedial routines?
 h. Can the learner easily quit something that is beyond
his/her ability?
i. Does the learner have to mentally process the language
that he/she sees and hears? Or does the program offer a
range of point-and-click activities that can be worked
through with the minimum of understanding?
j. If the program includes pictures, are they (a) relevant,
(b) an aid to understanding?
k. If the program includes sound recordings, are they of an
adequate standard? Are they (a) relevant, (b) an aid to
understanding? Is there a good mix of male and female
voices and regional variations?
l. Can the learner record his/her own voice? Can the
learner hear the playback clearly? Does the program
make use of Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR)? Is it
effective?
m. If the program includes video sequences, are they of an
adequate standard? Are they (a) relevant, (b) an aid to
understanding?
n. Does the program include scoring? Does the scoring
system make sense? Does it encourage the learner?

2. Also read the following three evaluation checklists/forms

of CALL software and compare their criteria. Do you think
those criteria are equally important?
  Scholfield's checklist for judgmental CALL evaluation
- Three key components to consider in CALL evaluation:
a) the nature of the materials/software
b) the nature of the teaching/learning situation
c) the suitability of rating criteria

- Three evaluation criteria:

a) specification
b) program design
c) pedagogically relevant features
   ICT4LT's CALL evaluation form
- Five evaluation criteria:
a) functionality
b) media content
 c) quality of linguistic/cultural content
d) relevance
e) exploitation and outcomes
   Evaluation Criteria for MERLOT Learning Resources

*Note: MERLOT (Multimedia Educational Resource for learning

and Online Teaching) is a free and open resource designed
primarily for faculty and students of higher education. It
collects links to online learning materials along with brief
annotations and peer reviews/member comments.

  a) Quality of Content
b) Potential Effectiveness as a Teaching-Learning Tool
c) Ease of Use

 
3. Develop your own CALL software evaluation criteria with
your group members and explain why the criteria you
choose are important.

4. Choose a CALL software package or a website and evaluate

it together with your group members. Then write your
evaluation in the message board and give an oral
presentation to the class next week.
* Note: If you don't know which ESL/EFL website to choose for
evaluation, you can go to the MERLOT (Multimedia
Educational Resource for learning and Online Teaching)
and enter 'ESL' in the Search Materials Box
<http://www.merlot.org/> and take a look at how others
reviewed or commented on those selected websites.
 
* Please do Exercise 4  Multimedia CALL and Evaluation of CALL
 
 
4.5   Exploring CALL CD-ROMs
 
Explore the following CALL CD-ROM examples with your group
 members. Find out what features and functions each of them has
in terms of both presentation and interaction. Take notes while
exploring them. 
1. CD-ROMs as reference tools

   Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary

   Eyewitness - World Atlas

2. CD-ROMs for children

   Engphonics - English pronunciation and spelling

courseware

   Sesame Street Reading Basics

   Let's go read

   Reader Rabbit first grade learning adventure

   Curriculum Alive - English  

3. CD-ROMs for adults

   New Interchange

   Live ABC

   CNN Interactive English

   Interactive English for Business

4. CD-ROMs for test preparation
   BEC Preliminary Preparation and Practice for Further
Ahead
5. CD-ROMs incorporating Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR)
    TriplePlay Plus
 
  
Unit 5.  Using Technology to Teach Listening Skills

   Please read
Butler-Pascoe, M. E. & Wiburg, K. M. (2003). Technology and
teaching English language learners. Chapter 4, pp. 81-96.
  
5.1   The Role of Listening in SLA
-  The Comprehension Approach
-  Krashen's Monitor Model
5.2   Approaches to the Teaching of Listening Skills
5.2.1  The Natural Approach
5.2.2  The Total Physical Response (TPR)
5.3   Listening Processes
5.4   Listening Purposes
 

5.1  The Role of Listening in SLA (second language acquisition)

1. Listening was first recognized as a major component of

language learning and teaching in the late 1970s. At that
time, research suggested that language instruction
should focus on the learner's listening comprehension in
the early stages of acquisition, while delaying oral
production until the learner was more familiar with the
new language.

2. This school of thought manifested itself in the form of

the comprehension approach which proposed the
following:
a. Comprehension abilities precede productive
skills in language learning.
b. The teaching of speaking should be delayed until
comprehension skills are established.
c. Skills acquired through listening transfer to other
skills.
d. Teaching should emphasize meaning rather than
form.
e. Teaching should minimize learner stress.
 3. The comprehension approach was supported by Krashen's
Monitor Model of second language acquisition. This model
consists of five hypotheses:

a. Acquisition-learning hypothesis (Acquisition is
subconscious, whereas learning is consciously
developed by instruction and aided by error
correction).
b. Monitor hypothesis (Conscious learning is limited to
use as a monitor that can edit and make corrections
in the learner's output before s/he writes or speakes,
but language fluency relies on acquisition).
c. Natural order hypothesis (Learners acquire linguistic
structures in a predictable order in L1 and a similar
order is present in L2 acquisition).
d. Input hypothesis (Learners acquire language by
exposure to comprehensible input: "i +1". Learning
is first focused on meaning and structure is learned
as a consequence of understanding the message).
e. Affective filter hypothesis (Depending on the
learner’s state of mind, the affective filter limits
what is noticed and what is acquired. The presence
of an affective filter could act as a mental block if a
poor affective state existed)

 
5.2   Approaches to the Teaching of Listening Skills

Two approaches to the teaching of listening skills,

the natural approach and the total physical
response (TPR), are supported by Krashen's Monitor
Model of SLA and grouped within the
broader comprehension approach umbrella.

5.2.1  The Natural Approach

 The natural approach, developed by Krashen and
Terrell (1983), focuses on comprehensible input and
the optimum affective state of the learner.
I. Principles and Pedagogical Implications (i.e., application
to classroom practices):
Principles Pedagogical implications

1. Comprehension a. Teachers speak in the target

precedes productions. language only.
That is, listening and b. Content is selected
reading skills will be according to its relevance to
acquired before student interests.
speaking and writing c. Teachers consistently
skills. provide comprehensible
input.
2. Language production a. The "silent period" is
emerges from allowed; students are never
nonverbal responses, forced to speak before they
single words,  are comfortable doing so.
combinations of two or b. Error correction is given only
three words, to when errors interfere with
phrases, sentences, communication.
and ultimately to
complex discourse.
3. The syllabus and course a. The teaching focus is on
content is organized communicating ideas with
around topics with little or no attention to
communicative goals grammatical accuracy in the
rather than linguistic early comprehension and
structures. production stages.
4. The learning a. Activities should ensure that
environment must be students can practice the
conducive to language language in a supportive,
learning. nonthreatening setting that
reduces anxiety, promotes
 motivation, and builds self-
esteem.
 
* Discussion Questions:
1. Is it really good for L2 learners to delay their oral
production?
2. Does the natural approach attend to learners' output?
Can comprehensible input alone lead to learners'
comprehensible output?
II. The Use of Computers in Teaching Listening Skills with
the Natural Approach:
Comprehensible Input Low-anxiety Learning Environment

1. Computers allow 1. Multimedia programs can be

teachers to add designed to present material
multisensory at different difficulty
elements, text, levels with adjustments in
sound, pictures, speed of delivery according
video, and to individual learner needs.
animation, which Examples:
provide meaningful
- Randall's ESL Cyber Listening Lab
contexts to facilitate
- John's ESL Community -
comprehension.
Listening Activities
2. Computers allow
2. Computers allow learners to
learners to hear the
develop their autonomy to
available input as
review and practice materials as
many times as
many times as they wish.
needed until they
feel they understand 3. Computers can
it. provide immediate, nonjudgme
ntal feedback and additional
Examples:
assistance to learners. They
- Interactive Audio-Picture
correct learners' errors without
English Lessons
giving them embarrassment or
- Adult Learning anxiety.
 Activities - California
Distance Learning
Project  (news stories
and Interactive
exercises)
- British Council - Learn
English: Songs and
Lyrics
 
* Discussion Questions:
1. According to your language learning experience with
computers, do you think those CALL programs always
provide comprehensible input, particularly in
listening?
2. Do you think the feedback from the computer is
sufficient for language learners to develop their
listening skills ?

5.2.2  Total Physical Response (TPR)

Total physical response, developed by Asher (1977), is

frequently used as a technique within a variety of teaching
approaches and methods rather than strictly as an approach
unto itself. It focuses on psychomotor
associations and lowering of the affective filter.

I. Principles and Pedagogical Implications:

Principles Pedagogical implications

1. Listening comprehension skills 1. Teachers speak in

are developed before oral the target
production skills (based on the language to
natural order of L1 acquisition). students and focus
on students'
listening
comprehension in
 the early stage.
2. Psychomotor association: 2. Teachers
Learning is enhanced give command
through the association of forms (i.e. "Open
language with motor activity. the door") to
Motor activity is a function of which students
the right-brain, and the right- respond by
brain activities should precede physically doing
the language processing the action.
functions of the left-brain.
3. TPR lowers students' affective 3. Teachers ask
filter and stress level. students to listen
only but not to
give an oral
response.
 
II. The Use of Computers in Teaching Listening Skills with
the TPR:
 Examples:
- TPR Games (program description from TPR World Website)
- Live Action English Interactive (program description and
demo)
- Review of Live Action Spanish Interactive (from Language
Learning and Technology, Vol. 8, No. 3, September 2004,
pp. 40-43)

* Discussion Questions:
1. TPR is usually used in the face-to-face classroom. Is
there anything missing when TPR is used on a
computer?
2. Please read the program descriptions of "Live Action
English Interactive" and "Live Action Spanish
Interactive" and a review of the Spanish one. Both
programs use the principles of TPR to design for
 beginning and intermediate adult learners. However,
TPR is usually used to teach languages to younger
learners. Do you think "TPR-on-a-computer" is good
for adults to learn languages? Why or why not?
5.3   Listening Processes

Two types of processes, bottom-up and top-down, have

been identified as central to listening comprehension.
I. Principles of Bottom-up and Top-down Processing:

Bottom-up Processing Top-down Processing

1. It focuses on individual 1. It focuses on macro-

linguistic features of discourse such as
components of the speaker's purpose and
discourse. the discourse topic.
2. Comprehension is viewed as
a process of activating the
2. Comprehension is
listener's background
viewed as a process information and
of decoding schemata* (i.e. prior 
messages proceeding knowledge about the context
and the topic) for a global
from phonemes to understanding of the
words, to phrases and message.
clauses and other
grammatical elements,
to sentences.
* Note:  "Schemata" is defined as "plans about the overall structure of
events and the relationships between them" that are stored in the
listener's long-term memory (Richards, 1990). These schemata
relate to our real-world experiences and how we expect people to
behave and events to occur.

II. Bottom-up Activities and Top-down Activities in Teaching

Listening Skills:

Bottom-up Activities Top-down Activities

1. Identify 1. Identify the speaker's communicative

 sounds or purpose or the main idea of discourse.
lexical items 2. Use schemata to infer the contextual
according to information from the heard speech or
their linguistic conversation.
function.
3. These activities are designed to help
2. Use learners develop their pragmatic and
phonological discourse knowledge.
cues to
4. These activities are often used for
distinguish
improving communicative skills
between
focusing on meaning rather than form.
positive and
Examples:
negative
sentences or - Randall's ESL Cyber Listening Lab
statements and - John's ESL Community - Listening
questions. Activities
3. These
activities are
designed to
help learners
develop their
phonological,
lexical, and
grammatical
knowledge.
4. These
activities are
often used for
learning
phonics and
pronunciation
practice.

Examples:
-  American English
 Pronunciation
Practice
-  Emily's
Pronunciation
Class
 

* Discussion Question:
1. Based on your English (or other foreign language)
learning experience, what type of listening processes
do you use more often, bottom-up or top-down? In
your opinion, what type of knowledge can CALL
programs better help learners to develop, linguistic or
background knowledge? Why? Please give examples.

 
5.4   Listening Purposes
I. Interactional Purposes and Transactional Purposes:

According to Brown and Yule (1983), language

communicative functions can be divided into two
types: interactional and transactional functions. Both
language functions are needed for effective classroom
participation.  Students use interactional language
to socially interact with each other and their teacher and
engage in transactional uses to develop new skills and
construct new knowledge.
 

Interactional Purposes Transactional Purposes

1. The focus is 1. The focus is on conveying

on harmonious information and language
communication in use is message oriented.
social contexts. 2. Transactional uses of
2. Interactional uses of language include listening
 language typically to lectures, taking notes,
include greetings and and practicing dictations
small talk that center and cloze exercises
on noncontroversial that require
topics that elicit understanding of details.
agreement among the 3. Transactional language
participants. is explicit, clear,
3. Interactional uses of and coherent in order for
language do not require the listener to
careful attention to comprehend the meaning
details and facts. of the message.
 
II. The Use of Computers in Teaching Listening Skills for
Two Types of Purposes:

Teaching for Interactional Teaching for Transactional

Purposes Purposes

Example: Examples:
- Learning Oral English Online - Randall's ESL Cyber Listening
This website offers Lab - Listening Quizzes for
interactional speaking Academic Purposes
practice through dialogs - BBC Learning English:
centered on topics such as Watch and Listen -
making friends, going to a Welcome to London
party, and dating. Students
can practice different aspects - Adult Learning
of social conversation. This Activities - California
site also practices another Distance Learning Project
type of interactional listening These websites provide
that focuses on simple transactional language
service-oriented tasks such as practice and are designed to
ordering lunch and shopping focus on getting information
in America. and promote English
  development for academic
purposes.
 
 
 * Discussion Questions:
1. In everyday language use, we often carry out both
interactional and transactional functions of language
at the same time. Can you always distinguish which
language function you are using? If it is difficult to
distinguish them, then why do we have to learn these
two functions separately?
2. In your opinion, which language function do you think
CALL programs can better help students to learn?
Why? Please give examples.
* Please do Exercise 5  Using Technology to Teach
Listening Skills
 

 
Unit 6.  Using Technology to Teach Speaking and
Pronunciation Skills

   Please read
Butler-Pascoe, M. E. & Wiburg, K. M. (2003). Technology and teaching
English language learners. Chapter 4, pp. 96-111.

 
6.1   The Role of Speaking in SLA
6.2   Approaches to the Teaching of Speaking Skills
6.3   The Role of Pronunciation in SLA
 6.4   Approaches to Pronunciation Instruction
6.5   The Use of Computers in Teaching Speaking and
Pronunciation Skills
 

6.1  The Role of Speaking in SLA (second language acquisition)

1. Speaking is viewed in the larger context of communication with the
focus on the speaker's ability to 1) take in messages, 2) negotiate
meaning, and 3) produce comprehensible output. This view
recognizes the interactive nature of listening and the crucial role
of negotiating meaning in order to produce comprehensible
speech. 

2. The importance of comprehensible output:

Swain (1985) argued for the importance of comprehensible
output that requires the learners to negotiate
meaning and formulate and test hypotheses about the structures
and functions of the language they produce.

In this way, when non-native speakers receive feedback from their

interlocutors that their message is not clear, they revise their
speech to clarify their meaning. Through this process
of adjusting their language output in order to make their messages
more comprehensible to native speakers, language learners improve
the accuracy of their language production.

3. Types of oral interactions:

Bygate's model of oral interactions (1987):

Bygate's information and interaction routines (1987) correspond
respectively to the transactional and interactional functions of
language proposed by Brown and Yule (1983) (see Unit 5 - Listening
Purposes).

* Discussion Questions:
1. Can you identify the differences of language use in the two
types of oral interactions? For example, you may find people
use different tones, styles, and terms/words for information
and interaction routines. Can you give examples to illustrate
your points?
2. Based on your foreign language learning experience, which
type of oral interactions is more difficult to learn and why?
How do you think the use of technology can help you improve
your oral communication skills in the target language? Please
give specific reasons and examples.
 

6.2   Approaches to the Teaching of Speaking Skills

Teachers need to draw on more than one approach and use a variety
of instructional tools, such as audiotapes, videos, and multimedia
computer technology, to meet different students' needs in teaching
speaking skills.
  For the beginning levels of instruction: audio-lingual method
(ALM), total physical response (TPR), the natural approach, the
silent way, and suggestopedia.

  For the more advanced levels of instruction: communicative

language teaching (CLT) and the task-based approach.

Note:  Please find the explanation of the various teaching

approaches in the Overview of Treatment of Speaking in Second
Language Teaching Methods.
 

6.3   The Role of Pronunciation in SLA

A historical view of the role of pronunciation in SLA:

  1940s - 1960s   1970s - 1980s   late 1980s -

present

- the teaching of - the teaching of - pronunciation was

pronunciation pronunciation was largely a key ingredient to
was greatly ignored the development of
stressed   communicative
  - communicative approach competence
- behavioristic aud es; focused more - a more balanced
io- lingual on fluency than  form approach that
methods; used valued
imitation drills, both accuracy and
pattern practice, fluency
 and dialog
memorization

 
6.4   Approaches to Pronunciation Instruction

1. Intuitive-imitative approach

The learner listens to and imitates the sound and rhythms of the
target language without the assistance of explicit instruction.
Technologies, such as audiotapes, videos, and computer-based
programs and websites, can offer rich resources of native speech as
good models.

2. Analytic-linguistic approach

The learner is provided with explicit, structured teaching of speech

features utilizing articulatory descriptions and charts of speech
apparatus, phonetic alphabet and vowel charts, and a variety of
interactive speech analysis software and websites.

3. Current integrative approach

- Pronunciation is viewed as an integral component of

communication, rather than an isolated drill and practice sub-skill
- Pronunciation is practiced within meaningful task-based
activities
- Use pronunciation-focused listening activities to facilitate the
learning of pronunciation
- There is more focus on the suprasegmentals of stress, rhythm,
and intonation as practiced in extended discourse beyond the
phoneme and word level.
- Pronunciation is taught to meet the learners' particular needs
 - A dual-focus oral communication program (Morely, 1994):
a. The micro level instruction is focused
on linguistic (i.e., phonetic-phonological) competence thr
ough practice of segmentals and the suprasegmentals.
b. The macro level attends to more global elements of
communicability with the goal of developing discourse,
sociolinguingisc, and strategic competence by using the
language for communicative purposes.
- Goals of pronunciation instruction: The primary goals of
pronunciation teaching are for the learner to develop intelligible
speech and to be able to effectively communicate in the target
language (Miller, 2000).

  Morely (1991) identified four basic pronunciation goals that are

realistic aspirations:
a. Functional intelligibility
b. Functional communicability
c. Increased self-confidence
d. Speech monitoring ability and speech modification
strategies

* Discussion Questions:
1. Do you think pronunciation is important in learning a
second/foreign language?
2. Based on your learning experience, which pronunciation goal
or goals do you think is/are more difficult to achieve? How do
you think the use of technology can help you achieve your
pronunciation goal(s)? Please give specific reasons and
examples.

 
6.5   The Use of Computers in Teaching Speaking and Pronunciation
Skills
1. Purpose of using computers:
 We use the computer technology to create an environment
that encourages communication and provides increased and more
varied communicative opportunities for students to utilize their
oral skills.
2. In teaching speaking skills:
a. The Computer used as a Tutor (human-to-machine
interaction)
Examples:  My English Tutor 我的口說英語家教(CD-ROM 試
用版下載)
 TriplePlay Plus (CD ROM)
b. The Computer used as an Instructional Tool (human-to-
human interaction via the computer in the classroom)
Examples:  Focus English: Everyday English in
Conversation
Conversation Questions for the ESL & EFL
Classroom
c. The Computer used as a Communication Medium (human-to-
human interaction via the computer outside the classroom) -
using MOOs (Multi-user domains, Object Oriented) and Chat
Rooms (or IRC - Internet Rely Chat) for "live" real-time
communication (i.e. synchronous communication)
Examples:  schMOOze University
ESL Cafe's Chat Central
ESL Chat Room in EnglishClub.com
Chat Room in Englishbaby.com
VLC Chat Rooms (Hong Kong)
3. In teaching pronunciation skills:
Computer-based activities/programs of pronunciation instruction
include the following
a. Articulatory charts
b. Sample words utilizing the targeted sound
c. Minimal pairs/comparison words
d. Listening discrimination of minimal pairs within a sentence
e. Sample sentences with several words utilizing the targeted
sound
 f. Dictations
g. Cloze exercises
h. Suprasegmental exercises (including intonation, rhythm,
stress, and timing)
Examples:  American English Pronunciation Practice

Sounds of English

English Pronunciation at EnglishClub.com

Phonetics: English Sound Library (University of

Iowa)

English Pronunciation/Listening (Okanagan
University College, Canada)

* Please do Exercise 6  Using Technology to Teach Speaking and

Pronunciation Skills
 
Unit 7.  Using Technology to Teach Reading Skills

   Please read
Butler-Pascoe, M. E. & Wiburg, K. M. (2003). Technology and teaching
English language learners. Chapter 5, pp. 114-137.

 
7.1   The Role of Reading in SLA
7.1.1   Three Models of Reading Process
7.1.2   Reading and Schema Theory

7.2   Teaching Reading Skills and the Use of Computers

7.2.1   Automatic Word Recognition Skills
7.2.2   Vocabulary and Structural Knowledge
7.2.3   Formal Discourse Structure Knowledge
7.2.4   Content / World Background Knowledge
7.2.5   Synthesis and Evaluation Skills
7.2.6   Metacognitive Knowledge and Skills
 

7.1   The Role of Reading in SLA

7.1.1   Three Models of Reading Process

The reading process involves the text, the reader, and the interaction between the two.
Theorists have proposed three basic models of how reading occurs: bottom-up, top-
down, and interactive.
   The Comparison between the Three Models:

Bottom-Up Models Top-Down Models Interactive Models

1960s - 1970s 1970s - 1980s late 1980s - present

- Reading is - Reading is - Reading is a process

a decoding proces a psycholinguistic guessing of constructing meaning
s (focus on game (focus on the reader). from text through the use
the text). - The "whole language" of both bottom-up and
- approach to teaching top-down processes,
The phonics appr reading is used. strategies, and skills (focus
oach to teaching on the interaction).
reading is used.   - The balanced approach to
teaching reading is used.
 
1) alphabet letters 1) The reader receives input 1) Both bottom-up and top-
+ sounds  words from the down processes
2) words + grammar text, makes predictions (b occur simultaneously for
rules ased on conceptual the reader to
    sentences abilities, background comprehend the meaning
3) sentences + knowledge, and language of the text.
discourse processing 2) Two levels of interaction:
rules  paragrap skills), tests and confirms     - the interaction
hs  longer or revises those between the
discourse prediction. reader and the text.
  2) Use a holistic approach to    - the interaction between
reading and writing that two kinds of cognitive
  advocates the use of skills: identification and i
children's literature and nterpretation.
authentic reading
materials.

7.1.2   Reading and Schema Theory

The function of background knowledge in the reading process is formalized

in schema theory.  According to schema theory, the reader brings previously
acquired background knowledge organized into interrelated patterns, or
schemata, to the reading process. Then the reader creates meaning by relating
the text to this background knowledge, including knowledge of customs and
beliefs from his or her own experiences.

Three are three types of schemata that have an impact on reading

comprehension:

1. Formal schemata: prior knowledge of rhetorical structures and

conventions (e.g. different types of expository organizational patterns:
cause and effect, comparison and contrast, problem and solution, and
chronological order, etc.)

2. Content schemata: background knowledge of the subject of the text,

which is often culture-bound.

3. Linguistic schemata: decoding knowledge used to recognize words and

determine their syntax in a sentence; that is, prior knowledge of a
particular vocabulary and grammar rules.

* Discussion Questions:
1. Please examine your reading process and find out what approach you
usually use in reading English.  Do you use the same or different
approaches when reading texts in Chinese and in English (or other foreign
languages)?
2. Recall your reading experience in English that caused you difficulty in
comprehending a particular text. Then discuss which schemata you think
plays the most important role.

 
7.2   Teaching Reading Skills and the Use of Computers

Grabe (1991) identified six component skills and knowledge areas essential

for reading fluency:

1. automatic word recognition skills

2. vocabulary and structure knowledge
3. formal discourse structure knowledge
 4. content/world background knowledge
5. synthesis and evaluation skills
6. metacognitive knowledge and skills
 
7.2.1   Automatic Word Recognition Skills

1. Automatic recognition skills allow readers to identify letters and words

without being consciously aware of the process. Good readers are able
to read rapidly because they can recognize most words automatically,
and therefore process this information very efficiently. The combination
of rapid and precise word recognition has proven to be an effective
predictor of reading ability, particularly of young readers.

2. The use of computers to facilitate the development of recognition skills

Examples of using the phonics approach:
-  Learn to Read at Starfall
-  BBC Words and Pictures
Examples for Speed Reading:
-  AceReader   (download the AceReader Original Demo)
-  Best Reader (download the trial version)

7.2.2   Vocabulary and Structural Knowledge

1. The importance of vocabulary learning for reading comprehension:

a. Readers need to know a large percentage (approximately 95%) of

the words in any given text in order to comprehend the meaning of
the reading or to guess the meaning of words unfamiliar to them.
b. Vocabulary is not acquired in quick doses, but rather is a process of
incremental learning and constant reinforcement. Readers need to
know not just one meaning of a word in a particular context but
also its alternative meanings in different contexts and other aspects
of the word such as its grammatical properties.
 2. Things needed to be included in vocabulary lessons (Zimmerman, 1997):
a. multiple exposure to words
b. exposure to words in meaningful contexts
c. rich and varied information about each word
d. establishment of ties between instructed words student experience,
and prior knowledge
e. active participation by students in the learning process
3. The use of computers to facilitate vocabulary development:

Examples:
-  Online dictionaries (see 3.2.2  Online Dictionaries)
-  Online concordancers (see 3.2.3  Online Concordancers)
-  Word games:  Word Based Games for ESL Students
Vocabulary for K-12 and ESL Kids
ESL games in EnglishClub.com
4. The importance of grammar learning for reading comprehension: 
Grammatical structures provide readers significant information that
allows them to understand the meaning relationships among words and
among sentences in a reading text.

5. The use of computers to facilitate the development of structural skills:

Grammar Website Examples:
-  English Grammar from EnglishClub.com
-  Grammar from EFLnet.com
-  Guide to Grammar and Writing
-  Guide to Grammar and Style
-  English Grammar
 

7.2.3   Formal Discourse Structure Knowledge

1. Knowledge of the structure of formal discourse / rhetorical

organizational patterns  (i.e. formal schemata) assists the learner in
 understanding and remembering the text. Research indicated that
explicit teaching of rhetorical organization of text facilitated ESL
students' reading comprehension.

2. The use of computers to facilitate the development of discourse

structure knowledge:

Examples:
-   Advice on Academic Writing (from the University of Toronto)
-   Professional Writing Handouts and Resources (from Purdue University)
 

7.2.4   Content / World Background Knowledge

1. Activating the reader's knowledge of the subject matter and cultural

content of the text is a significant factor in both reading comprehension
and recall. Research shows that L2 learners can better recall information
from text on topics familiar to them than readings of equivalent
difficulty level on subjects with which they are less familiar. Moreover,
readers can more easily comprehend and recall texts of which the
content is based on their own culture than texts based on unfamiliar
and more remote cultures.

2. The use of computers to facilitate the development of content/world

knowledge:

Examples:
-  BBC Learning English
-  BBC Schools (for ages 4-11, ages 11-16, and ages 16+)
-   CNN International and CNN Student News
-   Public Broadcasting Service (PBS)  and PBS Kids
-   Discovery.com and Discovery Kids.com
-   New York Times Learning Network
 
7.2.5   Synthesis and Evaluation Skills

1. Fluent readers are able not only to comprehend the text, but to make
judgments about the information, the author's purpose, and the
usefulness of the text. They usually use strategies like predicting to
assist them in anticipating text development and evaluating the
author's perspective as they read.

2. The use of computers to encourage students learning to synthesize and

evaluate reading text:

Examples:
-  Ace Detectives (mystery-solving game)
-  Story Mapping Activity
 
7.2.6   Metacognitive Knowledge and Skills

1. Metacognitive knowledge is knowledge about how learners think and

self-regulate their cognitive processes. It includes knowledge about
language and ability to recognize structural and rhetorical features of
the text using suitable strategies for accomplishing particular goals.

2. In the reading process, metacognitive skills include recognizing main

ideas, adjusting reading rate for skimming, scanning, paraphrasing,
and summarizing, guessing meaning from word formation rules,
prefixes, and suffixes, and taking notes. The ability to effectively apply
metacognitive strategies to the reading process is a key ingredient to
skilled reading, especially for older readers.

3. The use of computers to assist students in developing metacognitive

skills:

Examples:
-  Reading Strategies: Scaffolding Students' Interactions with Texts
-  Reading comprehension strategies for English language learners
-  Effective Reading: Reading Strategies
 -  Reading Your Textbooks Effectively and Efficiently
 
* Discussion Question:
1. Among the six component skills and knowledge areas identified by Grabe
(1991), which one or ones do you think you need the most to help you
become an efficient reader in English? Explain your reasons and discuss
how the computer can provide help to your reading development of that
particular skill or knowledge area.
* Please do Exercise 7 Using Technology to Teach Reading Skills

* Good reading material collection websites:

-  The Online Books Page (University of Pennsylvania)

-  English Reading from E.L. Easton
-  English reading from EnlgishClub.com
-  Repeat after Us - Online Library and Language Lab
  
Unit 8.  Using Technology to Teach Writing Skills

   Please read
Butler-Pascoe, M. E. & Wiburg, K. M. (2003). Technology and teaching
English language learners. Chapter 5, pp. 137-159.

 
8.1   The Role of Writing in SLA

8.2   Approaches to Teaching Writing and the Use of

Computers
8.2.1   Form-focused Approach
8.2.2   Process-focused Approach
8.2.3   Content-based Approach
8.2.4   Reader/audience-dominated Approach

8.3   Bringing it All Together: Reading, Writing, Listening,

and Speaking

8.1  The Role of Writing in SLA

1. It has long been recognized that reading and writing are integrally
linked and in fact share many of the same cognitive and social
processes.
 - Readers and writers are both active participants in interpreting
and constructing meaning from text.
- Reading and writing both emphasize the importance of schemata in
mind about the content and form of text.
- Reading and writing are both complicated, interactive, and
recursive processes.

2. The four different roles of writing in SLA :

Raimes (1991) identified four different focuses in second language
writing that emerged at different times and continue to have an
impact on today's writing instruction: focus on form, focus on the
writer, focus on the content, and focus on the reader.

Focus on Form  Focus on the Writer  Focus on  Focus on the

(& the Writing Process) the Content Reader

1960s -1970s 1970s 1980s 1980s

- Writing was - Writing was viewed - Writing was - Writing was

viewed as a as a process of construc viewed as an viewed as a
means of ting personal meaning. important ac text understo
reinforcing ademic od by the
- Student expression was
speech skill. reader.
viewed as more
patterns (1960s
important than linguistic - Developing - Writers need
). Writing
correctness. writing skills to know who
instruction
for academi the reader is
focused - Writing included a series
c and how
on sentence- of cognitive activities,
purposes wa to meet the
level linguistic such as brainstorming,
s more reader's
forms. drafting, peer-
emphasized. expectation 
reviewing, and revising.
- Writing was when they
- Attention
viewed as write.
was given to
a product affec
the content  - Content and 
ted by L1
and rhetoric
cultural though
the academi form (i.e. dis
 t c course
patterns & rhet expectation structure)
orical s placed on used in
forms (1970s). students. academic
writing are
 
both
emphasized.

* Discussion Questions:
1. Among the four roles of writing, which one(s) do you think more
important for beginners and which one(s) more important for
advanced learners? Why? Please explain your reasons.
2. Recall your own writing learning experiences in English. Which
role(s) of writing do you think your writing teachers gave more
attention to? Please give examples. Do you think all of your writing
teachers used the same teaching approaches? Which one(s) do you
like better? Why?
 

8.2   Approaches to Teaching Writing and the Use of Computers

According to the different focuses in second language writing, there

are four major approaches to L2 writing instruction:

- Form-focused Approach
- Process-focused Approach
- Content-based Approach
- Reader/audience-dominated Approach

Good writing instruction draws on each approach in varying

degrees and attends to the interaction among these different
focuses.
 
8.2.1  Form-focused Approach

In the 1960s, L2 writing instruction focused on sentence-level

linguistic forms. By the 1970s, writing instruction moved beyond the
sentence level to controlled discourse in the form of sentence
combining and controlled compositions. This was also a time when
attention was directed toward rhetorical forms and rhetorical
organizational patterns. The emphasis of this approach is
on accuracy.

Form-focused instruction includes two types: 1) grammar-based

instruction and 2) discourse structure-based instruction.
1. Grammar-based instruction is found in different types of programs
ranging from simple drill and practice activities that feature a few
points of grammar to comprehensive interactive software that
cover major grammatical structures from beginning to advanced
levels.
Many comprehensive interactive programs provide
activities integrated with other language skills. The use of
an integrated approach attempts to address the long-standing
concern that students learning grammar in isolation of other skills
were unable to transfer that grammatical knowledge to their actual
language use in real-life situations.
 
Website Examples:
-  ESL Blues
-  Guide to Grammar and Writing
-  Grammar Safari
-  Purdue University's OWL (Online Writing Lab):
   a) Grammar/Writing Resources, Handouts and Exercises for ESL
Students
   b) Grammar, Punctuation, and Spelling

CD-ROM Example:
-  英文寫作魔法師-基本句型篇 (試用版下載)
  
2. Discourse structure-based instruction includes practices in
recognizing and using basic elements of well-written essays, such as
introductory and concluding paragraphs, topic sentences, supporting
details, and transitions. Attention is given to the organizational
patterns and forms of different types of written text, such as
expository, descriptive, and narrative.
Website Examples:
- Writing Den (The site is designed to assist students to write
creatively. Online examples assist students in their abilities to
write sentences, paragraphs, and even essays)
-  Purdue University's OWL (Online Writing Lab):
   a) General Writing Concerns (Planning/Writing/Revising/Genres)
   b) Professional Writing Handouts and Resources
-  The University of Victoria Writer's Guide
-  University of Richmond Writer's Web 
-  University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign - Writer's Workshop:
Tips and Techniques
 
8.2.2   Process-focused Approach

1. Process-focused instruction, which was largely a reaction against

form-dominated instruction, emphasizes learned-centered tasks in
which students assume greater control over what they
write, how they write it, and the evaluation of their own writing.

2. Teachers allow time for pre-writing activities, including

brainstorming and bridging to students' background knowledge (i.e.
schemata). Students are encouraged to write  multiple
drafts, communicate with authentic audience, share feedback
with peers, revise and edit their writing, and then publish their
writing. Content and student expression are viewed as more
important than linguistic correctness.

3. Technology enhances this approach in terms of providing

 both collaborative writing opportunities and individualized skill
development using computer-based programs. Butler-Pascoe and
Wiburg (2003) made a list showing how technology supports
different stages of the writing process:

The Writing Individual Skill Collaborative Group

Process Stages Development Learning Activities

1. Prewriting - Prompted writing - Accessing Web database

activities - Brainstorming - Brainstorming
programs - List making
- Outlining programs - Electronic bibliography
- Research writers

2. Writing the draft - Composing with the - Collaborative web-based

word processor writing projects

3. Responding - Individual teacher- - Networked peer response

student conferencing groups
- Electronic prompted peer
review
4. Revising and - Word processing - Incorporating peer
editing - Thesaurus programs suggestions
- Spelling and grammar
checkers

5. Evaluating - Teacher-student - Class critique of student

interaction assessing writing using an LCD
skills and assigning panel
software
- Self-correct

6. Developing skills - Use assigned grammar - Small group use of

software prompted writing and
- Web-based writing grammar software
labs and grammar  
software

7. Showcasing or - Display final copy of - Desktop publishing group

publishing work student writing products such as school
- Desktop publishing magazines, newspapers,
brochures, web pages,
 - Web publishing and other publications

 
* Discussion Questions:
1. Based on your writing learning experiences, please give examples to
illustrate what learning activities your writing teacher(s) designed
for each writing process stage. Did s/he used computers or any
writing programs (e.g. "My Access" - an online writing development
tool) to facilitate your learning of writing? If yes, how? Did you like
the computer-assisted learning activities s/he use in the writing
class? Why or why not?
 
8.2.3   Content-based Approach
1. The content-based approach, which was largely a reaction to the
process-focused approach's excessive attention to the writer's
making of personal meaning, emphasizes the content of the
writing and the academic expectations placed on students. This
approach particularly benefits college-level L2 students
for developing writing skills for academic purposes.
2. This approach also uses literature as a model for good
writing because literature serves as rich content for language
development and reflects the culture of the target language.
3. Content-based instruction can draw on subject matter software
to enhance language skills and develop content knowledge.
Pascoe and Wiburg (2003) point out four characteristics that good
content-based learning programs need to have:
a. Incorporate some combination of audio, video, and
graphics to support comprehension.
b. Stimulate critical thinking through problem-solving tasks.
c. Use easily identifiable icons for easy navigation of the
program.
d. Are not heavily dependent on text.
4. The World Wide Web offers numerous resources for authentic
content materials and lesson plans.
 Examples:
- Websites of world news agencies and magazines:
CNN News, BBC News, World Headlines, World Press
Review, Newsweek, Time Online,

National Geographic Magazine, Reader's Digest, Weekly

Reader(designed for students)

- Online encyclopedias:
Bartleby.com: Great Books Online (including encyclopedias, dictionaries,
quotations, English usage, biographies, literary works, and many other reference
books)

Infoplease (including almanacs, atlas, a dictionary, and an encyclopedia)

Encyclopedia Britannica (offering news, links, and access to abbreviated
encyclopedia entries)

Encyclopedia.com (offering over 17,000 short articles from the Concise

Columbia Encyclopedia, 3rd edition)

Wikipedia (an open content, community-built encyclopedia with thousands of

articles on various topics)

MSN Encarta: Online Encyclopedia, Columbia

Encyclopedia,  Informationsphere,

Canadian Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia Smithsonian, Yahoo!

Reference

- 國立高雄第一科技大學線上資料庫 (NKFUST LIC Databases; ID & PW

required)

  Grolier Online 葛羅里百科全書線上資料庫, World Almanacs 世界年

鑑,

  Encyclopedia Britannica 大英百科全書資料庫, 大英簡明百科全書中文
版,
  MLA International Bibliography 當代全球語言文學資料庫

- Online literature libraries (e-texts):

 Online Library of Literature, The Literature Network, Open
Directory: Literature,

American and English Literature Online Books, Literary

Encyclopedia,

Online Children's Stories, Classis Bookshelf, Great Books, Literature

Collection

- Online lesson plans:

Please see examples in Web Resources (IV): English Teaching
Resources
1) Online lesson plans for ESL/EFL
2) Online lesson plans for all grade levels and all subjects
 
8.2.4  Reader/audience-dominated Approach
1. Th Reader/audience-dominated approach, paralleling and
complimenting the content-based approach, gives greater attention
to the reader and reader expectations in the academic
community. The reader is not just an individual, but the larger
academic discourse community into which the writer will
become socialized.
2. In this approach, teachers typically develop theme-based
lessons that practice various rhetorical forms and discourse
structures and assist students in the development of academic
writing skills in various essay genres such as compare and contrast,
giving instructions, case/problem analysis, persuasion, and cause
and effect. Form and content are both emphasized.
Examples of learning rhetorical forms and discourse structures:
- Please see website examples in the above discourse structure-based
instruction
3. The computer technology allows students to access to an academic
audience that is worldwide. Computer-mediated
communication (CMC), such as online discussion forums and email
exchange projects, makes it possible for students to engage in the
 target language of a common discipline as they discuss issues in
their field of interest.
Examples of online learning English discussion forums:

- Dave's ESL Cafe:

  1) Student Discussion Forums, and 2) Teacher Discussion Forums
- Englishforums.com
- EnglishClub.com ESL Forums
- ESLgo.com's ESL message boards
- BBC Learning English - Communicate

Examples of email exchange projects :

- Please see examples in Web Resources (III): CMC Activities and
Projects
 
* Please read
a) "Discussion Forum" from Flexible Education. It provides the
possible uses of a discussion forum, its strengths and limitations,
and tips for use.
b) "The Impact of Electronic Communication on Writing" by Abdullah,
from ERIC Digest. This digest summarizes some insights gained
from research on writing behavior and performance affected by
electronic communication.
 
* Discussion Questions:
1. Though many educators have advocated the use of computers in the
writing class to facilitate L2 students' writing development, the
research shows that the effectiveness of using computers in
teaching writing is not yet conclusive. As an advanced English
learner, what advantages and disadvantages do you see in a
computer-assisted writing class using the four different approaches
mentioned above?
* Please do Exercise 8  Using Technology to Teach Writing Skills
 

8.3   Bringing it All Together: Reading, Writing, Listening, and Speaking

1. Pascoe and Wiburg's (2003) model of computer-based English language

learning:

2. Although we look at how computers assist L2 learners in their learning of

four separate language skills, it is important to combine the reading, writing,
listening, and speaking components into one holistic approach to the
development of language. 

* Discussion Questions:
1. Now you have read many language learning theories and principles
and you have seen how computers can be used in various ways to
enhance language learning of four skills. Based on your learning
experience, in which language skill(s) do you think computers can
 offer the most support for students to learn a second language? Or,
do you think computers should be used in the class where the four
language skills are equally emphasized and well integrated? Please
explain your reasons.
 
  
Unit 9.  Using Technology to Teach Thinking Skills

   Please read
Butler-Pascoe, M. E. & Wiburg, K. M. (2003). Technology and
teaching English language learners. Chapter 6, pp. 165-186.

 
9.1   The Role of Thinking Skills in Language
Learning 

9.2   How Technology Supports Thinking

9.3   Thinking Skills and the Use of Computers

9.3.1   Perceptual Skills
9.3.2   Conceptual Skills
9.4   Designing Inquiry-based Learning Activities
9.4.1   Instructional Models
9.4.2   The Web and Thinking
 

9.1  The Role of Thinking Skills in Language Learning

1. There is a danger when working with language learners
of confusing a student's ability to use the target
language with his/her thinking abilities.
2. Language learners need to be given opportunities to engage
in high-level thinking and inquiry-based learning (also
called problem-centered, problem-based, or project-based
learning).
3. In terms of language learning, the use of inquiry is tied
closely to the cognitive academic language learning
approach (CALLA) for supporting language and content
learning (Chamot and O'Malley, 1994).
4. Both inquiry learning and CALLA envision the student as
a co-constructor of deepened content learning aided by
the development of cognitive strategies.
 

9.2   How Technology Supports Thinking

1. Technology can be used to support thinking if teachers
design classrooms in which
a. learning activities are informed by an understanding
of the cognitive processes involved in language
learning and thing;
b. technology tools are carefully selected to support a
wide range of thinking and problem-
solving opportunities; and
c. these tools are used within an learning
approach based on an understanding of inquiry,
problem-based learning, and language learning. 
(Butler-Pascoe & Wiburg, 2003, p. 166)
2. Technology needs to be examined and selected in terms
of how it supports a thinking-oriented environment, that
is, a constructivist learning environment where students
are allowed to construct meaning for themselves and learn
more deeply.

Characteristics of technology (computer tools) that are

considered important in the support of a constructivist view
of learning (Polin, 1992, cited in Butler-Pascoe & Wiburg,
2003, p. 176):
a. The learner performs a whole, meaningful task, not
a subskill.
b. The tool carries some of the burden of the task. It
"scaffolds" the elements of the task the learner
cannot accomplish alone.
c. The tool allows increasingly complex versions of the
task to be carried out by turning back some of the
task burden to the learner.
3. Computers are used as Cognitive Enhancers.
Computer technology provides tools and programs
that scaffold thinking and support collaborative problem
solving.
 a. Content-free computer tools (e.g., word processors,
illustration programs, spreadsheets, databases,
presentation programs, webpage authoring programs,
sound recording and editing tools) help learners to
remember, comprehend, apply, analyze, synthesize,
and reflect on information
through writing, sketching,
or recording with multiple modalities.
b. The computer-mediated environments assist
learners with problem solving because they provide a
source of scaffolded information for thinking and a
way to share the cognitive load of a task, especially
when students are struggling with new language.
c. Multimedia and hypermedia environments can
be interactive and afford a person control over visual
images, animation, sound, and text. The capability of
the computer to provide this interactivity and user-
control is an important reason why computers and
the networks are likely to have a longer instructional
shelf life than traditional media.
 

 
9.3   Thinking Skills and the Use of Computers

9.3.1   Perceptual Skills

1. Everything students learn must first come through the

senses. The initial stage of cognitive processing
requires perception. That is, the first step for students to
learn is to get their attention to the essential features of
an environment. 
2. When teaching students to use a technology program, it is
important to help them pay attention to the meaning of
computer icons and menus and how each menu
contains related functions.
3. In order for students to become self-directed learners,
they need to understand the program and how it works,
 rather than just asking them to follow a set of written
directions. They need to understand the generic features
of menus and icons used in computer applications (most
computer application programs have similar interface
designs).
4. Computer programs require attention to the display of
information and its relevance to the processing of
information. Improving students' perceptions of important
words and functions in a computer-based learning
environment can assist thinking and language learning.
5. Visual perception is important not only in learning
technology tools but also in learning content and language.
Visually oriented programs help students build a visual and
intuitive understanding of objects in relationship to each
other and a nonverbal way to think about any concept.
 
9.3.2   Conceptual Skills

1. Beyond perception is the development of conception, that

is, the mental manipulation of ideas and concepts, or
the ability to form or understand mental concepts and
abstractions.

2. There are two types of knowledge used in language

learning that are processed differently (Chamot and
O'Malley, 1994):

a. Declarative knowledge: involving the mental

manipulation of concepts, principles, and
vocabulary.
Using a multimedia program that contains pictures
of objects and backgrounds can help students gain
new vocabulary and new information within
a comprehensible context.

b. Procedural knowledge: involving the process

of managing and obtaining knowledge. Procedural
 knowledge ranges from cognitive strategies for
solving problems to metacognition (the ability to
think about one's own thinking). Procedural
knowledge is best learned by "practicing a complex
procedure that has meaning and achieves an
important goal" (Chamot and O'Malley, 1994). 

Procedural knowledge is supported by problem-

based learning and inquiry. It cannot be taught by
asking students to read, memorize, and report back
information. Rather, it is acquired by students
through struggling with puzzling
problems and constructing satisfying solutions for
themselves. Web-based learning activities, such
as WebQuests, can be designed to gain procedural
knowledge.

3. Comparison between short-term memory and long-term

memory:

In order for the brain to remember and later recall

declarative knowledge, this information must pass through
short-term memory and stay there long enough to
be encoded in long-term memory.

a. Short-term memory is visual and auditory in
nature. Presenting information using different
modalities can help students remember
information as they interact with it in short-term
memory.

b. Long-term memory is semantic in nature and

organized in terms of meaningfulness to the
learner. Things are most easily stored and
retrieved if they are connected to
already existing mental schema or
their experiences (i.e. constructivist learning
theory).
  

9.4   Designing Inquiry-based Learning Activities

 

9.4.1   Instructional Models

1. Bloom's Taxonomy of the cognitive domain (1956):

remembering, memorizing, recalling,

Knowledge recognizing
Comprehensio interpreting, explaining, describing,
n translating
Application using information or principles,
solving problems
Analysis seeing patterns, classifying, finding
the underlying structure
Synthesis combining ideas to form a new whole,
generalizing from given facts, relating
knowledge from several areas
Evaluation making value decisions about issues,
developing opinions or judgments,
making choices based on reasoned
argument
 
For further Web-based information on Bloom's taxonomy:
-  Three domains of educational activities - Bloom's
Taxonomy
-  Strategies for primary classrooms based on Bloom's
Taxonomy
-  Bloom's Taxonomy's Model Questions and Key
Words (University of Texas at Austin)
-  Huitt, W. (2004). Bloom et al.'s taxonomy of the cognitive
domain. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA:
 Valdosta State University
2. Hunter's Model - Seven-step lesson plan (1971):

i. Objectives (of teaching)
ii. Standards (of performance)
iii. Anticipatory set (i.e. a "hook" to grab
students' attention)
-  to focus student attention on the lesson
-  to create an organizing framework for the
ideas, principles, or information that is to
follow
-  to extend the understanding and the
application of abstract ideas through the
use of example or analogy
iv. Teaching
-  Input
-  Modeling
-  Check for understanding
v. Guided practice/Monitoring
v. Closure (reviewing and clarifying the key
points of a lesson)
v. Independent practice

 
For further Web-based information on Hunter's Model:
-  Madeline Hunter's "seven step lesson plan"
-  A different version of Hunter's model along with sample
lesson plans
-  Basic lesson presentation elements
-  Hunter Model Lesson Plans

3. Constructivism and Social Constructivism

Constructivism refers to the theory of learning and

knowledge construction in an environment where students
are afforded opportunities to construct their own meaning
 through student-directed interaction with rich resources and
problems (Dewey, Piaget, Vygotsky, and Bruner).

Bruner:  An individual's construction of knowledge is a result

of active engagement with his or her environment and
guided discovery (more information).

Vygotsky: A social group plays an important role in helping

students to construct knowledge. Students first learn ideas
in social context and then later integrate these words and
thoughts into their own developing cognitive structures
(more information).

Situated Cognition: How something is learned may be as

important as what is learned. Learning is more meaningful
when it relates to authentic experiences that are similar to
what might be encountered in the real world (Brown,
Collins, and Duguid, 1988).

For further Web-based information on Constructivism:

-  Constructivist Learning Design Notes, Constructivist
Learning Design Paper, and Teachers' Perspectives on a
Constructivist Learning Design, by George W. Gagnon, Jr.
and Michelle Collay
-  Constructivism and Technology
-  Constructivism Learning Theories
-  Society for Constructivism in the Human Sciences
 

9.4.2   The Web and Thinking

1. There is a type of Web page specifically designed
to support thinking and problem solving on the Web
known as a WebQuest.

2. A WebQuest is an inquiry-oriented activity in which most

or all of the information used by learners is drawn from the
Web. This model was developed in early 1995 at San Diego
 State University by Bernie Dodge.

3. WebQuests are designed to use learners' time well,

to focus on using information rather than looking for it,
and to support learners' thinking at the levels of analysis,
synthesis and evaluation.

4. A WebQuest usually includes the following elements:

- An introduction or scenario

- A task that is meaningful and doable

- A process for completing the task, often in groups

- Information resources to support the task

- Guidance on how to organize the information acquired

- A conclusion that brings closure and reflection

5. WebQuests are useful for linguistically diverse learning

environments because they facilitate cooperative
learning, are rich in different kinds of resources including
pictures and sound, and provide a variety of ways to
access and demonstrate knowledge.

For further Web-based information on WebQuests:

-  The WebQuest Page at San Diego State University
-  Why WebQuests? An introduction, by Tom March
-  Tom March's best webquest site
-  Dr. Alice Christie's Matrix of 320 WebQuests
-  Building Blocks of a WebQuest
-  WebQuest Resource Bank (香港中文大學教育學院 探索網站
資源庫)
-  Introduction to WebQuests at DiscoveryShool.com
6. Take a look at TrackStar (developed by the University of
Kansas), which contains hundreds of online lessons and
web-based activities similar to WebQuests. 
Examples:
-         Track # 126807  New York, New York (Planning a trip to
New York city)
-         Track # 53780    Idioms and Telephone Use for Today
-         Track # 187160  Friendship and Love
 
 Unit 10.  Designing CALL Programs and Activities

   Please read
1. Bangs, P. (2004). ICT4LT Module 2.5: Introduction to
CALL authoring
programs. http://www.ict4lt.org/en/en_mod2-5.htm
2. Gimeno-Sanz, A. & Davies, G. (2004). ICT4LT Module
3.2: CALL software design and
implementation. http://www.ict4lt.org/en/en_mod3-
2.htm
3. Boling, E. & Soo, K. (1999). CALL issues: Designing
CALL software. In Egbert & Hanson-Smith (Eds.), CALL
environment, pp. 442-456.
 
10.1    Considerations for the Design of CALL
Programs
        10.1.1    Pedagogy First and Technology
Second
        10.1.2    Computer Interactivity vs.
Pedagogical Interactivity
10.2    CALL Program Design Principles
        10.2.1    Content Design
        10.2.2    Visual Design
        10.2.3    Navigation Design
        10.2.4    Multimedia Design
10.3    Using Authoring Programs to make
Interactive Exercises
 
 
10.1 Considerations for the Design of CALL Programs

10.1.1 Pedagogy First and Technology Second

1. When creating and developing CALL programs, it is

important to remember that the element that is in control
at all times should be the pedagogy, rather than
technology. Pedagogy, in turn, is driven by learners' needs
and learning objectives.

2. Technical considerations are also important, but

without good-quality content and good pedagogical
support, the use of advanced technology does not
guarantee the success of computer-assisted learning
materials.

3. To create a multimedia CALL program it is essential to

consider:
- the target audience/learners (age, cognitive ability
level, learning styles, motivation of learning, familiarity
with technology, etc.)
- the language level of the learners
- the purpose (learning objectives) of the program
- the pedagogical approach
- the appropriate use of technology
- the learning context
 

10.1.2 Computer Interactivity vs. Pedagogical Interactivity

1. Computers may seem powerful in many aspects, but in

essence all they can do is to present materials and provide
pre-determined feedback.

2. The true creativeness of a learning program must come

from the pedagogical side. The instructional design must
come before the interactive design.
 3. Computer interactivity refers to the functionality designed
for human-to-machine interaction via computers. Such
computer interactive activities include multiple choice
quizzes, gap-filling/cloze, matching, drag-and-drop
exercises, re-ordering and sentence reconstruction,
crosswords,  clickable text and other media, mouse-over
annotations, simulation games, interactive animation,
automatic speech recognition (ASR), and so on.

4. Pedagogical interactivity means that the nature and

function of interactivity is determined by a learning
theory or a pedagogical approach. Pedagogical
interactivity is situated in the belief that knowledge is
constructed through multiple types of
interaction (Hillman, Willis, & Gunawardena, 1994; Moore,
1989; also see Sutton's review on Interaction):
- Learner-content: interaction between content and the
learner's belief and knowledge
- Learner-instructor: interaction Involving feedback and
guidance to the learner provided by  the instructor
- Learner-learner: interaction between learners that
result in clarifications and knowledge construction
- Learner-interface: a function of the technology system
through which learner may interact with content,
instructor, or other learner

Therefore, computer-mediated communication (CMC),
or human-to-human interaction via computers, also needs
to be taken into consideration when developing CALL
programs.

 
 
10.2    CALL Program Design Principles

10.2.1    Content Design

1. Brevity: 

Remember that "reading from computer screens is about

25% slower than reading from paper... people don't want to
read a lot of text from computer screens: you should write
50% less text and not just 25% less since it's not only a
matter of reading speed but also a matter of feeling good."
(ICT4LT Module 3.2)

As a general rule it is advisable to use:

- short paragraphs
- bullets and tables to make reading easier
- lots of white space - more than on the printed page
- multimedia to convey meaning
- one screen to present all related information
2. Comprehensibility:
The program needs to provide comprehensible input to
learners. That is, the difficulty level of learning materials
should be appropriate to learners' language level and the
information needs to
be organized systematically and presented clearly.
3.  Accuracy:
Make sure the content to be presented is accurate, valid,
and unbiased. Double check all the information presented
in the program and avoid making typos and grammatical
errors.
4. Interestingness:
The content of the CALL program needs to be of great
interest to learners in order to motivate them to learn with
the program.
 5. Organization:
The organization of the content, such as a hierarchical way
with topics and sub-topics and an associative way with
word/icon links, needs to be well-structured.

10.2.2    Visual Design

1. Consistency: 

The placement of elements on the screen needs to be

consistent from screen to screen, including the use
of color, layout, capitalization, typefaces and fonts. Also,
the terminology used in prompts, menus, and help screens
needs to be consistent too.

2. Good Use of Space:

Each section of content should fit onto one screen.

Different parts of the information should be distinguished
from one another spatially rather than through variations
in color, style, or other visual treatments. Too many other
treatments can clutter the screen with visual noise, which
distracts from the content being presented.

3. Legibility: 

The text on the screen must be legible and readable.

For legibility, avoid using elaborate typefaces on screen,
and text in paragraphs should not be smaller than 12
points. For readability, lines of text should be aligned on
the left (i.e. left justified), not on the right, and individual
lines of text should be at least several pixels apart.

4. Careful Use of Color: 

Color needs to be used with caution. Overuse of color

makes information more difficult to read because the user
slows down to think about what the color means. It is
important to ensure good contrast between text and
 background. Dark text on light background is more
preferable. Avoid the use of combinations of
complementary colors (e.g. red and green, blue and
orange, yellow and violet).

5. Contrast, Repetition, Alignment, Proximity: 

Effective screen design exhibits good use of contrast,

repetition, alignment, and proximity, which are four basic
principles of visual
design. Different elements should contrast clearly with
each other, whereas common elements, like logos and
navigation buttons, should be repeated. Each element on
the screen should be aligned either horizontally or
vertically. Related items should be placed close to each
other, and unrelated items placed farther apart, because
users assume that items in close proximity are related.

10.2.3    Navigation Design

1. Ease of Navigation and Recovery:

Good design prevents users as much as possible from

making serious errors with the interface of the software or
the website. A good program should provide easy and clear
navigation and instruction for recovery if users get into
trouble. Make sure navigation bar appears at the same
place on every screen or every webpage.

10.2.4    Multimedia Design

1. High-Quality Playback

Audio and video playback must be of sufficiently high

technical quality. The synchronization of video with audio
is more important than the quality of the video display.
The quality of audio needs to be taken into account,
 particularly because language learners may use some
listening materials as a model for their learning of speaking
skills. 
2. Media File Size
The size of sound files and video files can be very large,
which may result in very long download time and cause
inconvenience for learners to use web-based activities
using multimedia. It is better to use some sound editing
software to compress large files before upload them on the
web.
 

10.3    Using Authoring Programs to make Interactive Exercises

Please go to CALL Authoring Programs and Resources to learn

how to make interactive exercises.

References

Hillman, D. C., Willis, D. J., & Gunawardena, C. N. (1994).

Learner-interface interaction in distance education: An
extension of contemporary models and strategies for
practitioners. The American Journal of Distance Education, 8(2),
30-42.

Moore, M. (1989). Three types of interaction. The American

Journal of Distance Education, 3(2),1-6.
 
  
Unit 11.  Using Multimedia for Web-Based CALL Activities

   Please read
1. Davis, R. S. (2002). How to build a multimedia website for language
study. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VIII.
No.2. http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Davis-MultimediaSite/
2. LeLoup, J. W. (2000) Enhancing Authentic Language Learning
Experiences through Internet Technology. ERIC
Digest. http://www.ericfacility.net/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed44227
7.html
3. Morrison, S. (2002). Interactive Language Learning on the Web. ERIC
Digest. http://www.ericfacility.net/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed47285
1.html
 
11.1    Introduction to Web-Based CALL Activities
11.2    How to Build a Multimedia Website
11.3    Introduction to JavaScript
11.4    Introduction to Flash
11.5    Creating and Editing Images
11.6    Recording and Editing Sounds
11.7    Recording and Editing Videos
11.8    Developing Web-based Activities/Courses
 
 
11.1    Introduction to Web-Based CALL Activities (from LeLoup, J. W. (2000)
Enhancing Authentic Language Learning Experiences through Internet
Technology. ERIC Digest.)

1. Why create your own web-based language learning activities?

- Accessibility: By putting course material on the Web, teachers provide

 students with 24-hour independent access to course information, and
updates to Web pages and new assignments are immediately available to
students.
- Renewability: Once created, materials can be updated easily and as
often as needed.
- Adaptability: Web-based activities can easily be modified to support
students at different proficiency levels or with special needs.
2. Types of web-based activities:
- Developing reading and writing skills with webquests, discussion forums,
and weblogs.
- Developing communication skills with emails and online chat.
- Creating vocabulary and grammar exercises with JavaScript and Flash.
- Creating Listening comprehension and pronunciation practice with audio
clips.
- Creating online language learning activities/courses with web authoring
software.
 

11.2    How to Build a Multimedia Website (from Davis, R. S. (2002). How to

build a multimedia website for language study. The Internet TESL
Journal, Vol. VIII. No.2.)

1.   Survey existing websites.

2.   Deciding on the purpose and objectives of the site

3.   Determining limitations and users' reactions to technology

4.   Securing the right equipment

5.   Preparing the content

6.   Recording and editing media files

7.   Encoding the media files for the Internet

8.   Making the media available to users online

9.   Playing the media files

 11.  Troubleshooting playback problems

11.  Evaluating your work and being willing to revise

11.3    Introduction to JavaScript

 
There are many websites providing a variety of free JavaScript codes for
website developers to use. All you have to do is to learn how to copy, paste,
and modify those codes to meet your own needs.  But before learning how to
use JavaScript, you need to have basic knowledge about HTML (HyperText
Markup Language).

1. Let's learn Basic HTML first.

Also, there are many HTML tutorials and HTML code glossaries on the
Web:

- NCSA - A Beginner's Guide to HTML

- HTML Basics 111

- Dave Raggett's Introduction to HTML

- HTML 語法教學

- HTML 語法大全

2. Learn to use some common JavaScripts that language learning websites

may need:

- opening a new window in the body 開啟新視窗

- mouse-over - a pop-up box in the menu 選單說明視窗

- mouse-over - an expanding menu with layers 階層式選單

- mouse-over - an annotation box 文字說明視窗

- mouse-over - a text change 整段文字變換

- instant word lookup 查字功能 (including "double-click function to any

word on the page" and "Dictionary Lookup Box")
 Online
Dictionary
Wor
d:
by: Look it up

- Google free web search and free site search 利用 Google 搜尋(含站內
及站外)
Google Search
 
 WWW   Emily Chen's CALL
Website
***Do it Yourself!
Now let's make a simple webpage using
JavaScript.
Please use the text as an example.
3. Below are some useful JavaScript Collection websites:

    English websites:

- Webmonkey JavaScript (including JavaScript tutorials and code

library)

- JavaScript Kit (including JavaScript tutorials and free Scripts and

free applets)

- JavaScript City

- The JavaScript Planet

- BlueShoes JavaScript

    Chinese websites:

- JavaScript 程式庫

- JavaScript 收集/教學

- JavaScript 魔法師

- JavaScript 下載

- JavaScript 視窗小技巧
  

11.4    Introduction to Flash

1. Learn Flash Basics [PowerPoint Slides]

2. Below are some useful Flash Introduction Websites:

- Flash Basics (from the Pennsylvania State University)

- Flash Tutorial (from EchoEcho.Com)

- Flash Basics and Drawing (from CBT Cafe)

 
11.5    Creating and Editing Images

1.   Make use of royalty-free images from online clipart resource sites.

2.   Use IrfanView (free image viewing and editing software)

      Download the IrfanView: http://www.irfanview.com/
- IrfanView Tutorial (from Instructional Endeavors)
- Resizing Large Images Using IrfanView (* Note: 72 pixels = 1 inch)
- IrfanView Tutorial

***Do it Yourself!
Now let's edit an image using IrfanView.
Please use the image bear as an
example. 

3.   Use PhotoImpact 8 [PowerPoint Slides]

Download PhotoImpact 8 trial version from

PChome:  http://toget.pchome.com.tw/intro/drawing_imageprocess/1
1305.html

***Do it Yourself!
 Now let's edit images using PhotoImpact
8.
Please use the four images as examples: 
heart, apple, book, funny

4.   More image editing software you may consider using:

- ACDSee (download the trial version from

PChome: http://toget.pchome.com.tw/intro/drawing_view/6.html)

- Adobe
Photoshop: http://www.adobe.com/products/photoshop/main.html

- Paintshop Pro: http://www.jasc.com/products/paintshoppro

- PhotoSuite: http://www.roxio.com

- Also see PChome for other image editing freeware/shareware

download:  http://toget.pchome.com.tw/index/drawing_imageproces
s/index_t1.html
 

11.6    Recording and Editing Sounds

Read "Sound recording for language teachers" by the Association of

University Language Centres http://www.aulc.org/resources.html

Sound recording and editing software:

- Sound Recorder: It is supplied with Windows. Rather primitive, only

basic operations

- Audacity (freeware): Allows for all the basic features of editing, and
copes with different formats, and will even import
MIDI. http://audacity.sourceforge.net

- Free Download MP3 Sound Recorder Software, Audio Recording, WAV

Recorder, WMA Recorder: http://www.sound-
recorder.com/download.htm

- GoldWave: http://www.goldwave.com.  Download the trial version

 from
PChome http://toget.pchome.com.tw/intro/multimedia_musicmaker/3
163.html

- Wav Compressor:  A freeware that can compress WAV files while

maintaining high quality or convert them to
Mp3. http://www.droopyeyes.com/default.asp?
mode=ShowProduct&ID=11  or download it from
PChome http://toget.pchome.com.tw/intro/multimedia_transfer/1757
0.html

- r8brain 1.6 : A freeware that can convert WAV files and give high
sample rate conversion quality in combination with comparably small
processing time. http://www.voxengo.com/r8brainpro/ or download it
from
PChome http://toget.pchome.com.tw/intro/multimedia_transfer/1858
1.html

11.7    Recording and Editing Videos

- Movie Maker is bundled with Windows XP (free

download) http://www.microsoft.com/windowsxp/downloads/updates
/moviemaker2.mspx

- Ulead VideoStudio (會聲會影): http://www.ulead.com/vs/runme.htm

  Or download the trial version from
PChome http://toget.pchome.com.tw/intro/multimedia_maker/3727.h
tml

- Adobe Premiere: http://www.adobe.com/products/premiere 

- VideoWave: http://www.roxio.com

- VCDGear: A freeware written to extract MPEG streams from CD images,

convert VideoCD files to MPEG, correct MPEG errors, and create
(Super)VideoCDs. http://toget.pchome.com.tw/intro/multimedia_trans
fer/11282.html
 - Also see PChome for other video editing freeware/shareware
download: http://toget.pchome.com.tw/index/multimedia_maker/ind
ex_t1.html http://toget.pchome.com.tw/index/multimedia_videomake
r/index_t1.html

  
11.8    Developing Web-based Activities/Courses

- TrackStar, produced by the University of Kansas

(http://trackstar.4teachers.org/trackstar/)

  TrackStar helps teachers to create online lessons and activities. Simply

collect Web sites, enter them into TrackStar, add annotations for your
students, and you have an interactive, online lesson called a Track. Create
your own Track or use one of the hundreds of thousands already made by
other teachers.

- Web Worksheet Wizard, produced by the University of Kansas

(http://wizard.hprtec.org/)

  This web-based utility allows teachers to create a lesson, worksheet or

class page on the World Wide Web.

- Project Poster, produced by the University of Kansas

(http://poster.hprtec.org/)

 This tool allows students to create and post Web pages for projects.

  * Note: There are other free online tools and resources produced by the
University of Kansas.  Please check their
website http://www.4teachers.org/ for more information.

- Nicenet - Internet Classroom Assistant (ICA) (http://www.nicenet.org/)

  It provides free web-based learning environment for classrooms, distance

learning programs and collaborative academic projects. ICA is a
sophisticated communication tool that brings powerful Web-based
conferencing, personal messaging, document sharing, scheduling and
link/resource sharing to a variety of learning environments.

- Teacher's Desk: It offers free EduWare and Game Ware download.

  

Unit 12.   Rethinking CALL

   Please read
1. Bax, S. (2003). CALL – past, present and future. System, 31, 13-28.
Available: http://www.iateflcompsig.org.uk/media/callpresentpastandfutur
e.pdf

2. Shetzer, H. & Warschauer, M. (2000). A electronic literacy

approach to network-based language teaching. In M. Warschauer
& R. Kern (Eds.), Network-based language teaching: Concepts and
practice. New York: Cambridge.
 

Rethinking CALL

   Why do we need to rethink what we know?

- We need to think critically.
- We need to make wise decisions.
   Main Issues
1) Is the computer a must in language learning and teaching?
2) What is computer assisted language learning (CALL)?
3) What can teachers and learners do in using computers for
language learning?
4) What knowledge or competence do language teachers need for
CALL?

   Issue 1: Is the computer a must in language learning and

teaching?
Two fallacies (Bax, 2003)
1) "Omnipotence" fallacy
Computers can do everything and should replace current
learning and teaching technologies.
2) "Sole Agent" fallacy
 The key or only factor in successful implementation of the
technology is the technology itself.
   What Computers Can and Can’t Do

   Factors affecting CALL:

Teacher, Learner,
Context
Objective,
 How to use the computer
Material, Activity

   How is the computer used?

CALL Contexts
Computer Roles
One-computer
Tutor classroom
(behaviorist)
Network computer lab
Tool
(cognitive) Self-access learning
Medium center
(sociocognitive)
Distance learning

   Conclusion for Issue 1

- No, the computer is not a must, but it will become
“normalized” in everyday practice, like a pen or a book
(Bax,2003).
- Computer technology has to be treated as an aid, but not a
panacea.
- The effectiveness of CALL cannot reside in the computer
technology itself but in how it is put to use and for what
purposes.
 
   Issue 2: What is computer assisted language learning (CALL)?
Definition:

- This term (Computer-assisted language learning - CALL) is

widely used to refer to the area of technology and second
language teaching and learning despite the fact that revisions
 for the term are suggested regularly (Chapelle, 2001, p. 3).

- Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) may be defined as

the search for and study of applications of the computer in
language teaching and learning (Levy, 1997, p.1).

- Given the breadth of what may go on in computer-assisted

language learning (CALL), a definition of CALL that
accommodates its changing nature is any process in which a
learner uses a computer and, as a result, improves his or her
language (Beatty, 2003, p. 7).

   Types of CALL programs/materials:

- CALL-specific software (CD-ROMs)

- Generic software (e.g., word-processors - Word, presentation
software - PowerPoint, and spreadsheet - Excel).
- Web-based learning materials
- Computer-mediated communication (CMC) programs
(synchronous: online chat; asynchronous: email and discussion
forum)
   Types of CALL activities:

- multiple-choice & true/false quizzes

- gap-filling exercise/cloze
- matching
- re-ordering/sequencing
- crossword puzzles
- games and simulations
- writing & word-processing
- concordancing 
- web quests/searching
- web publishing
- Computer-mediated communication (synchronous and
asynchronous)
   Early CALL vs. Modern CALL

   Issue 3: What can teachers and learners do in using

computers for language learning?

CALL – Listening Skills

- Randall's ESL Cyber Listening Lab
- Adult Learning Activities - California Distance Learning
Project
- BBC Learning English: Watch and Listen
- Voice of America - Special English

CALL – Speaking Skills

- My English Tutor
- English Pronunciation (Okanagan University College, Canada)
- Conversation Questions for the ESL & EFL Classroom
- Top 100 American speeches in the 20th century
- Reader’s theater (an example: “Many Moons”)

CALL – Reading Skills

- Learn to Read at Starfall
- Phonics and Word Study
- Vocabulary for K-12 and ESL Kids
- ESL games in EnglishClub.com
- Mother Goose Rebus Rhymes
- SurLaLune Fairy Tales
- The Online Books Page (University of Pennsylvania)
- English reading from EnlgishClub.com
- Repeat after Us - Online Library and Language Lab
- The Gold Scales of Tales, Poems and Wisdom

CALL – Writing Skills

- ABC Letters, Writing, Words, Numbers, Shapes, & Colors
- ESL Blues
- Advice on Academic Writing (University of Toronto)
- Purdue University's OWL (Online Writing Lab):
a) Grammar/Writing Resources, Handouts and Exercises for ESL
Students
b) Grammar, Punctuation, and Spelling

Web-Quests - Thinking Skills

A WebQuest usually includes the following elements:
- An introduction or scenario
- A task that is meaningful and doable
- A process for completing the task
- Information resources to support the task
- A conclusion that brings closure and evaluation

WebQuests facilitate cooperative learning, offer different kinds

of resources, and provide a variety of ways to access and
demonstrate knowledge.
- Dr. Alice Christie's Matrix of 320 WebQuests
- WebQuest Resource Bank (香港中文大學探索網站資源庫)

Concordancing
A concordancer is a computer program that allows users to search
a collection of authentic texts (i.e. a corpus) for multiple
examples of selected words or phrases.
Users can use a concordancer to find examples of authentic usage
to demonstrate word collocations, word usage, or even the
structure of a text.
Examples:
- 國立清華大學 CANDLE Project - TOTALrecall, VN Collocation
(TANGO), and Collocation Checker
- 淡江大學 Collocation Explorer
- VLC's Web Concordancer 香港理工大學
 - Google

CMC Activities
Synchronous
- ESL Cafe's Chat Central
- Chat Room in Englishbaby.com
- VLC Chat Rooms (Hong Kong)

Asynchronous
- Dave's ESL Cafe:
  1) Student Discussion Forums, and 2) Teacher Discussion Forums
- Englishforums.com
- EnglishClub.com ESL Forums
- BBC Learning English - Communicate
- Nicenet.org
 
   Recap

- Remember what computers can do is to present information

with multimedia and to provide predetermined feedback.

- There are four features that need to be considered for the CALL
activities: accessibility, interactivity, renewability, and
adaptability.

- Pedagogy first and technology second. Pedagogical Interactivity

is more important than computer Interactivity.

   Issue 4: What knowledge/competence do language teachers

need for CALL?

Content Knowledge + Electronic Literacy

Electronic literacy (Shetzer & Warschauer, 2000)

- Communication:
how to express and interpret meaning in the computer-mediated
 communication environment

- Construction:
how to write 1) from essay to hypertext, 2) from words to
multimedia, and 3) from author to co-constructor

- Research:
how to navigate Web sources, search for information, and
evaluate and interpret the found information

   Conclusion

- “What is the use of a book,” thought Alice, “without pictures or

conversation?”
~ From Alice's Adventures In Wonderland (p.1)
- Technology is neither an unalloyed blessing nor an unmitigated
curse.
- Computers don’t teach, but teachers do.
- Learners don’t learn from machines but from human beings.
 
References
Bax, S. (2003). CALL – past, present and future. System, 31, 13-28.
Available: http://www.iateflcompsig.org.uk/media/callpresentpastandfuture.
pdf
Beatty, K. (2003). Teaching and researching computer-assisted language
learning. New York: Longman.
Chapelle, C. A. (2001). Computer applications in second language acquisition.
New York: Cambridge.
Levy, M. (1997) CALL: Context and conceptualization. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Shetzer, H. & Warschauer, M. (2000). A electronic literacy approach to network-
based language teaching. In M. Warschauer & R. Kern (Eds.), Network-based
language teaching: Concepts and practice. New York: Cambridge.