Contents

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 1Types of reciprocating compressors

o 1.1Separable compressors
o 1.2Integral compressors
 2Major components
o 2.1Frame
o 2.2Cylinder
o 2.3Distance piece
o 2.4Crankshaft
o 2.5Piston
o 2.6Bearings
o 2.7Compressor valves
 3Compressor performance
o 3.1Piston displacement
o 3.2Clearance volume
 3.2.1Application
 3.2.1.1Fixed-volume clearance
pockets
 3.2.1.2Variable clearance
pockets
 3.2.1.3Split-valve yokes
o 3.3Volumetric efficiency
o 3.4Rod load
 3.4.1Single-acting cylinder (head end)
 3.4.2Single-acting cylinder (crank end)
 3.4.3Double-acting cylinder
o 3.5Other performance factors
o 3.6Performance maps
 4Process installation
o 4.1Recycle valve
o 4.2Blowdown valve
o 4.3Suction scrubber
o 4.4Relief valves
 5Pulsation
o 5.1Pulsation control devices
o 5.2Pulsation design
 6Vibration considerations
o 6.1Piping vibration
o 6.2Foundation design
 7Cylinder cooling
o 7.1Cooling systems
 8Lubrication
o 8.1Frame lubrication
o 8.2Splash lubrication
o 8.3Pressurized lubrication
 8.3.1Main oil pump
 8.3.2Auxiliary pump (optional)
 8.3.3Prelube pump (Optional)
 8.3.4Oil cooler
  8.3.5Oil filters
 8.3.6Overhead tank
 8.3.7Piping
o 8.4Cylinder and packing lubrication
 9Nomenclature
 10References
 11Noteworthy papers in OnePetro
 12External links
 13See also

Types of reciprocating compressors

There are two types of reciprocating compressors:

 High speed (separable)

 Low speed (integral)
The high-speed category also is referred to as “separable,” and the low-speed category also is
known as “integral.”
The American Petroleum Institute (API) has produced two industry standards, API
Standard 11P and API Standard 618, which are frequently employed to govern the design and
manufacture of reciprocating compressors.
Separable compressors
The term “separable” is used because this category of reciprocating compressors is separate
from its driver. Either an engine or an electric motor usually drives a separable compressor.
Often a gearbox is required in the compression train. Operating speed is typically between 900
and 1,800 rpm.
Separable units are skid mounted and self-contained. They are easy to install, offer a relatively
small initial cost, are easily moved to different sites, and are available in sizes appropriate for
field gathering—both onshore and offshore. However, separable compressors have higher
maintenance costs than integral compressors.
Fig. 1 is a cross section of a typical separable compressor. Fig. 2 shows a separable engine-
driven compressor package.

Fig. 1—Cross section of a separable

compressor (courtesy of Dresser-Rand).
 
 

Fig. 2—Separable engine compressor

package (courtesy of Dresser-Rand).
Integral compressors
The term “integral” is used because the power cylinders that drive the compressor are mounted
integrally with the frame containing the compressor cylinders. Integral units run at speeds of
between 200 and 600 rpm. They are commonly used in gas plants and pipeline service where
fuel efficiency and long life are critical. Integral compressors may be equipped with two to ten
compressor cylinders with power ranging from 140 to 12,000 hp.
Integral compressors offer high efficiency over a wide range of operating conditions and require
less maintenance than the separable units. However, integral units usually must be field-erected
and require heavy foundations and a high degree of vibration and pulsation suppression. They
have the highest initial installation cost.
Fig. 3 is a cross section of a typical integral compressor. Fig. 4 shows an integral compressor
package.

Fig. 3—Cross section of an integral

compressor (courtesy of Dresser-Rand).
 
 

Fig. 4—Integral reciprocating compressor

package (courtesy of Dresser-Rand).

Major components
Reciprocating compressors are available in a variety of designs and arrangements. Major
components in a typical reciprocating compressor are shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5—Reciprocating compressor

components (courtesy of Dresser-Rand).
Frame
The frame is a heavy, rugged housing containing all the rotating parts and on which the cylinder
and crosshead guide is mounted. Compressor manufacturers rate frames for a maximum
continuous horsepower and frame load (see the section on Rod Load below).
Separable compressors are usually arranged in a balanced-opposed configuration characterized
by an adjacent pair of crank throws that are 180 degrees out of phase and separated by only a
crank web. The cranks are arranged so that the motion of each piston is balanced by the motion
of an opposing piston.
Integral compressors typically have compressor and engine-power cylinders mounted on the
same frame and are driven by the same crankshaft. Cylinders in integral compressors are
usually arranged on only one side of the frame (i.e., not balanced-opposed).
Cylinder
The cylinder is a pressure vessel that contains the gas in the compression cycle. Single-acting
cylinders compress gas in only one direction of piston travel. They can be either head end or
crank end. Double-acting cylinders compress gas in both directions of piston travel (see Fig. 6).
Most reciprocating compressors use double-acting cylinders.
 

Fig. 6—Double-acting cylinders (courtesy of

Dresser-Rand).
Choice of cylinder material is determined by operating pressure. Cast iron is normally used for
pressures up to 1,000 psi. Nodular iron is used for pressures up to 1,500 psi. Cast steel is
usually used for pressures between 1,500 and 2,500 psi. Forged steel is selected for cylinder
operating pressures greater than 2,500 psi.
A cylinder’s maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) should be rated at least 10% greater
than the design discharge pressure (minimum 25 psi). The additional pressure rating allows a
high-pressure safety sensor (PSH) to be set above the design discharge pressure, and for a
relief valve (PSV) to be set at a pressure above the PSH.
Wear compatibility of the rubbing parts (piston rings and cylinder bore, piston rod and seal rings,
etc.) is also a criterion for selecting materials. Cylinders experience wear at the point of contact
with the piston rings. In horizontal arrangements, cylinder wear is greatest at the bottom because
of piston weight. Thermoplastic rings and rider bands are used in most reciprocating
compressors to reduce such wear.
Cylinders are frequently supplied with liners to reduce reconditioning costs. Liners are pressed or
shrunk in place to ensure that they do not slip. Replacement of a cylinder liner is much less
expensive than replacing an entire cylinder. In addition, performance can be adjusted to new
requirements by changing the inside diameter of the liner. However, cylinder liners increase the
clearance between the valve and the piston, diminish the effectiveness of jacket cooling, and
decrease compressor capacity from a given diameter.
Distance piece
The distance piece provides separation between the compressor cylinder and the compressor
frame. Fig. 7 illustrates API Standard 11P and API Standard 618 distance pieces. Distance
pieces can be contained in either a single- or double-compartment arrangement. In the single-
compartment design, the space between the cylinder packing and the diaphragm is lengthened
so that no part of the rod enters both the crankcase and cylinder stuffing box. Oil migrates
between the cylinder and the crankcase. If oil contamination is a concern, an oil slinger can be
provided to prevent packing lube oil from entering the compressor frame. For toxic service, a
two-compartment design may be used. No part of the rod enters both the crankcase and the
compartment adjacent to the gas cylinder.
 

Fig. 7—Two-compartment distance piece

showing packing and buffer gas
arrangement (courtesy of Dresser-Rand).
The packing case should be vented to the first stage suction or a vent gas system. Distance
pieces contain a vent to evacuate additional leaking process gas from the packing. The
diaphragm and packing are designed to keep gas from entering the crankcase. Effective venting
is required to ensure that the process gas does not contaminate crankcase oil.
Each compressor should be equipped with a separate vent and drain system for distance pieces
and packing. Distance piece and packing vents should be piped into an open vent system that
terminates outside and above the compressor enclosure at least 25 ft horizontally from the
engine exhaust. The distance piece drain should be piped into a separate sump that can be
manually drained. The sump should be vented outside and above the compressor enclosure.
Lube oil from the sump can be mixed with crude oil or, under certain circumstances, must be
transported for disposal or recycling.
Crankshaft
The crankshaft rotates around the frame axis and drives the connecting rod, piston rod, and
piston (see Fig. 8).

 Connecting rod connects the crankshaft to

the crosshead pin
 Crosshead converts the rotating motion of
the connecting rod to a linear, oscillating
motion that drives the piston
 Piston rod connects the crosshead to the
piston.


 Fig. 8—Crankshaft assembly (courtesy of
Dresser-Rand).
Piston
The piston is located at the end of the piston rod and acts as the movable barrier in the
compressor cylinder. Selection of material is based on strength, weight, and compatibility with
the gas being compressed. The piston is usually made of a lightweight material such as
aluminum or from cast iron or steel with a hollow center for weight reduction. Thermoplastic wear
(or rider) bands often are fitted to pistons to increase ring life and reduce the risk of piston-to-
cylinder contact. Cast iron usually provides a satisfactorily low friction characteristic, eliminating
the need for separate wear bands.
Wear bands distribute the weight of the piston along the bottom of the cylinder or liner wall.
Piston rings minimize the leakage of gas between the piston and the cylinder or liner bore. Piston
rings are made of a softer material than the cylinder or liner wall and are replaced at regular
maintenance intervals. As the piston passes the lubricator feed hole in the cylinder wall, the
piston ring gathers oil and distributes it over the length of the stroke.
Bearings
Bearings located throughout the compressor frame assure proper radial and axial positioning of
compressor components. Main bearings are fitted in the frame to properly position the
crankshaft. Crank pin bearings are located between the crankshaft and each connecting rod.
Wrist pin bearings are located between each connecting rod and crosshead pin. Crosshead
bearings are located at the top and bottom of each crosshead.
Most of the bearings in reciprocating compressors are hydrodynamic lubricated bearings.
Pressurized oil is supplied to each bearing through oil supply grooves on the bearing surface.
The grooves are sized to ensure adequate oil flow to prevent overheating.
Piston rod packing provides the dynamic seal between the cylinder and the piston rod. The
packing consists of a series of non-metallic rings mounted in a case and bolted to the cylinder.
The packing rings work in pairs and are designed for automatic wear compensation. Because
each pair of rings accommodates a limited amount of pressure differential, multiple pairs are
required depending on the pressure required by the application. To safely vent gas leakage
through the packing, the vent port is usually located between the two outer ring assemblies (see
the section on Distance Piece above).
Auxiliary connections to the packing may be required for:

 Cooling water
 Lubricating oil
 Nitrogen purging
 Venting
 Temperature measurement
Lubrication must be finely filtered to avoid damage that would result from small particulate matter
entering the case. The lubricating oil is normally injected into the second ring assembly, with
pressure moving the oil along the shaft.
Compressor valves
The essential function of compressor valves is to permit gas flow in the desired direction and to
block all flow in the opposite (undesired) direction. Each operating end of a compressor cylinder
must have two sets of valves. The set of inlet (suction) valves admits gas into the cylinder. The
set of discharge valves is used to evacuate compressed gas from the cylinder. The compressor
manufacturer normally specifies valve type and size.
Plate valves constructed from rings connected by webs into a single plate are a common valve
type. Depending on the sealing plate material, plate valves are capable of handling pressures as
high as 15,000 psi, differential pressures to 10,000 psi, speeds to 2,000 rpm, and temperatures
to 500°F. Plate valves do not perform well in the presence of liquids.
Concentric ring valves are capable of handling pressures to 15,000 psi, differential pressures to
10,000 psi, speeds to 2,000 rpm, and temperatures to 500°F. Advantages of concentric ring
valves include:

 Moderate parts cost

 Low repair cost
 The ability to handle liquids better than
plate valves
Poppet-style valves generally provide performance that is superior to both plate and concentric
ring valves. The poppet style uses separate, round poppets to seat against holes in the valve
seat. This type of valve offers high lift and low pressure drop, resulting in higher fuel efficiency.
Poppet valves are widely used in pipeline, gas conditioning, and processing facilities. Metallic
poppets work well at:

 Pressures to 3,000 psi

 Differential pressures to 1,400 psi
 Speeds to 450 rpm
 Temperatures to 500°F
Thermoplastic poppets can be applied to applications with:

 Pressures to 3,000 psi

 Differential pressures to 1,500 psi
 Speeds to 720 rpm
 Temperatures to 400°F
Most compressors have valves mounted in the cylinders. A relatively new design concept places
the valves in the piston. The valve-in-piston design (Fig. 9) operates with low valve velocities and
provides longer life cycles and reduced maintenance time.

Fig. 9—Valve-in-piston design (courtesy of

Dresser-Rand).

Compressor performance
Compressor capacity and horsepower are affected by piston displacement and cylinder
clearance. The flow capacity of a given cylinder is a function of piston displacement and
volumetric efficiency. Volumetric efficiency is a function of cylinder clearance, compression ratio
and the properties of the gas being compressed. Compressor capacity may be calculated with
any of the following three equations.
 ................(1)

................(2)
and

................(3)
where
qa = inlet capacity of the cylinder at actual inlet conditions, Acf/min,
Ev = volumetric efficiency,
PD = piston displacement, Acf/min,
qg = inlet capacity of the cylinder, scf/min,
and
Qg = inlet capacity of the cylinder, MMscf/D.
Piston displacement
Piston displacement is defined as the actual volume of the cylinder swept by the piston per unit
of time. Displacement is commonly expressed in actual cubic feet per minute (Acf/min).
Calculation of the piston displacement is a straightforward procedure that depends on the type of
compressor configuration. Single-acting cylinders can have either head-end or crank-end
displacement. Eqs. 4 and 5 are used to calculate displacement of single-acting cylinders. Eq. 4
is for head-end displacement and Eq. 5 is for crank-end displacement.

................(4)

................(5)
where
PD = piston displacement, Acf/min,
S = stroke, in.,
N = compressor speed, rpm,
dc = cylinder diameter, in.,
dr = rod diameter, in.
Double-acting cylinder displacement is calculated with Eq. 6.

................(6)
where
PD = piston displacement, Acf/min,
S = stroke, in.,
N = compressor speed, rpm,
dc = cylinder diameter, in.,
and
dr = rod diameter, in.
The methods used to change piston displacement include changing compressor speed,
removing or deactivating suction valves in a double-acting cylinder, and changing the diameter of
the cylinder liner and piston.
Unloading one end can significantly reduce the capacity of a double-acting cylinder. The best
method to unload a cylinder is to deactivate or remove the suction valves from one end to
prevent that end from compressing gas. Depending on the frequency of unloading and the
molecular weight of the gas, a port or plug unloader is the next best method of unloading a
cylinder. A doughnut replaces one suction valve of three or more valves per corner, and only one
unloading device is required per cylinder end. With concentric ring-type valves, it is possible to
place a plug unloader in the center of a suction valve for unloading. Depending on the molecular
weight of the gas, both port and plug unloaders reduce BHP/MMscf/D and significantly improve
the reliability of the unloading system.
If the suction valve is held open with finger depressors during the compression stroke, gas will
flow through the open valve back into the suction gas passage, and no gas will be discharged
from the end of the cylinder containing the unloaded suction valve. Deactivation of the valves
may be performed manually while the compressor is shut down or by using a valve unloader or
lifter while the compressor is in operation. Control of the valve unloader can be manual or
automatic by a diaphragm that unloads the compressor using a suction pressure sensor.
Diaphragm actuators are more reliable than manual lifters or unloaders.
Unloading both ends of the same cylinder may cause the cylinder to overheat; thus, it is best to
unload only one end of a double-acting compressor cylinder. In most cases, it is preferable to
remove the suction valve when unloading the head end of a cylinder to assure load reversal in
the rods. (See the section on Rod Load below)
Clearance volume
Clearance volume is the space remaining in the compressor cylinder at the end of the stroke.
Clearance is made up of spaces in valve recesses and the space between the piston and
cylinder end. At the completion of each compression stroke, the compressed gas trapped in the
clearance space expands against the piston and adds to the force of the return stroke. Fig. 10 is
a pressure vs. volume (P-V) diagram illustrating the effect of clearance.

Fig. 10—Reciprocating compressor

of PV diagram (courtesy of Dresser-Rand).
Expansion of the gas trapped in the clearance space occurs before the suction valve opens to
admit new gas into the cylinder. As a result, part of the piston displacement occurs before the
suction valve opens. The compression process in reciprocating compressors is nearly isentropic,
so the energy required to compress the gas in the clearance space is recovered when the gas
expands at the end of the compression stroke. For this reason, changes in the clearance space
do not affect the compressor power.
Clearance volume is expressed as a percentage of piston-swept volume using one of the
following configuration-dependent equations:

 Single acting cylinder (head-end

clearance) [Eq. 7]
 Single-acting cylinder (crank-end
clearance) [Eq. 8]
 Double-acting cylinder (head-end and
crank-end clearance) [Eq. 9]
 ................(7)

................(8)

................(9)
where
 %C = cylinder clearance, %,
CHE = head-end clearance, in.3,
CCE = crank-end clearance, in.3,
dc = cylinder inside diameter, in.,
dr = rod diameter, in.,
S = stroke length, in.
Application
Clearance can be added to a cylinder as:

 Fixed-volume clearance pockets

 Variable clearance pockets
 Split-valve yokes
Fixed-volume clearance pockets
A fixed-volume clearance pocket is normally a volume bottle permanently attached to the
cylinder. Fixed volume also can be added by a side-passage clearance plug consisting of a
flange with a variable length plug inserted into a passage built into the side of the cylinder. A
fixed-volume clearance pocket may be continuously open or may be controlled to be either open
or closed. Control can be by manual hand wheel or automatic actuator. An actuator control
allows the clearance pocket to be opened or closed from outside the cylinder while the
compressor is in operation.
Variable clearance pockets
Variable clearance pockets allow a variable amount of clearance to be added to the cylinder and
can be attached to either the head end or crank end of the cylinder. Most often, variable
clearance pockets are attached to the head end, as shown in Fig. 11.

Fig. 11—Manual variable volume clearance

pocket (courtesy of Dresser-Rand).
Split-valve yokes
Excessive clearance in a compressor cylinder can cause slamming of the discharge valves. If too
much clearance is present, no gas will be discharged. Rapid overheating can occur because no
cool suction gas enters the cylinder.
Volumetric efficiency
Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the actual volume of gas (Acf/min) drawn into the cylinder to
the piston displacement (cf/min). This ratio is less than unity because of three fundamental
effects. First, the gas is heated during admission to the cylinder. Second, there is leakage past
valves and piston rings. And third, there is re-expansion of the gas trapped in the clearance
volume from the previous stroke. Of these three, re-expansion has, by far, the greatest effect on
volumetric efficiency.
Compressor manufacturers have not reached consensus on an appropriate calculation method
because measurement of these effects is extremely difficult. Recognizing this, the next
approximate equation may be used to estimate volumetric efficiency.

................(10)
where
Ev = volumetric efficiency,
R = compression ratio,
C = cylinder clearance, % of piston-swept volume,
Zs = inlet compressibility factor,
Zd = discharge compressibility factor,
dr = rod diameter, in.,
k = ratio of specific heats, Cp/Cv,
slippage of gas past piston rings, % (1% for high-speed separable, 5% for nonlubricated compressors
L =
and 4% for propane service),
and
96 = allowance for losses because of pressure drop in valves.
Rod load
Rod loads consist of gas loads caused by pressure and inertia loads that result from acceleration
and deceleration of the piston, piston rod, crosshead, and approximately one-third of the
connecting rod weight. Manufacturers specify a maximum rod load to protect the compressor
because overloading the rods can severely damage the compressor. Loads must be evaluated
for normal operating conditions and also during upset conditions. Rod loading must be reviewed
at minimum suction pressure and relief valve pressure to assure an adequate safety margin.
Rod load reversals must be of sufficient magnitude to provide lubrication to the crosshead pin
bushing. The bushings are lubricated by the pumping action of the opening and closing of
bearing clearance that occurs when the rod load reverses from tension to compression.
Operation without rod reversals also can severely damage the compressor.
Rod loads for the various compressor configurations are calculated with the following equations:

 Single-acting cylinder (head end)

 Single-acting cylinder (crank end)
 Double-acting cylinder
Single-acting cylinder (head end)

................(11)

................(12)
RLc = rod load in compression, lbf,
RLt = rod load in tension, lbf,
ap = cross-section area of piston, in.2,
ar = cross-section area of rod, in.2,
Pd = discharge pressure, psia,
Ps = suction pressure, psia,
and
Pu = pressure in unloaded end, psia.
Single-acting cylinder (crank end)

................(13)

................(14)
RLc = rod load in compression, lbf,
RLt = rod load in tension, lbf,
ap = cross-section area of piston, in.2,
ar = cross-section area of rod, in.2,
Pd = discharge pressure, psia,
Ps = suction pressure, psia,
and
Pu = pressure in unloaded end, psia.
Double-acting cylinder

................(15)

................(16)
RLc = rod load in compression, lbf,
RLt = rod load in tension, lbf,
ap = cross-section area of piston, in.2,
ar = cross-section area of rod, in.2,
Pd = discharge pressure, psia,
Ps = suction pressure, psia,
and
Pu = pressure in unloaded end, psia.
Other performance factors
Additional performance considerations include:

 Suction pressure. At constant discharge

pressure with compression ratios greater
than 2.0, the compression ratio decreases
as the suction pressure increases. A
decrease in compression ratio reduces the
power requirement per unit of flow. The
capacity of the cylinder, however,
increases with suction pressure at a faster
rate, resulting in an overall increase in
power. To avoid overloading the driver,
additional clearance must be added to
reduce cylinder capacity.
 Suction temperature. Cylinder capacity is
inversely proportional to absolute suction
 temperature. As temperature decreases,
more standard cubic feet fill the cylinder.
Thus, a 10°F reduction in suction
temperature increases compressor mass
flow by almost 2%. Precooling the gas can
be an effective way to increase cylinder
capacity.
 Discharge pressure. Changes in discharge
pressure have little effect on cylinder
capacity. Volumetric efficiency varies
slightly with compression ratio, and the
required power is directly proportional to
the change in compression ratio.
 Ratio of specific heats (k). An increase
in k value produces an increase in the
volumetric efficiency as defined by Eq. 10.
Thus, a given compressor cylinder has a
higher actual capacity when compressing
natural gas (k = 1.25), compared with its
capacity when compressing propane (k =
1.15). The higher capacity, when
compressing natural gas compared to
propane, results in greater power
consumption as well.
 Speed. Cylinder capacity is directly
proportional to compressor speed. It is
common practice to adjust compressor
speed (within reasonable limits) to
maintain desired suction pressure.
Reduction of driver speed lowers fuel
consumption and operating costs.
Performance maps
Performance maps can be developed for a specific compressor with base conditions held
constant. Fig. 12 illustrates that as suction pressure increases, both inlet flow rate and power
increase for constant discharge pressure and temperature. At very low ratios, the power may
actually decrease with increasing suction pressure.

Fig. 12—Reciprocating compressor map with

eight stages of unloading (courtesy of
Dresser-Rand).

Process installation
The compressor is an integral part of a complete compression system. Fig. 13 is a typical
process flow diagram for a reciprocating compressor installation.

Fig. 13—Compressor process flow diagram

with integral (pulsation vessel) separator
(courtesy of Dresser-Rand).
Recycle valve
Compressor suction pressure decreases as the flow rate decreases until the gas expands to
satisfy the flow required by the cylinder. The increase in compression ratio caused by reduction
in suction pressure results in an increase in discharge temperature. Thus, the recycle valve in the
system must be set to prevent low suction pressure from creating excessive discharge
temperature. In addition, rod load limits may dictate the minimum acceptable suction pressure for
a compressor installation. Where possible, recycle valve should be downstream of gas coolers.
Blowdown valve
The blowdown valve relieves trapped pressure when the compressor is shut down for
maintenance. Valve control is typically automatic but is sometimes manual at some small,
onshore compressor installations.
Suction scrubber
Ingestion of liquids into the compressor through the inlet gas stream can cause damage to the
compressor internals. For this reason, an adequately sized suction scrubber with provisions for
draining is required. The scrubber may be part of the pulsation control when properly planned
(see section on Pulsation below). If the inlet stream is near saturation, horizontally-oriented
cylinders and bottom-connected discharge nozzles are recommended.
Relief valves
Pressure relief valves set at a margin of 10% above the highest stage discharge pressure, or a
minimum of 15 to 25 psi, provide static pressure protection for piping and coolers. Relief valve
setting should never exceed the cylinder maximum allowable working pressure (see the section
on cylinders above). Caution should be taken to ensure that all suction side gas piping, cylinders,
and relief valves are rated for settle-out pressures in closed-loop refrigeration or low gas
temperature services.

Pulsation
The flow of gas through a reciprocating compressor inherently produces pulsation because the
suction and discharge valves are not open for the entire compression stroke. Pulsation damping
is needed to create a more uniform flow through the compressor to assure uniform loading and to
reduce piping vibration levels.
Pulsation control devices
If long, straight runs of piping of the same diameter as the compressor cylinder line connection
can be provided, and the stage power is less than 150 hp, separate volume bottles or pulsation
vessels may not be required. For most applications, volume bottles or pulsation vessels with
internal baffles and/or choke tubes should be located as close to the cylinder as possible for
optimum valve reliability. The addition of orifices at key locations in the piping can also reduce
piping pulsations. Several different bottle-sizing formulae are available. Typical bottle sizes are
five to ten times the cylinder swept volume.
Pulsation design
Digital piping pulsation analysis is a relatively low-cost method to ensure that a piping system is
designed to meet acceptable pulsation levels (typically 2 to 7% peak to peak). The piping system
layout must identify locations and volumes of knockout drums, bottles, coolers, and relief valves.
The analysis should include the first major vessel or volume upstream and downstream of the
compressor. Double-acting and single-acting (if applicable) operating conditions should be
analyzed.

Vibration considerations
Imbalance of the rotating elements in the compressor cause mechanical vibration.
Counterweights on the crankshaft and arranging cylinders in pairs on both sides of the crankshaft
(in plain view) can minimize but not eliminate imbalance forces. Thus, there will always be
mechanical vibrators that must be taken into account in foundation design.
Piping vibration
The compressor process gas piping must be properly designed and installed to avoid problems
associated with excessive vibration. It is important that the natural frequency of all pipe spans is
greater than the compressor pulsation frequency. The compressor pulsation frequency is
calculated with Eq. 17.

................(17)
where
fp = compressor pulsation frequency, cycles/sec,
N = compressor speed, rpm,
n = cylinder factor,
= 1 for single-acting cylinder
and
= 2 (for double-acting cylinder).
Piping should be securely tied using short pipe spans that are not uniform in length. Adequate
pulsation damping helps prevent piping-related vibration problems.
Foundation design
For large integral compressors, or for compressors installed on complex structures or soft soils, it
is best to perform a dynamic design using the imbalance forces provided by the manufacturer.
For high-speed compressors installed in areas with soils that can support a pickup truck, the
following rules are useful.

 Weight of concrete foundation should be

at least three to five times the equipment
weight.
 Use soil bearing for a design that is less
than 50% of that allowable for static
conditions.
  It is generally better to increase length
and/or width rather than depth to meet
weight requirements.
 For rectangular block, at least 40% of
height (but not less than 18 in.) should be
embedded in undisturbed soil.
 Concrete should be poured into a "neat"
excavation without formed side faces.

Cylinder cooling
The heat of compression and friction between the piston rings and the cylinder add heat to the
cylinder. Removing some of this heat is beneficial to the performance and reliability of the
compressor in several ways. Cylinder cooling reduces losses in capacity and power caused by
suction gas preheating. It also removes heat from the gas, thereby lowering the discharge
temperature of the gas. Cylinder cooling also promotes better lubrication for longer life and
reduced maintenance. When water is used as the cooling medium, uniform temperatures are
maintained around the cylinder’s entire circumference, reducing chances for thermal distortion of
the cylinder.
Care must be taken to avoid condensation that can result from excessive cooling. This can be
assured by maintaining the cylinder jacket coolant temperature at least 10°F above the suction
gas temperature.
Insufficient cooling can lead to reduced capacity and fouling of the cylinders. For this reason, it is
recommended that the cylinder not be more than 30°F above the suction gas temperature.
Cooling systems
Types of cooling systems include:

 Air cooled. Air-cooled systems are used

for small throughputs and low heat loads.
Cooling fins provide a sufficient surface
area to cool the cylinder.
 Static. Static systems are sometimes used
on small compressors to assist air-cooled
systems. Cooling fluid functions as a static
heat sink and acts more as a heat
stabilizer than a cooling system. Some
heat is transferred from the system by
conduction to the atmosphere.
 Thermosiphon. The driving force for a
thermosiphon derives from the change in
density of the cooling fluid from the hot to
cold sections of the system. API Standard
618 permits use of this system when
discharge gas temperatures are below
210°F or when temperature rise across the
cylinder is less than 150°F.
 Pressurized. Pressurized cooling systems
are the most common. In locations where
cooling water is not available, a self-
contained, closed cooling fluid system may
be used. The system consists of a
circulating pump, surge tank, and a fan-
cooled radiator or air-to-liquid heat
exchanger. The radiator may have multiple
 sections—one for cylinder coolant, one for
cooling lube oil, and one (or more) for
cooling discharge gas. The cooling fluid is
either water or a mixture of water and
ethylene glycol. The crankshaft usually
drives the circulating pump.

Lubrication
Frame lubrication
The frame lubrication system delivers oil to the frame bearings, connecting rod bearings, and
crosshead shoes. Some frame lubrication systems also supply oil to the packing and cylinders.
For most reciprocating compressors, the lubrication system is integral with the frame.
Splash lubrication
Splash lubrication systems distribute lubricating oil by the splashing of the crank through the
lubricant surface in the pump. Dippers may be attached to the crankshaft to enhance the effect.
Splash systems are used on small, horizontal, single-stage compressors with power demands up
to 100 hp.
The two main advantages of splash systems are:

 Low initial cost

 Minimal operator attendance
The main disadvantages are that splash systems are limited to:

 Small frame sizes

 The oil cannot be filtered
Pressurized lubrication
The most common type of frame lubrication is the pressurized system. Oil enters passages
drilled into the crankshaft and flows through the main shaft and crank pin bearings. A pressurized
lubrication system consists of the components discussed next.
Main oil pump
The main oil pump is driven by the crankshaft or may be separately driven. It is typically sized to
deliver 110% of the maximum anticipated flow rate. When speed reduction is used for capacity
control, care must be taken to ensure that this pump provides adequate lubrication at the
minimum operating speed.
Auxiliary pump (optional)
An auxiliary pump is provided to back up the main pump. The auxiliary pump is usually driven by
an electric motor and is designed to start automatically when oil supply pressure falls below a
specified level.
Prelube pump (Optional)
A prelube pump supplies oil to the bearings before the compressor is started. This assures that
the bearings are not dry at startup. Because this function is provided by the auxiliary pump, a
prelube pump is required only when the system does not have an auxiliary pump.
Oil cooler
The oil cooler ensures that the temperature of the oil supply to the bearings does not exceed the
maximum value required to protect the bearings from wear. A typical maximum oil supply
temperature is 120°F. Jacket cooling water in a shell and tube heat exchanger is often used to
cool the lubricating oil.
Oil filters
Oil filters protect the bearings by removing particulates from the lubricating oil. Some systems
are equipped with dual, full-flow oil filters with transfer valves. Transfer valves allow switching
from one filter to the other so that the filters can be cleaned without shutting down the
compressor.
Overhead tank
The overhead tank provides oil to the bearings if a pump fails. The oil from the overhead tank is
gravity-fed to the bearings. The tank must be sized to provide oil until the compressor has
completely shut down. The tank is usually equipped with a level indicator.
Piping
The components of the lubrication system are connected by piping. Cleanliness and corrosion
resistance are important considerations. Galvanized piping should be avoided because of
possible corrosion. Carbon steel piping should be pickled or mechanically cleaned and coated
with a rust inhibitor. Stainless steel piping should be used downstream of the filters. The piping
system should be designed to avoid any pockets in which dirt or debris could accumulate. Socket
welded piping should be avoided for this reason. Before initial startup, the lube oil system should
be flushed with lube oil at approximately 170°F. A 200-mesh screen should be added to the
system, and flushing should continue until the mesh is clean. Safety instrumentation should
include a crankcase low oil level switch, a low oil pressure shutdown switch, and a high oil
temperature switch.
For compressors with integral engine drivers, it is recommended that the compressor and driver
be lubricated with separate systems so that combustion gases from the engine do not
contaminate the lube oil. In this case, the packing and cylinder lubrication is provided by the
compressor lubricating system. For installations in very cold environments, immersion or in-line
heaters and special lubricating oils should be considered.
Cylinder and packing lubrication
The quantity of oil required to lubricate the packing and cylinders is small when compared with
the bearing oil requirements. While the quantity is small, the oil pressure necessary to supply oil
at the packing and cylinders is high. A small plunger pump (force-feed lubricator) is used at each
stage of compression. Divider blocks are used to distribute the flow of oil between the cylinders
and the packing. The oil can be supplied from either the frame lubricating system or from an
overhead tank. Compatibility of the oil with the process gas must be checked to protect against
contamination.

Nomenclature
qa = inlet capacity of the cylinder at actual inlet conditions, Acf/min,
Ev = volumetric efficiency,
PD = piston displacement, Acf/min,
qg = inlet capacity of the cylinder, scf/min,
Qg = inlet capacity of the cylinder, MMscf/D
PD = piston displacement, Acf/min,
S = stroke, in.,
N = compressor speed, rpm,
dc = cylinder diameter, in.,
dr = rod diameter, in.
 %C = cylinder clearance, %,
CHE = head-end clearance, in.3,
CCE = crank-end clearance, in.3,
dc = cylinder inside diameter, in.,
dr = rod diameter, in.,
S = stroke length, in.
Ev = volumetric efficiency,
R = compression ratio,
C = cylinder clearance, % of piston-swept volume,
Zs = inlet compressibility factor,
Zd = discharge compressibility factor,
dr = rod diameter, in.,
k = ratio of specific heats, Cp/Cv,
slippage of gas past piston rings, % (1% for high-speed separable, 5% for nonlubricated
L =
compressors and 4% for propane service),
96 = allowance for losses because of pressure drop in valves
RLc = rod load in compression, lbf,
RLt = rod load in tension, lbf,
ap = cross-section area of piston, in.2,
ar = cross-section area of rod, in.2,
Pd = discharge pressure, psia,
Ps = suction pressure, psia,
Pu = pressure in unloaded end, psia
RLc = rod load in compression, lbf,
RLt = rod load in tension, lbf,
ap = cross-section area of piston, in.2,
ar = cross-section area of rod, in.2,
Pd = discharge pressure, psia,
Ps = suction pressure, psia,
Pu = pressure in unloaded end, psia
fp = compressor pulsation frequency, cycles/sec,
N = compressor speed, rpm,
n = cylinder factor,
= 1 for single-acting cylinder
and
= 2 (for double-acting cylinder)

References
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should be available to the reader, i.e., not an internal company document.]

Noteworthy papers in OnePetro

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External links
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OnePetro

See also
Compressors
Centrifugal compressor
 Rotary positive displacement compressors
PEH:Compressors
Categories: 
 4.1.5 Processing Equipment
 4.1.6 Compressors, engines, and turbines
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