Revista Brasileira de Ensino de Fı́sica, v. 35, n.

3, 3702 (2013)
www.sbfisica.org.br

Lissajous-like figures with triangular and square waves

(Generalização de figuras de Lissajous com ondas triangulares e quadradas)

J. Flemming1 , A. Hornes
Departamento de Fı́sica, Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa, Ponta Grossa, PR, Brasil
Recebido em 6/9/2012; Aceito em 1/4/2013; Publicado em 9/9/2013

We show a generalization of the well-known Lissajous figures, changing the two orthogonal simple harmonic
oscillations to triangular and square-wave-type oscillations. All figures cross the origin of axes when there is
no phase difference between the oscillations. Aside from this common feature, square-wave-type figures show a
very different behavior, with discontinuous phase changes and impossibility of using a simple formula to get the
frequency ratio between the two component oscillations.
Keywords: Lissajous figures, triangular and square waves, Fourier analysis.

Mostramos uma generalização das bem conhecidas figuras de Lissajous, trocando-se as duas oscilações
harmônicas simples ortogonais por oscilações tipo onda triangular e onda quadrada. Todas as figuras cruzam a
origem dos eixos quando não existe diferença de fase entre as oscilações. Excetuando-se esta caracterı́stica em
comum, as figuras formadas com ondas quadradas mostram um comportamento bastante distinto, com mudanças
descontı́nuas destas figuras conforme se varia a fase e a impossibilidade de utilizar uma fórmula simples para
obter a razão entre as frequências das componentes oscilatórias.
Palavras-chave: figuras de Lissajous, ondas triangulares e quadradas, análise de Fourier.

1. Introduction displacements [8], oscillatory deformation in strongly

nonlinear materials [9] and satellite trajectories around
Lissajous figures are formed when two simple harmonic Lagrange points in the outer space [10].
vibrations are coupled at right angle to each other [1]. Harmonic vibrations are the most usual scenario but
Nathaniel Bowditch seems to have been the first (1815) triangular and square wave functions are also important
to discuss such curves and Jules Antoine Lissajous stud- periodic functions that one may come across. They are
ied them on a deeper level in 1857-58 [2]. Besides their useful in digital circuits and frequency and time-interval
aesthetic beauty, Lissajous figures are used in under- measurements [11], besides other situations [12, 13].
graduate teaching laboratories to obtain the frequency Here we show what happens when one combines two
of a signal (like sound, radio waves, etc.) by com- orthogonal vibrations of these two latter types. These
bining them with another signal of known frequency. important cases seem to be left untouched, although
Also, from the eccentricity of an ellipse (a typical Lis- some other variations of Lissajous figures have already
sajous figure), one can precisely measure the phase dif- been studied [14].
ference between two waves of the same frequency. Using
this technique the speed of sound or light may be ob-
2. Simulation and discussion
tained by studying the phase difference between a direct
modulated signal and another one which has traveled One may use several graphical software to trace those
a precise distance [3, 4] or measure phase delays be- curves or, alternatively, an oscilloscope in X − Y mode
tween currents and voltages among components on an and two function generators. The results, illustrated
RLC circuit [5]. There are also recent research appli- in Fig. 1, were obtained with “Curvay” software [15]
cations of Lissajous figures as, for instance, commensu- and were named Lissajous-like figures. Some true Lis-
rateness and phase between quantities relevant to he- sajous curves, with harmonic vibrations, are shown in
licopter flight [6], light polarization structures created the first three columns (from left to right) of Fig. 1.
by using second-harmonic generation from lasers [7], They obey simple parametric equations, with time t as
Michelson interferometry to measure micro-vibration a parameter [1, 14]
1 E-mail: flemming@uepg.br.

Copyright by the Sociedade Brasileira de Fı́sica. Printed in Brazil.

3702-2 Flemming and Hornes

sections of a vertical line and a horizontal one with the

figure. In other words we have
X = cos (ω1 t − α) , (1)
fx Ny
Y = cos(ω2 t − β), (2) = , (3)
fy Nx
where ω1 /ω2 must be a rational number. For the sake where f is the frequency in each axis and N the maxi-
of simplicity, we supposed unitary amplitudes for both mum number of intersections of the true Lissajous fig-
vibrations. Several examples are shown, with variations ure with a straight line parallel to the respective axis.
of ratio between the two angular frequencies ω1 /ω2 and For instance, in the fourth row of Fig. 1 the vertical fre-
their phase difference δ = α – β, as indicated respec- quency is 2/3 times the horizontal one, because one has
tively on the left and upper side of Fig. 1. vertical to horizontal intersections on the ratio 3/2 (for
Combinations of two orthogonal triangular and any phase difference). This basic feature of the true
square-type vibrations are shown in the last six columns Lissajous figures also appears in the triangular case,
(from left to right) of the same figure, for phase dif- which can be checked through the same example. So,
ferences of zero, π/4 and π/2. The curves for phase for the triangular case, we may apply the same simple
differences of 3π/4 and π (not shown) are symmetric formula above to calculate the frequency in one axis if
and produce the same graphs as those of π/4 and zero one knows the frequency in the other axis. On the other
respectively, except for a reflection about the vertical hand, this rule does not apply for the square Lissajous-
axis. For true Lissajous figures the ratio between the like figures, as one can easily verify through the same
two frequencies is equal to the ratio of maximum inter- example.
⌋

Figure 1 - Lissajous-like figures. From left to right we have harmonic, triangular and square wave components, with three columns set
for each case.
Lissajous-like figures with triangular and square waves 3702-3

Another interesting point to mention is the lack of where [19].

continuity of the square Lissajous-like figures as a func-
tion of the phase difference between components. For 3. Conclusions
example, in the harmonic case with equal frequencies,
one has a continuous change from a straight line seg- In summary, we show what happens when one cou-
ment for δ = 0 to a circle for δ = π/2, through ellipses ples two triangular or square waves at right angle to
of different eccentricities. Something similar is valid for each other. These are important periodic functions,
the triangular case. On the other hand, for the square along with the harmonic case. We get the formation
type, we have a straight line segment for δ = 0 and then of what we named Lissajous-like figures, due to their
an abrupt change to a square figure with an infinites- resemblance to true Lissajous figures, formed with har-
imal δ increase. This square remains immutable until monic waves. Some aspects are common to all three
δ = π is reached, when it changes again abruptly to types of figures, such as the origin crossing when there is
a straight line segment (oriented perpendicular to the no phase difference between the two orthogonal waves.
first one). It is easy to see that this behavior comes Other features, as the possibility of calculating the fre-
from the fact that the square wave is a discontinuous quency ratio between the waves by manipulating the
function. For any frequency ratio, true Lissajous curves figure, are not shared by the square-wave case. We
always pass through the origin of the X −Y plane when generated these curves through graphical software. The
δ = 0, which means no phase difference between the two need for simulations (or, alternatively, the use of an os-
harmonic waves [16]. As one can check by the examples cilloscope) is justified from the fact that an algebraic
in Fig. 1, this is a common characteristic also shared Fourier forecast of these Lissajous-like figures is not a
by the other two types of Lissajous-like figures studied straightforward task. One may choose the particular
here. free graphical software used here or different widespread
All periodic functions, as the square and triangu- options available nowadays, in order to easily reproduce
lar waves, can be written as a Fourier series. One may these figures and introduce them in teaching laborato-
argue, on such basis, that it is a straightforward math- ries.
ematical procedure to outguess the Lissajous-like fig-
ures reported here and computer simulations are need-
References
less. Although one can use Lissajous figures to Fourier
analyze a given signal [17] the other way around (use [1] J.B. Marion and S.T. Thornton, Classical Dynamics of
Fourier analysis to forecast Lissajous-like figures) is not Particles and Systems (Harcourt, Forth Worth, 1988),
as easy. To see this let us expand, for instance, the 3rd ed.
square wave in Fourier series. If the wave has angular [2] Encyclopædia Britannica, “Curves, Special” (Ency-
frequency ω and unitary amplitude, we have the follow- clopædia Britannica Inc., London, 1953), 14th ed.
ing expression [18] [3] R.E. Berg and D.R. Brill, Phys. Teach. 43, 36 (2005).
[4] “Measurement of the Speed of Light” http:
∞
4 ∑ 1 //uni-leipzig.de/~prakphys/pdf/VersucheIPSP/
f (t) = sin nωt. (4) Optics/O-14e-AUF.pdf, access in March, 2013.
π n
n odd
[5] Phase Displacement in AC Circuits” http:
Suppose we combine two square waves with angular //uni-leipzig.de/~prakphys/pdf/VersucheIPSP/
frequencies ω1 and ω2 at right angle to each other, with Electricity/E-11e-AUF.pdf, access in March, 2013.
unitary amplitudes and no phase difference between [6] N. Sarigulklijn and M.M. Sarigulklijn, J. Aircraft 34,
them. To forecast the Lissajous-like figure that would 20 (1997).
emerge from that, assume we truncate the Fourier ex- [7] D.A. Kessler and I. Freund, Opt. Lett. 28, 111 (2003).
pansion at the pth term, for both waves. One must, [8] Z.J. Li, S.L. Zhen, B. Chen, M. Li, R.Z. Liu and B.L.
then, sum up graphically p2 true Lissajous figures, com- Yu, Opt. Comm. 281, 4744 (2008).
ing from the combinations of each term from one se- [9] R.H. Ewoldt and G.H. Mckinley, Rheol. Acta 49, 213
ries with each term of the other. As the square wave (2010).
shows discontinuity points, the series above is not uni- [10] D. Romagnoli and C. Circi, Celestial Mech. Dyn. As-
formly convergent and one needs several terms to get a tron. 107, 409 (2010).
good approximation of the function, something known [11] P. Horowitz and W. Hill, The Art of Electronics (Cam-
as the Gibb’s phenomenon [18]. If there is a phase dif- bridge University Press, Cambridge, 1989).
ference between the two square waves the situation is [12] S.M. Morgan and R.H. Victora, Appl. Phys. Lett. 97,
even worst, due to the greater number of variables in- 093705:1 (2010).
volved. Of course, except for the Gibb’s phenomenon, [13] K. Miyasato, S. Abe, H. Takezoe, A. Fukuda and E.
the same arguments would apply for the construction of Kuze, Jap. J. Appl. Phys. 22, L661 (1983).
the Lissajous-like figures with triangular waves. Prelim- [14] D. von Seggern, Practical Handbook of Curve Design
inary results from this manuscript were reported else- and Generation (CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1994).
3702-4 Flemming and Hornes

[15] “Curvay” software can be downloaded for free [18] P.H. Hwei, Fourier Analysis (Simon & Schuster, New
at http://www.spelunkcomputing.com/curvay/ York, 1967).
download.html, access in March, 2013.
[16] M.S. Wu and W.H. Tsai, Am. J. Phys. 52, 657 (1984). [19] A. Hornes and J. Flemming, Anais do XI Encontro An-
[17] P.P. Ong and S. H. Tang, Am. J. Phys. 53, 252 (1985). ual de Iniciação Cientı́fica, Maringá, PR, Brazil (2002).