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FOREIGN POLICY AND DIPLOMACY Q9. Analyze the relationship between the US Senate’s foreign relation
(With special reference to the US, UK, Russia and China) committee and State department in the US foreign policy exercises.
FOREIGN POLICY Q10. Comment on the Chinese foreign policy principles towards North-East-
I. NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM; concept, Asian region.
nature, objectives and goals, ideology and determinants of foreign policy; Q11. Define ‘foreign policy’. Evaluate the importance of economic, cultural and
and domestic and societal sources of foreign policy. political determinants in its strategic-stand formulation.
II. National interests and foreign policy. Q12. Critically assess the role of a political party in pressure influence with
III. Power and capability analysis in foreign policy. regard to foreign policy decision making process of a nation like Nepal.
IV. ORGANIZATION AND PROCESS OF FOREIGN POLICY MAKING; role of Q13. Is foreign Minister responsible to implement foreign policies? Comment.
legislature, executive, bureaucratic agencies, political parties, main Q14. Define decision-making. Describe the role of the executive organ in the
political actors, pressure/interest groups, public opinion and media. foreign policy making process.
V. Foreign policy makers, their capabilities and influence. Q15. Comment on the importance of National interest in foreign policy.
VI. Major issues of foreign policy. Q16. Point out the main features of ‘Power’ role in the foreign relation policy.
VII. Foreign policy in action. Q17. Comment on the role of domestic issues and conflict in the foreign policy
DIPLOMACY exercise.
VIII. Meaning, nature and characteristics of diplomacy. Q18. How is ‘National Interest’ determined in the interaction process in the
IX. Historical evolution and development of diplomacy. foreign policy implementation? Examine.
X. Comparative analysis of western and eastern diplomatic practices. Q19. How do the pressure- interest groups exercise their influence in the
XI. Nature and characteristics of old and new diplomacy. foreign policy’s opinion-building process of the nation?
XII. Functions, privileges and immunities of diplomats. Q20. Assess the US policy toward Anti-Ballistic system agreement of 1972
XIII. Characteristics of a good diplomat. (ABM).
XIV. Types of diplomacy Q21. Comment on the role of ideology in shaping National Interest strategy.
XV. Political, economical, military and cultural diplomacy. Q22. Point out the effects of geopolitics on the Soviet- US relation.
XVI. Structure, methods and issues of contemporary diplomacy. Q23. Comment on the geopolitical influence upon the UK’s stands on Iraq’s
XVII. Negotiation and bargaining. crises.
XVIII. Future of diplomacy. Q24. Evaluate the Russian approach found the international political
economical development.
Q25. What role has the communist ideology played in the European strategic-
Q1. Evaluate the nature and characteristics of international system as an security area? Evaluate.
external setting for foreign policy making process. Q26. Has Sino-Russia rifts exercised considerable influence upon the
Q2. What is international system? Evaluate its importance in the foreign international security system? Discuss.
policy exercise. Q27. What is ‘Diplomacy’? Analyze critically its nature and characteristics.
Q3. Critically examine the process of globalization in the international system Q28. Illustrate the main characteristics of Western Diplomacy.
and also discuss its impact upon the process of foreign policy making of Russia. Q29. Critically analyze the issues and problems of contemporary diplomacy.
Q4. What is the importance of ‘Ideology’ in the British foreign policy? Q30. Distinguish between the good office and negotiation.
Comment. Q31. Comment on the nature of secret diplomacy.
Q5. Comment upon the media’s role in making of foreign policy. Q32. Narrate critically the major differences between western and eastern
Q6. Discuss the US foreign policy toward the nuclearisation of India and diplomatic exercises.
Pakistan. Q33. Critically examine the nature and character of good diplomat.
Q7. Point out the main features of the Russia foreign policy. Q34. Point out the main characteristics of negotiation.
Q8. Examine the main determinants of the foreign policy ideology of the Q35. Evaluate the main position and nature of strategic diplomacy in the
United Kingdom. international politics.
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Q36. Comment on the role of arbitration in the conflict management economic development, global finance, terrorism, organized crime, human
diplomacy. security, foreign interventionism and human rights.
Q37. Discuss the elements of the art of negotiation. 3. As stated repeatedly:  The most important actors within the global system
Q38. Point out the main features of ‘good office.’ continue to be the central governments of sovereign states.  Each central
Q39. Examine the main factors of the US Nuclear diplomacy towards Iraq, Iran government has relationships with other central governments and other
and North Korea. international actors.  These relationships are summarized as that country's
Q40. Is oil diplomacy affecting international economic politics? Comment. foreign policy.  The dominant model of the global system continues to hold
Q41. Analyze the differences between open and secret diplomacy. the view that the world is composed of a system of sovereign states.   My
Q42. Evaluate the ‘meditative art’ of diplomatic practice in the current peace WEB pages on the History of the State System details that position.  This
initiatives on the Arab-Israeli conflict. WEB page assumes the state-centered point of view.   The sum total and
Q43. What is the impact of ping-pong diplomacy upon the US-China relations? the product of all foreign policies would result in what we call the global
Q44. Comment on the influence of the September 11 incident on the terrorist system.  While I do not agree with this state-centered approach, it does
containment diplomacy. provide important insights into global politics.
Q45. Discuss the impact of current trends of the international security 4. For most American students taking this course, it should not come as a
environments upon the Chinese diplomacy. surprise to be told that the United States continues, at this moment in
Q46. Distinguish between ‘negotiation’ and ‘good offices’. Is ‘good offices’ history, to be the most powerful state on this planet.  The conduct of
essential to provide a solution to dispute? Illustrate your answer with example. American foreign policy is a major determinant shaping the international
Q47. Evaluate the British style of diplomacy. system. 
Q48. Are ‘calmness’ and ‘patience’ two relevant characteristics of a good 5. Despite the great power exercised by the United States, we are not all
diplomat? powerful and we are not alone on this planet.  Even United States' power is
limited and even we must operate within a global system.
6. The modern state system has been in existence since 1648.
7. The modern state system includes both major, middling, and small
powers.  All states conduct  their own foreign policies.  One primary
FOREIGN POLICY objective of each county's foreign policy is to maintain its own political
NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM independence and security.  
1. International relations (IR) or International studies (IS) represents the 8. Foreign Policy refers to the ways in which the central governments of
study of foreign affairs and global issues among states within the sovereign states relate to each other and to the global system in order to
international system, including the roles of states, inter-governmental achieve various goals or objectives.
organizations (IGOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), 9. American Foreign Policy would refer to the goals and objectives pursued
international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs), and multinational by the United States and the tools it uses to implement these goals and
corporations (MNCs). It is both an academic and public policy field, and can objectives with regard to other countries and other international actors. 
be either positive or normative as it both seeks to analyze as well as Courses on American Foreign Policy within Political Science Departments of
formulate the foreign policy of particular states. It is often considered a American Colleges and Universities would look at the world from an
branch of political science (especially after 1988 UNESCO nomenclature), American perspective.  The American national government conducts our
but an important sector of academia prefer to treat it as an foreign policy in defense of our national interests.
interdisciplinary field of study. 10. Comparative Foreign Policy refers to political science courses, which
2. Apart from political science, IR draws upon such diverse fields as compare the foreign policies of various countries to point out both
economics, history, international law, philosophy, geography, social work, similarities of behavior and divergences.  For example, the foreign policies
sociology, anthropology, psychology, and cultural studies. It involves a of the United States, Russia, Germany, China, and India might be
diverse range of issues including but not limited to: globalization, state compared.  Defense of territorial integrity and other national interests are
sovereignty, ecological sustainability, nuclear proliferation, nationalism, always a component of a country's foreign policy.  Behaviors common to
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the foreign policies of most countries are often generalized into principles 19. Since its origins in 1648, the global state system has been dominated by
of international politics. the great powers and their foreign policies.
11. International Politics is one of the five major fields of political science.  It
looks at the entire international system.  The United States is just one state Objectives of Foreign Policy.  The objectives of states vary greatly but all states
within that system and American foreign policy refers to one strand of seek to preserve themselves, maintain their independence, and security.
decision-making.  In other worlds, International Politics takes a broader  20. Leadership.  It does matter who is elected President of the United States or
and different perspective than do courses on foreign policy.  who rules China.  Leaders and the elites who support them help to shape
12. Level of Analysis Problem.  The global system is a system of systems.  Its the foreign policy of countries.  It is probable that a President Al Gore
complexity is so overwhelming, that political scientists have developed would not have preemptively attacked Iraq.   On the other hand the
different levels of analysis.  Three levels of analysis are generally aggressive tendencies of a leader are clearly limited by the power base
differentiated, namely the 1.  Global Level, 2.  State Level, and the 3. available.
Individual Level.  The level of analysis problem applies to all aspects of 21. In making decisions, leaders must take account of two categories of
international politics. determinants that impact on their foreign policies.  These are the global or
13. If the foreign policy of a given state is under analysis, then we are trying to external and the internal or domestic influences.
explain state-level behavior.  This state-level behavior can be explained in
global terms, state-level terms, and individual terms.  But the unit under Global or External Influences
investigation is at the state level. 22. Geopolitics.  The geopolitical location of a state is one of the external
14. From the point of view of a given country's foreign policy, three categories determinants on its foreign policy.  It matters where on the globe a country
of influence may be distinguished:  1)  the global influence that shape is located.  It matters whether the country has natural frontiers:  that is
foreign policy; 2) the state or internal influence within the given country whether it is protected by oceans, high mountains, or deserts.  It matters
that impact on foreign policy; and 3) the individuals and personalities of who one's neighbors are and whether a given country is territorially large,
the decision makers and those who have access to them and help them to populous, affluent, and well-governed.
shape the policy making process. 23. Relative Position within the Global system. 

Determinants of States' Foreign Policies. Internal or Domestic Influences

15. The foreign policies of a given state depend on its power, its objectives, 24. Internal or Domestic Determinants on States' Foreign Policies focus
and its leadership.  attention "on variations in states' attributes, such as military capabilities,
16. Power is an elusive concept but widely used in political science. Power may level of economic development, and types of government." (Kegley, World
be defined as the ability to persuade others to do things that they would Politics, 11th Ed Rev. (2008), 58.)
not do ordinarily unless pressured to do so. Within domestic politics, 25. Military Capabilities.  Size of military.  Equipment.  Training. Leadership. 
power is usually based on numbers, wealth, and organizational skills. A Nuclear or non-nuclear capabilities.
small group that is well organized may exercise considerable influence 26. Economic Capabilities.  Traditional, Transitional, and Modern Societies.  
even without large sums of money.  In international politics, power Industrialization.  Stages of Industrialization:  Wood, Coal, Oil, Nuclear,
depends on both geopolitical factors and idiosyncratic factors. Renewable Resources.  Gross national product, Per Capita GNP, GINI Index,
17. Inequalities of State Power.  The 192 or so states of the world vary greatly Lorenz Curve of Inequality.  Type of Economy:  Free Market Economics,
in power.  The may be categories into superpowers (US);  major powers Centrally Planned Economies, Socially Steered Market Economies (Soziale
(EU--Germany, France, United Kingdom; Japan, Russia, China, and India; Markwirtschaft)
middling powers (Israel, Iran, Pakistan, Poland, Spain, Republic of South 27. Type of Government.  Constitutional democracies (presidential systems
Africa, Brazil, Argentina); and minor or small powers (Serbia, Denmark, and parliamentary systems).  Autocratic Systems (authoritarian and
Cuba). totalitarian).  Military Dictatorships.  Political Party Systems.  Traditional
18. There are also micro-states and various territories that are not self- monarchies (Saudi Arabia).  Modern theocracies (Iran). 
governing or not independent such as client states, dependencies, and Bases of State Power.Bases of National Power depends on many variables, such
colonies. as:
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1. Location of the state--coastal or landlocked (c) Foreign policy is not conducted from the start. It is influenced by
2. Size--large or small territory domestic (political parties, bureaucracy etc) and external factors
3. Population--large or small (neighboring countries, donor countries etc.)
4. Natural Resources--oil, iron ore, forests, etc. (d) Policies are formulated by key persons in the government as Head of
5. Technology-developed or under-developed State, head of government and foreign minister.
6. Type of Government--dictatorship or democracy (e) Foreign policy has two parts: formulation and implements of which
7. Type of Economy--market or centrally planned the latter is important.
8. Size and Equipment of Military--nuclear or conventional (f) Some are important aspects in the foreign policy and some are less
9. . Belief systems of Country important.
(g) Foreign policy is linked with cost risk factor.
Idiosyncratic Factors (h) Foreign policy of any nation has to be judged based on its practice
1. Will and Leadership and not what is preached.
2. Morale of Military
3. Degree of Popular Support 4. Determinants of Foreign policy : Basically there are two factors internal
4. Nature of Friends and Allies -Foreign Policy, a course of action or set of and external.
principles adopted by a nation’s government to define its relations with (a) Internal factors
other countries or groups of countries. A country’s foreign policy also sets i. Geography:- Geography of Britain forced it to adopt a policy
forth its positions on a wide range of international issues. A country’s if isolation. Nepal sandwiched between giant India and china
foreign policy may reflect broad national objectives or represent a narrow adopted the policy of equidistance followed by equi-
and specific response to a particular situation. A country can achieve its proximity at present.
foreign policy goals in several ways. It can use diplomacy—that is, peaceful ii. Historical traditions and national ethos:- Being a birthplace
negotiations with other countries. It can employ economic actions such as of Lord Buddha, Nepal believes in the principle of peaceful co
giving money or other aid to another country, or it can restrict trade with existence.
that nation or impose economic sanctions on it. It also can resort to iii. National capacity:- This includes nation’s military power,
military force. technological and economic development.
iv. Public Opinion:- The US president Woodrow Wilson played a
Hartman describes foreign policy as, ‘a systematic statements of deliberately key role in conducting Versailles Treaty and forming League
selected national interests.’ of Nations. But the American people did not like the US
involvement in the global affairs and as a result President
Objective Wilson was defeated in the election.
3. Objectives are country specific, however some which are common are v. Ideology:- Political system of the country and the ideology of
specified as under; the rulers play a key role in the formulation of the national
(a) To maintain territorial integrity policy. The former USSR since 1917 and China since 1949
(b) To promote economic interests. reflected their ideology in their foreign policy.
(c) To provide national security. vi. Political. The country also maintains strong political relations
(d) To preserve national dignity and develop national power. with India and China, usually attempting to balance one
(e) To maintain world order. against the other. However, relations with India are fraught
with trade and border disputes and Indian suspicions that
3. Characteristics: Nepalese and Pakistani rebels use Nepal as a haven to attack
(a) Normally elements of national interests are defensive, diplomacy, India. Relations with Bhutan have been strained since 1992
economy: which are interrelated. over the nationality and possible repatriation of refugees
(b) Foreign policy is determined in the name of a state. from Bhutan.
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vii. Economy. Nepal’s most substantive international relations foreign policy related to national security, while the CIA has
are perhaps with international economic institutions, such as provided intelligence analysis and information gathering
the Asian Development Bank, the International Monetary services as well as covert activities. Presidents require the
Fund, the World Bank, and the South Asian Association for support of the bureaucracy to attain success in the
Regional Cooperation, a multilateral economic development implementation of their foreign policy initiatives.
association. Nepal also has strong bilateral relations with xiii. Global Environment.Today, more people are living under
major providers of economic and military aid, such as France, democracy than at any `time in history, free-market
Germany, Japan, Switzerland, the United States, and economies are expanding on every continent, and
particularly the United Kingdom, with whom military ties date innovations like the Internet have made our communications
to the nineteenth century. immediate and international. But just as common bonds link
viii. Socio-culture. Nepal's Foreign Policy ... with the mainland the world closer together, so too do common threats
China, would be helpful in enhancing economic and socio- increasingly endanger continued prosperity here at home and
cultural ties between Nepal and China around the world. Climate change, deforestation, overfishing
ix. Military. The foreign policy of Nepal in the changed global and other environmental concerns transcend political
context needs to be ... Nepalese army and promoting civil- divisions and geographic boundaries and present a major
military relations in this context. challenge for the next century. They are the consequences of
x. Government. Since the national interests are paramount, the enormous pressures placed on the world's resources by
foreign policies are designed by the government through an ever-increasing population, spreading industrialization,
high-level decision making processes. National interests land conversion, urbanization, and rising consumption
accomplishment can occur as a result of peaceful xiv. Knowledge. So, domestic politics is the biggest problem of
cooperation with other nations, or through exploitation. Nepal's foreign policy today; ..... Wisdom, knowledge and
Usually, creating foreign policy is the job of the head of experience are vital for redressing problems of ...
government and the foreign minister (or equivalent). In some
countries the legislature also has considerable oversight. As
an exception, in France and Finland, the head of state is
responsible for foreign policy, while the head of government (b)External Factors:- It constitutes three factor and they are:
mainly deals with internal policy. In the United States, the i. World organization such ass UN, international
head of state (the President) also functions as the head of organizations and international laws. World organization such as
government. UN, international organizations and international laws. Nepal has
xi. Science and technological development. Foreign policy With traditionally maintained a non-aligned policy and enjoys friendly
globalization, we must pay more attention to scientific relations with neighboring countries, especially India and China.
cooperation, environmental protection, trade, intellectual As a small, landlocked country wedged between two larger and
property, and a host of other issues far stronger powers, Nepal maintains good relations with both
xii. Bureaucracy. There are thirty-eight separate government China (People's Republic of China) and India.Constitutionally,
departments and agencies that assist the president in foreign foreign policy is to be guided by “the principles of the United
policy development and implementation; these are divided Nations Charter, nonalignment, Panchsheel [five principles of
into foreign affairs, defense, intelligence, and economic peaceful coexistence], international law and the value of world
categories. The Department of State is the oldest department peace.” In practice, foreign policy has not been directed toward
of the foreign policy bureaucracy, and is the key player in the projecting influence internationally but toward preserving
domain of foreign affairs. The Department of Defense has a autonomy and addressing domestic economic and security issues.
strong influence in foreign policy heading all four branches of ii. World opinion. Nepal's foreign policy evolved in
the military. The National Security Council exists to provide different periods of history .... maximize foreign aid and
the president with advice on all domestic, military, and international economic diplomacy ended in total failure.
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iii. Neighboring countries. Nepal has traditionally CHINA FOREIGN POLICY
maintained a non-aligned policy and enjoys friendly relations with Foreign relations of the People's Republic of China
neighboring countries, especially India and China. ...
iv. Other countries response. 1. The foreign relations of the People's Republic of China guides the way in
v. Super powers. The nation's top foreign policy challenges which it interacts with foreign nations. As a great power and emerging superpower,
today are the war on terrorism; control of nuclear, China's foreign policy and strategic thinking is highly influential.
chemical, and biological arms; finding peace in the China officially states it "unswervingly pursues an independent foreign policy of
Middle East; promoting U.S. Trade; and strengthening peace. The fundamental goals of this policy are to preserve China's independence,
democracy in the former Soviet Union. The War on sovereignty and territorial integrity, create a favorable international environment
terrorism is clearly the top priority and has reframed U.S. for China's reform and opening up and modernization construction, maintain world
relations with former friends and adversaries. peace and propel common development."
2. Recent Chinese foreign policy makers may be seen to adhere to the realist
rather than the liberal school of international relations theory. Thus, in sharp
Determinants of Nepalese Foreign Policy contrast to the Soviet Union and the United States, China has not been devoted to
(a) Geographical Factors: Nepal is India locked. The nearest Indian sea advancing any higher international ideological interests such as world communism
of port is 5oo miles away and the Chinese sea of port is 5000 miles away. or world democracy since the Cold War; that is, ideology appears to be secondary
(b) Historical Experience: Nepal was never colonized but the Rana’s to advancing its national interest. China is a member of many international
remained loyal to the British. organizations; holding key positions such as a permanent member on the UN
(c) Socio cultural factors: Northern part of Nepal’s culture resembles to Security Council and is a leader in many areas such as non-proliferation,
Tibet, heartland has its own traditions and the terai people have close socio peacekeeping and resolving regional conflicts.
cultural affiliation to the southern neighbor, India. 3. People's Republic of China maintains the Completeness of sovereignty, so
(d) Economic Factor: Nepal being a poor country has to rely largely on the Beijing government does not allow any diplomatic partner state with which it
foreign aid which demands for a special relationship with the donor maintains diplomatic relations to have an official diplomatic relationship with
countries. Taiwan (Republic of China), Government of Tibet in Exile or any East Turkestan
(e) Political system and political Leadership: During the Rana regime, Independence group.
Nepal adopted a close door policy. King Mahendra and King Birendra
adopted different policies under the Panchyat system. King Mahendra Institutions of foreign policy
emphasized for Non aligned movement where as King Birendra emphasized 4. Like most other nations, China's foreign policy is carried out by the Ministry
on declaring Nepal a peace zone. of Foreign Affairs. However, the Foreign Affairs Ministry is subordinate to the
Foreign Affairs Leading Small Group of the Communist Party of China, which decides
Characteristics of Foreign Policy of Nepal on policy-making.
(a) Non aligned. Unlike most other nations, much of Chinese foreign policy is formulated in think
(b) Belief in Panchasheel. tanks sponsored and supervised by, but formally outside of the government. One
(c) Belief in UN. distinctive aspect of Sino-American relations is that much of the foreign policy
(d) Disarmament. discussion takes place between interlocutors who form the think tanks.Because
(e) Peaceful resolution if the conflicts. these discussions are unofficial, they are generally more free and less restricted
(f) Friendliness with other nations and closeness with the neighbors. than discussions between government officials. China is also distinctive for having a
(g) Protesting imperialism, colonialism, neocolonialism and racial separate body of Chinese strategic thought and theory of international.
discrimination.
(h) Advocate of the land locked countries. Recent foreign policy
(i) Lead role in the regional cooperation through SAARC. 1. In recent years, China's leaders have been regular travelers to all parts of
(j) Favoring unconditional economic assistance. the globe, and it has sought a higher profile in the UN through its
 7
permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council and other border dispute it had with Russia with Russia ceding a small amount of
multilateral organizations. territory to China. There is now no border dispute between Russia and
2. Closer to home China has made efforts to reduce tensions in Asia; its China along their 4300 km border. China also reached a 2000 agreement
relations with its Asian neighbors have become stable during the last with Vietnam to resolve some differences over their maritime border,
decades of the 20th century. It has contributed to stability on the Korean though disagreements remain over some islands in the South China Sea.
Peninsula, cultivated a more cooperative relationship with members of the 7. During the late 1990s and early 21st century, Chinese foreign policy
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) (Brunei, Cambodia , appeared to be focused on improving relations with Russia and Europe to
Myanmar, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, counterbalance the United States. This strategy was based on the premise
Thailand, Vietnam), and participated in the ASEAN Regional Forum. that the United States was a hyperpower whose influence could be
3. In 1997, the ASEAN member nations and the People's Republic of China, checked through alliances with other powers, such as Russia or the
South Korea and Japan agreed to hold yearly talks to further strengthen European Union. This assessment of United States power was
regional cooperation, the ASEAN Plus Three meetings. In 2005 the reconsidered after the United States intervention in Kosovo, and as the
"ASEAN Plus Three" countries together with India, Australia and New 20th century drew to a close, the discussion among thinktanks in China
Zealand held the inaugural East Asia Summit (EAS). Relations have involved how to reorient Chinese foreign policy in a unipolar world. This
improved with Vietnam since a border war was fought with the one-time discussion also occurred in the context of China's new security concept,
close ally in 1979. A territorial dispute with its Southeast Asian neighbors which argued that the post-Cold War era required nations to move away
over islands in the South China Sea remains unresolved, as does another from thinking in terms of alliances and power blocs and toward thinking in
dispute in the East China Sea with Japan. terms of economic and diplomatic cooperation.
4. China has improved ties with Russia. President Putin and President 8. China had long been a close ally of North Korea but also found a valuable
Jiang, in large part to serve as a counterbalance to the United States, trading partner in South Korea and eventually took a role in the early
signed a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation in July 2001.The two also 2000s as a proponent of "six-party talks" (North Korea, South Korea,
joined with the Central Asian nations of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Japan, the United States, and China) to resolve tensions on the
Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan to found the Shanghai Cooperation Korean Peninsula. China was instrumental at brokering talks with North
Organization (SCO) in June 2001. The SCO is designed to promote regional Korea over its nuclear program, and in 2003, there was a concerted effort
stability and cooperate to combat terrorism in the region. by China to improve relations with the ASEAN nations and form a
5. Relations with India have also improved considerably. After years of common East Asian market. These foreign policy efforts have been part of
competition, general distrust between the two (mostly over China's close a general foreign policy initiative known as China's peaceful rise. On
relationship with Pakistan and India's with the former Soviet Union) and November 15, 2005, Hu Jintao visited Seoul and spoke of the importance
a border war, relations in the 21st century between the world's two most of both countries' contributions for regional peace and cooperation in
populous states have never been more harmonious, as they have started economic development.
to collaborate in several economic and strategic areas. Both countries have 9. However, China's opposition to the bid of two of its important neighbors -
doubled their economic trade in the past few years and China is expected India and Japan to become permanent members of the United Nations
to become India's largest trading partner by 2008. The two countries are Security Council has proved to be an irritant in their respective
planning to host joint naval exercises. In 2003, China and India held relationships. Japan, with its large economic and cultural influences in Asia,
negotiations for the first time since the Sino-Indian War of 1962 on a is seen by China as its most formidable opponent and partner in regional
major border dispute: however, the dispute over Aksai Chin and diplomacy. The two sides established diplomatic relations in 1972, and
Arunachal Pradesh is not settled, and plagues Sino-India relations. While Japanese investment in China was important in the early years of China's
New Delhi has raised objections to Chinese military-aid to arch-rival economic reforms and ever since. Having fought two wars against Japan
Pakistan and neighboring Bangladesh, Beijing similarly objects to India's (1894–95 and 1936–45), China's long-standing concern about the level of
growing military collaboration with Japan, Australia and the United States. Japan's military strength surfaces periodically, and criticism of Japan's
6. China has border and maritime disputes, including with Vietnam in the refusal to present a full version of the atrocities of World War II in its
Gulf of Tonkin and with Japan. Beijing has resolved many of these textbooks is a perennial issue.
disputes. Notably on July 21, 2008 it finally resolved the last remaining
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10. At a national meeting on diplomatic work in August 2004, China's President abides by all them in a faithful way. China never plays by a double
Hu Jintao reiterated that China will continue its "independent foreign standard, selecting and discarding treaties it does not need.
policy of peaceful development," stressing the need for a peaceful and 8. China respects the diversity of civilization and the whole world. China
stable international environment, especially among China's neighbors, that advocates different cultures make exchanges, learn from each other,
will foster "mutually beneficial cooperation" and "common development." and compliment one another with their own strengths. China is
This policy line has varied little in intent since the People's Republic was opposed to clashes and confrontations between civilizations, and
established in 1949, but the rhetoric has varied in its stridency to reflect China does not link any particular ethnic group or religion with
periods of domestic political upheaval. terrorism.
11. In 2005, there has been talk of the European Union lifting its arms
embargo, however the United States has objected to this.
12. Foreign ministry spokesman Qin Gang made a statement about the eight- FOREIGN POLICY OF THE UNITED STATES
point diplomatic philosophy of the People's Republic of China:
1. China will not seek hegemony. China is still a developing country and 1. The foreign policy of the United States is the policy by which the United
has no resources to seek hegemony. Even if China becomes a States interacts with foreign nations. The U.S. is highly influential in the world. The
developed country, it will not seek hegemony. global reach of the United States is backed by a $14.3 trillion dollar economy,
2. China will not play power politics and will not interfere with other approximately a quarter of global GDP, and a defense budget of $711 billion, which
countries' internal affairs. China will not impose its own ideology on accounts for approximately half of global military spending. The U.S. Secretary of
other countries. State is the foreign minister and is the official charged with state-to-state
3. China maintains all countries, big or small, should be treated equally diplomacy, although the president has ultimate authority over foreign policy.
and respect each other. All affairs should be consulted and resolved by 2. The officially stated goals of the foreign policy of the United States, as
all countries on the basis of equal participation. No country should mentioned in the Foreign Policy Agenda of the U.S. Department of State, are "to
bully others on the basis of strength. create a more secure, democratic, and prosperous world for the benefit of the
4. China will make judgment on each case in international affairs, each American people and the international community."
matter on the merit of the matter itself and it will not have double 3. In addition, the United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs states
standards. China will not have two policies: one for itself and one for as some of its jurisdictional goals: "export controls, including nonproliferation of
others. China believes that it cannot do unto others what they do not nuclear technology and nuclear hardware; measures to foster commercial
wish others do unto them. intercourse with foreign nations and to safeguard American business abroad;
5. China advocates that all countries handle their relations on the basis International commodity agreements; international education; and protection of
of the United Nations Charter and norms governing international American citizens abroad and expatriation." U.S. foreign policy has been the subject
relations. China advocates stepping up international cooperation and of much debate, praise and criticism both domestically and abroad.
do not play politics unilaterally. China should not undermine the
dignity and the authority of the U.N. China should not impose and set 4. In February and March, Vice President Joe Biden and Secretary of State
its own wishes above the U.N. Charter, international law and norms. Hillary Rodham Clinton made separate overseas trips to announce a "new era" in
6. China advocates peaceful negotiation and consultation so as to resolve U.S. foreign relations with Russia and Europe, using the terms "break" and "reset"
its international disputes. China does not resort to force, or threat of to signal major changes from the policies of the preceding administration. Obama's
force, in resolving international disputes. China maintains a reasonable granting of his first television interview as president to an Arabic cable network, Al
national military buildup to defend its own sovereignty and territorial Arabiya, was seen as an attempt to reach out to Arab leaders.
integrity. It is not made to expand, nor does it seek invasion or 5. On March 19, Obama continued his outreach to the Muslim world,
aggression. releasing a New Year's video message to the people and government of Iran. This
7. China is firmly opposed to terrorism and the proliferation of weapons attempt at outreach was rebuffed by the Iranian leadership. In April, Obama gave a
of mass destruction. China is a responsible member of the speech in Ankara, Turkey, which was well received by many Arab governments. On
international community, and as for international treaties, China June 4, 2009, Obama delivered a speech at Cairo University in Egypt calling for "a
 9
new beginning" in relations between the Islamic world and the United States and
promoting Middle East peace.
6. On June 26, 2009, in response to the Iranian government's actions
towards protesters following Iran's 2009 presidential election, Obama said: "The 1. Super Power. Mr Obama is likely to follow 'Friendship Policy' rather than 'War'
violence perpetrated against them is outrageous. We see it and we condemn it." On and multi-dimensional approach to raise US Image for Super Power. It needs full
July 7, while in Moscow, he responded to a Vice President Biden comment on a support of most of the countries of the world, which is not very easy to US.
possible Israeli military strike on Iran by saying: "We have said directly to the Israelis 2. Iraq Issue. Mr Obama has redefined US goal in Iraq as 'successful completion of
that it is important to try and resolve this in an international setting in a way that war' and will withdraw all US troops in phase wise from Iraq till May 2010. During
does not create major conflict in the Middle East." his presidential transition, President-elect Obama announced that he would retain
7. On September 24, 2009, Obama became the first sitting U.S. President to the incumbent Defense Secretary, Robert Gates, in his Cabinet. On February 27,
preside over a meeting of the United Nations Security Council. 2009, Obama declared that combat operations would end in Iraq within 18 months.
His remarks were made to a group of Marines preparing for deployment to
CHALLENGES/ISSUES TO OBAMA / US FOREIGN POLICY Afghanistan. Obama said, "Let me say this as plainly as I can: By August 31, 2010,
Introduction our combat mission in Iraq will end." The drawdown is scheduled to be completed
1. American foreign policy, shaped for decades by an ongoing Cold War with the by August 2010, decreasing troops levels from 142,000 while leaving a transitional
former Soviet Union, is today still adjusting to post-Cold War realities. The force of 35,000 to 50,000 in Iraq until the end of 2011. The plan is to transition the
mission of the remaining troops from combat operations to counter-terrorism and
dangerous, but relatively simple, bipolar world of two competing nuclear
the training, equipping, and advising of Iraqi security forces.
superpowers has dissolved into a unipolar or multipolar world, depending upon
one's view of U.S. dominance of the international arena. 3. Afghanistan Issue. Early in his presidency, Obama moved to bolster U.S.
troop strength in Afghanistan. He announced an increase to U.S. troop levels of
2. U.S. foreign and national security policy has shifted from containing Soviet 17,000 in February 2009 to "stabilize a deteriorating situation in Afghanistan", an
communism to addressing conflicts in smaller, but still dangerous, hotspots area he said had not received the "strategic attention, direction and resources it
throughout the world. Often in conjunction with international bodies like the urgently requires".He replaced the military commander in Afghanistan, General
United Nations or NATO, much of American foreign policy now focuses on David D. McKiernan, with former Special Forces commander Lt. Gen. Stanley A.
peacekeeping efforts in places like the Kosovo, Iraq, or Afghanistan. McChrystal in May 2009, indicating that McChrystal's Special Forces experience
would facilitate the use of counterinsurgency tactics in the war. On December 1,
3. Debates over many foreign policy and national security issues continue to be 2009, Obama announced the deployment of an additional 30,000 soldiers to
drawn along traditional left-right lines. A leading example is defense spending, Afghanistan. He also proposed to begin troop withdrawals 18 months from that
where conservatives call for significant increases and liberals a shifting of resources date.
to domestic needs. But the left and right are themselves each split between
internationalists, who believe the U.S. should maintain a strong international 4. War against Terrorism. More attention will be given to 'War of Ideas' to
presence, and isolationists who believe the U.S. should avoid unnecessary tally with US traditional concept. There may be a chance of sharing hands with
international entanglements. Indeed, this split has a much longer history in Liberal Islamic Powers to face Al-Qaeda Propaganda. Terrorism is always threat to
American foreign policy, extending well back before the Cold War and World War US and she mainly adopts mil approach to fight against Terrorism.
II, when isolationists opposed U.S. entry until the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. 5. Iran's Nuclear Issue. The US is always against WMD development and
Uranium Production in Iran. The US may permit Iran on this matters with it's
4. American foreign policy, of course, encompasses much more than matters of supervision only.
war and peace. As the world becomes more intertwined, economically, issues of 6. Middle East Peace Deal. The new vision of US on this aspect is not yet
globalism, foreign trade, international investment and foreign aid are all materialized till date. The US policy to Israel and coming election
increasingly important. All of these issues are the focus of this section. will be the vital.
7. Russian Case. The recent issues in Georgia and situation of Russia after
Cold War have raised tension between Russia and Western World. The US interest
 10
is to include Georgia in NATO but she also needs Russian support in Iran Issue and 2. The President is also Commander in Chief of the United States Armed
Darfur Crisis. Forces, and as such has broad authority over the armed forces; however only
8. North Korea. The North Korea is agreed to support US for inspection of it's Congress has authority to declare war, and the civilian and military budget is written
nuclear reactors with a view to remove it's name from US terrorist list. The North by the Congress.
Korea is likely to hide it's WMD which will be again a major issue to US. 3. The United States Secretary of State is the foreign minister of the United
9. US-China Relation. The supreme economic power of China is vital in the States and is the primary conductor of state-to-state diplomacy. Both the Secretary
modern world. The US interests in Tibet and Taiwan may jeopardize the US-China of State and ambassadors are appointed by the President, with the advice and
relation anytime in future. The tackling of this case in balanced ways seems to be consent of the Senate. Congress also has power to regulate commerce with foreign
critical in long term. nations.
10. New Strategy of Finance, Climate Change and Energy. The US govt has Overview of history of U.S. foreign policy
provided economic package to it's all finance institutions to manage the economic 1. The Jay Treaty of 1795 aligned the U.S. more with Britain and less with
crisis which will be again in first priority to Obama Administration. Mr Obama has France, leading to political polarization at home
committed to find out ways and means to manage Green House Effects by 80 % The major themes regarding the history of U.S. foreign policy from the American
more till 2050. He has also shown keen interest to generate the alternate energy Revolution to the present are isolationism in the nineteenth century and global
and oil management. hegemony in the twentieth.
11. Health care reform. Obama called for Congress to pass health care reform, 2. Despite occasional entanglements with European Powers such as the War
a key campaign promise and a top legislative goal. He proposed an expansion of of 1812 and the Spanish-American War in 1898, the foreign policy of the U.S. was
health insurance coverage to cover the uninsured, to cap premium increases, and to marked by steady expansion in its size during the nineteenth century as well as a
allow people to retain their coverage when they leave or change jobs. His proposal policy of avoiding wars with European powers. The Louisiana Purchase doubled the
was to spend $900 billion over 10 years and include a government insurance plan, nation's geographical space and a war with Mexico in 1848 added the territories of
also known as the public option, to compete with the corporate insurance sector as Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. Spain ceded the territory of Florida. The
a main component to lowering costs and improving quality of health care. It would U.S. bought Alaska from Russia. Around the turn of the twentieth century, it looked
also make it illegal for insurers to drop sick people or deny them coverage for pre- as if the U.S. might become a colonial power similar to Britain or France or Spain
existing conditions, and require every American carry health coverage. The plan since it acquired the territories of Cuba, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico, but with
also includes medical spending cuts and taxes on insurance companies that offer the exception of Puerto Rico (which chose by election to remain part of the United
expensive plans. Barack Obama signs the Patient Protection and Affordable Care States), the U.S. has not made these territories part of the nation. The Civil War set
Act at the White House, March 23, 2010.On July 14, 2009, House Democratic an important precedent of national will over states' rights.
leaders introduced a 1,017-page plan for overhauling the U.S. health care system, 3. The twentieth century was marked by serious world wars in which the
which Obama wanted Congress to approve by the end of 2009. After much public United States, along with allied powers, defeated its enemies but at great cost in
debate during the Congressional summer recess of 2009, Obama delivered a speech terms of lives and treasure. The U.S. rose to become a dominant but noncolonial
to a joint session of Congress on September 9 where he addressed concerns over mercantile power with broad influence.The latter half of the twentieth century
his administration's proposals. On November 7, 2009, a health care bill featuring witnessed the world divided into two camps, one led by the U.S., the other by the
the public option was passed in the House. On December 24, 2009, the Senate Soviet Union, characterized by ideological struggle.A policy of containment led
passed its own bill — without a public option — on a party-line vote of 60–39. On to[citation needed] a series of proxy wars with mixed results.In 1989, the Soviet Union
March 21, 2010, the health care bill passed by the Senate in December was passed dissolved into separate nations, and as the Cold War ended without armageddon or
in the House by a vote of 219 to 212. Obama signed the bill into law on March 23, World War III, new challenges confront U.S. policymakers.Still U.S. foreign policy is
2010. characterized by a commitment to free trade, protection of American interests, and
a concern for human rights.
Foreign policy powers of the President and Congress 4. In the twenty-first century, U.S. influence remains strong but, in relative
1. Subject to the advice and consent role of the U.S. Senate, the President of terms, is declining in terms of economic output compared to rising nations such as
the United States negotiates treaties with foreign nations, but treaties enter into China, India, Russia, Brazil, and the newly consolidated European Union. Substantial
force only if ratified by two-thirds of the Senate. problems remain, such as climate change, nuclear proliferation, and the specter of
nuclear terrorism. Foreign policy analysts Hachigian and Sutphen in their book The
 11
Next American Century suggest all six powers have similar vested interests in Vladimir Putin had advocated a strategic partnership with close integration in
stability and terrorism prevention and trade; if they can find common ground, then various dimensions including establishment of four common spaces between Russia
the next decades may be marked by peaceful growth and prosperity. [7] and the EU. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia has developed a
friendlier, albeit volatile relationship with NATO. The NATO-Russia Council was
Foreign policy law established in 2002 to allow the 26 Allies and Russia to work together as equal
In the United States, there are three types of treaty-related law: partners to pursue opportunities for joint collaboration.
 Congressional-executive agreements are made by the president or 3. In international affairs, Putin has been publicly and increasingly critical of
Congress. When made by Congress, a majority of both houses makes it the foreign policies of the US and other Western countries. Some commentators
binding much like regular legislation. While the constitution does not have linked this increase in hostility towards the West with the global rise in oil
expressly state that these agreements are allowed, and while prices. In February 2007, at the annual Munich Conference on Security Policy, he
constitutional scholars such as Laurence Tribe think they're criticized what he calls the United States' monopolistic dominance in global
unconstitutional, the U.S. Supreme Court has upheld their validity. relations, and pointed out that the United States displayed an "almost uncontained
 Executive agreements are made by the president alone. hyper use of force in international relations". He said the result of it is that "no one
 Treaties are formal written agreements specified by the Treaty Clause of feels safe! Because no one can feel that international law is like a stone wall that
the Constitution. The president makes a treaty with foreign powers, but will protect them. Of course such a policy stimulates an arms race."
then the proposed treaty must be ratified by a two-thirds vote in the 4. Putin called for a "fair and democratic world order that would ensure
Senate. For example, President Wilson proposed the Treaty of Versailles security and prosperity not only for a select few, but for all". He proposed certain
after World War I after consulting with allied powers, but this treaty was initiatives such as establishing international centres for the enrichment of uranium
rejected by the U.S. Senate; as a result, the U.S. subsequently made and prevention of deploying weapons in outer space. In his January 2007 interview
separate agreements with different nations. While most international law Putin said Russia is in favor of a democratic multipolar world and of strengthening
has a broader interpretation of the term treaty, the U.S. sense of the term the systems of international law.
is more restricted. 5. While Putin is often characterised as an autocrat by the Western media
and many opposition politicians (most notably, Boris Nemtsov, Mikhail Kasyanov
and Ilya Yashin), his relationship with former American President George W. Bush,
FOREIGN POLICY OF RUSSIA former German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder, former French President Jacques
Chirac, and Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi are reported to be personally
friendly. Putin's relationship with Germany's new Chancellor, Angela Merkel, was
1. The Russian Federation is recognized in international law as successor state reported to be "cooler" and "more business-like" than his partnership with Gerhard
of the former Soviet Union. Russia continues to implement the international Schröder. This observation is often attributed to the fact that Merkel was raised in
commitments of the USSR, and has assumed the USSR's permanent seat on the UN the former DDR, the country of station of Putin when he was a KGB agent.
Security Council, membership in other international organizations, the rights and 6. In the wake of the September 11 attacks on the United States, he agreed
obligations under international treaties and property and debts. Russia has a to the establishment of coalition military bases in Central Asia before and during
multifaceted foreign policy. As of 2009, it maintains diplomatic relations with 191 the US-led invasion of Afghanistan. Russian nationalists objected to the
countries and has 144 embassies. The foreign policy is determined by the President establishment of any US military presence on the territory of the former Soviet
of Russia and implemented by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Union, and had expected Putin to keep the US out of the Central Asian republics, or
at the very least extract a commitment from Washington to withdraw from these
2. As one of five permanent members of the UN Security Council, Russia bases as soon as the immediate military necessity had passed.
plays a major role in maintaining international peace and security. The country 7. During the Iraq crisis of 2003, Putin opposed Washington's move to invade
participates in the Quartet on the Middle East and the Six-party talks with North Iraq without the benefit of a United Nations Security Council resolution explicitly
Korea. Russia is a member of the Group of Eight (G8) industrialized nations, the authorizing the use of military force. After the official end of the war was
Council of Europe, OSCE and APEC. Russia usually takes a leading role in regional announced, American President George W. Bush asked the United Nations to lift
organizations such as the CIS, EurAsEC, CSTO, and the SCO. Former President sanctions on Iraq. Putin supported lifting of the sanctions in due course, arguing
 12
that the UN commission first be given a chance to complete its work on the search press, suggested that ratification by Parliament was not enough and that a
for weapons of mass destruction in Iraq. referendum should also be held. Labour's 2005 manifesto had pledged to give
British public a referendum on the original EU Constitution.
7. Brown argued that the Treaty significantly differed from the Constitution,
UNITED KINGDOM FOREIGN POLICY and as such did not require a referendum. He also responded with plans for a
lengthy debate on the topic, and stated that he believed the document to be too
1. The diplomatic foreign relations of the United Kingdom are implemented complex to be decided by referendum.
by the United Kingdom's Foreign and Commonwealth Office. The UK was the
world's foremost power during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Throughout
history it has wielded significant influence upon other nations via the British Empire,
and until the 1950s was considered a superpower. However, the cost of two World
Wars and the process of decolonisation diminished this influence. Nevertheless, the NATIONAL INTERESTS AND FOREIGN POLICY.
United Kingdom remains a major power and a permanent member of the United
Nations Security Council, a Member State of the European Union, and a founding 1. A country's foreign policy, also called the international relations policy, is
member of the G7, G8, G20, NATO, OECD, WTO, Council of Europe, OSCE, and the strategies chosen by the state to safeguard its national interests and to
Commonwealth of Nations, which is a legacy of the British Empire. achieve its goals in international relations. The approaches are strategically
employed to interact with other countries. In the recent time, due to the
2. Brown was committed to the Iraq War, but said in a speech in June 2007 deepening level of globalization and transnational activities, the states will
that he would "learn the lessons" from the mistakes made in Iraq. Brown said in a also have to interact with non-state actors.
letter published on 17 March 2008 that the United Kingdom will hold an inquiry into 2. The aforementioned interaction is evaluated and monitored in attempts to
the Iraq war. Brown skipped the opening ceremony of the 2008 Summer Olympics, maximize benefits of multilateral international cooperation. Since the
on 8 August 2008 in Beijing. He attended the closing ceremony instead, on 24 national interests are paramount, foreign policies are designed by the
August 2008. government through high-level decision making processes.
3. Brown had been under intense pressure from human rights campaigners to 3. National interests accomplishment can occur as a result of peaceful
send a message to China, concerning the 2008 Tibetan unrest. His decision not to cooperation with other nations, or through exploitation. Usually, creating
attend the opening ceremony was not an act of protest, rather made several weeks foreign policy is the job of the head of government and the foreign
in advance and not intended as a stand on principle. minister (or equivalent).
4. In November 2007 Brown was accused by some senior military figures of 4. In some countries the legislature also has considerable oversight. As an
not adhering to the 'military covenant', a convention within British politics stating exception, in France and Finland, the head of state is responsible for
that in exchange for them putting their lives at risk for the sake of national security, foreign policy, while the head of government mainly deals with internal
the armed forces should in turn be suitably looked after by the government. policy. In the United States, the head of state (the President) also functions
5. In a speech in July 2007, Brown personally clarified his position regarding as the head of government. According to Graham T. Allison, there are
Britain's relationship with the USA] "We will not allow people to separate us from three models of Foreign Policy decision making process: 1). Rational Actor
the United States of America in dealing with the common challenges that we face model, 2). Organizational Process model, and 3). Bureaucratic Politics
around the world. I think people have got to remember that the relationship model.
between Britain and America and between a British prime minister and an
American president is built on the things that we share, the same enduring values International relations theory
about the importance of liberty, opportunity, the dignity of the individual. I will
continue to work, as Tony Blair did, very closely with the American administration." 5. The sub-discipline that specializes in the study of foreign relations is known
6. Brown and the Labour party had pledged to allow a referendum on the EU as foreign policy analysis (FPA). FPA contributes to overall communication between
Treaty of Lisbon. On the morning of 13 December 2007, Foreign Secretary David nations.
Miliband attended for the Prime Minister at the official signing ceremony in Lisbon
of the EU Reform Treaty. Brown's opponents on both sides of the House, and in the
 13
did not work, partially because the United States refused to join and
National interest partially because, in practice, nations did not always find it "in the national
6. The national interest, often referred to by the French term raison d’état, is interest" to deter each other from the use of force.
a country's goals and ambitions whether economic, military, or cultural. The notion  The events of World War II led to a rebirth of Realist and then Neo-realist
is an important one in international relations where pursuit of the national interest thought, as international relations theorists re-emphasized the role of
is the foundation of the realist school. power in global governance. Many IR theorists blamed the weakness of the
7. The national interest of a state is multi-faceted. Primary is the state's League of Nations for its idealism (contrasted with Realism) and
survival and security. Also important is the pursuit of wealth and economic growth ineffectiveness at preventing war, even as they blamed mercantilist beggar
and power. Many states, especially in modern times, regard the preservation of the thy neighbor policies for the creation of fascist states in Germany and Italy.
nation's culture as of great importance. With hegemonic stability theory, the concept of the U.S. national interest
History of the concept was expanded to include the maintenance of open sea lanes and the
 In early human history the national interest was usually viewed as maintenance and expansion of free trade.
secondary to that of religion or morality. To engage in a war rulers needed
to justify the action in these contexts. The first thinker to advocate for the Concept today
primacy of the national interest is usually considered to be Niccolò  Today, the concept of "the national interest" is often associated with
Machiavelli. political Realists who wish to differentiate their policies from "idealistic"
 The practice is first seen as being employed by France under the direction policies that seek either to inject morality into foreign policy or promote
of its Chief Minister Cardinal Richelieu in the Thirty Years' War when it solutions that rely on multilateral institutions which might weaken the
intervened on the Protestant side, despite its own Catholicism, to block the independence of the state.
increasing power of the Holy Roman Emperor. At Richelieu's prompting,  As considerable disagreement exists in every country over what is or is not
Jean de Silhon defended the concept of reason of state as "a mean in "the national interest," the term is as often invoked to justify isolationist
between what conscience permits and affairs require." The notion of the and pacifistic policies as to justify interventionist or warlike policies.
national interest soon came to dominate European politics that became
fiercely competitive over the next centuries. POWER AND CAPABILITY ANALYSIS IN FOREIGN POLICY.
 States could now openly embark on wars purely out of self-interest. Power in international relations
Mercantilism can be seen as the economic justification of the aggressive
pursuit of the national interest. 1. Power in international relations is defined in several different ways.
 A foreign policy geared towards pursuing the national interest is the Political scientists, historians, and practitioners of international relations
foundation of the realist school of international relations. The realist (diplomats) have used the following concepts of political power:
school reached its greatest heights at the Congress of Vienna with the a) Power as a goal of states or leaders;
practice of the balance of powers, which amounted to balancing the b) Power as a measure of influence or control over outcomes, events,
national interest of several great and lesser powers. actors and issues;
 Metternich was celebrated as the principal artist and theoretician of this c) Power as reflecting victory in conflict and the attainment of security;
balancing but he was simply doing a more or less clean copy of what his and,
predecessor Kaunitz had already done by reversing so many of the d) Power as control over resources and capabilities.
traditional Habsburg alliances and building international relations anew on
the basis of national interest instead of religion or tradition. 2. Modern discourse generally speaks in terms of state power, indicating both
 These notions became much criticized after the bloody debacle of the First economic and military power. Those states that have significant amounts of
World War, and some sought to replace the concept of the balance of power within the international system are referred to as middle powers,
power with the idea of collective security, whereby all members of the regional powers, great powers, superpowers, or hyperpowers, although there
League of Nations would "consider an attack upon one as an attack upon is no commonly accepted standard for what defines a powerful state.
all," thus deterring the use of violence forevermore. The League of Nations Entities other than states can also acquire and wield power in international
relations. Such entities can include multilateral international organizations,
 14
military alliance organizations (e.g. NATO), multinational corporations, non- guides the ways the state deploys and applies its power abroad. These ways
governmental organizations, or other institutions such as the Roman Catholic embrace the arts of war, espionage, and diplomacy. The practitioners of these three
Church, Wal-Mart, or the Hanseatic League. arts are the paladins of statecraft." [1] Charles W. Freeman, Jr."Power" is also used
to describe the resources and capabilities of a state. This definition is quantitative
Power as a goal and is most often used by geopoliticians and the military. Capabilities are thought of
3. Primary usage of "power" as a goal in international relations belongs to in tangible terms—they are measurable, weighable, quantifiable assets. Thomas
political theorists, such as Niccolò Machiavelli and Hans Morgenthau. Especially Hobbes spoke of power as "present means to obtain some future apparent good."
among Classical Realist thinkers, power is an inherent goal of mankind and of Hard power can be treated as a potential and is not often enforced on the
states. Economic growth, military growth, cultural spread etc. can all be considered international stage.Chinese strategists have such a concept of national power that
as working towards the ultimate goal of international power. can be measured quantitatively using an index known as comprehensive national
Power as influence power.
4. Political scientists principally use "power" in terms of an actor's ability to
exercise influence over other actors within the international system. This influence Soft versus hard power
can be coercive, attractive, cooperative, or competitive. Mechanisms of influence 8. Some political scientists distinguish between two types of power: soft and
can include the threat or use of force, economic interaction or pressure, diplomacy, hard. The former is attractive while the latter is coercive. Joseph Nye is the leading
and cultural exchange. proponent and theorist of soft power.
Spheres, blocs, and alliances a) Instruments of soft power include debates on cultural values, dialogues on
5. Under certain circumstances, states can organize a sphere of influence or a ideology, the attempt to influence through good example, and the appeal
bloc within which they exercise predominant influence. Historical examples include to commonly accepted human values. Means of exercising soft power
the spheres of influence recognized under the Concert of Europe, or the recognition include diplomacy, dissemination of information, analysis, propaganda,
of spheres during the Cold War following the Yalta Conference. The Warsaw Pact, and cultural programming to achieve political ends.
the "Free World," and the Non-Aligned Movement were the blocs that arose out of b) Hard power refers to coercive tactics: the threat or use of armed forces,
the Cold War contest. Military alliances like NATO and the Warsaw Pact are another economic pressure or sanctions, assassination and subterfuge, or other
forum through which influence is exercised. However, "realist" theory often forms of intimidation. Hard power is generally associated to the stronger
attempts to stay away from the creation of powerful blocs/spheres that can create of nations, as the ability to change the domestic affairs of other nations
a hegemon within the region. British foreign policy, for example, has always sided through military threats.
against the hegemonic forces on the continent, i.e. Nazi Germany, Napoleonic
France or Habsburg Austria. Categories of power
Power as security 9. In the modern geopolitical landscape, a number of terms are used to
6. "Power" is also used when describing states or actors that have achieved describe powers of various types, these include:
military victories or security for their state in the international system. This general Darkest blue countries most often considered to be superpowers, dark blue
usage is most commonly found among the writings of historians or popular writers. countries most often considered to be great powers, pale blue countries most
For instance, a state that has achieved a string of combat victories in a military often considered to be middle powers, and palest blue countries also sometimes
campaign against other states can be described as powerful. An actor that has considered to be middle powers.
succeeded in protecting its security, sovereignty, or strategic interests from a) Hyperpower - coined in the 1990s to describe the post-Cold War unrivaled
repeated or significant challenge can also be described as powerful. global power of the United States as the sole remaining superpower. If
such a state is the preponderant power in the international system, it is
Power as capability described as a hegemon.
7. "Power is the capacity to direct the decisions and actions of others. Power b) Superpower - Fox (1944) defined superpower as 'great power plus great
derives from strength and will. Strength comes from the transformation of mobility of power' and identified 3 states, the United States, the Soviet
resources into capabilities. Will infuses objectives with resolve. Strategy marshals Union and the British Empire[3]. China and the European Union are often
capabilities and brings them to bear with precision. Statecraft seeks through considered potential superpowers.
strategy to magnify the mass, relevance, impact, and irresistibility of power. It
 15
c) Great power - in historical mentions, the term great power refers to any 12. From the late 18th century and during all the 19th century, there was an
nations that have strong political, cultural and economic influence over informal convention recognising Five Great Powers in Europe: France, Great Britain,
nations around it and across the world. China, France, Germany, Japan, Russia, Austria (later Austro-Hungary) and the Kingdom of Prussia (later the German
Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States are often considered to Empire). From the late 19th century Italy was added to this group. Also two extra-
be great powers. European powers, the United States and Japan, were able to gain the same status
d) Regional power is also used to describe a nation that exercises influence from the start of 20th century.
and power within a region. Being a regional power is not mutually
exclusive with any of the other categories of power. Many countries are
often described as regional powers, among those are South Africa, Israel, ORGANIZATION AND PROCESS OF FOREIGN POLICY MAKING
Turkey, and Indonesia.
e) Middle power - a subjective description of second-tier influential states 1. Foreign Policy, a course of action or set of principles adopted by a nation’s
that could not be described as great powers. Australia, Canada, Spain, Italy, government to define its relations with other countries or groups of countries. A
Poland, Brazil, India, Mexico, and South Korea are commonly considered to country’s foreign policy also sets forth its positions on a wide range of international
be major middle powers alongside other middle powers. India and Brazil issues. A country’s foreign policy may reflect broad national objectives or represent
are also sometimes considered to be potential future great powers. a narrow and specific response to a particular situation. A country can achieve its
Other types of power foreign policy goals in several ways. It can use diplomacy—that is, peaceful
f) The term energy superpower describes a country that has immense negotiations with other countries. It can employ economic actions such as giving
influence or even direct control over much of the world's energy supplies. money or other aid to another country, or it can restrict trade with that nation or
Saudi Arabia and Russia, possibly Canada and Australia are generally impose economic sanctions on it. It also can resort to military force.
acknowledged as the world's current energy superpowers, given their
abilities to globally influence or even directly control prices to certain
2. A country’s foreign policy can be influenced by many variables, including
countries.
its historical alliances with other nations, its culture, type of government, size,
g) The term cultural/entertainment superpower describes a country in which
geographic location, economic ties, and military power. A country’s foreign policy is
has immense influence or even direct control over much of the world's
usually aimed at preserving or promoting its economic and political interests abroad
entertainment or has an immense large cultural influence on much of the
and its position in the world.
world. Although this is debated on who meets such criteria, many agree
that the United States, United Kingdom and Japan are generally
3. The analysis of foreign policy has traditionally focused on government
acknowledged as the entertainment and cultural superpowers, given their
actions, particularly those related to political and military issues. But in recent
abilities to distribute their entertainment and cultural innovations
decades the focus has changed. Today many nongovernmental groups or
worldwide.
organizations, known as NGOs, play an important role in foreign policy. Groups as
diverse as Amnesty International, a nonpartisan organization that advocates for
Modern Age European powers
human rights, and al-Qaeda, a terrorist organization responsible for the September
10. From 16th century to the early 18th century the three major powers in
11 attacks on the United States in 2001, enlarge the number of foreign policy actors
Europe were France, Spain and the Ottoman Empire. During the 17th and 18th
in the world today.
century United Kingdom and the Holy Roman Empire (under the Habsburg house)
were added to the group, but Spain and Ottomans progressively lost their status. In
the second half of the same century Russia and the Kingdom of Prussia gained the 3. Foreign policy actions are also initiated by organizations representing a
major status. group of governments, such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a
11. During Early Modern European Age a group of states including Sweden, the multinational defense alliance that includes, among others, the United Kingdom,
Netherlands, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Portugal, Papacy, Denmark–Norway, France, and the United States. Organizations such as the North American Free Trade
Poland, Kingdom of Bavaria were recognised as having important impact on the Association (NAFTA), an economic organization of Canada, Mexico, and the United
European balance of power. States, and the United Nations (UN), a global organization of more than 190
nations, also play a role in setting foreign policy. These groups and organizations
 16
have adopted foreign policies on a wider range of issues than in the past, including
human rights, trade, peacekeeping, and arms control. As a result, the array of Foreign Policy of a Nation and effect of media
foreign policy issues has become increasingly diverse.
1. Foreign policy is the melting pot of a state’s socio-political, economic and
 The rest of this article focuses on foreign policy in the United States. military policies. It varies from one state to another and from one type of state to
American Foreign Policy. another. But what is true for all is, it is the output of the state in the global system.
Foreign policy is the course of action undertaken by a sovereign state in pursuit of
a) Under the Constitution of the United States, both the Congress of the national objectives beyond its domestic jurisdiction. If we look at the definition
United States and the president have the responsibility of setting U.S. given by Palmer and Perkins, it states, “foreign policy is a systematic statement of
foreign policy. deliberately selected nation interests”. According to Hartman, “foreign policy is the
system of activities evolved by communities for changing the behavior of other
states and for adjusting their own activities to the international environment”. Both
b) The U.S. Constitution also dictates that some of that power be shared
the statements clearly indicate that it is securing of national interests in an
between the two.
international arena.
c) In general, the president shapes foreign policy, with the advice of the 2. The study of foreign policy should be treated as a science or a discipline.
secretary of state and the Department of State, but the president also Their roots are in the unique historical background, economic needs, political
has numerous other national security officials in the executive branch institutions, military institution, intelligence department, peculiar geographical
to assist in shaping foreign policy. circumstance and so on. Some of them are permanent, some temporary, some are
clear, others not clear. But they interact with one another owing to interdependent
d) Congress approves the funding needed to carry out that policy. values.

e) The U.S. Senate must also approve any treaties initiated by the 3. At this point, if we consider the foreign policy of Nepal, we can clearly see
president by a two-thirds vote. the amalgamation of political, economical and military factors to safeguard our
national interest. Our foreign policy states, the objective of it are as follows
f) In addition, U.S. Congress can criticize actions the president and (a) Enhance the dignity of the state in the international arena by
administration have carried out, and U.S. Congress has, from time to maintaining sovereignty, integrity and independence of the country
time, imposed restrictions on U.S. foreign policy actions. (b) Promoting economic interest
(c) Providing national security
g) The dividing line between the power of the president and that of U.S. (d) Protecting national prestige
Congress to set foreign policy is not always clear. (e) Maintaining world order and protecting the interests of the
citizens abroad.
h) As a result, U.S. Congress and the president have sometimes struggled
for that authority throughout various periods of American history. 4. Now, if we look at the guiding principles of Nepal’s foreign policy, they are
as follows
(a) Panchasheel, principles in the UN charter, policy of non-
i) But since the end of World War II in 1945, the president has been
alignment, international law and the value of world peace
generally recognized as having the principal authority to create foreign
(b) Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity, sovereignty
policy.
and independence
(c) Non-interference in each other’s internal affairs
j) Both U.S. Congress and the courts have deferred to the president on (d) Respect for mutual equality
foreign policy questions. Political parties, special interests groups, and (e) Non-aggression and the peaceful settlement of disputes
public opinion have generally played a secondary role. (f) Cooperation for mutual benefit
 17
(g) An advisory committee to facilitate smooth functioning and
5. If we analyze the above-mentioned facts, it clearly gives away the political, monitor any wrong doing
economic and military guidelines. It has clearly stated that we are neither going to (h) Provision of an advisory committee to do a periodic review of
attack any countries nor do we tolerate other country’s aggression in our territorial policies and make timely recommendations
integrity. We always will cooperate for mutual benefit and will promote economic (j) Periodic press conferences to give out any new change in policies
interest. and updates
FOREIGN POLICY IN ACTION.
6. Since foreign policy of a nation encompass all aspects of National Security
it is very important to ensure its correct dissemination. A slightest mis- 1. This study will examine the most beneficial and most disastrous foreign
interpretation can shatter a country's image in international arena and sometime policy actions undertaken by the United States since 1938 as described in Stephen
can result into war. Media being the medium of dissemination has to be very clear Ambrose's Rise to Globalism. The most beneficial action was the entrance into
about its aim and this must be ensured. Educating the world about what we believe
World War II. The most disastrous action was the decision to enter into the Vietnam
and ensuring them that we will abide by it. This is a commitment and should be a
War. The criteria are simple and clear with respect to an evaluation of the most
passionate one. Only dissemination will not be effective. This has to be checked and
crosschecked time and again. If it is well received by the other nations, it will start "beneficial" and "disastrous" foreign policy actions taken in this period. What action
showing the indications and diplomatic relationship will start shaping accordingly. resulted in the worst benefit, and what action resulted in the greatest disaster? The
But on the other hand, if an impression of us being reluctant towards our policy decision which led to the entrance of the United States into World 2.
goes out internationally, it will have negative impact and other nations will think
that we are not serious on implementation part. A burning example of this is the 2. War II resulted in victory over tyrants who would have imposed totalitarian
failure of updating the websites of foreign ministries after the parliament was rule on most of the world, in putting an end to the vestiges of the Depression as the
reinstated following Jana-andolan II. This does not give positive signal to the nation geared up industrially for the war effort, and established the United States as
international community and give them space to question the intentions of the the number one post-war nation economically and militarily. Certainly no other
government. These give space for people to make their own interpretations and
action taken since 1938 has produced anything near such a list of benefits.
make allegations. Thus it is very important to ensure that whatever comes in media
is correct and the authority giving that information is truly committed to follow it.
3. On the other hand, the decision which led to the entrance of the United
Recommendations States into the Vietnam War split the nation into rageful camps for almost a decade
(some might argue that such a division continues today), cost the United States
7. National Security has priority over everything else and this is the issue, over fifty thousand lives and billions of dollars for no purpose, ended one
which is non-negotiable. It is the duty of the state to educate every citizen and also Presidency (Johnson's) and dominated the national political debate when other
make it known to other nations. Media being the medium of doing that, it should be crucial issues required such debate, and did not even result in a enter World War II
cautioned to deliver the correct message. Following are some recommendations for a decision based on the vital interests of the nation? The answer is an unequivocal
ensuring that
"yes". Had the United States not entered the war, the nation would have been
(a) Clear national aim and national policy isolated in a world controlled by Germany, Japan and Italy. In order to literally
(b) Basic education of National Interest to media and public survive as a nation, the United States had no choice but to enter the war. It is ironic
(c) Clearly laid down media policy and non-negotiable factors that one of the leaders who praised the United States for its role in liberating
(d) Access of media to concerned ministry's spokesperson enslaved nations in World War II would within ten years be effectively at war with
(e) Immediate press conference by the concerned in case of any the United States. Ho Chi Minh would turn out to be one of the most aggrieved
incident before it is speculated victims of the abuse of American power which would follow American success in
(f) transparency during the process is very essential World War II. We read that "Ho Chi Minh hailed the Americans as the true friends of
(f) Development of professional ethics and clear punitive actions in the oppressed of the earth" (50) after the United States had liberated Vietnam from
case of its breaching
 18
the Japanese. However, Vietnam was one of many nations which would suffer sense, diplomacy is the employment of tact to gain strategic advantage or to find
profoundly as the result of the enmity of the Cold War. The decision of the United mutually acceptable solutions to a common challenge, one set of tools being the
States to enter the Vietnam War was a disaster according to all three standards phrasing of statements in a non-confrontational, or polite manner. The science of
diplomatics, dealing with the study of old documents, also owes its name to the
established for this study. In the first place, it was a decision which was not well-
above, but its present meaning is completely distinct from that of diplomacy.
though-out at all. In fact, it could be even be said that it was not a decision at al .

Diplomats and diplomatic missions

DIPLOMACY
1. The collective term for a group of diplomats from a single country who
MEANING, NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF DIPLOMACY.
reside in another country is a diplomatic mission. Ambassador is the most senior
diplomatic rank; a diplomatic mission headed by an ambassador is known as an
DIPLOMACY
embassy, with the exception of permanent missions at the United Nations, the
1. The term diplomacy has been derived from the Latin noun “diploma”
Organization of American States, or other multilateral organizations, which are also
meaning a double document.
headed by ambassadors. The collective body of all diplomats of particular country is
2. Diplomacy, practices and institutions by which nations conduct their
called that country's diplomatic service. The collective body of all diplomats
relations with one another. Originally, the English term diplomatics referred to the
assigned to a particular country is the diplomatic corps.
care and evaluation of official papers or archives, many of which were treaties. In
the 18th century diplomatic documents increasingly meant those pertaining to
international relations, and the term diplomatic corps was used to signify the body
of ambassadors, envoys, and officials attached to foreign missions. In 1796 the
British philosopher Edmund Burke castigated the French for their “double
diplomacy” during the Napoleonic Wars; since then the term diplomacy has been
associated with international politics and foreign policy. According to Earnet Salow “
Diplomacy is the application of intelligence and tact to conduct official relation
between the governments of Independent state.
 According to Quency Wright “ Diplomacy is the art of negotiation in
order to achieve the maximization of group objectives with a
minimum of cost, within a system of politics in which war is a
possibility.
 According to Childs “Diplomacy is the process by which foreign policy
is carried out.”
 According to Nicholson “ diplomacy is the management of Intl relation
by means of negotiations the method by which these relations are
adjusted and managed by ambassadors and envoys: the businesses or
the art of the diplomats.

Diplomacy is the art and practice of conducting negotiations between

representatives of groups or states. It usually refers to international diplomacy, the
conduct of international relations through the intercession of professional
diplomats with regard to issues of peace-making, trade, war, economics, culture,
environment and human rights. International treaties are usually negotiated by
diplomats prior to endorsement by national politicians. In an informal or social
 19
 Broadly speaking, the functions of a diplomat are representations,
negotiation, diplomat protection public relation information and
BRIEF BACKGROUND administration of embassy.
 A diplomat has to project a very good image of his country. He protects
1. The beginning of the organized diplomacy can be traced back to the Greek his country’s nation and property in the country where he is appointed
period 5th century B.C. Vienna convention of 1961 specifies five functions of a diplomat.
2. It was in the early 19th century that diplomacy methods became a generally (a) To represent his state abroad.
observed norm and code. (b) To protect interest of nationals of one’s state according to
3. Traditionally diplomacy was explained carefully in terms of national international law.
interest supported by power. (c) To study the political condition of other states and send
4. It is through diplomacy that states:- authentic information.
(a) Arrange alliance to maintain the balance power. (d) To establish friendly relation between states and the country
(b) Negotiate the level and types of arms being maintained. to where he is appointed in economic, cultural and scientific
(c)Contribute to the development of Intl law. area.
(d) Maintain regional and international org like SAARC, UN etc. (e) To negotiate with state on different subjects.
(e) Co-ordination economic policy design to enhance their welfare and
power or restrict welfare and power of other state. BASIC INSTRUMENTS OF DIPLOMACY
5. Thus diplomacy deals with various international affairs, conduct of negotiation, 1. Diplomacy has two organized instruments:
making agreements and the means of promoting national interest (a) Foreign office in the capital of respective nation states like the
ministry of external affairs. The diplomats working in these offices
OBJECTIVES OF DIPLOMACY translate theory into practice.
 Diplomacy aims at protection of national interests which h are mainly (b) Diplomats fulfill three basic functions, symbolic or ceremonial when
preservative of territorial integrity and sovereignty, economic prosperity they represent the head of the country at official functions where
and welfare of the state. appointed legal when they act as the legal representative and agent of
 The objective of diplomacy is to insure that the interests of the state are the government while negotiating agreements, contracts or executive
safeguarded. orders of his government and political when they actually participate in
 In other words the objective of diplomacy is to protect the security of formulation and shaping foreign policy of his country.
nation by peaceful means. If possible, but by giving every assistance to
military operations if war cannot be avoided.
1. USEFULNESS OF DIPLOMACY

MAIN FUNCTIONS OF DIPLOMACY 1. Keeping in view that fulfillment of foreign policy objectives and promotion of
1. According to Kautilya they are:- national interest diplomacy plays a useful role as.
(a) Expression of power (a) Diplomacy provides every opportunity for cooperation in the conduct
(b) Make friends and create division among enemy status of the world business.
(c) Proper implementation of treaties etc. (b) It is the source of authentic materials on diplomatic relation like
diplomatic documents, letters of embassies.
 Thus the art of diplomacy consist in using the right means, at right time (c) It is an inexpensive means of exercising power in international affairs.
with the right emphasis. A diplomat is the eyes, ears of his government (d) A diplomat can participate in conference negotiate agreements or
abroad. draft resolution but if the state so desires it can refuse to ratify them
 This chief function are to execute the policy of his own country, to there by avoiding making commitments.
protect its interest and its nationals, to keep his government informed (e) Diplomats assist head of states and delegation at international
of major development in the rest of the world. conference.
 20
(f) Diplomats are sent on secret missions. new Embassies in 14 countries on the territory of the former Soviet Union. Each of
(g) A successful diplomat therefore is one who is aware of views of these newly independent Eurasian states has emerged with congealing national and
others, not so as to accommodate or compromise with them but so cultural identities, including a rediscovery of native languages long suppressed
as to frustrate them. under Soviet policies.
The fragmentation of Cold War-era nation-states and the growing number of failed
NEW TRENDS OF DIPLOMACY governments challenge U.S. diplomatic missions across the globe. Anti-Americanism
1. Diplomacy has already been descried earlier. The new trends of diplomacy and radical movements directed against the United States are on the rise. Even
are as follows. some traditional allies are no longer reliable. The U.S. military footprint grows
(a) Democratic diplomacy smaller in many regions, raising the importance of maintaining access points with
(b) Multilateral diplomacy countries that are receptive to U.S. policies before a crisis occurs. Combatant
(c) Summit diplomacy commanders rely heavily on the diplomatic work conducted by Embassy country
(d) Coalition diplomacy teams. But a decade after the lifting of the Iron Curtain, the Department of Defense
(e) Commercial diplomacy (DOD) has not adequately adjusted to the security challenges facing the attache
(f) Cultural diplomacy corps and its military-diplomatic mission. This article outlines how transformation of
(g) Shopkeeper diplomacy the military attache corps will substantially improve capabilities.
(h) Warrior diplomacy

POLITICAL, ECONOMICAL, MILITARY AND CULTURAL DIPLOMACY

OLD AND NEW DIPLOMACY .
1. Cultural diplomacy is a part of diplomacy. It alludes to a new way of 1. Diplomacy is a phenomenon which citizens play a greater role in impacting
making diplomacy by involving new non governmental and non professional actors internal relations.Actually it is a process of communication and negotiation in the
in the making of diplomacy. In the frame of globalization, culture plays a major role world politics and an important foreign policy instruments used by global actors.
in the definition of identity and in the relations between people. Joseph Nye points While the convention and machinery of diplomacy have evolved over a long
out the importance of having a soft power besides a hard power. When classical historical period the introduction of diplomatic system began in the ancient world
diplomacy fails, a better knowledge can help bridging the gap between different but took a recognizable modern form from the fifteen century onwards with the
cultures. Cultural diplomacy becomes a subject of academic studies based on establishment of the permanent embassy.
historical essays on the United States, Europe, and the Cold War. 2. A traditional diplomatic system was developed thereafter distinguished
from from the ancient and medieval worlds as it constituted a communication
2. Economic diplomacy is concerned with economic policy issues, e.g. work process between recognised modern states and for relation and negotiation on
of delegations at standard setting organizations such as World Trade Organization regular bases,given the distance involved,diplomats were sent a broad for this state
(WTO). Economic diplomats also monitor and report on economic policies in foreign based activity.This mission was institutionalized and eventually
countries and give the home government advice on how to best influence them. professionalized.This was purely on bilateral bases and undertaken by secrecy
Economic diplomacy employs economic resources, either as rewards or sanctions, through embassies on a state-to-state basis with the diplomats representing their
in pursuit of a particular foreign policy objective. This is sometimes called countries and able to conduct their business without obstruction or fear. Traditional
"economic statecraft. diplomacy reached its most developed form and most effective system for ordering
international relations and this is the period know as century of peace.
3. Military diplomacy 3. A new form of diplomacy was needed as the successful traditional
Since the collapse of the Soviet Union and concurrent with the war on terror, diplomacy which promoted stability,order and peace in the nineteen-century
military attaches have been fully involved in a wide range of defense-related Europe failed to prevent the first world war.The first world war was a watershed in
activities supporting national policymakers and combatant commanders. The the history of diplomacy.The perceived failure of diplomacy to prevent this war led
political map has changed in the last decade, increasing the importance of soldier- to a 'new diplomacy' as there was a demand it should be open to public scrutiny
diplomats serving abroad. Since 1945, the international system has expanded from and control. The structure of the new diplomacy remained similar to the old
51 sovereign states to almost 200 today. Ten years ago, the United States opened diplomacy to the extent that the states and governments remained the major
 21
actors in the system with well established embassies abroad attached to foreign much less than the increased hostility from other parts. This is also called soft
departments locally. States are no longer the only actors but share the stage with power.
intergovernmental and non-governmental organisations.The state changed from
the night watchman to the welfare state. 4. Many situations in modern diplomacy are also rules based. When for
4. The new diplomacy is being used to address many issues such as human instance two WTO countries have trade disputes, it is in the interest of both to limit
rights(e.g campaign to end South African apartheid and the save Darfur the spill over damage to other areas by following some agreed-upon rules.
campaign),humanitarian assistance,lobar rights,environmental issues, and fair
trade.The changing interest of states as international actors and the growing Diplomatic immunity
number of non-stae actors involved changed nature of the new diplomacy as a
process of negotiation.The outbreak of the second world war revealed the limits ot
1. The sanctity of diplomats has long been observed. This sanctity has come
the' new' diplomacy.
to be known as diplomatic immunity. While there have been a number of cases
Diplomacy was delicate and dangerous during the cold war when international
where diplomats have been killed, this is normally viewed as a great breach of
relation were dominated by a global confrontaion between superpowers and their
honour. Genghis Khan and the Mongols were well known for strongly insisting on
allies and the need to avoid a nuclear war but also to win the cold war.Also the war
the rights of diplomats, and they would often wreak horrific vengeance against any
against terrorism has posed a major challenge to the role of diplomacy in global
state that violated these rights.
politics which framed within a debate about the appropriate relationship between
hard and soft instrument of power.Even the most powerful states are no longer the
2. Diplomatic rights were established in the mid-seventeenth century in
only significant international actors.Bilaterial state-to-state diplomacy has been
Europe and have spread throughout the world. These rights were formalized by the
increasingly supplemented by multilateral form of diplomacy.
1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, which protects diplomats
from being persecuted or prosecuted while on a diplomatic mission. If a diplomat
does commit a serious crime while in a host country he may be declared as
persona non grata (unwanted person). Such diplomats are then often tried for the
Diplomatic strategy
crime in their homeland.

1. Real world diplomatic negotiations are very different from intellectual

3. Diplomatic communications are also viewed as sacrosanct, and diplomats
debates in a university where an issue is decided on the merit of the arguments and
have long been allowed to carry documents across borders without being searched.
negotiators make a deal by splitting the difference. Though diplomatic agreements
The mechanism for this is the so-called "diplomatic bag" (or, in some countries, the
can sometimes be reached among liberal democratic nations by appealing to higher
"diplomatic pouch"). While radio and digital communication have become more
principles, most real world diplomacy has traditionally been heavily influenced by
standard for embassies, diplomatic pouches are still quite common and some
hard power.
countries, including the United States, declare entire shipping containers as
diplomatic pouches to bring sensitive material (often building supplies) into a
2. The interaction of strength and diplomacy can be illustrated by a country.
comparison to labor negotiations. If a labor union is not willing to strike, then the
union is not going anywhere because management has absolutely no incentive to
4. In times of hostility, diplomats are often withdrawn for reasons of personal
agree to union demands. On the other hand, if management is not willing to take a
safety, as well as in some cases when the host country is friendly but there is a
strike, then the company will be walked all over by the labor union, and
perceived threat from internal dissidents. Ambassadors and other diplomats are
management will be forced to agree to any demand the union makes. The same
sometimes recalled temporarily by their home countries as a way to express
concept applies to diplomatic negotiations.
displeasure with the host country. In both cases, lower-level employees still remain
to actually do the business of diplomacy.
3. There are also incentives in diplomacy to act reasonably, especially if the
support of other actors is needed. The gain from winning one negotiation can be
Diplomats as a guarantee
 22
1. In the Ottoman Empire, the diplomats of Persia and other states were seen 2. Nations sometimes resort to international arbitration when faced with a
as a guarantee of good behavior. If a nation broke a treaty or if their specific question or point of contention in need of resolution. For most of history,
nationals misbehaved the diplomats would be punished. Diplomats were there were no official or formal procedures for such proceedings. They were
thus used as an enforcement mechanism on treaties and international law. generally accepted to abide by general principles and protocols related to
To ensure that punishing a diplomat mattered rulers insisted on high- international law and justice.
ranking figures. This tradition is seen by supporters of Iran as a legal basis Sometimes these took the form of formal arbitrations and mediations. In such cases
of the 1979 Iranian hostage crisis. In imitation of alleged previous a commission of diplomats might be convened to hear all sides of an issue, and to
practices supporters of the Iranian Revolution attempted to punish the come some sort of ruling based on international law.
United States for its alleged misdeeds by holding their diplomats hostage. In the modern era, much of this work is often carried out by the International
Diplomats as a guarantee were also employed sometimes in pre-modern Court of Justice at the Hague, or other formal commissions, agencies and
Europe and other parts of Asia. tribunals, working under the United Nations. Below are some examples.
 Hay-Herbert Treaty Enacted after the United States and Britain submitted
Diplomacy and espionage a dispute to international mediation about the US-Canadian border.
Conferences
1. Diplomacy is closely linked to espionage or gathering of intelligence. 3. Other times, resolutions were sought through the convening of
Embassies are bases for both diplomats and spies, and some diplomats are international conferences. In such cases, there are fewer ground rules, and fewer
essentially openly-acknowledged spies. For instance, the job of military attachés formal applications of international law. However, participants are expected to
includes learning as much as possible about the military of the nation to which they guide themselves through principles of international fairness, logic, and protocol.
are assigned. They do not try to hide this role and, as such, are only invited to Some examples of these formal conferences are:
events allowed by their hosts, such as military parades or air shows. There are also  Congress of Vienna (1815) – After Napoleon was defeated, there were
deep-cover spies operating in many embassies. many diplomatic questions waiting to be resolved. This included the shape
of the map of Europe, the disposition of political and nationalist claims of
2. These individuals are given fake positions at the embassy, but their main various ethnic groups and nationalities wishing to have some political
task is to illegally gather intelligence, usually by coordinating spy rings of locals or autonomy, and the resolution of various claims by various European
other spies. For the most part, spies operating out of embassies gather little powers.
intelligence themselves and their identities tend to be known by the opposition. If  The Congress of Berlin (June 13 – July 13, 1878) was a meeting of the
discovered, these diplomats can be expelled from an embassy, but for the most European Great Powers' and the Ottoman Empire's leading statesmen in
part counter-intelligence agencies prefer to keep these agents in situ and under Berlin in 1878. In the wake of the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–78, the
close monitoring. meeting's aim was to reorganize conditions in the Balkans.

3. The information gathered by spies plays an increasingly important role in

diplomacy. Arms-control treaties would be impossible without the power of
reconnaissance satellites and agents to monitor compliance. Information gleaned
from espionage is useful in almost all forms of diplomacy, everything from trade
agreements to border disputes.

Diplomatic resolution of problems

1. Various processes and procedures have evolved over time for handling
diplomatic issues and disputes.

Arbitration and mediations

 23
Negotiations 4. The Palestinian National Authority has its own diplomatic service,
4. Sometimes nations convene official negotiation processes to settle an issue however Palestinian representatives in most Western countries are not accorded
or dispute between several nations which are parties to a dispute. These are similar diplomatic immunity, and their missions are referred to as Delegations General.
to the conferences mentioned above, as there are technically no established rules
or procedures. However, there are general principles and precedents which help 5. Other unrecognized regions which claim independence include Abkhazia,
define a course for such proceedings. Transnistria, Somaliland, South Ossetia, Nagorno Karabakh, and the Turkish
Some examples are Republic of Northern Cyprus. Lacking the economic and political importance of
 Camp David accord Convened in 1978 by President Jimmy Carter of the Taiwan, these nations tend to be much more diplomatically isolated.
United States, at Camp David to reach an agreement between Prime
Minister Mechaem Begin of Israel and President Anwar Sadat of Egypt. 6. Though used as a factor in judging sovereignty, Article 3 of the
After weeks of negotiation, agreement was reached and the accords were Montevideo Convention states, "The political existence of the state is
signed, later leading directly to the Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty of 1979. independent of recognition by other states."
 Treaty of Portsmouth Enacted after President Theodore Roosevelt
brought together the delegates from Russia and Japan, to settle the Informal diplomacy
Russo-Japanese War. Roosevelt's personal intervention settled the
conflict, and caused him to win the Nobel peace prize.
1. Informal diplomacy (sometimes called Track II diplomacy) has been used
for centuries to communicate between powers. Most diplomats work to recruit
figures in other nations who might be able to give informal access to a country's
Diplomatic recognition leadership. In some situations, such as between the United States and the People's
Republic of China a large amount of diplomacy is done through semi-formal
1. Diplomatic recognition is an important factor in determining whether a channels using interlocutors such as academic members of thinktanks. This occurs
nation is an independent state. Receiving recognition is often difficult, even for in situations where governments wish to express intentions or to suggest methods
countries which are fully sovereign. For many decades after its becoming of resolving a diplomatic situation, but do not wish to express a formal position.
independent, even many of the closest allies of the Dutch Republic refused to
grant it full recognition. Today there are a number of independent entities without 2. Track II diplomacy is a specific kind of informal diplomacy, in which non-
widespread diplomatic recognition, most notably the Republic of China(ROC) on officials (academic scholars, retired civil and military officials, public figures, social
Taiwan. activists) engage in dialogue, with the aim of conflict resolution, or confidence-
building. Sometimes governments may fund such Track II exchanges. Sometimes
2. Since the 1970s, most nations have stopped officially recognizing the ROC's the exchanges may have no connection at all with governments, or may even act in
existence on Taiwan, at the insistence of the People's Republic of China. defiance of governments; such exchanges are called Track III.
Currently, the United States and other nations maintain informal relations through
de facto embassies, with names such as the American Institute in Taiwan. 3. On some occasion a former holder of an official position continues to carry
Similarly, Taiwan's de facto embassies abroad are known by names such as the out an informal diplomatic activity after retirement. In some cases, governments
Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office. welcome such activity, for example as a means of establishing an initial contact with
a hostile state of group without being formally committed. In other cases, however,
3. This was not always the case, with the US maintaining official diplomatic such informal diplomats seek to promote a political agenda different from that of
ties with the ROC, recognizing it as the sole and legitimate government of all of the government currently in power. Such informal diplomacy is practiced by former
China until 1979, when these relations were broken off as a condition for US Presidents Jimmy Carter and (to a lesser extent) Bill Clinton and by the former
establishing official relations with Communist China. Israeli diplomat and minister Yossi Beilin.
 24
emotional states, body language, and verbal signals of the other parties.
Paradiplomacy They can, however, feel taken advantage of in situations when the other
party places little emphasis on the relationship.
1. Paradiplomacy refers to the international relations conducted by 2. Avoiding: Individuals who do not like to negotiate and don’t do it unless
subnational, regional, local or non-central governments. The most ordinary case of warranted. When negotiating, avoiders tend to defer and dodge the
paradiplomatic relation refer to co-operation between bordering political entities. confrontational aspects of negotiating; however, they may be perceived as
However, interest of federal states, provinces, regions etc., may extend over to tactful and diplomatic.
different regions or to issues gathering local governments in multilateral fora 3. Collaborating: Individuals who enjoy negotiations that involve solving
worldwide. Some non-central governments may be allowed to negotiate and enter tough problems in creative ways. Collaborators are good at using
into agreement with foreign central states. negotiations to understand the concerns and interests of the other parties.
They can, however, create problems by transforming simple situations into
more complex ones.
Small state diplomacy
4. Competing: Individuals who enjoy negotiations because they present an
opportunity to win something. Competitive negotiators have strong
1. Small state diplomacy is receiving increasing attention in diplomatic studies instincts for all aspects of negotiating and are often strategic. Because their
and international relations. Small states are particularly affected by developments style can dominate the bargaining process, competitive negotiators often
which are determined beyond their borders such as climate change, water neglect the importance of relationships.
security and shifts in the global economy. Diplomacy is the main vehicle by which 5. Compromising: Individuals who are eager to close the deal by doing what
small states are able to ensure that their goals are addressed in the global arena. is fair and equal for all parties involved in the negotiation. Compromisers
These factors mean that small states have strong incentives to support international can be useful when there is limited time to complete the deal; however,
cooperation. But with limited resources at their disposal, conducting effective compromisers often unnecessarily rush the negotiation process and make
diplomacy poses unique challenges for small states. concessions too quickly.

NEGOTIATION AND BARGAINING Important signals of progress can be the following:

1. Higher-level executives from the other side being included in the
1. Negotiation is a dialogue intended to resolve disputes, to produce an discussions
agreement upon courses of action, to bargain for individual or collective 2. Their questions beginning to focus on specific areas of the deal
advantage, or to craft outcomes to satisfy various interests. It is the primary 3. A softening of their attitudes and position on some of the issues—“Let us
method of alternative dispute resolution. take some time to study this issue”
2. Negotiation occurs in business, non-profit organizations, government 4. At the negotiation table, increased talk among themselves in their own
branches, legal proceedings, among nations and in personal situations such as language, which may often mean they’re trying to decide something
marriage, divorce, parenting, and everyday life. The study of the subject is called 5. Increased bargaining and use of the lower-level, informal, and other
negotiation theory. Professional negotiators are often specialized, such as union channels of communication
negotiators, leverage buyout negotiators, peace negotiators, hostage negotiators,
or may work under other titles, such as diplomats, legislators or brokers. Team negotiation
1. Due to globalization and growing business trends, negotiation in the form
Negotiation styles of teams is becoming widely adopted. Teams can effectively collaborate to break
3. Shell identified five styles/responses to negotiation [11]. Individuals can often down a complex negotiation. There is more knowledge and wisdom dispersed in a
have strong dispositions towards numerous styles; the style used during a team than in a single mind. Writing, listening, and talking, are specific roles team
negotiation depends on the context and the interests of the other party, among members must satisfy. The capacity base of a team reduces the amount of blunder,
other factors. In addition, styles can change over time. and increases familiarity in a negotiation.
1. Accommodating: Individuals who enjoy solving the other party’s problems 2. United Kingdom. The behaviors of the British negotiators were remarkably
and preserving personal relationships. Accommodators are sensitive to the similar to those of the Americans in all respects. Most British negotiators have a
 25
strong sense of the right way to negotiate and the wrong. Protocol is of great Good Office
importance.
Russia. The Russians’ style was quite different from that of any other European
group, and, indeed, was quite similar in many respects to the style of the Japanese. 1. Establish office management routines and stick to them.
They used no and you infrequently and used the most silent periods of any group. 2. Set up clearly delineated responsibilities.
Only the Japanese did less facial gazing, and only the Chinese asked a greater 3. Keep records – and keep your business records updated.
percentage of questions. 4. Take a walk through your office and have a sit.
negotiators. 5. Schedule the scut work.
3. China (Northern). The behaviors of the negotiators from Northern China 6. Delegate and outsource.
(i.e., in and around Tianjin) were most remarkable in the emphasis on asking 7. Make business planning a priority.
questions (34 percent). Indeed, 70 percent of the statements made by the Chinese Western Diplomacy Since 1945
negotiators were classified as information-exchange tactics. Other aspects of their
behavior were quite similar to the Japanese, particularly the use of no and you and 1. The ability to practice diplomacy is one of the defining elements of a state.
silent periods. As noted above, diplomacy has been practiced since the first city-states were
4. United States. Like the Germans and the British, the Americans fell in the formed millennia ago in ancient Greece. For most of human history diplomats
middle of most continua. They did interrupt one another less frequently than all the were sent only for specific negotiations, and would return immediately after their
others, but that was their sole distinction. mission concluded. Diplomats were usually relatives of the ruling family or of very
Bargaining or haggling is a type of negotiation in which the buyer and seller of a high rank in order to give them legitimacy when they sought to negotiate with the
good or service dispute the price which will be paid and the exact nature of the other state.
transaction that will take place, and eventually come to an agreement. Bargaining is
an alternative pricing strategy to fixed prices. Optimally, if it costs the retailer 2. Western diplomacy since 1945 has been mainly concerned with its
nothing to engage and allow bargaining, he can divine the buyer's willingness to relations with the Communist bloc. In the period of co-operation immediately after
spend. It allows for capturing more consumer surplus as it allows price the war, the United Nations was established, war criminals were tried, peace trea
discrimination, a process whereby a seller can charge a higher price to one buyer ties were made with Italy, Bulgaria, Hungary, Rumania, and Finland, and the
who is more eager (by being richer or more desperate). Haggling has largely Marshall Plan—originally designed for all Europe—was initiated. Relations,
disappeared in parts of the world where the cost to haggle exceeds the gain to however, deteriorated by a process of action and reaction publicly manifested by
retailers for most common retail items. However, for expensive goods sold to Churchill's Fulton speech in the spring of 1947 in which he referred to the Iron
uninformed buyers such as automobiles, bargaining can remain commonplace. Curtain.
Bargaining is also the 3rd stage of the Kübler-Ross model (commonly known as 3. The Soviet take-over of European satellites, the Truman Doctrine, the
the stages of dying). formation of NATO, the Communi zation of China, the Korean war, and the initiation
Dickering refers to the same process, albeit with a slight negative (petty) of atomic rivalry maintained a condition of Cold War. The death of Stalin in 1953
connotation. and the advent of Khrushchev led to more peace ful coexistence. The Korean war
and the Indo-Chinese war were ended.
4. A summit conference was held; the Asian and African countries met in
5. Conflict resolution is a range of methods for alleviating or eliminating Bandung, and the United States and the Soviet Union acted together to stop
sources of conflict. The term "conflict resolution" is sometimes used aggression at Suez. There was some liberalization in Poland, but Hungary was
interchangeably with the term dispute resolution or alternative dispute resolution. crushed when it attempted to break away from the Soviet bloc. Disarmament
Processes of conflict resolution generally include negotiation, mediation, and negotiations made little progress, and stability continued to depend on a balance of
diplomacy. The processes of arbitration, litigation, and formal complaint processes terror. Communism penetrated Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
such as ombudsman processes, are usually described with the term dispute 5.
The Western policy of containment and deterrence by threats of massive
resolution, although some refer to them as "conflict resolution." Processes of retaliation had not prevented a great decrease in the Western relative power
mediation and arbitration are often referred to as alternative dispute resolution.
 26
position, relative economy, and relative reputa tion in the underdeveloped world. A adversarial and competitive, relying on distributive or positional bargaining
new policy looking to ward a world secure for all states seems in order. strategies that assume a win-lose situation. The goal is to maintain power over
weaker nations and a balance of power with nations of equal status. Although
Eastern Diplomacy conflict resolution theorists have developed a multi-faceted understanding of
power, diplomacy still focuses on the "power over" approach, believing that power
is a zero sum commodity--the more you have, the less I have. This encourages
1. One of the earliest realists in international relations theory was the 6th positional bargaining, rather than a more integrative or cooperative approach.
century BC military strategist Sun Tzu (d. 496 BC), author of The Art of War. He
lived during a time in which rival states were starting to pay less attention to 2. The Open Door Policy is a concept in foreign affairs. As a theory, the Open
traditional respects of tutelage to the Zhou Dynasty (c. 1050–256 BC) figurehead Door Policy originates with British commercial practice, as was reflected in treaties
monarchs while each vied for power and total conquest. However, a great deal of concluded with Qing Dynasty China after the First Opium War (1839-1842).
diplomacy in establishing allies, bartering land, and signing peace treaties was Although the Open Door is generally associated with China, it was recognized at the
necessary for each warring state. Since the 17th century, there was a series of Berlin Conference of 1885, which declared that no power could levy preferential
treaties upheld by Qing Dynasty China and Czarist Russia, beginning with the duties in the Congo basin.
Treaty of Nerchinsk in the year 1689. This was followed up by the Aigun Treaty
and the Convention of Peking in the mid 19th century. 3. After World War II, China's position as a sovereign state was recognized,
and all special concessions and unequal treaties were abolished, except for the
2. As European power spread around the world in the eighteenth and unequal treaties signed with Russia. However, with the rise to power of the
nineteenth centuries so too did its diplomatic model and system become adopted Communist Party of China, the Open Door Policy was rejected until 1978 when
by Asian countries. Deng Xiaoping, under his new capitalist-inclined system that promoted market
forces, committed China to adopting policies which promote foreign trade and
3. Diplomatic relations within the Early Modern era of Asia were depicted economic investment[1]. Since the late-1970s, the term "Open Door Policy" has also
as an environment of prestige and Status. It was maintained that one must be of been used by the People's Republic of China as one justification for its demands
noble ancestry in order to represent an autonomous state within the international that nations not provide diplomatic recognition to the Republic of China on Taiwan.
arena. Therefore the position of diplomat was often revered as an element of the
elitist class within Asia. A state's ability to practice diplomacy has been one of the 4. Although several efforts have been made to alter the adversarial nature of
underlying defining characteristics of an autonomous state. It is this practice that traditional diplomacy, none has been very successful. The first was the League of
has been employed since the conception of the first city-states within the Nations which called for open diplomacy and collective security. Although the plan
international spectrum. Diplomats in Asia were originally sent only for the purpose was developed by the U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, the United States failed to
of negotiation. They would be required to immediately return after their task was support the idea, and the League quickly failed.
completed. The majority of diplomats initially constituted the relatives of the ruling The United Nations was a second attempt at collective security and international
family. A high rank was bestowed upon them in order to present a sense of cooperation.
legitimacy with regards to their presence. Italy, the Ottoman Empire, and China 5. The UN has certainly been much more successful than the League of
were the first real states that perpetuated environments of diplomacy. During the Nations, but it still has not been able to overcome power rivalries (especially during
early modern era diplomacy evolved to become a crucial element of international the Cold War, but, to some extent, even now) and lacks the money to enable it to
relations within the Mediterranean and Asia. completely carry out its mandate. For this reason, and given the general
ineffectiveness of traditional diplomacy, more and more attention is being given to
Open and close diplomacy what has come to be known as "track two" or "citizen" diplomacy--international
1. The term "diplomacy" refers to the interaction between nation-states. negotiations carried out by private citizens, rather than official diplomats. Most
Traditionally, diplomacy was carried out by government officials--diplomats--who advocates of track two approaches argue that they are not a replacement for track
negotiated treaties, trade policies, and other international agreements. The process one, but rather a supplement to them. Often track two approaches can precede
of negotiations ranges from very formal to informal, but it tends to be fairly
 27
official negotiations, laying the groundwork and establishing a certain level of trust behind a wall of secrecy. The National Security Council (NSC), formed in
between people; sometimes they occur simultaneously. 1947, served as a central coordinating body for secret activities in these
6. Americans have always been uncomfortable with secret diplomacy and its areas. Congress did not have any oversight for the NSC, which was
association with European aristocracies. American leaders have consistently designed to organize America's capabilities for maximum effect in Foreign
advocated open deliberations and public accountability. These values are embodied Policy.
in the constitutional provisions for making foreign policy. The U.S. Senate must c) Third, a world with large nuclear arsenals and global subversives required
confirm all high-level diplomatic appointees and ratify, with a two-thirds vote, all quick and decisive presidential authority. American leaders argued that the
foreign treaties. In addition, the right of free speech presumes that journalists and pace of war after 1945 necessitated more substantial powers for the
historians will investigate and challenge the government's actions. Time and again, executive branch of government. To engage in extended public
open debate about American diplomacy has forced leaders to change their policies deliberation would, in the eyes of many, allow America's adversaries to
—as in the case of President Richard Nixon's planned escalation of the Vietnam War achieve their aims before the U.S. could react.
in October 1969. On other occasions, stubborn figures—particularly President 10. This kind of reasoning contributed to the rise of what some scholars have
Woodrow Wilson—have watched international agreements disintegrate because called the "imperial presidency." The management of the Vietnam War between
they refused to compromise with domestic critics. 1965 and 1975 by presidents Johnson and Nixon is a clear indication of this trend.
7. This bias toward openness has not prohibited secret diplomacy, especially Nixon, in particular, felt he needed to act in secrecy, because he could not trust the
in the case of foreign negotiations and military maneuvers. Since Benjamin Franklin, American people to make "realistic" decisions. At the dawn of the twenty-first
Silas Deane, and Arthur Lee negotiated the treaty of alliance with France in 1778, century, Americans continued to reconcile their democratic values with the growing
almost every American diplomat sent abroad has relied upon secrecy to influence pressures for secret diplomacy.
foreign counterparts and, when necessary, depart from the letter of U.S.
government instructions. Diplomacy necessitates flexibility and creativity. It also STRUCTURE, METHODS AND ISSUES OF CONTEMPORARY DIPLOMACY
requires some freedom from day-to-day intrusions by critical on-lookers.
8. The distinction between secret deliberations and open accountability
poses a dilemma. Once diplomats have formulated their agreements in privacy, 1. the fundamental issues of contemporary diplomacy - its subject and
they can often manipulate the domestic political agenda. They can depict their method. Ours is the time of sweeping transformations which call for
accomplishments—as President George Washington did in the case of the Jay profound comprehension, otherwise the diplomacy of any state might lose
Treaty (1794)—as the only available alternative. They can assert that a rejection of its contacts with reality and, therefore, its efficiency of a foreign policy
their diplomatic work will bring certain disaster. To some extent, President Franklin
instrument. The examples are too recent to be neglected.
Roosevelt followed this tact when he circumvented America's neutrality legislation
between 1939 and 1941. Most significantly, leaders can claim that they are acting in
2. our contacts with partners, including our Western partners, have
the face of an emergency that requires patriotic consent in the name of "national
security." Secret diplomacy combined with a call to "rally around the flag" has convinced us that an objective process of convergence is underway all over
silenced dissenters in nearly every American war—including the War of 1812, the the world. Limited so far to the realm of ideas it is gradually trickling into
Mexican-American War, the War of 1898, World War I, and the Korean War. the sphere of practical policies. The Democratic administration that came
9. Since 1945 the rhetoric of openness has remained strong in America, but to power in the United States under the slogan of changes accelerated the
leaders have made far greater use of secret diplomacy than ever before. Three process. Recently perceived as a confrontational idea and an attempt at
developments explain this shift in behavior. "shaking the foundations" the subject of changes in the global political
a) First, American interests became truly global after 1945. Competing with a
landscape is moving to the center of international discussions. The echoes
perceived communist menace, U.S. leaders believed that they needed to
employ subversive means of influence in far-away places. The creation of of the metaphysical idea of the world as a fossilized structure, however,
the Central Intelligence Agency in 1947 and its secret sponsorship of coups can still be heard.
in Iran (1953) and Guatemala (1954) reflect this development.
b) Second, the Cold War motivated the U.S. government to classify large 3. The recent International Conference "The Modem State and Global
quantities of scientific research, strategic analysis, and decision making Security" at which President of Russia Dmitry Medvedev spoke provided
 28
ample evidence of the above. The highly impressive attendance and 9. We should be fully aware of the fact that modern conflicts and crises
profound discussions suggest that the modern state is not withering away; cannot be resolved by force. This means that all states, no matter how
it remains the main installment of harmonization of social and individual "difficult" they might look should be involved rather than isolated through
interests at home and serves the central link of international relations sanctions and other pressure forms. The high degree of interdependence,
which can still be described as mainly interstate relations despite the a product of globalization Western style, makes violence (either wars or
variety of other subjects of international communication. revolutions in which the previous epochs, the 20th century in the first
place, abounded) a costly solution. We should concentrate at the political
4. This has put Zbigniew Brzezinski´s recent contribution to the Foreign Affairs and diplomatic, that is non-destructive, methods.
subtitled "Toward a Global Security Web" into the limelight; its author is
essentially in agreement with our thesis of network diplomacy reflected in 10. This fully applies to the situation around Iran; its nuclear file has only one
the Foreign Policy Concept of the Russian Federation. solution, viz. all-round negotiations in the regional context. The use of
force will be catastrophic for the entire region, already overburdened with
5. THE SUBJECT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS is radically changing; it can conflicts, including the one between Israel and Arabs. Those wishing to
no longer be described as dynastic and cabinet policies centered at build up pressure should first think out their strategies. There is a real
territorial division of the world and markets and prewar coalitions. Today chance to start negotiations to restore confidence in the exclusively
diplomacy is dealing with the fundamental issues of nations´ lives ranging peaceful nature of the Iranian nuclear program and draw Iran, on an equal
from security in its contemporary, global, interpretation to prosperity and several years now — we do hope that we have been heard at last.
new jobs.
11. The methods employed in international relations are changing accordingly.
6. The global challenges and threats have moved to the fore which means There are no hierarchical combinations which footing, into international
that all states should pool forces to effectively oppose them. Created by economic activities and collective crisis-settlement efforts in the region. It
international terrorism, organized trans-border crime, drug trafficking, would be wrong to let the chance slip away by insisting on new anti-Iranian
illegal migration, global poverty and climate changes rather than sanctions.
belligerent states they require new instruments, very much different from
the national armies´ numerical strength and fire power. 12. We should always bear in mind that these are the principles formulated by
mankind throughout its long history. The Peace of Westphalia that drew
7. One feels that Mr. Brzezinski was quite right when he wrote that today the line under the religious wars in Europe lent its name to the principles
neither belligerent fanaticism of the nationalist states prone to territorial that take the religious and other axiological differences beyond the
expansion nor the ideologies claiming universality could be described as framework of interstate relations. This was a pragmatic solution that
the main threats to the world. We have been saying this for reached its makes the 20th century and the Cold War period in the first place an
peak in the form of the bipolar world of the Cold War era. aberration to be overcome by all means. This is what we have in mind
when we talk about de-ideologized international relations.
8. Today, we should practice multi-vector network diplomacy conducive to
flexible cooperation among groups of states for the sake of harmonizing 13. Network diplomacy can be described as an answer to new realities up to
identical interests. Today, we are not engaged — or, at least, should not be and including "the dispersal of global power." Whether the "global security
engaged — in the struggle against any state or in the containment policy. web" that Brzezinski has suggested will be formalized (through binding
Time has come to apply collective efforts to promote concrete interests of agreements among other things) remains to be seen. In future life might
the international community as a whole or of groups of states. push us in this direction.
 29
14. So far we should proceed from the fact that network cooperation is 19. Regionalization has developed into one of the key trends in international
effective because it is flexible and non-formalized; it is effective when the relations; it seems that United Nations´ efficiency will depend, to a great
states´ concrete interests coincide and serve the moving force. extent, on strong regional institutions ready to shoulder responsibility for
their regions in full accord with the UN Charter which will leave it free to
15. The leadership issue is still on the agenda. In fact, a single leader-state address the global issues in the interests of the world community.
would have been hailed had it busy itself with harmonizing the interests of
all states on the basis of a common denominator and demonstrated 20. WORLD PERCEPTION which serves the cornerstone of national foreign
political will and an ability to cope. What is going on in the world looks policy philosophies is extremely important. This explains the gaps between
much more realistic and much more practical. I have in mind collective the states´ ideas about the methods to be applied in every specific case
leadership of the leading states, which can be described as truly even though they are drawing closer together when it comes to the
representative in geographic and civilizational terms, realized in all sorts of matters of principle. If they fail to meet each other halfway at this level
formal and informal multisided mechanisms such as the UN Security convergence will stall because of the tenacity of corresponding centuries-
Council in the first place as well as G-8, G-20, BRIC, SCO and many other old attitudes. I have in mind intolerance that breeds penchant for the use
international and regional structures. of force.

16. Is NATO able to develop into a center of network cooperation in the 21. The history of religious wars of the Reformation period was a dress
security sphere? It should first complete its transformation, the vector of rehearsal of Europe´s 20th century; this confirms what Anna Akhmatova
which is sill unclear. Transformation for the sake of "Western unity" said about Modigliani: the future sheds its shadow long before it enters. In
favored by certain forces looks doubtful. There are two aspects of this many of his works, including Old Mortality, Walter Scott investigated in
problem. detail "intolerance and narrow-minded bigotry" of "those who would turn
the world upside down" for the sake of their convictions. Like all other
17. First, the future of NATO: it is suggested that the bloc discipline should be apostles of new faiths they badly tolerated those who thought differently
tightened by re-wording Art 5 of the Washington Treaty in binding terms and claimed the dominant role for their faith.
up to and including expulsion of recalcitrant members. It is for the NATO
members to decide whether this fits the spirit of the time. It should be 22. When insisting on its exclusiveness the West should not follow the road of
said, however, that if harmonization of the interests is replaced with more "haughty of heart, and confident, as men who believed that the pale of
rigid discipline NATO´s partners, of which Russia is one, might be affected salvation was open for them exclusively; while all other Christians,
by the revived military bloc logic. however slight were the shades of difference of doctrine from their own,
were in fact little better than outcasts or reprobates" as Walter Scott put it.
18. Second, the future of the historical West: should it preserve itself by This is painfully familiar! The French and the Russian revolutions for that
tightening military-political discipline or should it become better adjusted matter were intolerant to the highest degree: "the Revolution... devour in
to the rest of world by being involved in regional and sub-regional levels of turn each of her children" for the sake of the "purity of faith." This was our
global development? On 27 August 2007, the International Herald Tribune common tragedy and our shared historical heritage which calls for joint
carried an article by Yukio Hatoyama in which the new prime minister of efforts to be overcome or "rejected." We should not underestimate the
Japan treated his country´s involvement in regional integration and lessons of European history and the settlement that followed the English
building up regional collective security structures as a priority as well as a Civil War which led the great writer to conclude that decent, sensible and
means of preserving its national specifics, an important element of reasonable people should pool their forces. Europe´s historical experience
national life.
 30
bought at a high cost should be transformed into a wide and unbiased idea partners. President Medvedev has pointed out that Russia´s foreign policy
of things. should be determined by the country´s long-term modernization goals; we
expect reciprocity from our Western partners — ours is a strategic stake.
23. Today, when religion is coming to the fore as a factor of international There is nothing for us to quarrel over. We have common civiliza-tional
relations we should go back to our common Christian roots; I do not mean roots and common history.
any specific religion but rather the moral principles which de-
Christianization threw out "together with the bath water." The moral 28. In the last three centuries Russia has done a lot for Europe. Under Peter
relativism (better described as nihilism) is one of the causes of the current the Great it became part of balanced European policies; later, twice or
global crisis: no normal social functioning is possible if the moral nature of even three times Russia (very much like deus ex machina of the Ancient
man and a moral law which guides him are rejected. Unbridled Greek tragedies) saved Europe which in its madness drove itself into a
consumerism is a direct result of an axiological impasse of "sensual comer or at the brink of a civilizational catastrophe. More than that: Russia
culture" (Pitirim Sorokin´s term). Today, when we all know that there is no ´s great literature of the 19th century had forebodings of such
return to the past we should pool our efforts for the sake of sustainable catastrophes and warned Europe. Dostoevsky in his The Possessed warned
post-crisis development; we should lay a common moral foundation that not only those resolved to impose happiness on mankind at home but also
would include the rules of the game binding for all. Time has come to those in the West practicing notorious "political expediency" in other
realize that we should move further than simple coexistence of the Cold forms and saying that the aim justifies the means. This is not Russia´s fault
War era. that the 20th century confirmed what Dostoevsky, Spengler, Sorokin and
other thinkers had thought about the historical fate of the West and what
24. WE SUGGEST that a European security treaty would be a legally binding they had predicted for it.
document, a set of rules obligatory for all; it should serve a foundation of
mutually advantageous relationships in the Euroatlantic region which call 29. In fact, the very terms "European civilization" and "North Atlantic
for collective efforts in the spirit of cooperation. Such treaty can became community" should be extended to include the expanse
an international legal act in the security sphere and a legal framework for between Vancouver and Vladivostok, Russia in the first place. This would
the political obligations already shouldered by the OSCE and the Russia- have resolved the problem the historical West faces in the new context;
NATO Council. would have given us all a chance to play a commendable role when dealing
with other global partners. Cooperation of the leading players — Russia,
25. In any case, the situation in the Euroatlantic region provides enough Europe and the United States — would have served the foundation of the
reasons to "harmonize the will of all states" as President Medvedev put it. region´s political unity.

26. The context created by the current global financial and economic crisis 30. We should harmonize our relations and interests; we should draw closer to
calls for concerted efforts. Today, the G-20 and G-8 summits are actively one another and encourage cultural and economic interpenetra-tion.
working on a common agenda. In the conditions when a "responsibility Those who hope to tie Moscow up to positions agreed upon without it
crisis" in one country spreads worldwide joint efforts are needed to refonn would toil in vain. The crisis of confidence requires concerted efforts at all
the global financial architecture and to transform negative levels. One can even expect that the political elites of all states will be
interdependence into positive. forced to adjust the national interests to the interests of partners and the
world community as a whole.
27. IT IS ONLY NOW that Russia which for twenty years had been seeking new
relationships with the West acquired a real chance to overcome the
negative dynamics. Russia´s stakes are as high as those of our Western
 31
31. ALL TRAGEDIES of the 19th and 20th centuries were rooted in the crisis of players ensured their security and economic interests at the expense of
the European society the traditional foundations of which had been others. We are still aware of the inertia of the "unipolar momentum" and
destroyed by numerous revolutions. The world fell victim to what Zbigniew everything related to it up to and including the cavalier treatment of
Brzezinski called "the centuries-long civil war within the West." Only when international laws. A European Security Treaty and related negotiations
the Cold War and its geopolitical imperatives hit impasse, it became can become another remedy. It is signally important to achieve an
possible with new technological foundations to create a sustainable and agreement that will help us overcome the ideological barriers of the Cold
socially-oriented economic and social model with universal suffrage and War and explain the world developments in more fundamental and non-
reliance on the fairly numerous middle class. con-frontational categories.

32. The new world order was ripening inside the old, West-oriented world; the Characteristic of good diplomat and future of diplomacy
eternal dialectics of the process explained the larger part of human history Future Diplomats and the Future of Diplomacy
and explains what we can see now; it helps us accept the ideologically 1. There are two points that I'd like to bring to your attention - one talks
about the transformation in information sharing between the diplomats and the
uncommitted verdict of history. Indeed, one common permanent crisis of
institutional consequenses of this change, the other deals with the characteristics of
global governance was responsible for the fall of the Berlin Wall, the Soviet a future diplomat/
Union disintegration, the failure of attempts to use force to resolve current Information sharing"
international complications and the present financial and economic 2. "The introduction of Intranet-systems has brought about most important
upheavals traced down to the time when the lessons of the Great changes for the diplomatic service. Among them:
Depression of the turn of the 1930s were forgotten and dismantling of the - direct contacts between all officers, without the need for prior authorization, to
financial regulatory mechanisms began in 1982. Today, like many times in get a message, an inquiry, an information note out or to get it received. The
welcome results are higher motivation, no loss of time and greater sense of
the past, we should readjust the mechanism of global governance to the
responsibility among younger colleagues;
new realities so that it would reflect, rather than reject the world´s cultural a) development of an informal reporting style;
and civilizational variety. b) teamwork: officers can – independently from their geographic location –
work together on a report to the minister, a draft statement, a position
33. The old social and cultural order is being replaced with a new, another paper. The strict delineation between central authority and missions
convergent stage of world development and international relations before abroad is slowly vanishing;
our eyes. The new picture of the world will include the best elements c) ministerial structures and lines of command at missions are being
created by the West, important for all and tested by time and the current redefined, flatter authority, more delegation of responsibility are necessary
crisis. Other civilizations will make their own, no less important, by-products;
d) introduction of task-oriented structures independent of the physical
contributions. This will serve the platform of concerted efforts to restore
location of the diplomats involved: limited and geographically dispersed
the manageability of world development. experience or academic background in particular areas (e.g. international
law) can more easily be pooled together electronically, thus also creating
34. On the whole, the conditions in which international relations will be de- incentives for the continuous upkeep of specialisation (particularly
ideologized and de-militarized and in which they will acquire the principles important for smaller services);
of tolerance and pluralism, coexistence of various models of social- e) the introduction of Intranet systems leads to flatter lines of authority and
economic and social development and value systems are ripening. increased possibilities for team working. Task-oriented organisation will
change the relationship between the ministry and missions abroad;
35. Not everyone is prepared to embrace this: some are still looking into the f) missions ought to be better integrated into the overall structure of the
past and tend to go on playing the zero-sum game in which some of the ministry, including decision making;
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g) integrated resource management needs to preserve the standard
functions of missions abroad in relation to their geographic location and
combine these functions with new tasks relating to the available expertise
in individual missions, which can be employed for specific projects."
Characteristics of diplomats:

1. "What then constitutes the ideal ”new age” diplomat? I think a thorough
mixture of traditional and not so traditional characteristics:
a) a pluridisciplinary education;
b) inguistic skills;
c) patience to listen and observe;
d) proficiency in intercultural communication;
e) sensitivity to socio-cultural differences;
f) feeling comfortable with the latest communications technologies
g) ability to perform at ease in public;
h) free of elitism;
i) service orientation;
j) a high level of tolerance;
k) neither a ”softie” nor the ”elbow type”;
l) readiness for life-long learning, mid career training;
m) stress resistance, coolness in crises;
n) management skills;
o) ability to work in teams; collaborator instead of competitor;
p) a keen interest in global issues."