AC / DC CONVERION (RECTIFIERS)

 Definition.
 Uncontrolled Rectifiers
o Performance Parameters.
o Single Phase Half-Wave.
o Single Phase Full-Wave.
o Three Phase Half –Wave.
o Three Phase Full-Wave.

 Controlled Rectifiers
o Performance Parameters.
o Single Phase Half-Wave.
o Single Phase Full-Wave.
o Three Phase Half –Wave.
o Three Phase Full-Wave.

 Power Factor Correction in rectifiers.

 Overlap (Commutation) in Three Phase Rectifiers.
 Analog Firing Signal Generation.
 Digital Firing Signal Generation Using Existence
Function.
 Simulation Demonstration.
 CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

1. HALF WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER

Figure below shows the circuit of half wave controlled rectifier
with resistive load.
 During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, the
thyristor is forward biased, during this period (0-π) when
the thyristor T1 is fired at wt=α, thyristor T1 conducts and
the input voltage is applied to the load.
 When the input voltage start to be negative at wt=π, the
thyristor anode is negative with respect to its cathode the
thyristor is turned off.
 The time after the input voltage starts to be positive until
the thyristor is fired at wt=α, is called the delay or the
firing angle.
 This converter is one quadrant of operation since the
output voltage and current have one polarity.
Half wave controlled rectifier.
2. SINGLE-PHASE SEMICONVERTERS

* The circuit arrangement of a single-phase semiconverter is

shown in below with a highly inductive load ( the load current is
assumed continuous and ripple free).

* During the positive half-cycle, thyristor T1, is forward biased.

When thyristor T1 is fired at wt=α, the load is connected to the
input supply through T1 and D2 during the period α ≤ wt ≤ π.

* During the period from π ≤ wt ≤ (π+α) the input voltage is

negative and the freewheeling diode Dm is forward biased. Dm
conducts to provide the continuity of current in the inductive
load. The load current is transferred from T1 and D2 to Dm and
thyristor T1 and diode D2 are turned off.

* During the negative half-cycle of input voltage, thyristor T2 is

forward biased, and the firing of thyristor T2 at wt= (π+α) will
reverse bias Dm. The diode Dm is turned off and the load is
connected to the supply through T2 & D1.

* Figure b shows the region of convener operation, where both

the output voltage and current have positive polarity.

* Figure C shows the waveforms for the input voltage, output

voltage, input current, and currents through T1, T2, D1, & D2.

* This converter has a better power factor due to the

freewheeling diode and is commonly used in applications up to
15 kW where one-quadrant operation is acceptable.
Single phase semiconverter.
Example :
If a full wave semiconconductor is connected to 120V, 50Hz
supply. The load can be assumed to be continuous and ripple
free. The turns ratio of the transformer is unity.
a) Express the input current in a Fourier series; determine the
harmonic factor of input current (HF), displacement factor
(DF), and the input power factor (PF),
b) If the delay angle is α = π/2, calculate Vdc, Vn, Vrms, HF,
DF, and PF.
Sol.
a) The waveform of input current is shown above and the
instantaneous input current is (t) can be expressed as
follows

is(t) = Idc +

Idc = =0
Since Idc = 0, is(t) can be written as,

Where
ntan-1 (an / bn) = - n
nis the displacement angle of the nth harmonic current.

The rms value of the nth harmonic component of the input current is
derived as,

Isn =

The rms value of the fundamental (n=1) current is

Is1
The rms input current can be calculated as,

Is =

Is can also be determined from

Is =

HF = [(Is/Is1)2 – 1]1/2 or

HF =

DF = cos cos (- 

PF =  

b)
and Vm=
Vdc = (Vm/cosV
Vn = Vdc/Vdm ; Vdm = Vdc at 
Then Vn = Vdc/(2Vm ) = 0.5 (1+cos) = 0.5

Is1
 HF = [(Is/Is1)2 – 1]1/2 = 0.4835 or 48.35 %

 and DF = cos (-

PF =  ( lagging).

Note that the performance parameters of the converter depend

on the delay angle .


The average output current can be found from Eqs. (2) and (5)
as
 3. SINGLE-PHASE FULL CONVERTERS

* The circuit arrangement of a single-phase full convener is

shown in Fig. below with a highly inductive lead so that the load
current is continuous and ripple free.

* During the positive half-cycle, thyrislors T1 and T2 are

forward biased; and when these two thyrislors are fired
simultaneously al wt = α, the load is connected to the input
supply through T, and T2.

* Due to the inductive load, thyrislors T1, and T2, will continue
to conduct beyond wt=π, even though the input voltage is
already negative.

* During the negative half-cycle of the input voltage, thyristors

T3 and T4 are forward biased; and firing of thyristors T3 & T4
will apply the supply voltage across thyristors T1 and T2 as
reverse blocking voltage. T1 and T2 will be turned off due to
line or natural commutation and the load current will be
transferred from T1 and T2 to T3 and T4.

* Figure (b) below also shows the regions of convener operation

and figure (c) shows the waveforms for input voltage, output
voltage, and input and output currents.

* During the period from a to π, the input voltage Vs and input

current is are positive; and the power flows from the supply to
the load and the convener is said to be operated in rectification
mode.

* During the period from π to π+α, the input voltage Vs is

negative and the input current is positive; and there will be
reverse power flow from the load to the supply. The convener is
said to be operated in inversion mode.

* This convener is extensively used in industrial applications up

to 15 kW.

* Depending on the value of α, the average output voltage could

be either positive or negative and it provides two-quadrant
operation. s . . .
 With purely resistive load, thyristors T1 and T2 will
conduct from α to π and thyristors T3 and T4 will conduct
from π+α to 2π. The instantaneous output voltage will be
 similar to that for the semiconverter.
 The average and rms output voltages

EXAMPLE.
Repeat the last example for delay angle 
We will use the same method of the last example,
Sol.
a) The waveform of input current is shown above and the
instantaneous input current is (t) can be expressed as
follows

is(t) = Idc +
where
Idc = =0
Since Idc = 0, is(t) can be written as,

Where
ntan-1 (an / bn) = - n
nis the displacement angle of the nth harmonic current.
The rms value of the nth harmonic component of the input current is
derived as,

Isn =

The rms value of the fundamental (n=1) current is

Is1

The rms input current can be calculated as,

Is =
Is can also be determined from

Is =
HF = [(Is/Is1)2 – 1]1/2 = 0.483 or 48.3 %

DF = cos cos (- 

PF =  

b)
and Vm=
Vdc = (2Vm/cosV
Vn = Vdc/Vdm ; Vdm = Vdc at 
Then Vn = Vdc/(2Vm ) = 0.5

Is1

HF = [(Is/Is1)2 – 1]1/2 = 0.4835 or 48.35 %

 and DF = cos (-cos (-

PF =  ( lagging).

Note that the fundamental component of the input current is

always 90.03% of Ia and the harmonic factor remains constant at
48.34%.
4. SINGLE PHASE DUAL CONVERTERS.

* Single-phase full converters with inductive loads allow only

two-quadrant operation.
* If two of these full converters are connected back to back as
shown in Figure below, both the output voltage and the load
current flow can be reversed. The system will provide four-
quadrant operation and is called a dual converter.
* Dual converters are normally used in high-power variable-
speed drives.
* If α1 and α2 are the delay angles of converters 1 and 2 respec-
tively, the corresponding average output voltages are Vdc1, and
Vdc2.
* The delay angles are controlled such that one converter
operates as a rectifier and the other converter operates as an
inverter; but both converters produce the same average output
voltage.
* Figure b shows the output waveforms for two converters,
where the two average output voltages are the same. Figure c
shows the v-i characteristics of a dual converter.
The average output voltages are :

 Since the instantaneous output voltages of the two

converters are out of phase, there will be an instantaneous
voltage difference and this will result in circulating current
between the two converters. This circulating current will
not flow through the load and is normally limited by a
circulating current reactor L, as shown in figure a.
5. THREE PHASE HALF WAVE CONVERTERS
 Three-phase converters provide higher average output
voltage, and in addition the frequency of the ripples on the
output voltage is higher compared to that of single-phase
converters. As a result, the filtering requirements for
smoothing out the load current and load voltage are
simpler. For these reasons, three-phase converters are used
extensively in high-power variable-speed drives.
 Three single-phase half-wave converters in Figure a can be
connected to form a three-phase half-wave converter.
 When thyristor T1 is fired at wt = π/6+α, the phase voltage
Van appears across the load until thyristor T2 is fired at wt
= 5π/6+α.
 When thyristor T2 is fired, thyristor T1 is reverse biased,
because the line-lo-line voltage Vab (=Van-Vbn) is
negative and T1 is turned off. The phase voltage Vbn
appears across the load until thyristor T3 is fired at 3π/2+α.
 When thyristor T3 is fired. T2 is turned off and Vcn
appears across the load until T1 is fired again at the
beginning of next cycle.
 Figure b shows the v-i characteristics of the load and this is
a two-quadrant converter. Figure c shows the input
voltages, output voltage, and the current through thyristor
T1 for a highly inductive load. For a resistive load and α>
π/6 the load current would be discontinuous and each
 thyristor is self-commutated when the polarity of its phase
voltage is reversed.
 The frequency of output ripple voltage is 3fs. This
converter is not normally used in practical systems,
because the supply currents contain dc components.
 If the phase voltage is Van = Vm sin wt, the average output
voltage for a continuous load current is
6. THREE PHASE SEMICONVERTERS
* Three-phase semi conveners are used in industrial
applications up to the 120-kW level, where one-quadrant
operation is required.
* The power factor of this converter decreases as the delay angle
increases, but it is better than that of three-phase half-wave
converters. Figure a shows a three-phase semiconverter with a
highly inductive load and the load current has a negligible ripple
content.

* Figure b shows the waveforms for input voltages, output

voltage, input current, and the current through thyristors and
diodes. The frequency of output voltage is fs.

* The delay angle, α can be varied from 0 to π.

* During the period Π/6≤ wt < 7π/6, thyristor T1 is forward

biased. If T1 is fired at wt = (Π/6 + α). T1 and D1 conduct and
the line-to-line voltage Vac appears across the load.

* At wt = 7Π/6, Vac starts lo be negative and the freewheeling

diode Dm conducts. The load current continues to flow through
Dm and T1 and D1 are turned off.
* If there were no freewheeling diode, T1 would continue to
conduct until thyrislor T2; fired at wt= 5π/6 + α and the
freewheeling action would be accomplished through T1 and D2.

* If α=π/3 each thyristor conducts for 2ΠI3 and the freewheeling

diode Dm does not conduct. The waveforms for a three-phase
semi-converter with α ≤ π/3 are shown in Figure below.

* If we define the three line-neutral voltages as follows:

7. THREE PHASE FULL CONVERTERS.
* Three-phase converters are extensively used in industrial
applications up to the 120-kW level, where two-quadrant
operation is required.

* Figure a below shows a full-converter circuit with a highly

inductive load. This circuit is known as a three-phase bridge.

* The thyristors are fired at an interval of π/3. The frequency of

output ripple voltage is 6fs, and the filtering requirement is less
than that of three-phase semi- and half-wave converters.

* At wt = π/6 + α, thyristor T6 is already conducting and

thyristor T1 is turned on. During interval (Π/6 + α) ≤
wt≤(π/2+α), thyristors T1 and T2, conduct and the line-to-line
voltage, vab=( von - vbn) appears across the load.

* At wt = π/2+α, thyristor T2 is fired and thyristor T6 is

reversed biased immediately. T6 is turned off due to natural
commutation. During interval (Π/2 + α) ≤ wt ≤(5π/6+α),
thyristors T1 and T2 conduct and the line-to-line voltage, Vac
appears across the load.

* If the thyristors are numbered as shown in Fig. a, the firing

sequence is 12, 23, 34, 45, 56, and 61. Figure b shows the
waveforms for input voltage, output voltage, input current, and
currents through thyristors.

* Figure b shows the waveforms for α = π/3. For α > π/3, the
instantaneous output voltage Vo will have a negative part. Since
the current through thyristors cannot be negative, the load
current will always be positive. Thus, with a resistive load, the
instantaneous load voltage cannot be negative, and the full
converter will behave as a semiconverter.
 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

The power factor of phase-controlled conveners depends on

delay angle α and is in general low, especially at the low output
voltage range. These converters generate harmonics into the
supply. Forced commutations can improve the input power
factor and reduce the harmonics levels. These forced-
commutation techniques are becoming attractive to ac-dc
conversion. With the advancement of power semiconductor
devices (e.g.. gate-turn-off thyristors, IGCT, MTO, ECT, … etc)
the forced commutation can be implemented in practical
systems. The following techniques can be applied for power
factor correction in ac/dc converter :

1. Extinction angle control

2. Symmetrical angle control
3. Pulse-width modulation
4. Sinusoidal pulse-width modulation.

1. Extinction Angle Control

 Figure a shows a single-phase semi converter, where

thyristors T1 and T2 are replaced by switches S1 and S2.

 The switching actions of S1 and S2 can be performed by

gate-turn-off thyristors (GTOs, IGCT, MTO, .. etc). The
characteristics of GTOs are such that a GTO can be turned
on by applying a short positive pulse to its gate as in the
case of normal thyristors and can be turned off by applying
a short negative pulse to its gate.

 In an extinction angle control, switch S1 is turned on at

wt= 0 and is turned off by forced commutation at wt = π-β
 Switch S2 is turned on wt = α and is turned off at wt = (2Π
–β ). The output voltage is controlled by varying the
extinction angle β. Figure b shows the waveforms for input
voltage, output voltage, input current, and the current
through thyristor switches. The fundamental component of
input current leads the input voltage, and the displacement
factor (and power factor) is leading. In some applications,
this feature may be desirable to simulate a capacitive load
and to compensate for line voltage drops.

 The average output voltage is found from

and Vdc can be varied from 2Vm/π to 0 by varying β from

0 to π. The rms output voltage is given by

 Figure a shows a single-phase full converter, where

thyristors T1, T2, T3, and T4 are replaced by forced-corn
mutated switches S1, S2, S3, S4. Each switch conducts
for 180°. Switches S1 and S2 are both on from wt = 0 to π-
β and supply power to the load during the positive half-
cycle of the input voltage. Similarly, switches S3 and S4
are both on from wt = π to 2π-β and supply power to the
 load during the negative half-cycle of the input voltage.

 For an inductive load, the freewheeling path for the load

current must be provided by switches S1 & S4 or S2 & S3
The firing sequence would be 12, 14. 43. and 32. Figure b
shows the waveforms for input voltage, output voltage,
input current, and the current through switches.
2. Symmetrical Angle Control

 The symmetrical angle control allows one-quadrant

operation and Fig. a shows a single-phase semiconverter
with forced-commutated switches S1 and S2.
 Switch S1 is turned on at wt = (π - β)/2 and is turned off at
wt = π- (π-β)/2 = ((π+β)/2).
 Switch S2 is turned on at wt=(π+(π-β)/2) and off at
wt=2π-(π-β)/2.
 The output voltage is controlled by varying conduction
angle β. The gate signals are generated by comparing half-
sine waves with a dc signal.
 Figure a also shows the waveforms for input voltage,
output voltage, input current, and the current through
switches. The fundamental component of input current is
in phase with the input voltage and the displacement factor
is unity. Therefore, the power factor is improved.
 The average output voltage is found from

and Vdc can be varied from 2Vm/π to 0 by varying β from Π to 0.

The rms output voltage is given by
Note that th power factor is improved comparing with normal
full wave rectifier (PF=0.45).
3. Pulse-Width-Modulation Control

 If the output voltage of single-phase semi- or full

converters is controlled by varying the delay angle,
extinction angle, or symmetrical angle, there is only one
pulse per half-cycle in the input current of the converter,
and as a result the lowest-order harmonic is the third. It is
difficult to filter out the lower-order harmonic current.
 In pulse-width-modulation (PWM) control, the converter
switches are turned on and off several times during a half-
cycle and the output voltage is controlled by varying the
width of pulses. The gate signals are generated by
comparing a triangular wave with a dc signal. as shown in
Fig.b.
 Figure a shows the input voltage, output voltage, and input
current. The lower-order harmonics can be eliminated or
reduced by selecting the number of pulses per half-cycle.
However increasing the number of pulses would also
increase the magnitude of higher-order harmonics, which
could easily be filtered out.
 Due to symmetry of the input current waveform, there will
be no even harmonics and Vdc should be zero.
4. Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation

 The widths of pulses can be varied to control the output

voltage.
 If there are p pulses per half-cycle with the equal width,
the maximum width of a pulse is π/p. However, the pulse
widths of pulses could be different.
 It is possible to choose the widths of pulses in such a way
that certain harmonics could be eliminated.
 There are different methods of varying the widths of
pulses and the most common one is the sinusoidal pulse-
width modulation (SPWM).
 In sinusoidal PWM control as shown in Fig. below, the
pulse widths are generated by comparing a triangular
reference voltage Vr of amplitude Ar, and frequency fr
with a carrier half-sinusoidal voltage Vc of variable
amplitude Ac and frequency 2fs.
 The sinusoidal voltage Vc is in phase with the input phase
voltage Vs and has twice the supply frequency.
 The widths of the pulses (and the output voltage) are
varied by changing the amplitude Ac or the modulation
index M from 0 to 1. The modulation index is defined as

M = Ac / Ar
 In a sinusoidal PWM control, the displacement factor is
unity and the power factor is improved. The lower-order
harmonics are eliminated or reduced. For example, with
four pulses per half-cycle the lowest-order harmonic is the
fifth; and with six pulses per half-cycle, the lowest-order
harmonic is the seventh.
OVERLAP ( COMMUTATION) IN RECTIFIERS.

 In previous sections the assumption was made that the

transfer or commutation of the current from one diode (or
thyristor) to the next took place instantaneously.

 In practice, inductance and resistance must be present in

the supply source, and time is required for a current
change to take place. The net result is that the current
commutation is delayed, as it takes a finite time for the
current to decay to zero in the outgoing diode (or
thyristor), whilst the current will rise at the same rate in
the incoming diode.

 The inductive reactance of the a.c. supply is normally

much greater than its resistance and, as it is the inductance
which delays the current change, it is reasonable to neglect
the supply resistance. The a.c. supply may be represented
by its Thevenin equivalent circuit, each phase being a
voltage source in series with its inductance. The major
contributor to the supply impedance is the transformer
leakage reactance.

 To explain the phenomenon associated with the current

transfer, the three-phase half-wave rectifier connection
will be used, as once the explanation with this circuit has
been understood, it can be readily transferred to the other
connections.

 Figure 1-a shows the three-phase supply to be three

voltages, each in series with an inductance L. Reference to
the waveforms in Fig, 1-b shows that at commutation there
is an angular period γ during which both the outgoing
diode and incoming diode are conducting. This period is
 known as the overlap period, and y is defined as the
commutation angle or alternatively the angle of overlap.

Figure 1 Overlap in the three-phase half-wave rectifier, (a)

Circuit reference, (b) Waveforms.
  During the overlap period, the load current is the addition
of the two diode currents, the assumption being made that
the load is inductive enough to give a sensibly level load
current. The load voltage is the mean of the two
conducting phases, the effect of overlap being to reduce
the mean level.

Figure 2 Conditions during the overlap period.

 The overlap is complete when the current level in the

incoming diode reaches the load-current value.

 To determine the factors on which the overlap depends,

and to derive an expression for the diode current, a
circulating current i can be considered to flow in the
closed path formed by the two conducting diodes D1 and
D2 as shown in Fig. 2. Ignoring the diode volt-drops,

v2 – v1 = L di/dt + L di/dt …………… (1)

The voltage v2 — v1 is the difference between the two phases,

having a zero value at t = 0, the time at which commutation
commences. The voltage difference between two phases is the
line voltage having a maximum value the phase voltage.
where Vmax is of the phase voltage.

Using eq.(1)

…….. (2)

The overlap is complete when i=IL at which instant t the

overlap angle.
Also L=X the supply source reactance. Hence,

……… (3)

From Eq. (2), the current change in the diodes during overlap is
cosinusoidal, as illustrated in Fig. (1- b.)

 It is worth noting that for commutation involving two

phases of a three-phase group, conditions during overlap
 are as a line-line short-circuit fault. As the positive and
negative phase sequence reactance values of a transformer
are equal, then the commutating reactance value is the
normal short-circuit reactance.

 To determine the mean voltage of the waveform shown in

Fig. l-b, one can use calculus to find the area under the two
sections of the curve, one based on the sine wave shape
after overlap is complete, and the other during overlap.

 During overlap, the load voltage is the mean between two

sine waves, that is, the shape is sinusoidal, but if we
consider the curve as a cosine wave, then the integration
limits will be 0 to  on a cosine wave of peak value Vmax
sin ( giving,

…(4)

 If the overlap is neglected, that is, let  = 0, then Eq. (4) is

identical to that of normal rectifier.

 In the controlled 3-pulse circuit, the overlap will lead to

the waveform shown in Fig. 3 (circuit reference Fig. l-a
using thyristors), where it can be seen that with a firing
delay angle  a finite voltage is present from the start of
commutation. Using Eq. (1), v2 - v1=√3 Vmax sin(t + ),
where t is the time from the start of commutation, when i
=0,
 …… (5)

Compared to the uncontrolled case ( = 0), the overlap angle 

will be shorter and the current change during commutation will
be towards a linear variation. The mean load voltage is given by,

.. (6)

Figure 3 Overlap in a controlled rectifier.