Class

Class

9
9

SCIENCE
SCIENCE
 SCIENCE
Class IX

BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION, RAJASTHAN, AJMER

 Text Book Writing Committee
Book - Science
Class - 9

Convenor : Dr. Dilip Gena, Lecturer Botany

Samrat Prithviraj Chouhan Government College, Ajmer

Authors : 1. Dr. Vibha Khanna, Lecturer Botany,

Samrat Prithviraj Chouhan Government College, Ajmer

2. Dr. Vijay Kumar Pancholi, Lecturer Physics,

Government College, Kota

3. Dr. Gaytri Swarnkar, Lecturer Zoology,

Government Meera Girls' College, Udaipur

4. Tara Chandra Jangid, Principal,

Government Senior Secondary School, Surdia (Ajmer)

5. Uma Shankar Sharma, Principal,

Government Senior Sec. School, Chota Lamba (Ajmer).

6. Dr. Panna Lal Gena, Lecturer Biology,

Government Senior Sec. School, Pisangan (Ajmer).

7. Mahendra Singh Datusaliya, Principal,

Government Senior Sec. School, Navalgarh (Jhunjhunu).
 Text Book Syllabus Committee
Book - Science
Class - 9

Convenor : Pro. Madhur Mohan Ranga

Environment Science Department
Satguru University, Ambikapur (Chhatisgarh)

Authors : 1. Shri Dinesh Chand Sharma, Principle

Govt. Adarsh Sr. Sec. School, Kanch Roli
Teh. Hindon, Karoli

2. Shri Vishnu Prasad Chaturvedi

2, Tilak Nagar, Pali

3. Shri Abhaya Singh Rathore, S.D.I.

Regional Sanskrat Education Office, Udaipur

4. Shri Ajay Kumar Sharma, Sr. Teacher

Government Sr. Sec. School, Surwal, Sawai Madhopur

5. Mr. Indira Sharma, Sr. Teacher

Maharani Govt. Girl’s Sr. Sec. School, Bundi

6. Shri Ambika Prasad Tiwari, Sr. Teacher

Govt. Sec. School, Dakatara, Jalore
 Foreword

For students, textbook is the basis of sequential studies, confirmation,

review and future studies. The level of school text book becomes very important
from the content and teaching - method's perspective. Text-books should not be
made insentient or to glorify things. Even today text-books are an important
instrument of teaching-learning process, which cannot be ignored.
For the last few years the syllabus of Board of Secondary Education,
Rajasthan was felt to be lacking in representation of linguistic and cultural
events of Rajasthan. Keeping this in view the state government decided to
implement its syllabus through Board of Secondary Education, Rajasthan, for
the students of class 9-12. In accordance to this, Board, has got assembled the
text-books for classes 9 to 11 from the session 2016-17 based on the set syllabus.
Hope these text books will be instrumental in providing the students with
originality of thought process, contemplation and expression.

Prof. B.L. Choudhary

Chairman
Board of Secondary Education Rajasthan
Ajmer
 Preface

This text-book of science for class IX of Board of Secondary Education

Rajasthan has been written for the creative learning of the students.
According to the syllabus, fifteen chapters have been compiled in this
text-book. Recent information has been incorporated at relevant points which
will enhance the utility and content of the text book.
In the text-book information regarding our great scientists and their
achievements, nature of substance, structure and major activities of living
beings, bio-diversity, Nakshtra and Rashis, Environment, Health, Effect of
Yoga on health, Natural Resources and Conservation etc., have been
incorporated.
Important points have been outlined at the end of each chapter which will
help students while studying. From examination preparation point of view,
objective questions, very-short answer type, short-answer type and Essay type
questions have been included.
The technical words have been used in the text in accordance with the
standard dictionaries. Figures, charts and tables have been used in the text-book,
as per the need. The sequentiality of content has been maintained in the text.
Efforts have been made to maintain the level according to the students of class
IX.
Suggestions are invited from intellectuals, authors and teachers. Despite
all efforts, some errors may have persisted in the present text. The suggestions of
readers are welcomed in this aspect too. Your suggestions will go a long-way in
the betterment of the present text.

Convenor
 CONTENTS

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
S.No. Chapter Page No.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Bharat and Science 1-6
2. Structure of matter and Molecule 7-13
3. Atomic Structure 14-21
4. Chemical Bond and Chemical Equation 22-29
5. Concept of Life 30-37
6. Structure of Living Organism 38-54
7. Biodiversity 55-71
8. Major Activities of Living Organisms 72-109
9. Force and Motion 110-129
10. Gravitation 130-137
11. Sound 138-147
12. Celestial bodies and Indian Calendar 148-161
13. Environment 162-173
14. Health, Disease and Yoga 174-187
15. Natural Resources and Agriculture 188-203
Road Safety Education 204-215
Glossary
 Chapter-1

Bharat and Science

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-2-
-3-
-4-
 16x (p–x)
sin x ~ 2
5p –4p (p–x)

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 Chapter-2

Structure of Matter and Molecule

2.1 Matter 2.1.4 Characteristic Properties of Matter:
Different objects present around us, like- The three basic states of matter can be
water, air, salt, book, computer etc., are all matter. identified on the basis of their specific properties.
Every object that occupies space has mass and 1. Solid State:
which can be sensed with the five sense organs, is There are numerous substances in solid
termed as matter. form all around us. For example : Piece of wood,
When we say that matter has mass, it means stone, pencil, pen, computer, salt etc. Following are
that it has weight. The more heavy an object is, the characteristic properties of the solid state :
greater will be its mass. Matter occupies space (i) Solid has a definite shape
means that it has volume. (ii) Solid has a definite volume
2.1.1 Properties of Matter : (iii) The density of solid is more
1. There is empty space between the (iv) Compressibility of solid is negligible
particles of matter. (v)A high inter-molecular force of attraction
2. The particles of matter are in a state of is present in between the particles of solid state.
constant motion. (vi) Diffusion in particles of solid is
3. The particles of matter attract each other. extremely less.
2.1.2 Types of Matter 2. Liquid State :
Matter can be divided into two types on the Water, mustard oil, kerosene etc. are the
basis of its components : examples of liquid. The volume of liquid is definite
1. Pure Matter : Matter which has only one but its shape is not; they take the shape according to
type of ingredient or component is the vessel. Liquid can flow. Liquid can be poured or
known as pure matter. spread. The properties of liquid are intermediate
For example : Iron, Gold, Water, Oxygen, between solid and gas.
etc. Elements and components are pure The characteristic properties of liquid state are :
matter. (i) Shape of liquid is not definite.
2. Impure Matter : Matter which has more (ii) Volume of liquid is definite.
than one type of ingredients or (iii) The density of liquid is more than that
components are known as impure matter. of gas but less than that of solid.
For example : Cold drink, soil, air etc. (iv) The compressibility of liquid is very
Mixtures are impure matter. less.
2.1.3 States of Matter : (v) The inter-molecular force of attraction
On the basis of physical state, matter can be between the particles of liquid is weak.
classified into three phases : (vi) Diffusion in particles of liquid is less
(i) Solid (ii) Liquid (iii) Gas than that in gas but more than that in
For example : H2O(g) gaseous phase - steam solid.
H2O(l) liquid phase - water 3. Gas State :
H2O(s) solid phase - Ice The air present around us is the best example
Now scientists are considering five states of of the gas state, other examples include - Oxygen,
matter by including Nitrogen, Argon, Carbon-di-oxide etc.
(iv) Plasma Following are the characteristic properties of the
(v) Bose - Einstein Condensate (BEC) Gas state :
(i) The shape of gas is not definite and it

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 takes the shape of the vessel, in which it Approximately at the same time i.e. 460 to
is placed. 370 BC, Greek philosopher Democritus and
(ii) The volume of gas is not definite and it Lencippus, suggested that if we keep on dividing
take its volume according to the shape matter a point will be reached when the particle
of the vessel. obtained cannot be divided further. They termed
(iii) The density of gas is very less. these indivisible particles as atoms (i.e.
(iv) The compressibility of gas is very high. uncuttables).
(v) The inter-molecular force of attraction All the above mentioned views were on the
between the particles of gas is basis of philosophical ideas. In 1808 John Dalton
negligible. proposed the Atomic Theory and the credit of
(vi) The diffusion in the particles of gas is discovering atom was given to him.
very high. Hence it quickly spreads Dalton suggested the view of divisibility of
every where. matter which was then considered philosophical.
The distance between the particles of gas is too The minutest, indivisible particles of matter, which
much. They can be brought near each other by were termed atom by the Greek philosophers, were
applying high pressure and reducing the designated by Dalton also, as atom. This theory of
temperature and can be liquefied. The name of Dalton was based on the laws of chemical
CNG, used as a fuel, is Compressed Natural Gas. combination. Dalton's Atomic Theory provided
LPG is Liquefied Petroleum Gas. rational analysis of the law of Conservation of Mass
and Law of Definite Proportions.
2.3 Atom :
According to Dalton's Atomic Theory, all
matter, whether element, compound or mixture, are
made up of minute particles called atom. Atoms are
the minutest particles. Their shape is approximately
of the range of 10–10 m.
The atoms of most of the elements cannot exist
Solid Liquid Gas independently. Atoms form molecules and ions.
These molecules or ions group in large numbers to
Fig. 2.1 States of Matter form matter, which can be seen, felt or touched by
us.
2.2 Kanad Theory : 2.4 Molecule :
Ancient Bhartiya and Greek philosophers Generally molecule is a group of two or
have always been astonished by the unknown and more atoms which are joined together by chemical
invisible forms of matter. Ideas had been expressed bonds, which cannot be separated by general
in Bharat about the concept of indivisibility of physical methods.
matter, as early as, in about 500 BC. Therefore, the minutest particle of an element or
Bhartiya philosopher Maharshi Kanad had compound which can exist independently and
postulated that if we go on dividing matter, we will expresses all the characteristic properties of that
be obtaining smaller particles and in the end we will compound, is termed as a molecule. For example :
reach the limit when the particle obtained cannot be molecules of salt, molecules of phosphorus etc.
further divided i.e. that minutest particle will be 2. 5 Elements :
indvisible. He named this indivisible, minute Group of same type of atoms is known as
particle as the 'parmanu'. Another Bhartiya Element. For example : Gold, silver, iron, sulphur
philosopher Pakudha Katyayana explained this idea etc. Till date 118 elements are known.
in an elaborate form and stated that these particles The molecule of an element is made up of a
are usually found in linked forms, which provide us combination of one or more than one atoms. For
with the different types of matter (element, example : Molecules of Argon, Helium etc. are
compound, mixture). made up of a single atom of the element while the

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two types of molecules of oxygen are O2 and O3 Mixtures can be classified into two types :
which are made up of two and three atoms of 2.7.1 Homogeneous mixture :
oxygen, respectively. O2 is known as di-oxygen and The mixture in which all the components are
O3 is known as Ozone. in the same stage and phase are known as
The number of atoms of an element present homogeneous mixtures. For example : air, solution
in a molecule is known as the atomicity of that etc.
element. The atomicity of oxygen in ozone is 3. 2.7.2 Heterogeneous mixture :
2.6 Compound : The mixture in which all the components are
The substance formed by the chemical in different stage and phase are known as
combination of 2 or more than two elements in a heterogeneous mixtures. For example : Milk,
definite ratio is termed as a Compound. For Cloud, Smoke etc.
example: Salt, Water, Ammonia, Sulphuric acid etc.
The smallest particle of a compound which can exist 2.8 Physical and Chemical Changes :
independently and possess all the properties of the Whenever a matter varies its physical and
compound is known as a molecule of the chemical properties it is known as a change. For
compound. For example : Water : molecular example : colour, smell, state, nature, molecular
formula H2O, Ammonia : molecular formula NH3 formula etc. Change of any type is a process. These
etc. changes can be of two types.
2.7 Mixture : 2.8.1 Physical change :
The substance formed by mixing two or Changes in which the chemical properties of
more than two elements or compounds in uncertain matter remain the same but the physical properties
quantity, is known as a mixture. There is no changes, are known as physical change. For
chemical bonding between its components. Hence example : Water is obtained on heating ice, here the
they can be separated by simple physical methods solid state liquefies but chemically both are the
for example : air is a mixture, whose components same i.e. the molecular formula for both is H2O.
includes N2, O2, CO2, H2O etc. H2O(s) ® H2O(l)
ice water
H2 molecules O2 molecules 2.8.2 Chemical change :
Changes in which the chemical properties of
Element

matter changes i.e. a new chemical substance is

formed as a result of the change, are known as
chemical change. Example : Carbon-di-oxide is
obtained on burning carbon in oxygen. Here Carbon
is in solid state and oxygen is in gaseous state. The
Water (H2O) molecules Hydrogen per oxide (H2O2) molecules
carbon-di-oxide obtained is in gaseous state. Here
Compound

along with the state even the molecular formula has

changed
C(s) + O2(g) ® CO2(g)
Carbon Oxygen Carbon-di-oxide
In the given picture tearing of paper is a physical
Mixture of H2 and O2 molecules Mixture of H2 O2 and H2O
change while its burning is a chemical change.
Mixture

Fig. 2.2. : Elements, Compounds and Mixtures Fig. 2.3 Physical and Chemical changes

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2.9 State Change of Matter and its Effect : paper. Example : Separating water from the sandy
Whenever there is a change in the state of water.
matter, primarily, the distance between its particles,
the energy of its particles and the position of the
particles change.
2.9.1 Effect of Temperature :
On being heated the kinetic energy of the
particles increases. When solid is heated, the rate of
vibration of its particles increases. The energy
provided by the heat extends across the force of
attraction between the particles. Because of this the
particles leave their set location and start moving
independently. A stage is reached when the solid
melts and become liquid. Fig. 2.4 Filtration
The temperature at which the solid melts
down to liquid is termed as the melting point of that 2.10.2 Crystallisation :
substance. The melting point of ice is 273.16ºK. Crystallisation is the phenomenon of
The process of melting i.e., conversion of solid into formation of solid crystals from the saturated
liquid state is also known as fusion. solution.
"The heat energy required to change one The crystallisation technique of separating
kilogram of a solid into liquid, at its melting point, solid from liquid starts with vapourisation.
under one atmosphere pressure, is known as the However, in crystallisation when the solution
latent heat or enthalpy of fusion i.e. melting." becomes very concentrated, vapourisation is
On being heated, the kinetic energy of liquid stopped. The concentrated solution thus obtained
particles increase further resulting in the conversion when cooled gradually, results in the formation of
to gaseous state. The temperature at which liquid crystals, which can be seperated by filteration. For
changes to gas is known as its boiling point. example - seperating sugar from sugar syrup,
"The heat energy required to convert one kilogram making crystal sugar, obtaining salt crystals from
of liquid, at one atmosphere pressure, at its boiling saline solution etc.
point, into the vapour state, is known as the latent 2.10.3 Sublimation :
heat or enthalpy of vapourisation". Sublimation is the property of some
2.9.2 Effect of Pressure : substances, by virtue of which, they change directly
When pressure is applied the gas particles from solid state to vapour state without liquifying
come close together. When the distance between
these particles decreases, gaseous state changes into
to the liquid state. But this liquid cannot be
solidified by applying immense pressure because
the compressibility of liquid is very less.
2.10 Purification of Matter :
In nature majority of the matter is present in
impure form. Hence their purification is essential.
There are different methods of purifying different
substances.
2.10.1 Filtration :
Filtration is a method to separate solid from
liquid in a heterogenous mixture. In filtration the
solid matter is collected on the filter paper in the
form of a residue and the liquid is obtained as
filterate, when the mixture is passed through a filter Fig. 2.5 Sublimation

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and the vapours when cooled form solid without and on cooling these vapours, pure liquid is
changing over to the liquid state. For example : obtained because of condensation. This process is
Ammonium chloride (Sal ammoniac), iodine, known as distillation. Example water distillation
camphor, Naphthalene etc exhibits the property of etc.
sublimation. Vapourisation
Separating a mixture of salt and sal Impure liquid ® Vapour
ammoniac (Sodium chloride and Ammonium Condensation
chloride) :
On being heated, the sal ammoniac from the ¯
mixture vapourises while the salt is left behind. Pure liquid
These vapours cool down on the inverted funnel
placed on the mixture being heated and thus
converts back into pure sal ammoniac.
2.10.4 Differential extraction :
This is a technique to separate two
immiscible liquids from each other. For example oil
and water.

Fig. 2.7 Distillation

2.10.6 Fractional Distillation :

If the boiling point of two liquids do not
have sufficient difference, they cannot be separated
by simple distillation. Such liquids vapourise at the
same temperature range and then condense
together. In such a situation fractional distillation is
made use of.
When the mixture is heated each liquid
vapourises at its boiling point. Their vapours when
passed through fractioning column and condensed,
yield the different liquids. First the liquid with
lower boiling point is obtained and then, that with
higher boiling point. Example : Various

Fig. 2.6 Separating funnel

When poured in a separating funnel the two liquids

in the mixture form separate layers. When the stop-
cork is opened, the heavy liquid comes out first then
the lighter liquid is obtained.
2.10.5 Distillation :
When soluble solid is present in a liquid, the
liquid from the mixture vapourises on being heated 2.8 Fractional distillation

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components like petrol, diesel, kerosene, vaseline (c) freezing point
etc are separated from petroleum by fractional (d) condensation temperature
distillation. Q. 5 Which of the following options, is a mixture?
(a) Water (b) Brass
Important Points (c) Iron (d) Salt

1. Water, Air, Stone - all are matter. Very short answer type questions :
2. There are primarily three physical states of Q. 6 Who was the first person to impart
matter - solid, liquid and gas. information about atom?
3. The information regarding atom was first of all Q. 7 What is the approximate size of atom?
given by Maharshi Kanad. Q. 8 Write the molecular formula of water.
4. Atomism was given by John Dalton. Q. 9 Which type of mixture, is the mixture of oil
5. Molecules are formed by chemical combination and water?
of atoms in a definite proportion. Q. 10 By which method can water be separated
6. Matter is present in the form of element, from the sandy water?
compound and mixture. Q. 11 What is the atomicity of oxygen in di-
7. There are two type of molecules - elemental and oxygen?
compounds. Q. 12 Give an example of a monoatomic molecule.
8. Mixture is formed by combining matter in Q. 13 Which is the state of matter whose shape and
indeterminate or definite proportions. volume are constant?
9. Conversion of ice into water is a physical Q. 14 Give the full form of C.N.G.
change while breaking of ice molecules into Q. 15 What is the process of conversion of liquid
hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) is a chemical into vapours, known as?
change.
Short answer type questions :
10. The matter can be purified by crystallisation,
Q. 16 What is melting point? Define.
distillation, fractional distillation, differential Q. 17 Write the definition of the latent heat of
extraction, filteration etc. vapourisation?
Q. 18 Write one difference between an element and
Questions a compound?
Q. 19 What is a mixture? Give one example.
Objective type questions : Q. 20 Write four properties of the liquid state.
Q. 1 When did Maharshi Kanad provided Q. 21 What is a physical change? Give one
information regarding atom? example.
(a) 500 BC (b) 100 BC Q. 22 Explain the effect of pressure on the
(c) 460 BC (d) 1808 AD liquefaction of gases.
Q. 2 The atomicity of oxygen in ozone is : Q. 23 Write any three specialities of matter.
(a) 1 (b) 2 Q. 24 Which type of mixture can be separated using
(c) 3 (d) 4 a separating funnel?
Q. 3 Which of the following substance is not solid Q. 25 Define compound. Give one example.
at room temperature ?
(a) Salt (b) Alum Essay type Questions :
(c) Oxygen (d) Sal ammoniac Q. 26 Explain the effect of temperature on the
conversion of different phases of matter.
Q. 4 The temperature at which liquid changes to Q. 27 Explain sublimation with the help of a well
solid is known as : labelled diagram.
(a) melting point Q. 28 Write three differences between solid, liquid
(b) boiling point

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 and gas.
Q. 29 Write two differences between physical and
chemical changes.
Q. 30 How is matter purified by distillation?
Explain with the help of a diagram.

Answer Key

1 (a) 2 (c) 3 (c) 4 (c) 5 (d)

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 Chapter-3

Atomic Structure

Since ancient times man has been are present in atoms which are known as sub atomic
inquisitive about the change of form of matter, for particles.
example when salt is added to water it becomes 3.1 Physical particles of atom and their
invisible but its taste is there in the water. On being discovery :
burnt coal converts into ash. Matter can be 3.1.1 Electric immersion tube : There is a
grounded to form fine powder. The invisibility and long glass tube having metal electrode on both ends.
divisibility of matter was well known to the Greek A vacuum pump is connected to it, with the help of
and Bhartiya philosophers, way back before Christ. which the pressure in the tube can be increased or
It was way back in 6th BC, Maharshi decreased. Even vacuum can be created in the tube
Kanad, the Bhartiya philosopher, had said, "Matter with its help.
can be divided into small particles but the utlimate 3.1.2 Discovery of electron : J.J. Thomson
minutest particle will remain indivisible." Kanad created high vacuum in immersion tube and applied
named it 'Parmanu'. Another Bhartiya Philosopher high voltage on the metal electrode. He observed
Kaccayana stated that these 'particles' are present in that green fluorescence is generated on the walls of
combined form which give different forms to the tube.
matter. At about the same time, Greek philosophers
Democratic and Leucippus called these indivisible Glasstube with partial vacuum
particles as atoms which means 'cannot be cut' or Cathode Anode
'indivisible' in other words which cannot be divided
further. All these views were based on philosophy
and did not have a practical basis. In 1808, scientist Cathode rays
John Dalton gave the 'Atomic Theory' on the basis
of chemical combination, conservation of matter
and laws of definite proportions.
The main points of the theory are as under : High voltage
1. All the matter is composed of small
particles called 'atoms'. Fig. 3.1 : Formation of Cathode Rays in the
2. Atoms are indivisible particles which Immersion tube
can neither be destroyed nor can be
created. With the help of his experiments, Thomson
3. All the atoms of an element are similar. confirmed that on applying high voltage in vacuum
4. Atoms of different elements have there is flow of electricity in the tube from cathode
different properties. to anode, in the form of rays. Thomson termed these
5. The atoms of different elements rays - the cathode rays.
combine with each other in whole Properties of Cathode rays :
number proportions to form the 1. They move in straight line.
molecule of compounds. 2. They produce fluorescence.
6. Chemical change is basically the 3. They are affected by electric and
combination, dissociation and magnetic fields.
reconfiguration of atoms. 4. When they pass through a gas, they
By the end of nineteenth century, series of different ionise it.
experiments, made it clear that some small particles 5. They are made up of negatively charged

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 particles. proton is 1837 times greater than that of the
6. The e/m (charge/mass) i.e. ratio of charge electron.
to mass of these particles is uniform.
7. Primarily they are the matter waves. 3.2 Thomson's Atomic Model :
According to J.J. Thomson, cathode rays are After the confirmation of the presence of electron
made up of negatively charged particles which he and proton in the atom, Thomson in 1898 said that
named as the electrons and their mass was found to the atom is a positively charged sphere in which are
be 1/1837 of the hydrogen atom. embedded the negatively charged electrons. He
Experiments on the properties of the cathode compared it with the dessert "Plum pudding" in
rays proved that in the atom there is a negatively which dry fruits are present scattered within the
charged particle, electron, which can be separated cake. We can understand it by using the example of
from the atom. The atomic electricity is neutral, water melon. The fleshy part of which is the positive
hence the remaining part of the atom from which region and the seeds present in it may be considered
electron have been removed, should be positively the electron. This model was named as the ' Plum
charged. Pudding Model '.
3.1.3 Discovery of Proton : In 1886, E.
Goldstein used perforated cathode in the immersion
tube and observed new type of rays at low pressure Positive sphere
and high voltage, which were termed as positive
rays. They are also known as the anode rays.

Positive
Rays Perforated cathode
Anode
Red
fluore-
scence Electron

Gas at Low Pressure Fig. 3.3 Thomson's Atomic Model

Source of High Voltage Shortly, after some time, this model was rejected as
it could not interpret the alpha particle dispersion
Fig 3.2 : Formation of positive rays in the experiments done by Rutherford.
immersion tube.
3.3 Rutherford's Experiment and the
Properties of the Positive rays : Nuclear Atomic Model :
1. Positive rays move in a straight line. In 1911, Ernest Rutherford bombarded a thin screen
2. Their charge to mass ratio (charge/mass –7
i.e. foil of gold (100 nanometer or 10 meter thick)
i.e. e/m) depends on the nature of gas encoated with zinc sulphide, with alpha particles
present in the tube. (Helium nuclei). The following observations were
3. They are affected by the electric and made by this experiment :
magnetic fields. 1. Most of the particles went out straight,
4. They are made up of positively charged without scattering.
particles. 2. Some particles scattered at an angle of
5. They also are matter rays. 90º and some at 120º angle.
In 1919 this positive particle was identified 3. One out of 20,000 particles, however
as the proton and it was stated that in the atom the scattered at an angle of 180º i.e. returned
positively charged protons are also present along on the same path after colliding with the
with the electrons. The atom is neutral because the foil.
number and charge of both is equal. The mass of

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 and the negatively charged electrons is
balanced by the centrifugal force of the
electrons revolving at high speed.
4. The atom is electrically neutral because
the total negative charge on electrons is
equal to the total positive charge of the
nucleus.

Fig. 3.4 Rutherford's Dispersal Experiment

3.3.1 Rutherford deduced the following

inferences from his experiment of dispersal of
alpha particles on the gold sheet :
1. Major part of an atom is a void.
2. The entire positive charge of the atom is
concentrated at a point.
3. The space occupied by the positive
charge is very less as compared to the
volume of the atom. Fig. 3.6 Rutherford's Atomic Model

Electron 3.3.3 Drawback of the Rutherford's

Atomic Model.
1. The negatively charged electron,
Nucleus revolving round the positively charged nucleus, will
emit energy radiations because of acceleration; as a
result, the energy will continuously decrease and
ultimately the electron will fall into the nucleus.
Hence the atom will not be stable.
2. Rutherford could not explain the definite
Fig. 3.5 Alpha particle dispersion by the path for electrons.
nucleus of the metal atom
3.4 Discovery of Neutrons :
3.3.2 On the basis of these inferences Atomic studies revealed that the mass of
Rutherford proposed the nuclear atomic model. atom is more than total mass of electron and protons
The main points of this model are : present therein. In 1920, Ernest Rutherford
1. The entire positive charge and mass of suggested the presence of neutral particles in the
an atom is concentrated in a small part, atom but in was difficult to identify them because
the nucleus, at its center. The radius of they were without any charge. In 1932 the neutral
the nucleus is 10–15 meter. particles, neutrons, were discovered, whose mass
2. Major part of the atom is void, in which was found to be equal to that of protons. James
the negatively charged electrons revolve Chadwick discovered neutrons.
at high speed on circular path, around
the nucleus. These circular paths are 3.5 Bohr's Model of Hydrogen Atom :
known as orbit or shell or orbital. Rutherford's atomic model was not in
3. The 'electrostatic force of attraction' accordance with the laws of Physics. In 1912 Neil
between the positively charged nucleus Bohr presented a new atomic model based on

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concepts. The main postulates of the Bohr's
hydrogen atom model, based on the quantum
theory, are as under :
1. In the hydrogen atom electron moves in
circular orbits of definite radius and energy. These
orbits are represented by 1, 2, 3, 4 .......... or K, L, M,
N, O.
2. The angular velocity of electrons in these
orbits (mvr) is equal to or h/2p or its multiple. Here
h is Planck's constant, m = mass of electron v = Bond Length
velocity of electron and r = radius of the orbit.
3. There is no change in energy of the Fig. 3.8 Covalent Radii
electron revolving in a particular orbit but energy is
emitted and absorbed respectively when electron 3.7 Atomic Mass :
moves from higher orbital to lower orbital or lower According to Dalton's atomic theory, each
orbital to higher orbital. element has its characteristic atomic mass. Dalton's
theory can easily explain the law of constant
Electron proportion, hence, inspired by it the scientists
advanced towards measuring the atomic mass and
relative atomic mass, using the combination rules.
Practically the mass of atom is due to the protons
and neutrons present in it. They are also known as
nucleon because of their presence in the nucleus.
Nucleus
Thus the entire mass of an atom is in its nucleus. The
atomic mass of oxygen, which is, 16amu (atomic
mass unit) is because of the presence of 8 protons
and 8 neutrons in it. Similarly the mass of nitrogen
atom is 14 amu (indicating 7 neutron + 7 protons).
Fig. 3.7 Hydrogen Atom Model "The total number of nucleons (number of proton +
neutron) present in the nucleus of an atom is known
Atomic radius is the distance between the nucleus as its mass number." Mass number is represented by
and the outermost orbital (shell) of an atom 'A'. "The number of protons present in an atom is
dissociated from a compound. But neither can an known as the atomic number." It is denoted by 'Z'. It
atom be dissociated nor can the distance of the shell can be related to A as under :
from outermost orbital, be measured in a simple
way. Therefore the atomic radii can be explained in A=Z+n
the following manner :
3.6.1 Covalent radius : where A = mass number
Covalent radius is half the distance of single Z = atomic number
covalent bond formed between similar atoms. For n = Number of neutrons
example half of the distance between the nuclei of
two chlorine atoms is 99Aº which is considered to 3.8 Atomic weight :
be its atomci radius (1Aº = 10–8 cm). With the studies regarding atomic structure,
3.6.2 Metallic radius : the knowledge of e/m (i.e. ratio of charge to mass)
Metallic radius is half of the total distance of the electron had developed. Over period of time,
between the nuclei of the two adjacent atoms in a even the atomic weight was determined. In the
metallic cluster. This is its atomic radius. beginning the weight of atoms was calculated in
relation to that of the smallest atom, i.e. of
hydrogen, which was taken as unit. The atomic

- 17 -
weight was defined as - "The atomic weight of an 3.9 Avogadro Number
element is that number which indicates how heavy Hydrogen and oxygen reacts to form water :
is the atom of the element as compared to the 2H2 + O2 ® 2H2O
hydrogen atom". In this reaction 2 molecules of hydrogen
In 1961, the twelfth part of Carbon-12 isotope was react with one molecule of oxygen to form two
accepted as the international standard atomic mass molecules of water. The amount of substances
unit. According to this "the atomic weight of any taking part in a reaction can be determined easily
element is the average weight of all the isotopes of and their amount can be easily represented by the
that element as compared to one twelfth part of the number of its molecules or atoms. Hence, to make
carbon-12 isotope". In other words it is the ratio of the understanding of the amount of substances,
the average mass of all the isotopes of that element convenient, a new unit 'mole' was proposed.
to one twelfth of the mass of an atom of carbon-12. According to the mole hypothesis "The mass of one
mole of a substance is equal to its gram atomic
Atomic weight of an element weight or the gram molecular weight."
Weight of one atom of the element According to this definition :
= The weight of 1 mole of the substance
Weight of 1/12 part of the C-12 isotope. 18 gms water (H2O)
17 gms ammonia (NH3)
Atomic weight and atomic number of elements 44 gms carbon-di-oxide (CO2)
S. Element Atomic Mass Atomic weight 12 gms carbon (C)
No number number in amu 24 gms magnesium (Mg)
In one mole of every substance, the number
1. Hydrogen 1 1 1.008 of its particles (atoms, ions, molecules) is definite,
2. Helium 2 4 4.003 which is known as the Avogadro number and its
23
value is 6.022×10 . In 18 gms of water there are
3. Carbon 6 12 12.001 6.022×10 molecules of water or 6.022×1023 atoms
23

23
4. Nitrogen 7 14 14.007 of oxygen and 2 (6.022×10 ) atoms of hydrogen.
This has been named in honour of the Italian
5. Oxygen 8 16 15.99 scientist Amedeo Avogadro.
6. Sodium 11 23 22.99 The concept of mole can be understood with
the help of an example :
7. Magnesium 12 24 24.31 Determine the number of oxygen and
8. Aluminium 13 27 26.98 hydrogen atoms and of the water molecules in 2.5
moles of water.
9. Chlorine 17 35 35.453 Solution :

Charge and mass of the fundamental particles of atom

Name the Symbol Nature Charge Mass
Particle in in in in
Columb Unit amu kg
-19 -31
Electron e negative 1.6×10 –1 0.0005485 9.109×10
Proton p positive 1.6×10-19 +1 1.007277 1.672×10-27
Neuton n neutral zero zero 1.008665 1.674×10-27

- 18 -
 Number of molecules in 1 mole of water
= Avogadro number
23
= 6.022 × 10
\ Number of molecules in 2.5 mole of water
= 2.5 × 6.022 ×1023
23
=15.055× 10 molecules of water
Number of hydrogen atoms in one molecule of
water = 2
= 2 × 6.022 × 1023 atoms
Therefore, number of hydrogen atoms in 2.5
moles of water Fig. 3.9 Electron
S. Name of
arrangement in Electron
Symbol Atomic
Atoms
23
= 2.5 × 2 × 6.022 × 10 N. Element number arrangement
23
= 30.110 × 10 atoms of hydrogen
1. Hydrogen H 1 1
Number of oxygen atoms in one molecule of
water = 1 2. Helium He 2 2
Number of oxygen in one mole of water = 1 3. Lithium Li 3 2, 1
23
× 6.022 × 10 4. Berilium Be 4 2, 2
Therefore, number of oxygen atoms in 2.5
moles of water 5. Boron B 5 2, 3
= 2.5 × 1 × 6.022 × 1023 6. Carbon C 6 2, 4
23
= 15.055 × 10 . 7. Nitrogen N 7 2, 5
The volume of one mole of a substance at
8. Oxygen O 8 2, 6
normal temperature and pressure is 22.4 litre, i.e., at
NTP the weight of 22.4 litre of every gas is equal to 9. Fluorine F 9 2, 7
its molecular weight. This is used in related to 10. Neon Ne 10 2, 8
weight calculations. 11. Sodium Na 11 2, 8, 1
12. Magnesium Mg 12 2, 8, 2
3.10 Position of electron :
In an atom the electrons revolve around the 13. Aluminium Al 13 2, 8, 3
nucleus in definite orbitals. These orbitals were 14. Silicon Si 14 2, 8, 4
represented by Bohr as K, L, M, N, O or 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. 15. Phosphorus P 15 2, 8, 5
The number of electrons in each orbital is 2n2 where
n is the number of orbitals. 16. Sulphur S 16 2, 8, 6
Accordingly, as per Bohr's hypothesis, the 17. Chlorine Cl 17 2, 8, 7
maximum number of electrons in the outermost 18. Argon Ar 18 2, 8, 8
shell can be eight.
19. Potassium K 19 2, 8, 8, 1
Orbit Name of the orbit No. of electrons
2 20. Calcium Ca 20 2, 8, 8, 2
1 K 2×1 = 2
2
2 L 2×2 = 8 Isotopes :
2
3 M 2×3 = 18 According to Dalton's Atomic Theory all the
4 N 2×42 = 32 atoms of an element are similar. But later on,
2
5 O 2×5 = 50 scientists found that this was not true. They found
that the mass number of the atoms of the same
Accordingly, the distribution of electrons in element may differ. Hydrogen atom is an example
the atoms of the first 20 elements of the periodic which has three atomic species :
table will be as under : Hydrogen 99.98%, Deutirium 0.15% and
Tritium is present in very minute quantities.

- 19 -
 1. The basic particles of atom are electron, proton
and neutron.
2. The negatively charged particles in the atom
are electrons.
3. The numeric value of the charge on electron
and proton is the same but their sign is opposite.
Hydrogen Deutirium Tritium 4. James Chadwick discovered neutrons.
Fig 3.10 Isotopes of Hydrogen 5. There are 6.022×1023 particles in one mole.
This is known as the Avogadro number.
In these atoms it was observed that in the 6. The NTP volume of 1 mole of a gas is 22.4
nucleus of the hydrogen, available in excess, there is litres.
only one proton in the nucleus, while in Deuterium 7. The formula to determine the maximum
2
nucleus there is one neutron along with one proton number of electrons in a shell is 2n .
and in the nucleus of Tritium there are two neutrons 8. When the atomic number is the same but mass
and a single proton. Thus, their atomic number is number is different they are known as Isotopes.
one but mass number is 1, 2 and 3 respectively. From 9. Isobars are elements having different atomic
this example we can define isotope as "Atoms of the number and the same mass number.
same element whose atomic number is the same but 10. There are three isotopes of hydrogen, Protium,
mass number is different, are known as isotopes." Deutirium and Tritium.
Other examples include two isotopes of
chlorine : Chlorine 35 and Chlorine 37; two isotopes Questions
of carbon : Carbon -12 and Carbon-14; three Objective type Questions :
isotopes of oxygen : Oxygen-16, Oxygen-17 and 1. The Plum Pudding Model of atom was given
Oxygen 18. by:
(a) Neil Bohr
3.11.1 Uses of Isotopes : (b) Thomson
1. Uranium isotope is used as fuel in atomic (c) Ernest Rutherford
reactor. (d) Goldstein
2. Radioactive isotopes are used in 2. The discoverer of neutron was :
treatment of various diseases. For (a) C.V. Raman (b) Rutherford
example : Iodine -131 in goiter disease (c) J.J. Thomson (d) James Chadwick
and Cobalt-60 for treatment of cancer. 3. The size of atom is :
3. Isotopes are used to study the mechanism (a) 10–6 cm (b) 10–15 cm
of chemical reactions. (c) 10–2 cm (d) 10–8 cm
4. Sodium-24 is used to study the blood 4. The number of neutrons in the Deutirium
circulation in human beings. Isotope of hydrogen is /are :
3.12 Isobars : (a) one (b) Two
Isobars are the atoms of different elements (c) Three (d) Not even one
whose mass number is the same but atomic number
differs. For example, the mass number of calcium Very short answer type questions :
and argon, both, is 40 but their atomic number are 18 5. What are Isotopes?
and 20 respectively. Similarly, mass number of 6. What are Isobar Element?
Carbon-14 and Nitrogen-14, is 14 hence they are 7. Write the names of the basic particles present in
Isobars. In ths type of atoms the sum of protons and atoms.
neutron is the same but in both the number of 8. Define atomic weight.
protons is different. 9. What is Atomic Number?
10. What is the charge on neutron?
11. Write the value of Avogadro number.
Important Points 12. Write the name of the discoverer of proton.

- 20 -
Short answer type questions :
13. What is immersion tube? Explain with the help
of diagram.
14. Explain the atomic model of Thomson.
15. What is mole concept? Explain.
16. Write the main points of the Dalton's Atomic
Theory.
17. Write the characteristic properties of Cathode
Rays.
18. Explain the Covalent Radius of atom with the
help of an example.

Essay type questions :

19. Elucidate the atomic model based on
Rutherford's observations of Gold foil particle
scattering experiments.
20. Write the main concept of the Neil Bohr atomic
model and on its basis draw the atomic structure
of sodium and potassium element.
21. What are positive rays? How can they be
obtained? Write their properties.

Numerical Problems :
22. The number of neutrons in an isotope of an
element is 9 and mass number is 17. Name the
element and state its atomic number.
23. Write the weight of 22.4 litre nitrogen at NTP in
terms of gram.
24. How many atoms of carbon are present in 1.5
moles of carbon?
25. What is the number of total atoms present in 9
grams of water.

Answer Key
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (a)

- 21 -
 Chapter-4

Chemical Bond and Chemical Equation

4.1 Symbol Hydrogen H
The chemical names of elements are Oxygen O
represented by a minimum number of alphabet. Carbon C
Initially the names of the elements were derived Nitrogen N
from their place of extraction or their specific 4.1.2 In cases where names of many
colour. For example 'Gold' has its origin from its elements initiate with the same alphabet, the first
colour and 'Copper' from the place of its original alphabet is used for one element while for others the
extraction 'Cyprus'. Dalton was the first scientist to first two alphabets are made use of. The first is
use a symbol to denote a definite amount i.e. an atom written in capitals while the second in small letter.
of an element. For example :
Boron B
Beryllium Be
Barium Ba
Bismuth Bi
Carbon C
Calcium Ca
Hydrogen Oxygen Phosphorus
Cobalt Co
Chlorine Cl
Chromium Cr
4.1.3 The symbols of certain elements have
been obtained from their latin names. For example :
Sodium Natrium Na
Sulphur Copper Iron Silver Argentum Ag
Gold Aurum Au
Copper Cuprum Cu
Potassium Kallium K
Iron Ferrium Fe
4.1.4 The symbols for elements with atomic
number more than hundred have been taken from
Mercury Gold Lead their numeric names and are composed of three
alphabets.
Fig. 4.1 Symbols for elements For example :
provided by Dalton Elements are named using the numeric roots
of their atomic numbers.
Berzelius developed a novel system of the Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
symbols for elements, in which one or two alphabets
of the name of the elements were used. Even IUPAC Numeric
gives acceptance to the symbol of element on this roots un bi tri quad pent hex sept oct enn nil
basis. [IUPAC = International Union of Pure and Element is named by putting together the
Applied Chemistry.] According to this : roots, in order of the digits of their atomic number
and adding 'ium' in the end. The symbol consists of
4.1.1 Element is expressed by the first the initial letter of the numerical roots that form the
alphabet of its English name : name.

- 22 -
 Atomic number Name Symbol 4.3 Radical :
101 Un-nil-unium Unu Ionic substances, acids and bases dissolve in
water and dissociate into ions which participates in
102 Un-nil-bium Unb reactions as a unit. They are termed as Radical.
103 Un-nil-trium Unt Radicals are of two types
(1) Simple Radical : Which are made up of
104 Un-nil-quadium Unq only one type of atoms.
4.2 Ion Example - Na+, Mg2+, Cl– Br– etc.
Atoms are electrically neutral because of the (2) Compound Radical : Group of two or
presence of equal number of the negatively charged more type of atoms having a definite charge is
particles : electrons and positively charged particles known as a Compound Radical
: protons. Example :NO3–, NH4 + etc.
An atom gets charged by giving up or 4.3.1 Radical can be classified into two
accepting electron in its outermost orbit. These types on the basis of the charge present :
charged particles are known as ions. On the basis of (1) Basic radical : These are metallic cation
the nature of charge, ions can be or positively charged radicals. They are also known
(1) Positive ions (2) Negative ions as ash - radical because they are obtained from
metallic ashes.
+ 2 +
4.2.1 Cation Example :Na , Mg , NH4 etc.
Cation is formed by the removal of an (2) Acidic radical : Non-metallic anions
electron from the valence shell of the isolated and negatively charged radicals are known as
gaseous atom of the element. In this process, energy Acidic Radical
– – –
is absorbed. Example :Cl , Br , NH3 etc.
+ – Mono-atomic cations :
A(g) + Energy ® A + e
Uni-valent Bi-valent
Metal atom positive ion + 2+
Sodium Na Barium Ba
The energy required to remove electron +
Potassium K Calcium Ca2+
from the isolated gaseous atom is known as + 2+
Silver Ag Magnesium Mg
ionization enthalpy. + 2+
Cuprous Cu Zinc Zn
The size of the cation is always smaller than +2 2+
MercurousHg2 Manganese Mn
that of its compliant atom because when electron is
Ferrous Fe2+
removed from the outermost shell, the force of 2+
Cupric Cu
attraction between the nucleus and the electrons
Mercuric Hg2+
increases, thus reducing its size. Normally only 2+
Stannous Sn
metal atoms form cations. The metal atoms form
Lead Pb2+
uni-valent, bi-valent, tri-valent, quadri-valent and
Tri valent Poly valent
penta-valent cations.
Aluminium Al3+ Stannic Sn4+
3+ 5+
Chromium Cr Arsenic As
4.2.2 Anions 3+
Ferric Fe
Anions are the negatively charged particles
Mono-atomic Anions
formed by the addition of one or more electrons in
Uni valent Bi valent Tri valent
the outermost valence shell of the gaseous atom of – 2– 3–
Chloride Cl Oxide O Nitride N
the isolated element. The energy released on – 2– 3–
Bromide Br Sulphide S Phosphide P
addition of the first electrons to an atom is known as
Iodide I–
electron affinity enthalpy. The size of an anion is –
Floride F
always greater than that of its compliant atom since
Poly-atomic anions
the electron cloud spreads because of the increase in
Uni valent Bi valent Tri valent
repulsion between the electrons. Normally, non- Hydroxide OH– Carbonate CO32–Phosphate PO43–
metallic atoms form anion.

- 23 -
Cyanide CN– Sulphate SO42– the valency is not specific, instead they have more
–
Nitrate NO3 Sulphite SO32– than one valency. This is known as variable
–
Permanganate MnO4 valency. The variable valency of certain elements is
Acetate CH3COO– as under :
Element Symbol Valency
* The charge present on the ion represent Copper Cu 1 and 2
its valency. Mercury Hg 1and 2
* Usually 'ate', 'ite' and 'ide' are used as Tin Sn 2 and 4
suffix, in anions. Iron Fe 2 and 3
* In case of variable valencies the ion with Phosphorous P 2 and 5
lesser charge ends with 'ous' and 'ic' is Lead Pb 2 and 4
used for those with greater charge.
4.5 Molecular Formula :
4.4 Valency : Molecule is a group of two or more than two
According to Bohr's Atomic Model there are atoms which are bound to each other by chemical
a maximum of eight electrons in the outer most orbit bonds. Molecule is the smallest particle of an
of an atom. The outermost shells of the noble element or a compound which exhibits all of their
elements of Group 18 are completely filled and properties and which can exist independently.
commonly they are chemically inactive. In other The combination of the symbols of elements
words their combining ability is zero. which represent the molecule of an element or a
The tendency of atoms of active elements to compound is known as its molecular formula.
form molecules, with atoms of other elements, is We can get the following facts from the
considered to be an effort to fill the eight electrons in molecular formula :
its outermost shell. In 1916 Corcel-Lewis (1) The chemical name of the substance is
formulated the "Octet rule", according to which known, for example Potassium Chloride.
"There is transfer or sharing of electrons between (2) Details of the component elements of the
two atoms to complete the octet in the outermost compound can be known, for example in H2O there
(valence) shell of atom and thus the two atoms are two elements : hydrogen and oxygen.
combine with each other." (3) The information about the total number
The atoms of each element has a definite of atoms in the molecule is obtained, for example in
combining capacity, which is known as its valency. H2SO4 there are two atoms of hydrogen, one of
The number of electrons shared or transferred by an sulphur and four atoms of oxygen.
atom to complete the octet in its outermost shell is (4) The molecular weight can be determined
known as its combining capacity or valency. For if the atomic weight is known.
example there are 1, 2 and 3 electrons in the Molecular formulae of Simple Compounds :
outermost shell of sodium, magnesium and Often, the molecular formulae of the
aluminium respectively, which is lost by them easily simplest binary inorganic compounds are known by
in order to achieve the octet in the outermost orbit. the symbols of their constituent elements and their
Therefore their valency is 1, 2 and 3 respectively. valencies.
The number of electrons in the outermost When an element combines with other
shell of oxygen and fluorine is 6 and 7, respectively. elements, they do so in the reverse proportion of
It is easy for them to gain 2 and 1 electrons in order to their respective valencies. Therefore while writing
complete their octet in the outermost shell. the molecular formula, first the positive radicals are
Therefore their valency is calculated by subtracting written on left side and the negative radicals on the
6 and 7 from eight. Hence, the valency of oxygen is 2 right side along with their valencies superscripted.
and that of fluorine is 1. In some exceptions the octet Then after, their valencies are written as crossover
rule is not followed, which will be studied in higher subscript to get the molecular formula. In case of
classes. need, the valencies are written in simple
4.4.1 Variable Valency : In some elements proportions.

- 24 -
 The formula for poly-atomic ions are written 3. Aluminium sulphate
within the brackets and their number is subscripted Valency 3 2
outside.
For example Al2(SO4)3 Symbol Al SO4
4.5.1 Compounds having mono-atomic Therefore the molecular formula will be
ions: Al2 (SO4)3.
1. The formula for hydrogen flouride is 4. Ammonium carbonate
obtained as under Valency 1 2
Valency 1 1 Symbol NH4 CO3
Symbol H F Therefore the molecular formula will be
(NH4)2 CO3.
Therefore the molecular formula will be HF.
2. Hydrogen sulphide 4.6 Chemical Bond :
Chemical bond is the force of attraction
Valency 1 2 present between the component particles (ions,
Symbol H S atoms etc.) of a molecule which binds them
together.
Therefore the molecular formula will be Atoms share or transfer electrons to
H2S. complete their octet arrangement. In doing so, the
3. Calcium chloride :f atoms combine with each other forming molecules.
After bond formation, the total energy of the
Valency 2 1 molecule is less than the total of the energy of the
Symbol Ca Cl independent atoms. This decrease in the energy of
the molecule increases its stability as compared to
Therefore the molecular formula will be that of the atoms. In other words, lesser the energy
CaCl2. more stable will be the molecule. Chemical bonds
4. Calcium oxide : are of many types; like ionic bond, covalent bond,
co-ordinate bond, metallic bond etc.
Valency 2 2 4.6.1 Ionic bond : The electronic
Symbol Ca O configuration of the cationic shell has one electron
which can be easily removed by supplying energy.
Here the molecular formula will be CaO This energy is known as ionisation enthalpy.
instead of Ca2O2. Na(g) + ionisation enthalpy ® Na + e
+ –

When the valencies are the same, the (2, 8, 1) (2, 8)

simplified formula is written in a simple ratio. On the other hand, an electron can be added
4.5.2 Compounds having poly atomic ions to the outermost shell (valence shell) of chlorine (2,
1. Barium Sulphate 8, 7) to obtain the stable configuration (2, 8, 8). The
Valency 2 2 energy released in doing so is known as the electron
gain enthalpy.
Symbol Ba SO4 Cl + e– ® Cl– + electron gain
Therefore the molecular formula will be (2, 8, 7) (2, 8, 8) enthalphy
BaSO4. When sodium atom reacts with chlorine, it
2. Calcium hydroxide donates one electron and the chlorine atoms accepts
Valency 2 1 one electron. Thus two oppositely charged ions are
Symbol Ca OH obtained because of the transfer of electron. The
Therefore the molecular formula will be mutual electrostatic force of attraction between the
Ca(OH)2. two, keeps, them together. As a result, a chemical
bond is built between the two ions. Ionic bond is the
force of electrostatic attraction that develops

- 25 -
between the oppositely charged ions. It is also Properties of ionic compounds :
known as the electro valent bond. 1. Nature : Ionic compounds are usually
The compounds having ionic bonds are crystalline solid, hard and brittle.
known as ionic compounds. 2. Melting point and Boiling point :
More energy is required to break the
ionic crystal because of the presence of
strong force of attraction between the
charged ions. Therefore their melting
point and boiling point is high.
3. Solubility : Ionic compounds are
Sodium atom Chlorine atom soluble in polar solvents (like water) and
are insoluble in non-polar solvents (like
benzene ether etc.)
4. Conductivity : Ionic compounds are
good conductors of heat and exhibit
electric conductivity in molten state.
5. Ionic compounds exhibit ionic reactions
which occur at high rate.
Sodium cation Chlorine anion 4.6.2 Covalent bond : Besides ionic
compounds there are compounds whose molecules
Fig. 4.2 Formation of NaCl molecule by the do not have ions. For example, water.
ionic bond between one sodium and one Similarly, ionic bonds are not present in the
chlorine atom. molecules of non-metallic elements also. A
covalent bond is formed by the sharing of one or
In the crystals of ionic compounds the ions more than one valence electrons between the
are arranged in such a manner that each cation is binding atoms. Single bond is formed by the sharing
surrounded by a definite number of anions and vice of one-one electrons from each atom, a double-bond
versa, as a result a clustered shape is formed. Like, in by sharing two-two electrons while the three-three
+
sodium chloride crystal, each sodium cation (Na ) is electron sharing, result in the formation of triple
surrounded by six chloride ions (Cl–) and each bond. When two or more than two atoms bind
chloride anion is surrounded by six sodium ions. together, electrons of the valence shell are shared,
The force of attraction responsible for binding these forming electron pairs to get octet. This type of bond
ions together is absolutely and completely the is known as covalent bond. The compounds having
electrostatic force. The crystal is electrically neutral covalent bonds are known as covalent compounds.
because of the presence of equal number of cations (i) Single Bond : The electronic
and anions. configuration of chlorine is 2, 8, 7. The
Chloride ions chlorine atom has a tendency to accept
electron easily. Two chlorine atoms can

Sodium
ions Sodium
ions

Chloride ions Sodium ions

4.3 Arrangement of ions in sodium chloride

- 26 -
 complete their octet by sharing one 4. Conductivity : They are bad
electron from the valence shell of each conductors of electricity and heat.
atom. The electron pair obtained by (exception : graphite)
sharing is present in the middle of the 5. The covalent compounds generally
nuclei of the two chlorine atoms and is exhibit atomic reactions which takes
under the combined effect of both the place at slow rate.
nuclei. 4.6.3 Coordinate bond : Coordinate bonds
(ii) Double Bond : When there is sharing of are a type of covalent bond in which the electron
two pairs of electrons between the two pair for the bond formation is provided by only one
atoms, a double bond is said to be atom but sharing is between both the atoms. For
formed. For example : This type of example in case of ozone molecule.
bonding occurs between oxygen atoms.

Nitric acid molecule

(iii) Triple Bond : If three-three electrons
from each atom are shared between the
two atoms, a triple bond is formed. For
example in nitrogen this type of bond is
formed.

Prerequisite conditions for formation of

Properties of Covalent Compounds : coordinate bond :
1. Physical state : These compounds are 1. The atom must have at least one lonely
present in all three states : solid, liquid electron pair after the completion of its
and gas. Generally they are soft; octet.
diamond and sand being the exceptions. 2. The other atom must have a deficiency
2. Melting point and boiling point : of at least one electron pair.
Generally, their melting and boiling
points are low. 4.7 Chemical Equation :
3. Solubility : They are soluble in non- Representation of any reaction in the form of
polar and carbonic solvents. molecular formulae and symbols is known as

- 27 -
chemical equation. For example the reaction of reaction is not known.
calcium oxide (lime) with water, resulting in the 5. No information about the temperature
formation of calcium hydroxide, is expressed as : and pressure at which the reaction takes
CaO + H2O ® Ca (OH)2 place.
Reactants Product 6. T h e i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g
The substance taking part in a reaction is completeness of reaction is not made
known as reactant or substrate and the substance available.
formed as a result of reaction is known as the These drawbacks can be overcome by the
product. following means :
4.7.1 Writing the chemical equation : 1. For representing the physical state, (s)
1. In a chemical equation the reactants are is mentioned for solid, (l) for liquid and
written on the left hand side of an arrow, (g) for gas. For example:
which points towards the products, CaCO3(s) ® CaO(s)+ CO2(g)
written towards its right hand side. 2. Simple arrow is replaced by to
2. If there are more than one reactant or represent reversible reaction.
product, a plus sign is written between 3. The amount of energy is written as
them. Like in the above reaction product. When the reaction is
CaO+H2O has been written. exothermic a positive sign is used
3. The number of each type of atom while when it is an endothermic
present in the reactants and products are reaction a negative sign is made use of.
made equal on both sides of the arrow SO2(g) + O2(g) ® SO3(g) + 694.6 kJ
by increasing or decreasing the number H2(g) + I2(g) ® 2HI(g) –53.6 kJ
of molecules. This process is known as 4. The temperature and pressure at which
balancing of the equation. the reaction occurs is written on the
4.7.2 Characteristics of Chemical arrow.
Equation: 723°K
The following information is provided by N2 + 3H2 2NH2
the chemical equation of any reaction. 200 atm
1. The reactants and products of the 5. Information regarding catalyst is given
reaction. by writing above or below the arrow.
2. If the reaction is balanced, the number
of molecules of the reactants Important Points
participating in the reaction and the
number of molecules of the product 1. Berzillius developed a new system for the
formed. symbols of elements.
3. Reaction shows the equivalent 2. The Latin name for sodium is Natrium.
quantities of the substances. 3. The actual number of atoms of different
4. If the reactants or products are in elements present in a molecule of a compound
gaseous state their volume is known. is known by the molecular formula.
4.7.3 Limitations of the chemical equations: 4. The force of attraction between two ions is
1. The physical state of reactants and known as IonicBond.
products cannot be known by the 5. Ionic compounds are solid and brittle.
equation. 6. Covalent Bond is formed by sharing electrons
2. I n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e in equal number, by two atoms.
concentration of reactants and products 7. The Co-ordinate Bond is represented by an
is not provided. arrow.
3. Reversibility or irreversibility of the 8. Covalent bond is represented by a dash (–).
reaction is not known.
4. Exothermic or Endothermic nature of

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 Questions
Essay type Questions :
Objective type : 22. Differentiate between covalent and ionic
1. The symbol for sodium is bonds.
(a) S (b) Si 23. Write the molecular formula of the following :
(c) Na (d) Ni (i) Sodium carbonate
2. The formula for carbonate radical is (ii) Zinc sulphide
(a) CO3 (b) CO3
2– (iii) Aluminium oxide
(c) CO3 –1
(d) CO (iv) Ferric sulphate
3. The name of the bond present in sodium (v) Barium chloride
chloride is : (vi) Magnesium carbonate
(a) Ionic bond (b) Covalent bond 24. Balance the following reactions :
(c) Metallic bond (d) Hydrogen bond (i) KClO3 ® KCl + O2
4. The element exhibiting variable valency is : (ii) BaCl2 + AgNO3 ® AgCl + Ba (NO3)2
(a) Na (b) Ca (iii) Mg + HCl ® MgCl2 + H2
(c) K (d) Cu (iv) NaOH + Cl2 ® NaCl + NaOCl + H2O
5. The formula for calcium oxide is
(a) Ca2O2 (b) CaO2 Answer Key
(c) CaO (d) Ca2O 1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (c)
6. The generator of the modern system of symbols 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (a)
for elements was :
(a) Berzillius (b) John Dalton
(c) Rutherford (d) Neil Bohr
7. The molecule with covalent bond is :
(a) H2O (b) NaCl
(c) CaO (d) CaCO3
8. Fe is the symbol for :
(a) Iron (b) Copper
(c) Gold (d) Silver

Very short answer type questions :

9. What are radicals?
10. Define ionic bond.
11. Write the symbol and Latin name of Potassium.
12. Define Molecular formula.
13. Write the formula for calcium carbonate.
14. Write the formula of a tri valent acidic radical.
15. What are anions?
16. What is valency?

Short answer type questions :

17. "The size of cation is smaller than the total size
of the atoms that make it." Explain.
18. Explain variable valency with the help of an
example.
19. What is a co-ordinate bond? Give an example.
20. Explain the energy of ionization.
21. Explain double and triple bond with the help of
examples.

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 Chapter-5

Concept of Life

5.1 Major Differences between Living and (1) Spontaneous Generation

Non-Living : (Abiogenesis)
We come across both living and nonliving During ancient times it was believed that
things in our day-to-day life. At times it is easy to frogs, snakes, mice, alligators etc originate
differentiate between the two but sometimes it is spontaneously when the sun rays heat the mud on
difficult. We can classify things present at our home river banks. Von Helmont was of the opinion that a
and in our surrounding environment into living and shirt soaked in sweat when placed with wheat straw,
nonliving. For example furniture, radio, television spontaneously generates mice in 21 days.
and buildings belong to the non-living category and (2) Cosmozoic Theory
plants and animals belong to the living category. We (Theory of Panspermia)
can establish differences between the two This theory was put forward by Liebig,
categories on the basis of some features (Table 5.1). Calvin and Arrhenius and Crick, a French and Leslie
Orgel supported it. According to this theory the first
5.2 Various Hypothesis Related to Origin of organism reached earth from some unknown planet
Life : of the universe, in the form of showers of minute
According to the theory of biological spores and evolved in the favourable environment
evolution, various types of unicellular and of the earth. This led to the origin of life. This theory,
multicellular organisms have developed from some however, was not accepted by many scientists
unicellular organism similar to a simple Amoeba. because no organism could reach earth from the
This evolution took place over millions of years. universe in living condition.
Various scientists gave their views and (3) Theory of Biogenesis
hypothesis regarding the origin of life. They are as In 1668 Francesco Redi proposed
follows : biogenesis and rejected spontaneous generation or

Fig. 5.1 : Difference between living and non living

- 30 -
 Table 5.1
Differences between Living and Non-Living
Character Living Non-Living
(1) Reproduction Reproduction is prevalent, in them. This is a very Non-living are not capable
specific character of living beings. They are of reproducing.
capable of producing organisms similar to
themselves. It is because of this that survival of
organisms is maintained.

(2) Growth and Living being, exhibit development. Growth also There is no development.
Development is a specific character. Animals grow upto a Non-living does not exhibit
particular age but in plants growth is a life long growth.
process.

(3) Cellular Cells are present in it. A definite organisation of There is no cellular
organisation tissues and organs is present. organisation.

(4) Respiration Respiration occurs. In living beings energy is Respiration does not take
obtained by oxidation of organic substances. place. It is not required.
This process is known as Respiration.

(5) Nourishment Needs Nourishment because in living beings Nourishment is not needed
food is required for obtaining energy. Plants by non-living because they
synthesize food on their own by photo-synthesis do not require energy.
and animals depend on plants and other
organisms for their food.

(6) Metabolism Metabolism takes place. Both catabolism and Metabolism does not occur.
anabolism occurs.

(7) Excretion Exhibits excretion. Passing out unwanted Excretion does not take
substances from the body is a characteristic place.
feature of living beings.

(8) Reaction or Reaction occurs, living beings exhibit response In non-living no response
Response for various stimuli; for example we remove hand occurs against any stimuli.
in response to contact with hot object.

(9) Movement Locomotion or movement is the act of moving They do not have any
or Locomotion body or a part there of, change of place or posture inherent or intrinsic
etc. Living beings have organs for locomotion. movement.

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 Fly Fly (Insect) Eggs
Cork

Muslin Cloth

Fly and
Insect
Larvae

Piece of
flesh Piece of flesh
Piece of
First Jar Second Jar flesh Third Jar

Fig. 5.2 : Experiment of Francesco redi

Abiogenesis. According to him the origin of life is that organisms could originate from other
only possible from the organisms. He boiled the organisms only.
flesh of fish, snake etc to kill all the organisms Louis Pasteur also refuted the theory of
present on it. Then he placed these flesh pieces in spontaneous generation by his experiments. (Fig
different jars. The first jar was left open, the second 5.3) For his experiment he used flasks with S-
was covered with a cork and the third was covered shaped tubular neck. He boiled yeast powder along
with a fine muslin gauze. After a few days Redi with sugar syrup in these jars and left them to cool.
observed that in the first jar flies and maggots Even after some days neither any micro-organisms
appeared. In the second jar there were no flies or developed in it nor was the broth spoiled. However,
maggots and in the third jar flies laid eggs on the when left open by removing the S-shaped tube from
gauze. The larvae developed in the third jar only if the neck, micro-organisms developed and the broth
any egg could pass through the gauze. He inferred was contaminated.

S-shaped tube S-shaped tube

Solution of
sugar and yeast

Microorganisms Microorganisms
did not originate Remove the
S-shape tube originated some
even after time after the
Burner Boiled sugar some time removal of
and yeast the S-tube
powder

Fig. 5.3 : Experimental conducted by Louis Pasteur which refuted Spontaneous Generation

- 32 -
 (4) Oparin Thoery like sugars, glycerine, fatty acids
The famous Russian bio-chemist, A.I. amino acids, pyrimidines, purines
Oparin proposed a hypothesis regarding origin of etc. The earth crust was hardened
life, in 1924, on the basis of his studies. According to because of solidification of many
this hypothesis only carbonic compounds were compounds. Thus Lithosphere was
present on primordial earth which were present in formed.
dissolved condition in the oceanic waters. (iii) Third stage : Various organic
Gradually specific or complex organic (carbonic) compounds like sugars, glycerine,
compounds were formed from these simple organic amino acids, fatty acids, purines and
substances. Ultimately it was from the aggregates of pyrimidines formed by chemical
these complex organic substances that there was synthesis, started boiling in the water
development of such a creation which had bodies, just like soup. This resulted in
characteristics of life. The entire process of the their mutual combination forming
origin of life was divided by Oparin in seven stages : complex organic molecules like
(i) First stage : According to scientists carbohydrates, fats, proteins and
the age of earth is 5-6 billion years. It nucleic acids, which laid the basis of
originated from a mass of hot cosmic origin of life.
dust and gases that was moving (iv) Fourth stage : Nucleoproteins and
rapidly in the universe. Various other macro molecules were formed
planets were formed by the division by the mutual reactions of
of this massive block. Earth was one carbohydrates, fats, proteins and
of them. The temperature of the nucleic acids. Certain specific
primitive earth was 5000-6000ºC. nucleoproteins had the capability of
The hydrogen, carbon and oxygen replication because of which,
molecules were present in it in replication was made possible.
abundance. Their mutual reactions Replication resulted in increase in
resulted in the formation of the amount of nucleoproteins and
compounds like water, ammonia and this lead to competition. New
methane. Over a period of time the nucleoproteins were formed by
temperature of the earth reduced, as a mutation of some existing
result these compounds started nucleoproteins. In this way, the
solidifying and liquefying and clouds process of evolution of
were formed. Gaseous ammonia and nucleoproteins was established.
methane started accumulating in sea- (v) Fifth stage : During this stage the
water through the rain waters. Some first cell evolved. With the reduction
minerals also reached the oceans of nutrients available in the sea water,
along with river waters. Finally, the competition between nucleoproteins
first organism originated by the started. The sticky nature of the
chemical synthesis of these newly formed mutated
compounds. nucleoproteins resulted in formation
(ii) S e c o n d s t a g e : T h e i n i t i a l of their aggregates. They remained in
environment of earth was of reducing such groups and got a regular supply
nature because of excess of of nutrients.
hydrogen. After billions of years, (vi) Sixth stage : During this stage
when the earth temperature reduced, evolution started on the basis of
simple hydrocarbons started forming nourishment methods in the
by the condensation of methane. primitive organisms. Parasitic,
These simple organic molecules saprophytic, chemo-tropic and
formed complex organic molecules phototropic organisms evolved.

- 33 -
 (vii) Seventh stage : The amount of gases were formed by their mutual reaction. After
usable oxygen in the environment one week he observed a red coloured substance in
started increasing with the gradual the flask. Chemical analysis revealed the presence
increase in number of photosynthetic of various organic substances like alanine, glycine,
organisms. Gases like CO2 and N2 glycerine etc. It was inferred from this experiment
were formed by reaction of free that life originated on earth in a similar manner.
oxygen with methane and ammonia. (Fig. 5.4)
It was because of these processes that 5.3 Search of life in Extra-terrestrial
the primitive atmosphere converted Environment :
into the present day atmosphere. During the initial phase entire universe was
Oparin's hypothesis was practically in the form of a dot. Edwin Hubble postulated that
demonstrated by Miller's when we look at the space, we observe that the
experiments. galaxies and planets are moving away from each
Miller's Experiments : other. In our solar system there is possibility of
In 1954, scientist from Chicago, Stanley existence of life on the planets where the conditions
Miller, reproduced the conditions prevalent on are similar to those on the primitive earth. However,
primitive earth, i.e. 3 to 4 trillion years ago, to on most of the planets the temperature is either too
explain the origin of life. Miller boiled a mixture of high or too low, which is not considered favourable
methane, ammonia and hydrogen along with water for life. Moreover on some planets there is no
in his apparatus for days together. The vapours environment because of which the life could never
formed were condensed. Thus mixtures of various originate on them.

Water vapour Methane

Electrode

Am n
mo
roge
niu
m Hyd

Condenser

Cold Water

Jar
Organic molecules present in cold water
Water

Burner Sample collection for chemical analysis

Fig. 5.4 : Miller explained the environment of primitive earth by means of an experiment

- 34 -
 Mercury is too hot because of its nearness to the Sun, hence life is not possible on it. On Venus, the
atmosphere is made up of thick clouds of carbon-di-oxide; as a result the temperature there is 200-300ºC and
life is not possible there too. In the atmosphere of Jupiter, Saturn and other planets, there exists dense clouds
of hydrogen, helium, methane, ammonia etc., quite similar to the primitive earth. But because of very low

Sun

Fig. 5.5 : Solar System

temperature (–200 to –400ºF) life is not possible here. Mars is the only planet of our solar system where life
may exist. It is, said that there is bitting cold on this planet and there are tornadoes of dust storms. On it, there
is no life as on earth, but its geographical position is fairly good. Here the temperature during summers is
30–50ºC while during winters it may reach a low of –133ºC. The biggest mountain of the solar family is on
Mars, along with huge valleys. One year on Mars is equal to 687 earth days. The first space craft was sent to
this planet in the 1960 decade. CO2 is the major component of this planet while the amount of oxygen present

Earth

Space ship Mars

Fig. 5.6 : India's satellite launched in Mars Orbiter Mission rotating around Mars Planet

- 35 -
is only 0.13%. The gravitational force of Mars is very less as compared to that on earth. Yet as compared to
other planets, Mars seems quite similar to the Earth. (Fig. 5.5)
Even the Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), of Bharat, recorded success in 2014. We became the first
nation in the world to register success in the first effort and that too at a considerably low cost. This Mars
Orbiter will estimate the amount of methane gas in atmosphere and will also find its source. The temperature
and minerals available will also be recorded. It will also note the amount of hydrogen and deutirium and will
test the various particles it will come across on its outer surface. (Fig. 5.6)
In the solar system moon is closet to earth. Life is not possible on it because of lack of both, water and
atmosphere.

5.4 Search of a New Planet like Earth :

By saying planet similar to earth, it refers that during summers it should be able to keep water in liquid
form and the temperature and atmosphere should be like that of earth. Ultimately, after considerable efforts, a
planet similar to earth was found and was referred to as the earth's "Bigger Older Cousin" or the "Big
Brother". It was named as Kepler 452 b. It is 1400 light years away from earth. It is 60% bigger than earth.
Kepler 452 is a star, like our Sun. It is 1.5 billion years older than Sun, nearly 20% more bright and is very hot.
Kepler 452 b has orbit similar to our earth and its sun-light is received throughout the year in equivalent
quantity and stretch. Scientists believe that on it there are rocks, sea and atmosphere like that on earth. Even
the surface of this planet seems to be rocky and like that of the earth.

Fig. 5.7 : Earth and earth like planets Kepler 452b and Kepler 186f

Similarly another planet 186f (Kepler-186f) Spontaneous Generation.

is also considered similar to the earth. It was 3. Even Louis Pasteur negated spontaneous
discovered on 17 April 2014. Scientists are generation of the basis of his experiments.
searching for planets similar to earth so that in future 4. Oparin divided the entire process of origin of
when earth will be uninhabitable, we may conserve life in seven stages.
life by transferring it there and ensure the survival of 5. Stanley Miller, a scientist from Chicago,
our race. generated conditions prevalent on earth to
explain the origin of life.
Important Points 6. Miller filled the apparatus of his experiment
with a mixture of methane, ammonia and
1. According to the theory of biological evolution hydrogen and boiled water in the flask
various unicelluler and multicellular organisms continuously.
have evolved from some simplest unicellular 7. During the initial phase, the entire universe was
organism like Amoeba. in the form of a dot.
2. Biogenesis was proposed by Francisco Redi of 8. Mercury is very hot because of its nearness to
Italy and it refuted abiogenesis or the theory of the Sun, hence life is not possible on it.

- 36 -
9. On Venus the atmosphere is made up of dense 5. Name of the earth-like planet discovered on 17
carbon-di-oxide clouds which raises its April 2014 is :
temperature to 200-300ºC. Hence life is not (a) Kepler 186 f (b) Kepler 452 a
possible . (c) Kepler 186 g (d) Kepler 452 b
10. Jupiter, Saturn and other planets have dense
clouds of hydrogen, helium, methane and Very short answer type questions :
ammonia in its atmosphere, which is very much 6. Name the scientist who negated the theory of
similar to that of the primitive earth. But life is spontaneous generation.
not possible on these planets because of 7. Which are the two planets similar to earth?
extremely low temperature. (–200 to –400ºF). 8. Which scientist propounded the Cosmozoic
11. Mars is the only planet of our solar system on theory?
which life may exist.
12. The gravitational force on Mars is very less as Short Answer type Questions :
compared to that on Earth but otherwise, Mars 9. Explain the differences between living and non-
is very much similar to Earth as compared to living with the help of an examples.
other planets. 10. Give on illustrated a account of the Miller's
13. The Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) of Bharat experiment.
registered success in September 2014. We have 11. Describe biogenesis.
come up as the first nation on this Earth to have
achieved it in the first attempt and at a very low Essay type questions :
cost. 12. Name the various hypothesis regarding the
14. In the solar system Moon is the nearest celestial origin of life. Explain any one of them.
body to the earth. Life is not possible on it 13. Explain the Oparin theory of origin of life.
because of the lack of water and atmosphere.
15. After several efforts a planet quite similar to Answer Key
Earth has been found which is considered to be
the "Big Brother" or "Bigger Older Cousin" and Question 1 2 3 4 5
is named as Kepler 452b. Answer d d c b a
16. After Kepler-452b another planet resembling
Earth, Kepler-186f has been discovered.

Questions

Objective type (Multiple Choice) Questions :

1. Besides Earth, on which planet of our Solar
System is life possible ?
(a) Mercury (b) Jupiter
(c) Venus (d) Mars
2. Which is not a characteristic feature of living
beings ?
(a) Reproduction (b) Evolution
(c) Growth (d) All options are wrong
3. According to Oparin's theory, Origin of life
have been divided into how many stages ?
(a) 5 (b) 6
(c) 7 (d) 8
4. Who propounded the theory of biogenesis ?
(a) Oparin (b) Francisco Redi
(c) Von Helmont (d) Liebig

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 Chapter-6

Structure of Living Organism

6. 1 Basis of Life - Cell of cell groups are found for different functions. The
The body of living organisms is made up of cell aggregates (groups) are termed as tissue.
cells. All the activities taking place in the body of Majority of cells are minute and can be
organisms take place through cells. It is obvious that observed with microscopes only. Their average
the body of each organism is made up of small units diameter is 0.5 to 20 microns. Some of the cells are
known as cells. Thus, cell is the chief structural and very big for example the egg of an Ostrich which
functional unit of organisms. may range in size from 100 to 150 cm in diameter.
A British scientist Robert Hooke, in 1665 The shape of cells vary according to the function
AD, observed thin sections of cork with a they perform in the cells.
microscope. He saw empty spaces or cavities and
named them cell. Actually, the cells observed by 6.2 Cell theory and its exceptions :
Hooke were dead cells. In 1674, Van Leeuwenhock On the basis of discoveries made in 19th
improved the microscope and observed living cells. century, scientists inferred that the body of all plants
The branch of science concerned with the structure and animals is made up of cells. These cells are
and function of cell is known as Cytology. responsible for all the biological processes and
Unicellular organism, is an organism biological characteristics. On this basis, Zoologist
whose body is made up of only one cell. For Theodor Schwann and Botanist Mathias
example: Amoeba, Chlamydomonas etc. Schleiden propounded the cell theory in the year
Organisms whose body is made up of more than one 1838-39. According to this theory
cell are known as Multicellular organisms. 1. The body of each living organism is
made up of one or many cells.
2. The cell is the basic unit of life. All the
Cell wall life processes of a living being takes
Cell membrane
place in a cell.
Chloroplast 3. The cell is the unit of heredity because
Vacuole Cytoplasmic hereditary material is present in its
Mitochondria fibrils nucleus.
Lysosome
Ribosome
Nuclear
4. New cells are formed from the pre-
Golgi body Membrane existing cells.
Rough On the basis of modern discoveries the cell
Nucleoplasm Endoplasmic theory does not appear to be logical at many points.
reticulum
Nucleolus
Cytoplasm For example, the virus do not have a cellular
Endoplasmic structure; all the organisms are not made up of cells
reticulum and a prominent nucleus is not present in all the
cells. In bacteria and blue-green algae a well defined
nuclear membrane is not present around the nuclear
Fig. 6.1 Plant cell material, which remains dispersed in the
cytoplasm.
All the biological processes, like, nutrition,
respiration, excretion, growth and reproduction, are
carried out by the single cell in a unicellular
organism. In multicellular organisms, different type

- 38 -
 Cell membrane living structures. Water, glycogen, fats and other
Golgi body
Cytoplasmic Centriole substances are found in the fluid. The organelles
filament present in the cell are :
Smooth 1. Mitochondria : Mitochondria are
Endopasmic Lysosome present only in the eukaryotic cells and
Reticulum
Ribosome are absent in the prokaryotic cells.
Nuclear
membrane Mitochondria is also known as the
Nucleolus
Mitochondria 'power house' of the cell because it
produces the energy required by the
Nucleoplasm cell. Their number is different in
Cytoplasm
Rough different cells of the same organism.
Endoplasmic Reticulum The number of mitochondria is more in
the cells whose energy requirement is
more. Mitochondria was observed in
Fig. 6.2 Animal cell 1880 by Kolliker. It was named as
'Mitochondria' by Benda.
6.3 Structure of a cell : Mitochondria has a double-membrane.
Microscopic studies have revealed that a The outer membrane is smooth and flat
typical eukaryotic cell has the following and the inner membrane is projected in
components : the cavity in the form of cristae. There
1. Cell Membrane are numerous stalked particles on the
2. Cytoplasm surface of the cristae. These particles
3. Nucleus are known as oxysomes. The region
6.3.1 Cell Membrane : inner to the cristae is known as the
Cell Membrane is the outermost, living matrix.
cover of the cytoplasm which separates the cell from Matrix is made up of 65-70% protein,
the outer environment. Its thickness ranges from 75- 25% phospholipid and 0.5% RNA.
105Aº, in different types of cells. It is a three layered Mitochondria also has DNA and
cover made up of protein and phospholipid ribosomes in it. The enzymes present in
molecules. the mitochondria are responsible for the
Cell membrane controls the substances that oxidation of nutrient substances during
enter or leave the cell. It permits the passage of some respiration.
substances while prevents the movement of other
Outer membrane
substances. Hence it is referred to as selectively
permeable membrane. Apart from this, cell Internal membrane
membrane provides a definite shape to the animal
Matrix
cell and protects the cytoplasm.
In plant cells a non-living coat is present Cristae
around the cell membrane. It is known as the cell
wall. Cell wall is made up of cellulose, hemi
cellulose, pectin and polysaccharides. The animal
and plant cells are differentiated on the basis of the
presence of cell wall. Cell wall gives the plant cell a
definite shape and extra protection. Cell wall is
absent in an animal cell.
6.3.2 Cytoplasm : The substance present in Fig. 6.3 : Mitochondria
between the cell membrane and the cytoplasm, in a
cell, is known as the cytoplasm. Cytoplasm is a fluid 2. Plastids : Plastids are present in the
containing living structures (organelles) and non- plant cells. Plastids appear to be of

- 39 -
 different colour because of the presence etc. into simple molecules. Lysosomes
of various pigments in it. Plastids are of are responsible for the breakdown of
different types on the basis of the dead cell-organelles and cells. The
different pgments present in them. For enzymes present in it digests the entire
example : Chloroplast, Chromoplast cell once the membrane of the lysosome
and leucoplast. Chloroplast is the ruptures, therefore they are also known
organelle of the cell in which as the suicidal bags.
carbohydrates are synthesised by the 4. Endoplasmic Reticulum : The
process of photosynthesis. Chloroplast network of microtubules present
is a double membrane bound organelle between the nucleus and the cell-
which are known as the outer membrane is known as the endoplasmic
membrane and the inner membrane. reticulum. This also is a single
The space surrounded by inner membrane- bound structure.
membrane is known as the stroma. Ribosomes are present on the surface of
There is a complex membranous system Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
in the stroma which is termed as the (RER) and are responsible for protein
thylakoid. Thylakoid is arranged in two synthesis. The surface of the Smooth
ways : The plate-like thylakoids are Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) lacks
arranged like a stack of coins, known as ribosomes and it synthesises fat and
grana and the thylakoids connecting lipid molecules.
two granum are known as intergranum Endoplasmic reticulum transport
(Grana-singular; Granum-plural). substances between different parts of
The enzymes related to photosynthesis the cell and also between cytoplasm and
are present in the thylakoid membrane the nucleus. It is also responsible for the
and the stroma. Even DNA and formation of Golgi bodies.
ribosomes are present in the stroma.
Smooth
Nuclear Endoplasmic
Granum membrane Reticulum
Outer membrane Lumen Nucleus

Lumen
Inner membrane
Stroma Thylakoids
Intergranum

Fig. 6.4 Chloroplast Rough Endoplasmic

Reticulum
Ribosome
3. Lysosome : Lysosome was discovered
by de Duve. Lysosome is a single Fig 6.5 Endoplasmic Reticulum
membrane bound, sac like organelle. It
is filled with granular fluid containing 5. Ribosome : Ribosome was discovered
many hydrolytic enzymes, which break by Claude and was named as 'ribosome'
down sugar, fat, protein, nucleic acid by Palade. Ribosomes are present

- 40 -
 independently in the cytoplasm and organisms i.e. the flagella and cilia.
attached to the outer surface of the 8. Vacuole : The small or big, bubble like
rough endoplasmic reticulum in the structures present in the cytoplasm of
form of particles. Ribosomes are the cell are known as vacuoles. They
membrane less organelles i.e. they are are enclosed by a membrane termed as
not enclosed by membrane. They are the tonoplast. The fluid present in the
made up of RNA and proteins. In vacuole is known as the cell sap. Water,
eukaryotic cells the ribosomes are of along with excretory substances and
80S type while they are of 70S type in other waste products are present in the
the prokaryotic cells. They are the sites cell sap. Vacuoles keep the cells turgid
of protein synthesis in the cell. and collects water and other waste
6. Golgi body : It was discovered by substances. In plant cells the vacuole is
Camillo Golgi in 1898. It is present near quite large.
the nucleus of the cell in the form of Other organelles like microbodies and
flattened tubes. It is made up of three peroxysomes are also present in the
type of structures : Vesicles, cisternae cells.
and vacuoles (sacs). It plays a major 6.3.3 Nucleus : Nucleus was discovered by
role in the synthesis and secretion of Robert Brown in 1831. It is the most important
sugar, protein and pectin in the cell. organelle of the cell. Normally only one nucleus is
present in each cell. In some cells more than one
nuclei may be present. The mature Red Blood
Sacs
Corpuscles of human beings and the mature seive
cells of plants lack nucleus.
In animal cell nucleus is spherical and is
present in the center of the cell. However, in a plant
Vesicles cell nucleus is present near the periphery because of
Cisternae
the presence of a large vacuole in the center.

Endoplasmic
reticulum

Nucleolus

Chromatin
Fig. 6.6 Golgi body Network

Nucleoplasm
7. Centrosome : It is mainly present in the
animal cell near the nucleus in the form Nuclear pore
of a star shaped structure. Each
centrosome is made up of two centrioles
which are perpendicular to each other Nuclear membrane
Centrosome was discovered by Van
Beneden. Fig 6.7 Nucleus
Centrosome are responsible for the
formation of spindle fibers in animal Nucleus is a double membrane bound
cells at the time of cell division. It forms organelle. Its membrane is known as the nuclear
the tail (flagellum) of the sperm. It membrane. There are minute pores in the nuclear
forms the basal bodies of the membrane through which there is exchange of
locomotory organs of the micro- substances between the cytoplasm and the

- 41 -
nucleoplasm. A fluid nucleoplasm is present in the structural characteristic on the basis of which they
nucleus. Proteins, nucleic acid and other carbonic may be differentiated.
compounds are present in this fluid. One or more
small spherical structures present in the nucleus, are 6.5 Cell Cycle :
known as the nucleolus. A network of thin thread - In the process of cell division, daughter cell
like structures are present in the nucleoplasm. It is is produced by the division of parent cell. The
known as the chromatin network. At the time of cell daughter cell thus produced re-divides to produce
division the threads of the chromatin network coils new cells.
and appear thickened. They are known as the The various stages, from the formation of
chromosomes. Nucleus is the main controlling new cells to its division, are together known as the
organelle of the cell. cell cycle.
The main phases of the cell cycle are :
6.4 Plant and Animal cells : 1. Interphase : During this stage of the cell
The basic structure of the plant and animal cycle the substances essential for cell
cells is similar to each other, yet there are some division are synthesized. It is known as
the phase of preparation for the cell
Character Plant Cell Animal Cell division.
1. Cell Wall In plant cells a Animal Cell Interphase has the following stage :
non-living cell lacks cell (a) First growth period of the G-I phase :
wall made up of wall. This step takes place nearly 30-40%
cellulose, is of the time of the entire cell cycle.
present around the During this period the cell grows
cell membrane. and the proteins and RNAs required
for DNA synthesis are formed. It is
2. Chloroplast In plant cells the Chloroplast
the Gap-I (G-I) period.
photo synthesizing are not
organelle, present in the (b) Synthetic period or S-phase : It
chloroplast is animal cell. consumes 20-30% of the total time
present. span of the cell cycle. The DNA is
synthesized during this phase.
(c) Second growth period or G-II
3. Vacuoles In plant cells two In animal phase : 10-20% time of the cell
or more vacuoles cells vacuoles cycle duration is used in this phase
are present. are very small of interphase. This is the Gap-2 or
or are absent. G-2 period in which the proteins
required for the cell are synthesized.
4. Centrosomes Centrosomes are Centrosomes 2. Division Phase (M-Phase) : The
absent in the plant are present in remaining 5-10% time of cell cycle
cell. the animal
cell. duration involves the division phase.
During this step the nucleus of the cell
5. Golgi body In plant cell, they They are well divides to form two daughter nuclei and
are less developed and later on the cytoplasm also divides
developed. active in resulting in the formation of two
animal cells. daughter cells.
6. Stored food In plant cells, The stored
stored food food in animal
material is in the cell is found
form of starch. to be
glycogen.

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 Divi
sion is the same as that in the parent cell. Hence
d stag this division is also known as the
rio e
h pe Equational Division. The various events
wt
gro occurring during mitosis can be divided into
nd
Seco the following stages :
(a) Interphase
(b) Karyokinesis
Interphase (c) Cytokinesis
Sy od (a) Interphase : This is the period in
nth eri
esi
sp thp between two successive divisions when
eri row
od
stg the cell prepares itself for division.
Fir During this phase the cytoplasm and the
Fig. 6.8 Cell cycle nucleus both are metabolically active.
The cells synthesize and store all the
6.6 Cell Division : essential substances required at the time
New cells are always formed from the of cell division.
division of pre-existing cells. This pre- (b) Karyokinesis : During this phase, the
existing cell is known as the Mother cell or nucleus divides into two daughter
the Parental cell. The life of every multi- nuclei. To simplify its study, this stage
cellular organism starts with the uni cellular has been divided into four phases. These
fertil`ised egg, the zygote. Embryo is phases are Prophase, Metaphase,
formed by the division and differentiation of Anaphase and Telophase.
this cell. The embryo by repeated cell 1. Prophase : Mitosis starts with prophase.
divisions develop into the multi cellular During this stage :
organism. Similarly, in the reproductive (i) Due to condensation the chromatin
organs of the animals and plants, male and material of the nucleus transforms
female gametes are formed from the into thin threads. These
reproductive mother cells. Thus the chromosomal threads are smaller in
objectives, of formation of multicellular length and are thicker. They are
bodies and gametes, by cell division, are known as the chromosomes.
achieved. The rate of cell division in the (ii) During the last stages of the
growing organs of the organism, slows prophase both the chromatids of
down after the maturation stage and is each chromosomes become more
ultimately blocked. clearly visible. Both chromatids are
During cell division, both, the nucleus and attached with each other only at the
the cytoplasm divides but these are two centromere.
different processes. The cell need not divide (iii) Nucleolus and nuclear membrane
immediately after the nuclear division. are not clear and gradually disappear
Types of Cell Division : The cell division is by the end of prophase.
of two types depending on the number of (iv) In the animal cell the centrosome
chromosomes in the daughter cells formed. divides to form two centrioles. Each
I. Mitosis or Equational Cell Division : centriole determines the pole.
Mitosis takes place in all the somatic cells
i.e. in all the cells except the reproductive
cells. In plants, this type of division takes
place in the meristematic cells. During this
type of cell division a parent cell divides into
two daughter cells and the number of
chromosomes in the daughter cells formed,

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 2. Metaphase :
(i) Formation of Spindle fibres and
Prophase arrangement of chromosomes in the
middle region of the spindle are the
major events of this phase. Astral
rays radiate out from each centriole.
Metaphase These astral rays together form the
Poles spindle fibres, which connects the
Spindle centromere with the poles.
fibers (ii) Chromosomes move towards the
equatorial region and arrange
Anaphase
themselves in such a manner that
their centromeres lie at the
metaphase plate with the arms of
chromatids, extending outward,
Telophase towards poles.
3. Anaphase :
(i) During this stage of mitosis the
centromere divides, as a result the
Daughter cells two chromatids separate from each
other and are now known as
Daughter Chromatids.
(ii) The daughter chromatids separate
Fig. 6.9 : Different stages of mitosis
from each other and move towards
Cytoplasm Nucleus

Cytokinesis
Circular constriction
Fig. 6.10 : Cleavage Method

Formation of cell plate

Plasmodesmata

Middle lamella

Phragmosomes New cell wall

Fig. 6.11 : Cell Plate Method

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II. Meiosis : (b) Metaphase I : Poles and spindle fibres
Meiosis takes place in the diploid repro- are formed during this stage and the
ductive cells at the time of reproduction. It homologous chromosomes arrange
results in the formation of haploid gametes. themselves on the metaphase plate as a
The number of chromosomes in the double row. Spindle fibre from one pole
daughter cells formed, as a result of this type of the cell attach to one chromosome of
of division, is half of that present in the each pair, the other chromosome of the
parent cell. pair being attached to the other pole. The
Stages of Meiosis : Meiosis completes in centromere of both chromosomes face
two stages. In this division the cell divides towards the poles region i.e. metaphase
twice and results in the formation of four plate.
haploid cells from a single diploid cell. The (c) Anaphase I : During this stage the
two stages are : centromere does not divide, as it does
1. Meiosis I during the anaphase of mitosis. The
2. Meiosis II complete chromosome moves toward its
pole because of the contraction of the
1. Meiosis I : In this division there is the spindle fibre. By the end of anaphase I a
interphase prior to cell division, as is the group of chromosomes is formed at each
case in mitosis. During interphase, the pole.
substances essential for the cell division are (d) Telophase I : During this stage of
synthesized. After this the actual process of meiotic division the chromosomes
cell division begins. In meiosis I the parent uncoil and form the chromatin network.
cell divides to form two cells in which the on both the poles nuclear membrane
number of chromosomes is reduced to half forms around the chromatin network
of that present in the parent cell. Hence, this and the nucleolus develops. Thus a
stage of meiosis is also known as the haploid nucleus is formed at each pole.
Reductive Division. The various phases of After the telophase I cytokinesis occurs
this division are : in a way similar to that as in mitosis,
(a) Prophase I : It is a prolonged step resulting in the formation of two haploid
consisting of complex events, as cells.
compared to the Prophase of mitosis. As 2. Meiosis II :
in prophase of mitosis, in prophase I also In both the haploid cells formed by
there is condensation of chromosomes, meiosis I one more division, similar to
division of centrosome, disappearing of mitosis, takes place. It is known as
nucleolus and the nuclear membrane etc. Meiosis II.
Apart from these events, the chromatids In Meiosis II, two daughter cells are
of the homologous chromosomes, i.e. formed from each haploid daughter cell.
the chromosomes having exactly the Thus in Meiosis four haploid daughter
same genes, entwine (criss-cross) with cells are formed from a single diploid
each other, so that part of chromatids are parent cell. The prophase of this division
exchanged between them. This is not an extended process.
phenomenon is known as Crossing Significance of Meiosis : The number
over. Crossing over results in the of chromosomes in the vegetative cells
formation of new group on genes on the of the organisms, reproducing sexually,
homologous chromosomes. This remains the same from generation to
exchange of genes taking place in generation. New combinations of
homologous chromosomes during hereditary characters are formed by the
meiosis I generates variance in the traits crossing over that take place during
(characteristics) of the next generation. prophase I of Meiosis. It generates

- 45 -
 hereditary variations in the organism,
which form the basis of organic
evolution.
Prophase-I
6.7 Acellular organism - Virus :
Virus is considered to be an incomplete cell.
It is not considered to be a 'cell' because it has only
one characteristic feature, out of four, of a typical
cell. It has hereditary material, DNA or RNA,
Metaphase-I because of which it has the capability of
reproduction, heredity and mutation. In virus the
cell membrane, metabolic machinery and the bio
chemical mechanisms are not present. They can
reproduce only in a living system.
They synthesize proteins and nucleic acids,
Anaphase-I after entering in a living cell, using its bio-synthetic
machinery. This results in the increase in their
number. Virus are parasites. They are found in the
cells of animals, plants and bacteria. The virus
remain inactive outside the nutritive cell. They can
Telophase-I be stored in bottles like the crystalline particles of
chemical compounds.
Structure of Virus : Virus are so small that
they can be observed only with the help of electron
microscope. They are 30 nm to 300 nm in size.
Each particle of virus is known as a virion.
Prophase-II
The virion consists of a protein coat, known as
capsid, which encloses the nucleic acid : DNA or
RNA.
Virus can be of three types on the basis of
their source of nourishment.
(1) Animal Virus : Animal virus are present
as parasites in the animal cells.
Metaphase-II Generally, the hereditary material in
them is DNA, however, sometimes it
may be the RNA. They are spherical or
hexagonal. In human beings, diseases
like small pox, polio, influenza etc are
Anaphase-II caused by virus.
(2) Plant Virus : They are parasitic on plant
cells. Generally RNA is the hereditary
material in them. Virus is the casual
organism of the Tobacco Mosiac
Disease.
Telophase-II (3) Bacteriophage : The virus which are
parasitic on bacteria are known as the
bacteriophage. The hereditary material
Fig. 6.12 Stages of Meiotic Division in bacteriaphage is DNA. T4
bacteriophage is parasitic on

- 46 -
 Escherichia coli bacteria. It has a I. Plant Tissue
hexagonal head a small neck, a collar II. Animal Tissue
and a long cylindrical tail. There is a
double stranded circular DNA in the I. Plant Tissue :
head region. Plant tissue are of the following types :
1. Meristematic Tissue
2. Permanent Tissue
1. Meristematic Tissue : In plants these
tissues are present in the region of active growth.
Head
Meristematic Tissue is a group of undifferentiated
living cells which divides actively to form new
cells. Its cells are spherical or oval. Intercellular
space is not present between them. The cytoplasm of
Collar
these cells is dense and nucleus is large. The cell
wall is thin, On the basis of its position in the plant
body, meristem can be of three types :
Sheath

Basal plate
Filamentous tail

Fig. 6.13 Bacteriophage

6.8 Structure of Multicellular Organisms:

You have studied in this chapter, that in
unicellular organism, all the processes like
nutrition, excretion reproduction etc. are performed
by a single cell. In multi-cellular organisms cells
collectively form different types of tissues. Various
tissues collectively form organs and organs together Fig. 6.14 : Meristematic Tissue
form a system. Now, we will study the various types
of tissues present in the plants and animals. (a) Apical Meristem : It is present in the
apical region of the stem and the root. It
6.9 Tissue : is responsible for the increase in length
"A group of cells having similar origin, of the plant.
development and functions, is known as a tissue." (b) Intercalary Meristem : Actually, it is a
part of the apical meristem but is
6.10 Major Types of Animal and Plant separated from it because of the
Tissues : intervention of the permanent tissue.
A tissue performs a specific function. This tissue is present at the base of the
Tissues can be classified into two main groups on nodes of grasses and other monocot
the basis of their development. plants.
(c) Lateral Meristem : This tissue is

- 47 -
 present in the lateral regions of the stems corners of the intercellular spaces.
and roots. The thickness of the stem and The thickening of the cell wall are
root increases because of the activity of due to the deposition of cellulose and
this tissue. pectin. This tissue provides flexible
2. Permanent Tissue : strength to plant parts.
Permanent Tissue is a group of
undividing cells which are differentiated, having a
definite shape and size and are responsible for
specific functions. Permanent Tissue are of two
types :
1. Simple Tissue 2. Complex Tissue
(a) Simple Tissue : Simple tissue is made
up of similar cells having same origin,
shape and functions.
Simple tissue are of the following types :
(a) Parenchyma (b) Collenchyma
(c) Sclerenchyma Apical meristem
(a) Parenchyma : This tissue is present
in plants in abundance. Its cells are
isodiametric and roundish. Fig 6.16 : Collenchyma
Intercellular spaces are present
between the cells. CellLeaf wall is thin (c) Sclerenchyma : The cells of this
and is made up of cellulose. tissue are generally elongated,
Parenchyma are present in the soft narrow with tapering ends. The cell
parts of the plant and stores food. wall is uniformly thickened because
When chloroplasts are present in of the lignin depositon. Their lumen
parenchymatous cells, they are is destroyed i.e. is not present and the
known as the chlorenchyma and mature cells lack cytoplasm. They
Intercalary meristem
perform the function of are dead cells and are present in hard
photosynthesis. parts of the plant. It provides
mechanicalIntercellular
strength tospaces
the plant.
Lateral meristem

Fig. 6.15 Parenchyma Fig. 6.17 : Sclerenchyma

(b) Collenchyma : The cells of this (B) Complex Tissue : Complex tissues are
tissue are living and roundish oval or made up of more than one type of cells.
polygonal. In these cells, cell walls These cells, together, function as a unit.
are thickened at the inner and outer All the cells of this type of tissue

- 48 -
cooperate with each other to perform parenchyma are thin walled living
some specific function. Complex tissue cells like other parenchymatous
are of two types : cells.
(a) Xylem : The main function of (b) Phloem : The main function of
Xylem is conduction of water and phloem is conduction of food
minerals. There are four
Thickened types of
corners material in the stem and roots of the
cells in xylem. plant. Phloem has four types of cells
Protoplasm
(i) Vessels (i) Sieve tubes
(ii) Tracheids Vacuole (ii) Companion cells
(iii) Xylem fibres Cellwall (iii) Phloem fibres
(iv) Xylem parenchyma (iv) Phloem Parenchyma
Of these four types of cell, only Sieve tubes are living cells with soft
xylem parenchyma cells are living, wall and large lumen. Their length is
the other three cell types are dead more as compared to their width.
cells. The cross walls at the ends of the
Tracheids are thin elongated cells sieve tube cells is perforated. These
with tapering ends. Their walls are perforated transverse walls are
hard and lignified. Protoplasm is known as the sieve plates. Nucleus
is not present in these cells. Food
Sieve plate is transferred in soluble
material
state through the sieve tubes in the
plants. Adjacent to each sieve tube is
a parenchymatous cell with dense
cytoplasm and a large nucleus. It is
known as the companion cell and
controls the sieve tube. The fibres
present in the phloem are made up of
sclerenchymatous cells. They are
the only dead cells of the phloen
tissue.
Vessel Their walls are lignified and
they provide mechanical strength.
They are known as the bast fibres.
Phloem Tracheid
parenchyma are like the
normal parenchyma.
Xylem fibre

Fig. 6.18 Xylem

Thickened Cell wall
absent in them and theyStone
Fiber
arecell
dead
cells. Vessels are cylindrical cells
with broad lumen. They join with
each other forming a tube like
structure. Even their cell walls are
lignified and they are dead cells.
Xylem fibres are elongated thin
cells with obliterated cell lumen
because of thick lignin depositions. Fig. 6.19 Phloem
They are dead cells. Xylem

- 49 -
 II. Animal Tissue : In multicellular binds and supports the body parts,
animals there are mainly four type of hence it is known as the connective
tissues on the basis of their function tissue. It includes the loose
and structure : connective tissue, cartilage, bone,
1. Epithelial Tissue adipose tissue and blood.
2. Connective Tissue Except blood, the cells of all
3. Muscle Tissue connective tissues secrete a
4. Nervous Tissue structural proteins known as the
1. Epithelial Tissue : The epithelial collagen tissue. It is the most
tissue covers the body surface of the abundant protein in the body. It
animals, thus, it is in contact with provides strength, elasticity and
body fluid on one side and the flexibility to the tissue. The cells of
environment on the other side. It this tissue also secrete poly
also lines the body cavity. The saccharides which function as a
epithelial tissue is of two types on matrix between the cells of the
the basis of arrangement of layers : connective tissue and the collagen
Simple Epithelium and Stratified fibers. Cartilage is present in the
Epithelium. The simple epithelium nose of human beings, the external
is made up of a single layer of cells. ear lobes etc. Bone is a mineral-rich,
It forms the lining of the body cavity solid connective tissue. it forms the
and the vessels. The simple structural frame-work of the soft
epithelium is of different types on parts of the body and provides
the basis of the form of the cells. The support and protection to other
squamous epithelium is made up of tissues.
flat scale-shaped cells; cuboidal Adipose tissue is a loose connective
epithelium made up of cuboidal tissue which is present beneath the
cells and columnar epithelium made skin. Fat is stored in the cells of this
up of elongated thin cells. The tissue. Blood is a fluid connective
stratified epithelium is made up of tissue, containing plasma, Red
two or more than two layers of cells. Blood Corpuscles, White Blood
It lines the body parts where Corpuscles and Thrombocytes.
frictional phenomenon occurs. For Blood transports various substances
example the skin of animals is a in the body.
stratified epithelium.

Sieve plate
Cuboidal cell Scale cells

Sieve tube Phloem fiber

element

. Companion Phloem
cell parenchyma Columnar cell

Fig. 6.20 Epithelium Tissue

2. Connective Tissue : This tissue

- 50 -
 Fig. 6.21 : Connective Issue walls of the internal body organs
3. Muscular Tissue : It is made up of like the digestive tract,
elongated, cylindrical fibres, reproductive tract etc. They are
arranged parallel to each other. Each known as the 'unstriated
fibre is made up of many fibrils, muscles' because they lack
known as the myofibrils. stripes and since they are not
All the muscle fibres contract in an under the voluntary control of
integrated manner in response to a the nervous system, they are also
stimulus and again relaxes. Body known as the 'involuntary
and its organs move in response to muscles'.
environmental stimuli by the (c) Cardiac muscles : They are the
activity of the muscular tissue. heart muscles. They are striated
The muscle tissue are of three types : because of the presence of
(a) Skeletal muscles stripes but are involuntary
(b) Smooth muscles because they are not under the
(c) Cardiac muscles voluntary control of the nervous
system.
4. Nervous Tissue : This tissue is
responsible for controlling the
responses of body to the stimuli and
also coordinates various body
functions. The nervous tissue is
made up of specific type of cells
known as the neurons. The nerve
cell receives stimuli and transmits
them. The neuron is made up of the
cell body, dendrites and the
Cardiac axons.
muscle
Skeletal The stimulus is transmitted in the
Smooth muscle
muscle neurons in the form of electrical and
chemical signals, which are known
as impulse.
Fig. 6.22 : Muscular Tissue
6.11 Structure of Organs and Systems :
Phagocytes So far we have studied, in this chapter, about
Filament (a) Skeletal muscles : These different type of tissues and the cells present
Collagen muscles are mainly attached to therein. Now we are going to study about the
fibre the bones of the skeleton. They structure and functions of the various
are also known as the 'striated systems made up of these tissues.
muscles' becauseMastofcellthe On the basis of their organization and
presence of stripes in them. The position, the plant tissue system may be of
activities of these muscles can three types :
be voluntarily controlled by the 1. Epidermal tissue system
Red Blood Corpuscles
nervous system, hence they are 2. Ground tissue system
also known as the 'voluntary 3. Vascular tissue system
muscles'. ThesePlatelets
muscles help in 1. Epidermal tissue system : The
locomotion and in movement of epidermal tissue system is the outermost
body organs. covering of the plants. It consist of the
White
(b)Blood Corpusclesmuscles : These
Smooth epidermal cells pores and trichomes
muscles are located in the inner (hairy outgrowths). The cells of the

- 51 -
 epidermis are barrel shaped and are nature. They reduce transpiration.
present close to each other. They are the 2. Ground Tissue System : The tissue
parenchymatous cells. A waxy coating is present between the epidermis and the
present on the outer surface of the vascular tissue system is known as the
epidermis. It is known as the cuticle. ground tissue. It is made up of
Pores are present on the epidermis of parenchyma, collenchyma and
plants which perform the function of sclerenchyma.
transpiration and exchange of gases with 3. Vascular tissue system : Xylem and
the atmosphere. Trichomes and other phloem are present in the vascular tissue
hairy outgrowths are present on the cells system. Together the two type of tissues
of the epidermis. The hair present on the form the vascular bundles which
roots are known as the root hairs. They perform the function of transportation of
are unicellular. The hairs present on the different substances, like water,
stems may be multicellular or minerals, food etc. in the plant body.
unicellular and are known as the As it is in plants, in animals also tissues
epidermal hairs. Root hairs absorb together form the systems, organs and
water and minerals and the trichomes or organ systems. In animals the various
the epidermal hairs may be of secretory systems formed by the tissues, include :
Nervous system, epidermal system,
muscular system, digestive system,
respiratory system, excretion system,
reproductive system etc.
Axon
Important Points
Cell Body
1. Cell is the structural and functional unit of the
Nucleus body of organisms.
2. The longest cell of the human body is a neuron.
3. The cell membrane is made up of molecules of
protein and lipid.
4. The cell wall of plant cell is made up cellulose,
hemicellulose, pectin and polysaccharides.
5. Mitochondria is also known as the power house
Dendrite
of the cell.
6. Lysosomes are also known suicide bags.
Mylin cover 7. Cytokinesis in plant cell takes place by the
formation of cell plate while in animal cell it is
by means of cleavage method.
8. In plant cell the stored food is in the form of
starch while in animal cell it is in form of
glycogen.
9. Various stages from the time of cell formation
to its division are known as the cell cycle.
10. The number of chromosomes remains the same
from generation to generation by meiotic
division.
11. In the stem of a plant, there is increase in length
because of the activity of apical meristem while
Fig. 6.23 Neuron
the lateral meristem results in the increase in

- 52 -
 thickness of the stem. plant cell.
12. In plants, xylem and phloem are the 5. Why lysosomes are known as the suicide bags.
conductive tissue. 6. Describe the structure and function of the
13. In animals, epidermal tissue, connective tissue, nucleus.
muscular tissue and nervous tissue are present. 7. Explain the cell cycle.
14. Blood is a type of connective tissue. 8. Explain the methods of cytokinesis in plant and
animal cells.
Questions 9. Explain the metaphase of mitotic division with
the help of suitable diagram.
Objective type questions : 10. Explain the anaphase movement in relation to
1. Which cell organelle is known as the suicide the cell division.
bag ? 11. Write the significance of meiosis.
(a) Mitochondria (b) Lysosomes 12. Explain the structure and function of xylem.
(c) Ribosomes (d) Nucleus 13. Draw a well labelled diagram of a neuron.
2. The nucleus was discovered by : 14. Describe the various type of muscles present in
(a) Robert Brown (b) Robert Hooke animals.
(c) Leuwenhoek (d) Schleiden 15. Explain the structure of a virus and draw a well
3. DNA is synthesized during which stage of cell labelled diagram of a bacteriophage.
cycle ?
(a) G-1 phase (b) S phase Essay type answer questions :
(c) M phase (d) G-2 phase 1. Draw a well labelled diagram of a plant cell and
4. The tissue responsible for imparting flexible describe the structure and function of the
strength to plants is : following organelles :
(a) Parenchyma (b) Collenchyma (a) Chloroplast (b) Endoplasmic reticulum
(c) Sclerenchyma (d) None of the above (c) Mitochondria (d) Nucleus
5. Write the name of the scientist who observed a 2. What is mitosis? Describe the various phases of
living cell for the first time. mitosis with the help of suitable diagrams.
6. Write the names of any two unicellular 3. What is a tissue? Describe the types of simple
organisms. tissue with the help of suitable diagram.
7. Name the longest cell of the human body. 4. Describe the various type of tissues present in
8. What is the function of cell wall in a plant cell? the animals.
9. Name the plastids present in the plant cell. 5. Give account of the following :
10. What is the function of ribosomes in a cell? (a) Vascular bundle
11. Which type of cell division takes place in (b) Neuron
somatic cells? (c) Bacteriophage
12. Why is the meiotic division also known as the (d) Sclerenchyma
reductive division?
13. Cytokinesis takes place in plant cells by which Answer Key
method?
14. Which substance in deposited on the cell wall 1. b 2. a 3. a 4. b 5. b
of the collenchymatous tissue?

Short answer type questions :

1. What are unicellular and multicellular
organisms? Give examples.
2. Explain the cell theory.
3. Explain the structure and function of
mitochondria.
4. Write four differences between animal cell and

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- 54 -
 Chapter-7

Biodiversity
7.1 Meaning and significance of Biodiversity: nutrition and body organisation.
Many clades are present around us (Clade is There are five kingdoms in the five kingdom
a group of biological organisms that share features hypothesis proposed by Whittaker : Monera,
inherited from a common ancestor). All the living Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. These
beings differ from each other in some way or the kingdoms have been further subdivided into
other. On earth, on one hand there are the categories like Phylum (Division), Class, Order,
microscopic bacteria, whose size is just a few Family, Genus.
microns, while on the other hand are the 30 meter 7.3.1 Monera : These are the prokaryotic
long Blue whale and the 100 meter tall trees of Red organisms. These organisms lack organised nucleus
Wood in California. Some pine trees stay alive for and organelles. On the basis of their type of nutrition
hundreds of years while the life span of some insects they may be autotrophic or heterotrophic.
is only of a few days. The unlimited variety of Reproduction is by conjugation. Example :
organisms present around us is known as the Bacteria, Blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria),
biodiversity. Mycoplasma.
Heterocyst
Biodiversity refers to the diversity present in
various life forms. It indicates the different living
beings available in a particular habitat or specific
area. According to an estimate, nearly one crore
species are present on the earth while, currently, we (a)
know only about 20 lakh of them. Rich diversity of
plants and animals is present on the earth in the
regions lying between the Tropic of Cancer and the
Tropic of Capricorn. Hence this region is known as
DNA
the Mega biodiversity region.

7.2 Need of Classification : Cell wall

All the organisms present on the earth are
Cytoplasm
classified on the basis of their similarities and
differences and some specific characteristics. Such Flagella
classification helps in identifying and studying the
Cell membrane
organisms and understanding their utility. Here by
'characteristics of the organism' we mean some (b)
specific form or specific function of that being, on
the basis of which it may be differentiated from
other organisms. Fig. 7.1 : Organisms of Kingdom Monera
(a) Nostoc (b) Bacteria
7.3 Major groups of animals and plants :
Biologists, like Ernst Haeckel (1894), 7.3.2 Protista : It comprises the unicellular
Robert Whittaker (1959) and Carl Woese (1977) eukaryotic organisms. Their cells contain a well
have tried to categorize the living organisms into organised nucleus and membrane bound cell
groups called kingdom. These kingdoms were organelles because they are eukaryotes. These
made on the basis of the cellular structure, source of organism have structures like cilia and flagella for

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locomotion. Asexual reproduction in these dead and decaying organic matter. Hence they are
organisms is by cell fusion while sexual known as saprophytic. Some of the fungi depend
reproduction is by the formation of zygote. on living plants and animals for their nutrition. They
Example : Unicellular algae, diatoms, are known as parasitic. This type of fungi, i.e.
protozoa. parasitic fungi, cause disease in plants and animals.
Some species of fungi live in association with blue
green algae (cyanobacteria). This type of mutually
beneficial association is known as symbiosis. These
symbionts are together known as lichens.
Generally, the fungi are filamentous, but
yeast, which is unicellular, is an exception. The long
thread like structures are known as the mycelium.
The cell wall of fungi is made up of chitin and
polysccharides. In fungi, vegetative reproduction
takes place by budding and fragmentaion; asexual
reproduction by spores and sexual reproduction by
ascospores, basidiospores etc. Example : Yeast,
mushroom etc..
(a)

(b)

Fig. 7.3 Fungi (Mushroom)

7.3.4. Plantae : This kingdom is made up of

(c) multicellular eukaryotic organisms. They are
autotrophic and prepare their own food by photo-
synthesis. Plants have been categorised in the
divisions : Thallophyta, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta
Gymnosperms and Angiosperms on the basis of
differentiation in the plant body, tissues for the
Fig. 7.2 : Organisms of the Kingdom Protista conduction of water and other substances in the
(a) Paramecium (b) Euglena (c) Amoeba plant body, seed bearing capacity etc.
(a) Thallophyta : In the plants of this
7.3.3. Fungi : They are the heterotrophic, division, the body structure is not
eukaryotic organisms. Most of the fungi are differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
parasitic. They absorb their nourishment from the Such type of undifferentiated plant body

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 is known as a thallus. Eg. : Algae. structures. They are connected with the
Vegetative, asexual and sexual substratum by means of unicellular or
reproduction takes place in the algae. multicellular rhizoids.
Vegetative reproduction takes place by Liverworts and mosses are there in the
fragmentation, asexual reproduction by bryophytes, in which asexual
spores and sexual reproduction by the reproduction is by the fragmentation of
fusion of the two gametes. Example : the thallus or by special structures
Chlamydomonas,Volvox, Chara. known as the gemma and the sexual
reproduction occurs by the fusion of the
antherozoid and egg produced by the
Daughter colony
antheridia and archegonia of the
gametophyte respectively. Example :
Marchantia, Funaria.
Thallus

(a) Gemma cup

Flagella
Branches

Main
Axis
Rhizoides
(a)

Capsule

Sporophyte

(b)
(c)
Gametophyte

Fig. 7.4 Thallophyta

(a) Volvox (b) Chlamydomonas (c) Chara Main axis

(b) Bryophyta : The plants of this division Rhizoids

(b)
are also known as the amphibians of the
plant kingdom. They are known as
amphibians because they can survive on
land but depend on water for sexual
reproduction. These plants lack the Fig. 7.5
actual root, stem and leaves instead have Bryophyta : (a) Liverwort - Marchantia
the root-like, leaf-like and stem-like (b) Moss - Funaria

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(c) Pteridophyta : The plant body of the The thallophyta, bryophyta and
members of this division is pteridophytes have inconspicuous
differentiated into root, stem and leaves. reproductive organs. They do not
They have xylem and phloem for the produce fruits and seeds. So, they are
conduction of water and other known as Cryptogams. Pteridophytes,
substances within their body. Usually however, have a vascular system, i.e.
they are present in moist places. xylem and phloem are present. Hence
they are also known as the vascular
cryptogams. In the division
pteridophyta reproduction is by means
Sporophyte
of spores and the union of sperms and
eggs produced by the antheridia and
archegonia respectively.
Example : Marsilia, Selaginella,
Equisetum.
(d) Gymnosperms : (Gymno = uncovered
Leaves
or naked; sperma = seeds)
Gymnosperms are the plants in which
the ovules are not protected by the ovary
and they remain open i.e. are not
covered before or after fertilisation.
Rhizoids
They are also known as the naked-
(a) seeded plants. Gymnosperms are
medium to tall trees or are shrubs. They
have a tap root and in some plants of this
group there is symbiotic association
between their roots and fungi. This
Cone association is known as the
mycorrhizal association. Example
Pinus. In some gymnosperms like
Cycas, the nitrogen fixing
cyanobacteria are associated with small
special type of roots called the
corraloid roots. Reproduction in
gymnosperms is by means of spores and
the fusion of antherozoids and the egg.
Example : Cycas, Pinus.

Rhizoids

(b)

Fig. 7.6 Pteridophyta

(a) Selaginella (b)Equisetum Fig. 7.7 Gymnosperms (Cycas)

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 (e) Angiosperms : (Angio=covered; basis of their body structure and
sperma=seed). Angiosperms are the differentiation.
plants in which the seeds are 'covered' 1. Porifera : Porifera means organisms
within the fruits. In other words, their having perforations or holes. These are
seeds develop within the ovary which the non-motile organisms which remain
later on form the fruit. They are known attached to some support. They have
as the flowering plants. holes or pores all over their body, which
The food in their seeds is either stored in are known as the ostia (ostium -
the cotyledons or in the endosperms. On singular).
the basis of the number of cotyledons
present in the seeds, they may be
monocot (having single cotyledon) or
dicot (having double cotyledon).
Reproduction in these plants may be
vegetative or sexual. In sexual
reproduction there is fusion of the male (b)
gamete and the female gamete.
Example : Mustard, Mango, Banyan.
(a)

Flower
(c)

Fruit Fig. 7.9 Porifera

Stem
(a) Sycon (b) Euspongia (c) Spongilla
Leaf
Water enters the body through these
pores into a central body cavity and
passes out through large pores, the
oscula (osculum - singular). This water
Axillary bud canal system is helpful in food intake,
respiration and excretion. Their body is
covered with external skeletal system,
made up of spicules and spongin fibres.
Their body organisation is of a cellular
Root level. They are commoly known as the
sponges. They are found in aquatic
habitats. Examples : Sycon, Spongilla,
Fig. 7.8 Angiosperm (Mustard) Euplectelia, Euspongia.
2. Cnidaria : These are aquatic animals.
7.3.5 Animalia : The multicellular, Their body organisation is of the tissue
eukaryotic and heterotrophic organisms are placed level. The body of the organisms of this
in this kingdom. Their cells lack the cell wall. Most phylum has radial symmetry. These
of the animals exhibit locomotion. Animalia has animals have tentacles and stinging cells
been further subdivided into non-chordata and (nematocysts) on their body this phylum
chordata on the basis of the presence of notochord. was earlier known as Coelentrata.
(a) Non-chordata : The animals of this Examples : Hydra, Sea-anemone, Jelly
group lacks notochord. They have been fish.
sub divided into various phyla on the

- 59 -
 (a)

(a)

(b) (b)

Fig 7.11. Platyhelminthes

(a) Tape worm (b) Liver fluke

4. Aschelminthes : The body of the

animals of this phylum is cylindrical,
hence they are also known as the round
worms. They may be free living aquatic
or parasitic. They are bilaterally
(c) symmetrial, triploblastic and have a
pseudocoelom. Their body organisation
is of the organ-system level. Example :
Fig. 7.10 Cnidaria Ascaris, Wuchereria.
(a) Hydra (b) Sea-anemone (c) Jelly fish

3. Platyhelminthes : The animals of this

phyla are dorsoventrally flattened. They
are commonly known as the flat worms.
Most of the animals of this phylum are
present as parasites in human beings and
other animals. Their body organisation
is of the organ level. Their body is
triploblastic (made up of three layers of
cells) and have bilateral symmetry. They
lack a true internal body cavity or
coelom. Examples : Taenia (Tape-
worm), Liver fluke, Planareia.
Male Female

Fig. 7.12 Aschelminthes (Ascaris)

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5. Annelida : The animals of this phyla are
aquatic or terrestrial, free living and
sometimes parasitic. These animals are
bilateral, triploblastic and have a true
coelom. Their body is segmented. They
(c)
possess nephridia for excretion.
Examples : Leech, earthworm, Nereis.

(a) (d)

Fig. 7.14 : Arthropoda

(a) House fly (b) Grasshopper (c) Crab (d) Scorpion

of animals are present in this phylum.

(b)
They are present at all the places on the
earth. They are bilaterally symmetrical,
triploblastic and coelomic animals.
Fig. 7.13 Annelida They have an open circulatory system.
(a) Nereis (b) Leech The body is segmented and is divisible
into head, thorax and abdomen. Class
6. Arthropoda : The word arthropoda insecta is important in this phylum. Most
means arthro - jointed podas = insects have wings. Excretion in this
appendages, i.e. these animals have class is by Malpighian tubules. Their
jointed appendages. Maximum number body is covered with chitin and external
skeleton. Examples : House-fly, Shrimp,
Cockroach, Butterfly, Grass-hopper,
Scorpion.
7. Mollusca : The animals of this phyla are
terrestrial or aquatic. Body organisation
is of the organ-system level. Their body
(a) is soft. In some organisms the body is
covered with a shell made up of calcium.
They are bilaterally symmetrical,
triploblastic, coelomic animals. Their
body is partially segmented and is
differentiated into head, foot and
visceral hump. Example : Pila, Unio,
Octopus.

(b)

- 61 -
 (a)

(a)

(b)

(c)
(b)

Fig. 7.15 Mollusca :

(a) Pila (b) Octopus (c) Unio

8. Echinodermata : The animals of this

phylum has calcareous exoskeleton.
Their skin is covered with spines. Hence
they are known as echinodermata (spiny
body). They are free living marine
animals. These animals are radially
symmetrical, triploblastic and coelomic.
Their body organisation is of organ- (c)
system level. Water-vascular system is
the characteristic feature of these Fig. 7.16. Echinodermata
animals, which help in locomotion, food (a) Star-fish (b)Sea-urchin (c) Sea cucumber
intake and respiration. Example: Star-
fish, sea-urchin, sea-cucumber, brittle B. Chordata : Notochord, true vertebral
star. column, and endo-skeleton is present in
the animals of this group. They are
bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic
animals with a body cavity. There is
complex differentiation of tissues and
organs in them.
Chordates have been divided into five
divisions :

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 1. Pisces : The animals of this division are
found in both, marine and fresh water.
Their skin is covered with scales. Body
is stream-lined. Gills are present for
respiration which use the oxygen
dissolved in water. They are cold-
blooded and lay eggs. Heart is two
chambered. Skeleton is made up of
(a)
bones and cartilage. Example : Rohu,
Dog-fish, Electric-ray, Sting ray.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 7.18 : Amphibians

(a) Salamander (b) Frog

3. Reptilia : The animals of this class live

mostly on land i.e. they are terrestrial.
They are known as reptiles because they
(b)
move by crawling. Their body is
covered with scales. Respiration is
through lungs. They are cold-blooded
and mostly lay eggs. Eggs are covered
with a hard shell. Usually, the heart is
three chambered (two atrium and one
ventricle). Example : Snake, lizard,
(c) crocodile, tortoise, tree-lizard.

Fig. 7.17 Class Pisces

(a) Dog fish (b) Electric ray (c) Rohu

2. Amphibia : The animals of this class

can live both on land and water. Their
skin lacks scale, and have mucus glands.
Respiration is through gills, lungs and
skin. They are cold blooded animals that
lay eggs. Heart is three chambered (Two
atrium and one ventricle). Example : (a)
Frog, Salamander.

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 (b)

(b)
(c)

Fig. 7.20 Aves

(c) (a) Ostrich (b) Parrot (c) Peacock

5. Mammalia : The animals of this class

Fig. 7.19 Reptiles are found in all type of environments.
(a) Snake (b) Crocodile (c) Tortoise They have mammary glands to nourish
their young ones. Their heart is four
4. Aves : All the birds have been placed in chambered (two atrium and two
this class. Their most characteristic ventricles).
feature is the presence of wings and the The animals of this class are warm
capacity to fly (exceptions include blooded and give birth to the young-
ostrich). They are warm blooded ones. However, there are a few
animals and lay eggs. Their heart is four exceptions : Echidna lay eggs;
chambered (Two atrium and two kangaroos give birth to very poorly
ventricles). The bones are light developed young ones, which remain in
weighted, longer and hollow to assist in a sac named marsupium until they
flight. Examples : Eagle, parrot, develop completely. Example : Human
peacock, ostrich. beings, Duck-billed platypus,
Kangaroo, Bat.

(a)

(a)

(b)

- 64 -
 Aerial Aerial
leaves leaves
Flower
Flower

(c)
Submerged
Fig. 7.21 Mammals Leaves
Sub
(a) Duckbilled platypus (b) Kangaroo merged
(c) Bat Leaves

7.4 Adaptations of Animals according to their

habitat :
Although animals and plants are present on
all parts of the earth, but the environment of all the
places is not the same. All the living beings (plants Fig. 7.22 : Hydrophytes
and animals) interact with their environment. Plants (a) Sagittaria (b) Ranunculus
and animals are capable of surviving and
reproducing in that environment because of their Adaptations of hydrophytes :
special type of organs, characteristics (anatomical, 1. The main function of the root system
physiological, behavioural) and activities. This is is to absorb water hence, because of
known as adaptation. Adaptations in living beings abundant availability of water all
are generated because of the environment and also around, the root system is less
depends on the genetic factors. developed and water is absorbed
7.4.1. Habitat and adaptations of the from the plant surface.
plants : Based on the water present in their 2. In some plants like water- chestnut
environment and their need for water, plants are of (Singhara or Trapa) the roots are
the following types : green coloured for photosynthesis.
1. Hydrophytes They are known as the assimilatory
2. Xerophytes roots.
3. Mesophytes 3. Root hairs are absent. The root
4. Cryophytes pockets replace the root hairs.
5. Halophytes 4. In some plants like Lemna, roots
1. Hydrophytes : The plants which live in perform the act of balancing the
or on water or on water logged soil are plant body.
known as hydrophytes. Examples : 5. The stem is soft, thin and flexible in
Vallisneria, Eichchornia, Sagittaria, hydrophytes.
Ranunculus, Hydrilla, Lotus, Water 6. The leaves of the floating
chestnut (singhara) etc. hydrophytes are broad while those
of the submerged plants are
dissected or ribbon shaped.
7. In hydrophytes pollination and
dispersal of seeds and fruits is by
means of water, hence their seeds
and fruits are light in weight.
8. Air chambers are present in the
internal structure of the leaves, stem
and roots of the hydrophytes.
9. The osmotic concentration of the

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 cells of hydrophytes is less i.e. the 5. To prevent water loss from its
concentration of salts in the surface, the leaves of xerophytic
cytoplasm is less. plants fall off during summer
10. Hydrophytes lack well developed season. In some plants like Opuntia
mechanical tissue and vascular the leaves are modified into spines.
tissue. 6. In some other xerophytic plants, a
2. Xerophytes : Xerophytes are the plants waxy coating is present on the leaf
that are found in dry habitat having surface and the sunken stomata are
scarcity of water. Example : Opuntia, present on the lower surface of the
Thor (Euphorbia), Cactus etc. leaf to reduce transpiration.
7. A hard cover is present around the
fruits and seeds of the xerophytic
Cactus
plants.
8. The osmotic concentration of the
cells of xerophytic plants is high.
3. Halophytes : Halophytes are the plants
that grow in saline soils or marshes. In
saline soil, soluble salts like sodium
Globe cactus chloride, magnesium chloride and
Opuntia magnesium sulphate are present in
Agave abundance. The plants growing in
marshy soils are known as Mangrove
vegetation. Examples: Rhizophora,
Salsola etc.

Fig. 7.23 : Xerophytes Pneumatophores

Adaptations of Xerophytes : Stomata

Xerophytes are recognised by their Fruits
specific characteristics. These Respir- Water
characteristics are as follows : atory
roots
1. Xerophytes are present in habitats Radical
Hypo
having scarcity of water, hence their cotyl
roots are well developed and go
deep down into the soil to absorb Normal roots Marshy land
water.
2. Root hairs are present on roots for Fig. 7.24 : Halophytes
water absorption and root cap for
protecting the growing root tip. Adaptations of Mangrove
3. The stem of Xerophytic plants is Vegetation :
woody and have multicellular hair 1. The roots of these plants do not go
on its surface. In some plants like deep down into the soil therefore the
Calotropis there is a layer of wax 'stem-roots' develop and enter the
and silica present on the stem marshy soil to provide extra support
surface. and stability.
4. In some xerophytes the stem is 2. Due to water-logging, marshy soils
green, succulent (stores water) and are deficient in oxygen and the
perform photosynthesis, as in Aloe normal regular roots do not get
vera. enough oxygen for respiration

- 66 -
 Therefore in these plants some and hard. Leaves are broad with stomata
branches of the root become on both surface. Plants are well
negatively geotropic and come out developed, with normal physiology.
from the soil surface. Small pores Examples : Garden-plants and crops.
are present on these aerial root 7.4.2 Habitat and Adaptation of the
which help the roots in oxygen animals : In nature, animals are found in habitats
uptake. These roots are known as like, water, land, air (sky) etc. The animals can be
Respiratory roots or classified on the basis of their habitat as follows :
Pneumatophores. 1. Aquatic animals 2. Terrestrial animals 3.
3. The stems of these trees are spongy Aerial
because of storage of chloride ions. 1. Aquatic animals : The animals which
4. The leaves are small, fleshy with a live in water i.e. aquatic habitat are
shining surface. known as aquatic animals. Some of
5. The seed in these plants start these animals lie in marine water, some
germinating while still within the in fresh water and others are
fruit, attached to the parent plant. amphibious. These animals have
The embryo grows out from the fruit characteristic features in order to adapt
in the form of a seedling made up of to their habitat. These features include :
the radical and the hypocotyl. The (a) The body of those animals is stream-
seedling falls down vertically on the lined so they can swim easily in
ground and the radical directly water.
enters the marshy soil. This type of (b) These animals have fins or feathers,
germination is known as the which help them in swimming and
viviparous germination. balancing their body.
4. Cryophytes : The vegetation growing (c) Aquatic animals have gills for
in colder regions and ice-laden soil are respiration and use the oxygen
known as cryophytes. Example : Moss, dissolved in water.
Lichens, Salmon-berry. (d) The bones of these animals are light
Adaptations : In cold habitats, mostly in weight and are spongy. The neck
the plants are herbs, mosses and lichens, is absent or is less developed.
which grow when the ice melts and (e) They have scales or mucus glands on
complete their life cycle in very short their body.
duration i.e., these plants are short- (f) Salt excreting glands are present in
lived. animals living in marine habitat to
Salmon-berry is one of the many remove the excess of salt from their
flowering plants which perennate under body.
the snow and at the time of flowering (g) In amphibians like Salamander,
when the snow melts by the respiratory - respiration is both, by gills and by
heat produced, only the flower emerges lungs.
on the surface of the snow. Example : Fish, Frog, Sea-turtle etc.
5. Mesophytes : The plants that grow in
habitats having moderate amount of
water, moisture and temperature are
known as mesophytes. In such habitats
all the conditions are ideal for the
growth and reproduction of the plants.
The root system is well developed in
these plants and bear root hairs and root
cap. The stem is aerial, branched, thick

- 67 -
 (a)

(a)

(b) Camel's foot

Fig. 7.25 Aquatic animals

(a) Fish (b) Frog

2. Terrestrial Animals : The animals

which live on land are known as
terrestrial animals. These animals have
been subdivided on the basis of their
surrounding environment on land.
(i) Desert animals : The animals which
live on dry lands, i.e. habitat with (b)
scarcity of water are known as desert
animals. These animals have Fig. 7.26 Desert animals
characteristic features which help (a) Camel (b) Moloch
them survive harsh conditions.
These include : (c) The faeces of these animals is
(a) The foot of these animals are solid and their urine is
adapted to walk, run and dig in concentrated. Sweat glands are
the sandy deserts. For example, absent or less developed in their
camels have cushioned feet. body.
(b) The body-color of these animals (d) On the body of some animals like
is sandy i.e. brown like sand, so Phrynosoma, scales are present
that they are protected against to conserve water in the body.
predators. (e) The skin of some animals like
moolak, is hygroscopic i.e.
absorbs moisture from the
surroundings.
(f) There are water storing organs in
these animals which perform the
function of water storage,
example - Camel.
(g) The nasal apertures are small and
are covered by valves to prevent
the entry of sand particles,
examples - Camel.
Example : Camel, Phrynosoma,

- 68 -
 Wild-rat, Moolak etc. (b) Their forelimbs are modified into
(ii) Cold Habitat Animals : The wings which help in flight.
animals living in ice laden regions (c) Their eye-sight is more sharp as
having low temperature are known compared to that of the terrestrial
as cold habitat animals. The cold animals.
habitats have very low temperature (d) Their body is covered with feathers
and the winds blowing in these which keep the body temperature
regions are cold and dry. For most constant.
part of the year the land remains ice- (e) Their tail assists in maintaining the
laden. The skin of animals living in balance of their body.
such habitats is covered with dense (f) Body is cylindrical
hair. Their colour is white, in order Example : Sparrow, Vulture, Parrot,
to protect them from predators. Crow, Peacock etc.
Example : Polar - rabbit, Musk-ox

(a)

(b)
(a)

(c)

(b)

Fig. 7.28 Avian animals

Fig. 7.27 Animals of cold habitat (a) Sparrow (b) Pigeon (c) Parrot
(a) Musk - ox (b) Polar - rabbit
Binomial Nomenclature : Lakhs of plants
3. Avians : Animals that fly in air are and animals live on the earth. They are
known as avians or aerial animals. known by local names at the places they are
Following adaptations are found in found. These local names are different in
these animals : different regions of a country. Similarly, the
(a) The bones of these animals are name of these plants and animals are
hollow and light. different in different languages. Therefore if

- 69 -
 anyone is talking about an organism in local nomenclature denotes genus while the second
dialect, others not familiar with the local name is that of the species.
language are unable to understand. 4. Animal world has been classified into two
Scientists solved this problem by giving all groups invertebrata and vertebrata.
the organisms (plants and animals) a 5. On the basis of their habitat, plants have been
scientific name. Each organism has a classified into hydrophytes, xerophytes,
scientific name, by which it is known world halophytes, cryophytes and mesophytes.
wide. This process is known as 6. Whittaker gave the five kingdom hypothesis.
nomenclature. According to this the organisms of earth can be
The universally valid rules for giving grouped into five kingdoms : Monera, Protista,
scientific names to plants have been laid Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
forward by "International Code of Botanical 7. Animals can be classified as aquatic,
Nomenclature" (ICBN) and those for amphibian, terrestrial and avian, on the basis
animals in "International code of Zoological of their habitat.
nomenclature" (ICZN). 8. Halophytes are also known as the mangrove
The scientific method used for vegetation. They have pneumatophores or the
nomenclature is known as binomial respiratory roots.
nomenclature. Carolus Linnaeus proposed 9. In aquatic organisms, respiration is by means of
this method of nomenclature. This method gills while in terrestrial animals it is by lungs or
is universally accepted worldwide for the skin.
naming organisms. All the biologists use 10. The osmotic concentration of aquatic plants is
this method. According to this method of less while that of the xerophytic plants is more.
binomial nomenclature:
1. There are two parts in the scientific Questions
name of each organism - first is the
name of the genus and the second is the Objective questions
species name. 1. The most developed division of plants is :
2. Scientific names are usually of latin (a) Bryophyta (b) Angiosperm
origin. They are written in italics. (c) Gymnosperm (d) Thallophyta
However, in case of hand-written names 2. Viviparous germination of seeds take place in :
the two parts are underlined separately. (a) Hydrophytes (b) Mesophytes
3. When writing in English the first (c) Xerophytes (d) Halophytes
alphabet of the genus name is 3. Presence of sunken stomata on leaves is an
capitalised while the name of species adaptation of :
should start with small alphabet. (a) Xerophytes (b) Halophytes
Example : The scientific name of mango (c) Hydrophytes (d) Mesophytes
is Mangifera indica. 4. Which plant group is known as vascular
cryptogams :
Important Points (a) Pteridophyta (b) Bryophyta
(c) Gymnosperms(d) None of the above
1. In plants and animals the process of adapting 5. An organisms of the class arthropoda is :
(i.e. becoming better suited) to the environment (a) Leech (b) Tape worm
by means of its special organs and special (c) House fly (d) Star-fish
processes is known as adaptation.
2. The plant world has been classified into five Very short answer questions :
divisions : Thallophyta, bryophyta, 6. Write the name of the Father of Binomial
pteridophyta, gymnosperms and angiosperms. Nomenclature.
3. Carolus Linnaeus is the "Father of binomial 7. To which animal class does the frog belong to?
nomenclature". The first name of a binomial 8. What is adaptation?

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9. Who proposed the five kingdom classification? (b) Amphibians
10. The blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) is a (c) Salt secreting glands
member of which division. (d) Lichens
11. What is a lichen? (e) Viviparous germination
12. Give two examples of gymnosperms. (f) Stem roots
13. Name the organism in which respiration is by
means of gills, lungs and skin. Answer Key
14. Name an egg-laying mammal.
15. In which habitat is the mangroove vegetation 1. (b) 2. (d) 3 . (a) 4. (a) 5. (c)
found?

Short answer type questions :

1. Name the two specialities found in halophytes.
2. Write the adaptations of aquatic animals.
3. What are the special features of cold habitat?
4. Write the characters of the animals of the class
mammalia.
5. Write the characters of the animals of the class
arthropoda.
6. What is the function of mycorrhizae and
coralloid roots in gymnosperms?
7. Explain symbiosis in lichens.
8. Why pteridophytes are known as the vascular
cryptogams?
9. Describe the adaptations of xerophytes.
10. What are saprophytes?
11. Write two similarities between bryophytes and
pteridophytes.
12. What are monocots and dicots?
13. Write two differences between invertebrates
and vertebrates.
14. What is the function of pneumatophores in
halophytes?
15. What is the function of assimilatory roots in
water chest-nut?
16. Write the adaptations of aves (aerial animals).

Essay type answer questions :

1. Classify the plants on the basis of their habitat
and describe the adaptations of each type.
2. Write the rules of the nomenclature of
organisms, according to the binomial
nomenclature system.
3. Write the characteristic feature of the animals
living in aquatic and desert habitats.
4. Describe the characteristic features of
angiosperms and gymnosperms.
5. Write notes on the following :
(a) Mangrove vegetation

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 Chapter-8

Major Activities of Living Organisms

8.1 Concept of Nutrition and its importance : carbon-di-oxide, water and solar energy
The process of food intake by animals is
obtained from their environment. They
known as Nutrition . The nutritive elements present
are known as the autotrophs. Some
in food provide energy for various bio-chemical
bacteria like sulphur bacteria, nitrifying
reactions and leads to physical growth of the body.
bacteria, iron bacteria are also
This process of obtaining the food necessary for
autotrophs. They obtain the energy
growth and healthy functioning of the body is
required to prepare their food by
known as nutrition. Nutrients are the food
oxidising sulphur, nitrogen and iron
substances which provide energy to living beings
compounds. They are known as the
and synthesize new cellular substances.
chemoautotrophic.
All living beings require food and the
(2) Heterotrophs : Organism which a r e
nutritive elements present therein, to perform
not able to synthesise their own food and
various complex chemical reactions of the body.
depend on other living beings for their
The nutritive elements present in the food make
food, are known as the heterotrophs.
possible the growth of living organisms, repair of
Heterotrophic nutrition can be of the
the damage, development, protection from various
following types:
diseases, control of various activities reproduction
(a) Holozoic Nutrition : It is a type of
etc. If food is not made available all the physical
nutrition in which the organism ingest other
processes and functions of the body will cease.
living beings or the carbonic substances made
Body of living beings is like an engine of a
by them. Such type of organisms are known as
vehicle. Like the engine, even body needs fuel.
holozoic living beings. They have been
Even the body requires continuous input of fuel to
classified, on the basis of the source of their
perform various activities. As soon as, sufficient
food, as under :
fuel is not made available, even the body, like an
(i) Herbivores : Herbivors are the
engine will stop functioning. The reason behind it is
animals which depend on plants, directly, for
the fact that the engine needs power to run, which is
their food. Examples: goat, cow, deer etc.
provided to it by the fuel. Similarly our body also
(ii) Carnivores : Animals which
needs energy which is provided by the food and
consume other animals, as their food are
nutritive substances. Food and nutritive substances
known as carnivores. Examples : Lion, tiger
are needed to maintain the body temperature and
etc. Some plants are insectivorous for
also to sustain the continuous growth taking place in
example : Pitcher plant, Utricularia, Drosera
the body.
etc.
(iii) The Omnivores : The animals
8.2 Types of Nutrition : which consume both, plants and animals in the
On the basis of the mode of nutrition living form of their food are known as omnivores.
beings can be divided into two main divisions Examples : Rat, Pig, Human beings etc.
(a) Autotrophs (b) Parasites : The organisms which
(b) Heterotrophs reside inside or on the body of plants and
(1) Autotrophs : Green plants contain a
substance named chlorophyll. Hence,
they prepare their own food using

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(a) Saprophyte (Mushroom)

(b) Symbotic organism (lichen)

(d) Carnivorous plants (pitcher plant)

(c) Nitrogen fixing bacteria

(e) endoparasits (Tape worm) (f) ectoparasite (lice)

Fig. 8.1 Different types of nutrition in living beings

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 animals and obtain their food from these plants. On the other hand, green plants use solar
plants and animals are known as parasites. energy and converts it into chemical energy. The
These parasites may be of two types : energy is stored in the form of Adenosine - tri-
* Ectoparasite : Parasites which phosphate (ATP) and reduced Nicotinamide
obtain their nourishment by attaching adenine-di-phosphate (NADPH). Plants use this
themselves to the host skin/surface, are energy for reduction of carbon-di-oxide. The entire
known as ectoparasites. process leads to the synthesis of carbohydrates,
Example : Lice, Mosquito, from which the animals obtain their food.
Bedbug (animals); Cuscuta (plant). The process of absorption of solar energy by
* Endoparasite : Parasites which green plants and converting it into chemical energy
obtain their food by entering into the body- is known as photosynthesis.
organs, like intestine, body cavity, liver, 8.3.2 Photosynthetic Pigments : All
blood etc of their host are known as the photosynthetic organisms obtain light energy and
endoparasites. Examples : Liver fluke, tape converts it into chemical energy. This work is
worm, plasmodium etc. performed by the pigments. These pigments remain
(c) Symbionts : The organisms which arranged in specific organelles which lie scattered in
obtain their nourishment by living together the cytoplasm. Haeckel coined the term 'plastid' for
are known as the symbionts. In symbiosis these organelles. They are present in all plants
type of nourishment, different species live except the fungi and prokaryotes like bacteria and
together and benefit each other. The two blue green algae.
species living together does not cause any Chloroplasts : These are green coloured
harm to each other. plastids. Their green colour is because of the
Examples : Algae and fungi together chlorophyll pigment present in them. The plants
form lichen. They spend their entire life with and leaves appear green because of their presence.
each other. Their function is to perform food by photosynthesis.
(d) Saprobic Nutrition : Some There are two distinct regions in chloroplasts -
organisms obtain their nourishment from the Stroma and Grana.
dead and decaying organisms. They are (i) Stroma : It forms the matrix of
known as saprophytes and their mode of chloroplasts. The ribosomes which
nourishment is of saprobic type. Examples : synthesize proteins, remain scattered in
Microbes, fungi, some protozoa etc. it. The dark reaction of photosynthesis
takes place in this part of the chloroplast.
8.3 Nutrition in Plants : (ii) Grana : The light reaction of
All living beings need food to remain alive. photosynthesis occurs in this part of the
Energy is obtained from food. The body conducts chloroplast. There are 40-60 grana in
various vital activities with this energy. If the body each chloroplast. In the granum region
does not get food, all the activities and functions of are present numerous plate-like or disc
our body will stop. In plants the prominent method like structures, arranged like a stack of
of food formation is photosynthesis. coins. These structures are known as the
8.3.1 Photosynthesis : Photosynthesis in thyllakoid. In higher plants four types of
plants is an important activity from the perspective chloroplast pigments are present. The
of environmental balance. During this activity the two green pigments are the chlorophyll
plant synthesize food in the presence of chlorophyll a and b and the orange and yellow
and sunlight using carbon-di-oxide and water coloured pigments which are known as
present in the atmosphere and soil respectively and the carotene and xanthophyll
in return makes available the vital gas - oxygen. respectively.
There is a vast difference in method of obtaining 8.3.3 Mechanism of Photosynthesis :
energy in plants and animals. Animals cannot Carbon-di-oxide and water are the two major raw
synthesize their own food and obtain it from green materials of photosynthesis. Chlorophyll and other

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pigments absorb light energy and transform it into (2) Excitation of chlorophyll
chemical energy. The entire process of (3) Photolysis of water takes place.
photosynthesis can be represented by the following (4) Oxygen is evolved
equation : (5) Conversion into chemical energy:
light The ATP formed stores the energy
6CO2+12H2O ­ C6H12O6+6H2O+6O2­
chlorophyll and the reducing power NADPH is
synthesized.

This step is light-dependent, hence is known

as the light reaction or the photo-chemical reaction.
This process takes place in thyllakoid membrane
present in the chloroplast.

(ii) Dark Reaction : During this step of

photosynthesis 'synthesis' occurs. Here
Carbohydrates are formed from carbon-
di-oxide. This process does require
light, hence is known as the dark
Fig. 8.2 : Oxygen is evolved during reaction. It takes place in the stroma of
photosynthesis (Inverted funnel experiment) the chloroplast.
The process of photosynthesis, basically,
3 molecules of CO2
completes in two steps :
(i) Light reaction
(ii) Dark reaction 3 molecules of 5 Carbon Compound 6 molecules of 3 Carbon Compound PGA
(i) Light Reaction : During this process 6ATP
3ADP
the radiant energy of the sun is
6ADP
converted into chemical energy. 3ATP
Calvin Cycle
Following are the main processes of this 6 NADPH
step of photosynthesis :
6NADP+
(1) Absorption of light of definite 5 molecules of 3 Carbon Compound PGA
wavelength by chlorophyll

1 molecules of 3 Carbon Compound PGA

C6H12O6

Fig. 8.4 Dark reaction

In this process, there is fixation and

reduction of carbon-di-oxide. The first
stable product of this reaction process is
PGA (phosphoglyceric acid), which is a
three carbon molecule. Hence this cycle
Fig. 8.3 Light reaction is also known as the C3 cycle or the

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 Calvin cycle. which in turn eat plants to obtain their energy.
8.3.4. Factors affecting photosynthesis:
The factors affecting photosynthesis can be divided 8.6 Digestion :
into two main types : External factors and Internal The food obtained by various animals, from
factors. the plants is in a non-diffusable state. They are
I. External factors : This involves sun- converted into diffusable simple compounds with
light, carbon-di-oxide concentration, the help of digestion. There are specific organs for
oxygen, temperature and water. performing digestion. They are known as the
II. Internal factors : Chlorophyll is a digestive organs. These digestive organs form the
major factor under this category. digestive system.
8.3.5. Bacterial photosynthesis : Bacterial 8.6.1 Importance of Digestion : There are
photosynthesis is a special type of photosynthetic many types of nutritive elements and molecules
process which takes place in some major types of present in the food stuff which are used in the
bacteria. During this process too carbon-di-oxide is formulation of new tissue and repair of the existing
reduced by using solar energy - example : tissues. Since the animals cannot synthesize these
Cyanobacteria, Purple bacteria. nutritive elements, so these substances, synthesized
by plants, are reduced by digestion and are then
8.4 Major Components of Food : absorbed by the animals. Thus, digestion is the
The complex chemical substances present in transformation of food into simple products.
food, which are essential in proper amount, to 8.6.2 Major parts of the Human Digestive
accomplish different types of reactions in the body system : The digestive system can be divided into
and to keep it healthy, are known as the components two parts
of food or Nutrients. 1. Alimentary canal
Nutrients have been classified into the 2. Associated glands.
following six types : Alimentary canal starts with the mouth
1. Carbohydrates cavity continues into the pharynx, oesophagus,
2. Fat
3. Protein
4. Mineral salts
5. Vitamin
6. Water
Mouth
Although water does not provide for any Salivary gland
nourishment as such, but since it is essential for
different physical processes, it has also been Oesophagus
included among the nutrients. There is one more
substance which is not nutritive but must be a part of
our food : Roughage or food fiber. In the animal Liver
food it is majorly the indigestable plant cell-wall Gall Stomach
part. It is helpful in removal of the residue, left after bladder
food digestion, from the body. Pancreas Large
intestine
8.5 Nutrition in Animals : Small
The vegetation obtains carbon-di-oxide intestine
from the atmosphere and converts it into
carbohydrates by the process of photosynthesis. Anus
Animals consume these vegetation or other animals
Fig. 8.5 Digestive System in humans

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stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and ends at 3. The hydrochloric acid of the
the anus. Salivary glands, pancreas and liver are the stomach makes the food acidic and
associated glands. kills the bacteria ingested along with
1. Alimentary Canal : The alimentary the food. Pepsin in combination with
canal is made up of the following parts : HCl converts proteins into peptones
(i) Buccal cavity : This cavity present and proteases. Rennin converts the
inside the mouth is guarded by the protein caesinogen present in milk
upper and lower lip. Jaws are present in into casein which is then digested by
the buccal cavity in which teeth are pepsin.
present. The teeth are present to cut, 4. Stomach absorbs glucose, water,
break, munch and chew the food. alcohol and many type of
A muscular tongue is present in the medicines.
buccal cavity on which taste buds are (v) Small Intestine : It is a very much
present. These taste buds help in curved and twisted tube lying between
recognizing various taste. Salivary the stomach and the large intestine. Its
glands are also present in the buccal length is approximately 22 feet.
cavity which secretes saliva. The Although it is longer than the large
amylase enzyme present in the saliva intestine but since its diameter is
(ptylin) converts starch into maltose. smaller than the large intestine, it is
Along with this the saliva moistens and known as the 'small intestine'. This tube
converts the food into a pulp. It like structure is divisible into three
functions like an antiseptic in the parts.
mouth. 1. Duodenum : This is the first part of
(ii) Pharynx : The function of the pharynx, the small intestine, just beyond the
situated between the buccal cavity and stomach. It is a C-shaped tube that is
the oesophagus, is to swallow the food. 25 cm long. The bile and pancreatic
(iii) Oesophagus : It is a small narrow tube ducts open into this part of the
which connects the pharynx with the intestine.
stomach. No digestive enzyme is 2. Jejunum : It is the central coiled
secreted by the oesophagus. It leads the region. Its function is to digest food
food to the stomach. and absorb it. This part secretes the
(iv) Stomach : It is the most broad, sac like intestinal juices.
structure of the alimentary canal which 3. Ileum : The third portion of the
appears like the alphabet 'J'. It is present small intestine is three meter long
towards left side in the abdominal and ends near the caecum, where it
cavity, below the diaphragm. When the connects to the large intestine. There
food reaches the stomach, various are many digestive glands in it and it
gastric juices are secreted which are also performs the work of
digestive in function. absorption.
Gastric Juice : It is secreted from the Functions of the small intestine:
internal lining of the stomach wall. It is 1. Pancreatic juice is secreted from
colourless, sour in taste, fluid, having the pancreas in the duodenum part
90% water and 0.5% hydrochloric acid, of the small intestine. This makes
along with enzymes like pepsin, rennin the digestive media in the small
and lipase. Its pH is 0.9 – 1.5. intestine alkaline, with a pH 7.1 to
Functions of the stomach : 8.2. The chief enzymes present in
1. It stores food. the pancreatic juice includes
2. The protein digestion initiates in this amylase, maltase, sucrase,
part of the alimentary canal. pancreatic lipase,

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 chymotrypsinogen, trypsinogen Large intestine is not involved in any
etc. type of major digestive activity as
2. I n t h e s m a l l i n t e s t i n e t h e such.
carbohydrates, proteins and fats are Functions of the large intestine:
d i g e s t e d c o m p l e t e l y. T h e s e 1. It absorbs water, minerals and
compounds are reduced to their medicines.
simplest components. 2. Secretes mucus to smoothen the
3. Small intestine absorbs the digested anus and facilitates the excretion of
food with the help of microvilli the undigested substances.
present on its inner lining.
Names and functions of the intestinal 8.7 Major Information of digestion in
juices : animals:
The juice secreted by the digestive 1. Digestion in amoeba : This animal of
glands present in the intestinal walls is phylum Protozoa is present in water. It
known as the intestinal juice or Succuss is a unicellular organism and hence
entricus. Following enzymes are digestive organs are absent in amoeba.
present in it : On coming in contact with food the
1. Peptidase : It acts on the peptones of pseudopodium of amoeba forms food
the protein and converts them into vacuole all around the food particle. In
amino acids. the amoeba body, secretion of
2. Maltase : Converts maltose into metabolic juices start in the food
glucose. vacuole which digests the food
3. Sucrase : Breaks down the sucrose material.
sugar into glucose and fructose.
4. Lactase : It acts on the milk sugar
lactose and converts it into glucose Food Vacuole
and galactose. Food Particle Pseudopodia
5. Lipase : Acts on lipids and breaks
down the fatty substances into fatty
acids and glycerol.
Nucleus
6. Enterokinase : It converts the
inactive trypsinogen secreted by Fig. 8.6 Digestion in Amoeba
pancreas into active trypsin.
(vi) Large intestine : The illium part of the 2. Digestion in Euglena : Euglena is
small intestine joins with the colon part autotrophic or phyto-holophytic as well
of the large intestine. The large intestine as saprophytic or hetero-trophic. This
is also divisible into three parts - colon, dual type of nutrition is known as
caecum and rectum. mixotropic nutrition.
1. This is the starting part of the large 3. Digestion in Earthworm : Earthworm
intestine. The internal lining of this feeds on dead organic matter. It ingests
region is devoid of microvilli and the vegetation along with soil. The food
goblet cells secrete mucus. intake is because of the pumping action
2. Caecum : It is a 10 cm long tube of the pharynx. First it embeds the
which is attached to the colon and mouth in the soil and then by the
have appendix at its end. contractile sucking action of the
3. Rectum : It is the terminal end of the pharyngeal wall sucks the soil particle
alimentary canal and is in the form into the mouth cavity. This activity of
of a long tube with a circular hole, pharynx is supported by muscular
the anus, at its open end.

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 fibers that are stretched from the of food. w a t e r
pharynx to the body wall. directly.
The alimentary canal of earthworm is a 4. It is controlled by It is not regulated
complete straight tube which extends various enzymes. by enzymes.
the entire body length. Mouth and anus 5. Here energy is stored Here energy is
are the anterior and posterior openings in the form of ATP. released in the form
respectively. of heat and at times
even as light.
8.8 Respiration
8.8.1 Meaning and importance of 8.8.2 Plant respiration :In plants specific
respiration : Aerobic organisms need oxygen to organs are not present for gaseous exchange, as are
remain alive because oxygen causes the oxidation present in animals, rather they have pores and
or degradation of food substances and provide stomata for this purpose.Transportation of gases in
energy. This process of oxidation of nutritive plants is minimal hence demand for exchange is also
substances is known as cellular respiration. In very less. Moreover in plants, most of the cell-
plant - respiration oxygen is inhaled by pores which surface is in contact with air, hence availability of
is then used at cellular level for respiration; while in oxygen is not a problem.
animals a complex system of respiratory organs Plant cells synthesize food in such a manner
function for the process. that the energy released by reduction of glucose is
Living cells need a continuous supply of not released in the atmosphere in the form of heat.
oxygen. The organism performs respiration to fulfil For this purpose, cellular respiration is a multistep
this need. Removal of carbon-di-oxide formed, process, so that maximum of the energy released is
during the process, from the cells is essential. converted to ATP.
Respiration is a vital characteristic of all living cells. In animals two types of cellular respiration
This process continues day and night, even when we is present :
are not engaged in any activity. 1. Anaerobic respiration
In this process there is oxidation of the sugar 2. Aerobic respiration
or glucose and energy is released. Energy is stored 1. Anaerobic respiration : This type of
in the form of energy currency - the ATP. This respiration does not require oxygen. It
energy in then used by the living being to carry-out occurs in yeasts, bacteria, parasites and
various body functions smoothly. Respiration can some lower animals which are unable
take place in the presence as well as the absence of to get free atmospheric oxygen. In
oxygen. Respiration can be compared with deficiency or absence of oxygen, the
combustion as under : glucose converts into ethyl alcohol or
(i) In both, organic compounds are lactic acid and lesser amount of energy
degraded and energy is released. is produced. This process is also known
(ii) Carbon-di-oxide and water are formed as sugar fermentation.
in both. (a) C6H12O6 ® 2 C3H6O3 + energy
(iii) Oxygen is required for burning during Glucose ® Lactic acid (in muscles,
both the processes. by bacteria)
However, there are differences between the two (b) C6H12O6 ® 2C2H5OH+2CO2 +energy
processes which are tabulated below : Glucose Ethyl alcohol (by yeast)
Respiration Combustion 2. Aerobic respiration : This type of
1. It occurs at normal High temperature is respiration requires oxygen.
body temperature required for Glucose is reduced in the presence
(37ºC in humans) combustion of atmospheric oxygen to produce
2. It is a slow process. If is a fast process. carbon-di-oxide, water and greater
3. There are various Here the fuel forms amount of energy.
stages of the oxidation carbon-di-oxide and This type of respiration occurs in

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 most of the animals and plants. In the absence of air in it.
this respiration even plants take Bronchi and Bronchioles : The trachea
oxygen from the atmosphere and move down and divides into two parts, the bronchi,
release carbon-di-oxide. in the thoracic cavity. The bronchi further sub-
Respiration in animals : Different types of divides into the bronchioles. The bronchioles
organs have evolved in animals to obtain oxygen branches into the lungs in the form of the alveolar
and release carbon-di-oxide in the atmosphere. ducts. These ducts open into small alveoli or the air
Terrestrial animals get their oxygen from the sacs. Blood vessels are found on the alveoli which
surrounding atmosphere (like in human beings carry oxygen to the entire body. The area of the
lungs are used for the purpose); but the animals lungs increase many-fold due to presence of the air
which live in water, like fishes, absorb the dissolved sacs.
oxygen from water with the help of gills. Since the Lungs : A pair of spongy, pink sac like lungs
amount of dissolved oxygen is very less in water, are present in the thoracic cavity of human beings.
than that present in the atmosphere, the rate of They are situated in the pleural cavity near the heart.
respiration of the aquatic animals is faster as There is a thin covering all around the pleural cavity,
compared to that in the terrestrial animals. which is known as pleura. The right lung is longer
The unicellular organisms like Amoeba, than the left one. The volume of the thoracic cavity
Paramecium etc exchange gases by diffusion across increases and decreases because of the contraction
their cell membrane. Similarly, in porifera, like- and relaxation of the ribs. This results in the entry
sponges; coelentrata, like hydra etc, the gaseous and exit of the air from the lungs.
exchange is through their moistened body wall. Diaphragm : The lower floor of the
As the size of organisms increased, thoracic cavity is closed by a thin dome like plate
specifically made organs were required. In all such which is known as the diaphragm. The diaphragm
organs the common character is the presence of flattens at the time of exhalation.
structures that increase the surface area. The Breathing mechanism in Human :
respiratory system of earthworm is more complex The breathing process is divisible into two :
than that of the amoeba and hydra. The mucus
secreted from the skin keeps the external surface
moistened in earthworm. The exchange of oxygen
and carbon-di-oxide gases occurs through this
moistened skin. Water flow
In insects, respiration takes place by special

Food vacuole

Nucleus

Contractile vacuole

Fig. 8.8 Respiration in Hydra

Fig. 8.7 Respiration in Amoeba

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 Nasal cavity

Nasal pore
Respiratory pores

Trachea
Respiratory tubule Air sacs

Bronchi

Lung Bronchioles

Cercus Fig. 8.11 Respiratory System in Humans

system related to this process is known as the
circulatory system.
Fig. 8.9 Respiration in cockroach The circulatory system is made up of a few
organs, vessels and capillaries, in which flows a
fluid. The food substances, oxygen, water,
excretory products and other essential substances
Gill
move across the body through this fluid only. This
fluid chiefly is the lymph, blood or water. Each body
cell receives nutrients and energy through these
substances. It is because of this energy and the
nutrients that the cells perform their functions and
the body runs smoothly.
8.9.2 Basic knowledge of circulation in
animals : Two types of circulatory systems are
present in animals :
1. Open circulatory system : In this type
of circulatory system the blood flow in
Fig. 8.10 In fishes respiration takes vessels, only partially i.e. only in some
place with the help of gills. body parts. In the remaining parts it
diffuses in the open spaces present
between the various tissues and organs.
(1) Inhalation In this system the cells and tissues of the
(2) Exhalation animal, are in direct contact with the
Respiratory pigment : Haemoglobin is the blood.
respiratory pigment. It is present in the Red Blood Example : Cockroach, Shrimp, Snail,
Corpuscles (RBC). It binds the oxygen molecules Unio etc.
and carry them to all the cells of the body. 2. Closed Circulatory System : In this
type of circulatory system the blood
8.9 Circulation : circulates the vessels and capillaries. The
8.9.1 Meaning and the need : Circulation is nutrients are carried to various organs
the process of carrying various substances, like the and the excretory products are collected
absorbed nutrients, water and waste products, from from there by means of the circulating
one part of the body to another in living beings. The blood. Example : Earthworm, fish, frog,

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 birds, human etc. side) and the ventral blood vessel (below the
8.9.3 Circulatory system in cockroach : alimentary canal). In the dorsal blood vessel the
The transportation of nutritive substances, blood is carried to the front of the earthworm's body
excretory substances and hormones take place by while the ventral blood vessel carry the blood from
the open circulatory system, in cockroach and other the front to the back of the body. Near the anterior
insects. However, gases cannot be transported by
end these two blood vessels are connected to each
means of this system. There is a separate system of
tracheal or respiratory vessels for the transportation other by means of five pairs of aortic arches which
of gases in these organisms. In cockroach, there is a function like a heart and pumps the blood in both the
cavity known as the haemocoel. It is divisible into major blood vessels. There are uni-directional
three sinuses by two diaphragms. They are known valves in the heart and the dorsal vessel, which
as the pericardial haemocoel, the perivisceral prevents the back flow of the blood. Thus the blood
haemocoel and the perineural haemocoel. In the flows in the ventral vessel and returns to the heart
pericardial haemocoel there is a thirteen chambered via the dorsal vessel. In each segment there is a thin
muscular, tubular and contractile heart in which the capillary that carries the blood from the ventral
blood flows forward i.e. from back to front. The vessel to the dorsal vessel. It’s cell wall is
blood in cockroach is colourless because of the
unicellular, therefore the nutrients and other
absence of any pigment in it. It is for this reason that
it does not transport gases. The main function of this substances diffuse and reach the cells through the
circulatory system is transportation of food and tissue fluid, in each segment.
excretory substances.

Anterior aorta

Alary muscles

Fig. 8.13 Closed Circulatory System of

Earthworm
Heart chamber
8.9.5 Circulatory system in Humans : The
circulatory system in human is of two types :
(A) The double circulatory system - it
includes (a) blood (b) heart (c) blood
vessels.
(B) Lymph system
(A) The Circulatory System :
Fig.8.12 Open Circulatory system of cockroach (a) Blood :
Blood is a fluid connective tissue
8.9.4 Circulatory system in Earthworm : having a fluid matter - plasma - in it.
The circulatory system in earthworm is of closed Plasma forms nearly 55% of the blood
type i.e. blood circulation is confined to blood and is light yellow in color. 92% of the
vessels. In earthworm, there are two main blood plasma is water and the remaining 8%
vessels - the dorsal blood vessel (towards upper are other substances. It contains many

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 organic substances like glucose, amino Human heart is an elongated, conical
acid, fatty acid and oxygen and other structure. It is located between the right
dissolved gases. Apart from this the and left lungs, slightly displaced
globulin antibody protein, fibrinogen towards the left, in the thoracic cavity. It
and prothrombin which help in clotting is made up of four chambers. On the
upper side are the left and the right
etc. are also present in the plasma.
atrium and towards lower side are the
Three types of blood cells are also two ventricles: the left and the right
present (i) Red Blood Corpuscles or ventricles. The oxygenated blood, from
RBC (ii) White Blood Corpuscles or the lungs, enter the left atrium and the
WBC and (iii) Blood platelets or ventricle and the deoxygenated blood,
thrombocytes. from the body organs, is brought into
(i) Red Blood Corpuscles or RBC : the right hand chambers of the heart
These corpuscles are light yellow in color (right atrium and ventricle). As
and are oval or round in shape. They appear compared to the atrium the muscular
red because they are present in large number wall of the ventricle is thicker. This is
and have oxyhaemoglobin. Their life span is because it has to pump blood to the
entire body. When the atrium or
about 120 days and they are enucleated i.e.
ventricle contracts, the valves ensure
they lack a nucleus. RBC contains an that the blood do not flow in the reverse
important
Dorsal vessel iron Lateral
Lateral hearts compound
oesophagealknown
hearts as direction. A septum is present between
haemoglobin, which helps in exchange of
Commissural the two atria. It is known as the inter
oxygen. Deficiency of RBC causesvessel anaemia auricular septum. Similarly the inter
disease. ventricular septum is present between
(ii) White Blood Corpuscles or
Subneural the two ventricles.
vessel
WBC: They are less in number but larger in
Lateral
Anterior Loops
shape Ventral
oesophageal as compared to the RBC. They are
vessel vessel
irregular particles and contain a nucleus.
WBC do not contain haemoglobin therefore
they are colorless. Many white blood
corpuscles perform amoeboid movements
along the walls of the blood vessel in
a direction opposite to the blood flow.
Whenever any bacteria or external toxic
substance enters the body, these cells attack
them and removes them after destroying. In
this way they protect the body against
various pathogens and develop our
immunity system.
(iii) Blood platelets : These corpuscles
are also known as the thrombocytes. They
are smaller in shape, than the Red and the
White Blood Corpuscles and their number is Fig. 8.14 Structure of the human heart
less than that of the red blood cells. Their
main function is to form blood clot and block 8.9.6 Mechanism of Heart Action : The
the route of bleeding. Nucleus is absent in function of the heart is to pump blood into various
these cells. parts of the body. This is performed by the
(c) Heart a muscular organ :
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contraction and relaxation of the heart. The under pressure. Normally, pure and
oxygenated blood enters the left atrium from the oxygenated blood flows in the
lungs through the pulmonary veins. The arteries. However, impure blood
deoxygenated blood from various parts of the body flows in the pulmonary artery.
reaches the right atrium via the pulmonary artery. 2. Veins : The blood vessels which
Now both the atria contract together so that the collect blood from various body
oxygenated blood is pumped into the left ventricle parts and carry them back to heart are
from the left atrium and the deoxygenated blood known as the veins. Their walls are
from the right atrium moves into the right ventricle. thin and deflatable. The cavity of the
After this, the two ventricles contract together. vein is broad because the pressure of
Pressure is generated on the blood because of their blood in it is less. Normally impure
contraction which results in the closing of the valves and deoxygenated blood flows in it.
between the atrium and the ventricle and the blood However, pure and oxygenated
cannot flow back into the atrium. The aortic valve of blood flows in the pulmonary vein.
the aorta opens because of this pressure generated 3. Capillaries : These are the narrow
and the oxygenated blood is pushed into the aorta, blood vessels which connect the
from where it is distributed to various parts of the veins and the arteries.
body by means of a network of arteries and Blood pressure : The pressure is
capillaries. The blood flow to the lungs via more in arteries as compared to that
pulmonary artery, on contraction of the right in the veins. The heart is responsible
ventricle. In the lungs the carbon-di-oxide present in for the flow of the blood into the
it is released and it gets oxygenated and then flows arteries. The pressure of the blood in
back to the left atrium. Thus the blood in human the arteries generated at the time of
body circulates in two loops. This is known as ventricle contraction is known as the
double circulation or the double conduction. systolic pressure and that generated
in the artery at the time of ventricle
Lung
relaxation is the diastolic pressure.
In a normal human body the systolic
pressure is 120mm while the
diastolic pressure is 80 mm.
(B) Lymph System :
Lymph is the clear fluidHeart containing
white blood cells in a fluid which is
obtained from the tissues of the body
and is conveyed to the blood stream by
the lymphatic vessels. Lymph
Arteries
resembles the blood plasma but the
Veinsconcentration of substances present in it
are different. It is a major part of the
immune system in human body. Lymph
circulates in the interstices (i.e. the very
Fig. 8.15 Double Circulation System small intervening spaces) of the body
tissue and helps maintain fluid balance
(d) Blood vessels : in the body. It is made up of lymph
1. Arteries : The blood vessels which capillaries and the primary and
carry the blood from the heart to secondary lymphoid organs.
various body parts are known as the
arteries. Their wall is thick and 8.10 Conduction in Plants :
flexible because the blood flows in it Food substances are formed in green plants

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by photosynthesis. For photosynthesis, the plants present on the lower epidermis. It is through these
get energy from sun light, carbon-di-oxide from the pores that the internal parenchymatous tissue
atmosphere and water from soil by means of the remains in contact with the external environment.
roots. Let us study as to how the plants get all these The pore is surrounded by two guard cells. These
substances? The major organ for photosynthesis is guard cells receive water from the neighbouring
the leaf. So how these substances reach the leaves? cells and become turgid, resulting in the opening of
The plants present around us, whether herbs, the stomatal pore. Air, carrying carbon-di-oixde,
shrubs or trees, may differ in their habit but their enters the leaf through these open pores. These
basic body plan is the same. All the flowering plants guard cells lose water and become flaccid resulting
have root, stem, branches, leaves flowers, fruits and in the closing of the stomatal pore.
seed. Thus the main function of stomata is to
As compared to the animals, the number of exchange oxygen and carbon-di-oxide. The second
organs in a plant are far less in number. The root, important function performed by the leaf is to
stem and leaves are the vegetative organs of the remove water from these pores in the form of water
plant and perform the metabolic functions like vapour.
photo-synthesis, conduction, food storage etc. Transpiration : Emission or removal of
8.10.1 Leaf : The main functions of the leaf water, in the form of water vapour, through the pores
are photosynthesis and food storage. They are present in the aerial green parts of a plant is known
arranged on branches and stem in such a manner that as transpiration.
they all are exposed to sun light. How the leaves Transpiration can be demonstrated by a
perform photosynthesis can be better understood if simple experiment. We take a potted plant place it
we have an understanding of the internal structure of on a glass plate and cover it with a polythene. The
a leaf. Living parenchymatous cells are present set up is made air tight by applying vaseline on the
below the upper epidermis of a leaf. These cells tied end of the polythene. After some time water
contain a pigment known as the chlorophyll. droplets are visible on the inner surface of the
Intercellular spaces are present in between these polythene. These droplets escape from the stomatal
cells which are interconnected with each other to pores in the form of vapour and condense to form
facilitate the exchange of gases, like oxygen and water droplets when they come in contact with the
carbon-di-oxide and the transpiration i.e. excretion cool surface of the polythene.
of the water vapour and conduction of gases to all In the absence of light, when the pores close,
the cells of the leaves. the rate of transpiration decreases. If the rate of
There is a network of veins in the leaves. The transpiration increases in proportion to absorption
main tissue for conduction, are the xylem and of water from soil, the plant wilts.
phloem which are present in these veins. This tissue The environment around the plant remains
forms a web of tubules for the conduction of food moist due to transpiration. it is because of this
material and water. The xylem and phloem present reason that during summer season we feel the
in the leaves is connected with the xylem and coolness beneath a tree. Transportaion is helpful in
phloem of the stem. The main function of xylem is the absorption of water from the soil.
to carry water and minerals absorbed by the roots to 8.10.2 Stem : Stem is the main route of
every part of the plant. The phloem performs the conduction of water and mineral salts and the
function of carrying the organic food material transpiration of food material to various parts of the
formed in the leaves to all the plant parts including plant body. Its conducting tissue are in continuity
the roots. with the conduction tissue of the leaves.
Thus the conduction system, made up of Xylem : Xylem is a complex tissue. It has
xylem and phloem, extends in the entire plant body- vessels and tracheid for the conduction of water and
from the root upto the leaves - in the form of tubules, the dissoved salts. They are the long, dead cells with
which carry the water along with dissolved minerals thickened cell walls. There are many pits on its cell
and the prepared food, respectively. wall through which water can move from one
Generally, minute pores called stomata are tracheidial element to another.

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 Respiration
takes place
regularly Fruit

Loss of Water
by transpiration
Energy is obtained
from respiration

Transpiration Pull
Pulls water in upward direction

Leaves form food with

solar energy
Food prepared by leaves reaches
every part of plant through phloem
Water and dissolved salts
reach all parts of plant
through xylem New plants are formed from seeds

Water and salts dissolved in water

Soil

Soil Particles
Roots absorb water
Root continuously

Fig. 8.16 Major organs of a plant and their functions

- 86 -
 Water drops
Rubber band

Polythene bag

Piece of cardboard

Glass plate

Fig. 8.19 Demonstration of Transpiration

Fig. 8.17 (a) Internal structure of the leaf

The green parenchyma perform photosynthesis.
See the pores present on the epidermis (b)
open pore (c) closed pore

Vein

Fig. 8.20 Structure of Xylem

Phloem : The food synthesized during

Mid rib
photosynthesis is conducted, in dissovled state, to
various parts of the plant body through the phloem.
There are specific sieve tubes for the purpose. The
fluid food substances are transferred between the
sieve elements by the minute pores present on their
transverse walls. These cells lack a nucleus.

Fig. 8.18 Web of veins in a leaf

(Reticulate venation)

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of water and dissolved minerals from the soil. hyma
Parenc Parenchyma Companion
Therefore the roots grow toward moisture and Seive plate all
ground water in the soil.
Seive Tube (b)
The absorbed water reaches the conducting
tissue of the stem and the leaves through the Companion
Seive plate
Cell Seive tube
conducting system present in the roots.
We have studied that the liquid food (a)
substance formed during photosynthesis reaches
various parts of the plant through the phloem. This is
Similarly, if we place raisins in a bowl
possible only when the cell membrane is selectively
having water, the raisins will swell
semipermeable. Substances in the form of solution
because of osmosis.
are absorbed and conducted through the membranes
Cell, absorbs water by osmosis. If a
by two processes : (i) Passive absorption and (ii)
plant or animal cell is placed in distilled
Active absorption. Many physical processes like
water, water molecules will enter the
diffusion, osmosis, capillarity, imbibition etc. are
cells because the concentration of water
helpful in passive absorption.
in the cell sap is less as compared to the
distilled water (in other words, the
concentration of cell sap is more than
that of the distilled water). This will
result in stretching of the cell
membrane and at the same time cell
Fig. 8.24 Osmosis through cellophane semi -
wall will exert pressure towards the
permeable membrane
inner side, in order to regain the original
state. This is the wall pressure. Water
(i) Diffusion: Movement of particles from
will move into the cell because of the
a region of their high concentration
Vessel to
high osmotic pressure and the cell will
that of their lower concentration is
continue to swell and will become
known as diffusion. Example :- The
Tracheid turgid. Movement of water inside the
fragnance spreads in a room on opening
a perfume bottle because ofPitsdiffusion.
(ii) Osmosis: Take a small cellophane bag.
Cellophane is semipermeable. Fill 2%
solution of glucose in this bag. Close
the open end of this bag byXylem
tying it with
a thread and dip it in a beaker Leaves
containing distilled water. After some
time you will observe that the bag
swells.
This happens because the concentration
of the water in the beaker is 100% while
in the bag the concentration of water is Roots
98% (2% is the sugar and remaining
A ring of Bark removed
98% is water). The bag will swell
because water from the beaker will
diffuse into the bag i.e. from a region of
its high concentration to its low
concentration. The water fills in the bag Fig. 8.22 The liquid food is conducted
as a result of a pressure - the osmotic by the phloem
pressure.

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 cell by osmosis is known as
endosmosis.
The fully turgid state of the cell Increase in level
maintains the shape of the cell. The Initial level Fall in level
healthy nature of juicy fruits like mango Sugar solution Water
and tomato and fleshy leaves is because Cellophane Cellophane
of the turgidity of their cells. Water Sugar
(iii) Capillarity : If a thin glass tube is solution
dipped in water from one of its end,
water will rise in it for some distance.
The tendency of a liquid to enter the capillary- water of the soil. Hence, it is a dilute
empty space, on its own, is known as solution. The concentration of cell sap is more than
Soil the concentration of this solution. Therefore the
the capillarity. This physical force
i s Secondary
h e l p f u lroots
in absorption and water from the soil enters the root hair cells by
transportation. osmosis. The cell sap thus gets diluted as compared
(iv) Imbibition Imbibition is the reason
: root to the sap in the nearby cells and water moves to the
Tertiary next cell by osmosis. In this manner a pressure
for mutual attraction of the molecules
of a substance and a liquid. This process gradient is created from the xylem vessels to the
is because Primary
of theroot presence of hydro- cortical cells and root hairs. The water with the
(b) dissolved salts move up regularly from the root hairs
philic Root
colloids.
hair Absorption of water by
(a) cell wall and the hard seed coat is by this to the root xylem because of this gradient.
process. Swelling of seeds and wood If the osmotic pressure of root hairs is less
Root cap
when placed in water are examples of than the osmotic pressure of the soil solution,
imbibition. according to the principle of osmosis, exosmosis
should occur. Under such circumstances too, the
Plasmolysis : Now let us consider a root hair can absorb water. Energy is required for
condition in which a cell is placed in a solution such absorption which is provided by the ATP
having concentration more than that of the cell sap - molecules present in the cell. This type of
then what will happen? The water from the cell sap absorption is known as the active absorption.
will move out into the external solution and the cell
will shrink. The cell wall will shrink only to a
particular limit; then after the protoplast will
separate from the cell wall and will ultimately
appear as a shrunked round or oval mass on one side
of the cell. This process of shrinking of the
protoplast because of exosmosis is known as
plasmolysis. Exosmosis is the movement of water
out of the cell, by osmosis.

Fig. 8.25 Plasmolysis in plant cell Fig. 8.26 : Water path from the root hair to the
xylem of the roots
Absorption of water from soil : Root Pressure : The water from the soil
In the space (pores) present in between the reaches the xylem of the roots due to active water
soil particles, air and water are present. The water absorption. The cells of the root become turgid
present in these spaces is known as the capillary because of this water absorption and the water
water. The roots of the plants absorb this water. reaching the xylem rises, in the xylem, for some
Water is absorbed primarily by the root hair region height. This positive pressure that is present in the
of the roots. Mineral salts remain dissolved in the roots is the root pressure. It is an active pressure

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which propels water in the xylem of some of the Hypertonic
Cytoplasm
solution
herbaceous plants. It is a vital process.
Nucleus Cell
Cell
Wall Wall
Vacuole (c)
Plastide
(a) (b) Nucleus Vacuole

toxic materials in living beings is known as

excretion. The organs which participate in this
excretory process are known as the excretory
organs.
8.11.1 Need for excretion : Metabolic
activity is observed in all the organisms. It may be
catabolic or anabolic activity. Many waste products
like urea, uric acid and ammonia are formed in the
Fig. 8.27 Demonstration of root pressure chemical reactions taking place during metabolism,
which are harmful for the body. Excretion is
We will perform a simple experiment to essential for the removal of waste products formed
understand root pressure. We will take a potted during the protein metabolism in the body.
healthy plant and will cut the stem 7-8 cm above the 8.11.2 Excretion in animals :
soil, transversely. Now we will connect a glass tube On the basis of the nitrogenous excretory
to this cut end with the help of a rubber tube. Fill substance present in the urine, animals are of three
some water in the glass tube and mark the water types :
level on it. The experimental set up is made air tight (1) Aminotelic : Some animals like Unio,
with the help of wax. We will observe that after Star-fish, Pila etc. excrete amino acid,
some time the water level in the glass tube starts directly.
increasing. This is because of the root pressure. (2) Ammonotelic : Ammonia is produced
Root pressure is not enough to take up the as a waste product during amino-acid
water upto the leaves of 300 meter tall trees or trees metabolism. Ammonia is soluble and
taller than that. Now the question arises as to how diffusable in water. The animals which
the water reaches the leaves of these tall trees. This secrete ammonia are known as
can be understood by the transpiration - cohesion Ammonotelic.
tension theory. (3) Ureotelic : A waste product, urea, is
Transpiration- Cohesion-Tension theory: formed in the liver by protein
It is based on three main factors (1) Water is metabolism which dissolves in water.
present in the xylem vessels in the form of a Animals which excrete nitrogenous
continuous regular column (2) The continuity of the wastes in the form of urea are known as
Xylem tissue
column is maintained because of the strong force of ureotelic. Example :RootMan,hairFish, Snail,
attraction due to cohesion of the water molecules Amphibians (frog) and Reptiles.
(3) the upper end of this water column is gradually (4) Uricotelic : Uric acid formed as a result
removed to the atmosphere through leaves by of metabolic reactions is excreted in the
transpiration. This exerts a pull or tension on the form of excretory product. Uric acid is
water column from the upper side and results in the generally solid and such animals are
upward movement of water molecules in this known as uricotelic. Examples :
column. Animals living in xeric environment,
birds, snakes, lizard, etc.
8.11 Excretion : Excretion in Amoeba :
The mechanism of eliminating waste and Excretory organs are not present in amoeba

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as it is a unicellular organism. Excretion of waste The main organs of the excretory system in
substances is by diffusion. Contractile vacuoles are humans are : (1) Kidney (2) Ureter (3) Urinary
present in amoeba, through which waste products bladder
are removed from the body. (1) Kidney : A pair of kidney is present in
Excretion in Hydra : mammals. They are red in color and
No excretory organ is present in Hydra. their shape is like a bean seed. They are
Ammonia and gases are excreted by diffusion. situated below the diaphragm on each
Excretion in Earthworm : side of the vertebral column. Each
In earthworm excretory process is carried by kidney is 4-5 inch long, 2 inch broad
nephridia present in the body cavity. They excrete and weighs about 140-150 grams.
waste products out of the body by means of pores
that open out. The excretory substance of
earthworm is ammonia and urea.
Excretion in Cockroach :
Malpighian tubules are the main excretory
organs in cockroach. Nearly 80-90, yellow
threadlike Malpighian tubules open in the posterior
part of the alimentary canal. These tubules receive
nitrogenous substances by diffusion which reaches
the proctodeum, in liquid form, by these tubules.
These waste products are then removed from the
body by means of the alimentary canal.
Excretion in Humans :
The excretory organs in human are - skin,
liver, spleen, intestine, lungs, kidney etc. Sweat
glands are present in the skin which expel water and
urea. Kidney is the main excretory organ.
Fig. 8.29 Internal Structure of Kidney

It is protected by lipid layers on all

sides. The outer part of the kidney is the
cortex and the inner part is the medula.
Numerous thin tubules are present in
the kidney which are known as
Uriniferous tubules or nephrons. The
two main parts of a nephron are
Bowman's Capsule and the secretory
portion. The secretory portion starts
from behind the Bowman's capsule and
has three parts (1) proximal convoluted
tubule (2) Henle's loop (3) distal
convoluted tubule.
(2) Ureter : In each kidney a tube arises
from the pelvis region and forms the
ureter. It carries urine from the kidney
to the urinary bladder.
(3) Urinary bladder : The sac like
Fig. 8.28 Excretory System in Human structure in the peritoneal cavity of
human, present at the base of the pelvis

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 is the urinary bladder. Its outer covering products produced by carbohydrate
is known as the peritoneum and it opens metabolism are less toxic and harmful
out by a tube called the urethra. Urethra than the products of protein
opens out of the body by a pore or metabolism. Therefore the need of
orfice. excretion in plants is very less than that
Urine Excretion : in animals. Yet, excretion of certain
Urea is formed in liver. The impure blood metabolic waste products formed in
from the liver reaches the kidney through the renal plants or their storage, in a harmless
artery. The renal artery subdivides into numerous form, is essential.
capillaries and provide blood to the glomerulus 5. In aquatic plants some waste products
situated in the Bowman's capsule. The afferent diffuse out in the aquatic environment
arteriole supplies blood to the glomerulus while the through the cell wall.
efferent arteriole takes away the blood from 6. In terrestrial plants the excess of gases
glomerulus. The blood pressure in the glomerulus like the oxygen and carbon-di-oxide
Corex
increases because the diameter of the afferent and water, in the form of water vapour,
arteride is greater than that of the efferent arteriole. are released into the surrounding
Because of this pressure generated, the water, atmosphere through stomata Medullaand
glucose, urea, uric acid and some salts are released Pelvis sometimes through the Lenticels.
in the Bowman's capsule by Ultra filteration of 7. Some waste products like carbonic acid
blood from the afferent arterioles. Thus, fluid then are stored in the cell vacuole in a
enters the secretory substances. This fluid then dissolved form. Therefore, these
enters the secretory portion of the nephron where, substances do not hinder any
water, glucose and other useful salts are reabsorbed. metabolic process of the cell. The sour
The remaining fluid contains the waste products and taste of lemon, orange etc. is due to the
Ureter
is known as the urine. This urine ultimately enters storage of these acids in the vacuole.
the ureter which then opens into the urinary bladder.
Urine collects in the urinary bladder which is then
passed
Renalout from the body through Urethra.
artery
8.11.3 Excretion in PlantsRenal : Excretion
vein in
highly developed animals is a very complex
Kidney
process. The animals therefore have specialized
excretory organs. In plants the excretory process is
comparatively simple and no excretory organs or
system are found in them.
1. The rate of metabolic processes is less Fig. 8.31 Structure of a lenticel
in plants as compared to that in the
animals. Therefore, the rate of 8. Many waste products are present in the
accumulation of excretory substances vacuole in a dissolved form. These
formed as a result of these metabolic substances may be useless for the plants
processes will also be less. Ureter but they are very useful for us. They are
2. Green plants mostly use the waste used in many medicines. Even gum is a
product formed during catabolic waste product.
processes in some Bladder other anabolic 9. Some of the useless substances are
process. stored in the dead cells of the leaves or
3. The nitrogenous Urethra products formed in the woody cells of the stem in the
during protein metabolism in plants are form of solid crystals. Mostly, these
used for the synthesis of novo-proteins. crystals are of calcium carbonate and
4. The metabolism of plants mainly calcium oxalate.
depends on the carbohydrates. The end Guttation :

- 92 -
 gradually develop into adults. On attaining
maturity, even they produce off-spring of their own
type. Thus a continuity of the various species, is
maintained in this universe.
The process of reproduction can be of two
types :
(i) Asexual reproduction
(ii) Sexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction : Living beings
originate from living beings. If the off-spring
originate from one cell obtained from one parent
only or from some specific vegetative structure,
then this type of reproduction is known as the
asexual reproduction.
Sexual reproduction : This process is
accomplished by the male and female reproductive
organs. Zygote is formed by the fusion of gametes
produced by the male and female reproductive
organs. The living being originates from the
development of this zygote. This is known as the
sexual reproduction.
Fig. 8.30 Ultrafilteration in Kidney The new organism formed by the fusion of
two different gametes have variations which form
If you stand beneath a peepal tree, early in the basis of evolution. From evolutionary point of
the morning, you will feel minute water droplets view, sexual reproduction is more meaningful.
falling on you. This is the water released by the 8.12.2 Reproduction in Animals :
leaves of this tree. Similar is the case with tomato, Reproduction is a natural characteristics of animals.
grass etc. where water oozes out at the margins or All the living beings maintain their species in nature
the apex of leaves, in the form of droplets. The by means of this process. This production of off
exudation of water droplets, from leaves, is known springs is known as reproduction. The number of
as guttation. These plants have special pores, the animals increase by reproduction. In animals,
hydathodes, for guttation. They are present at the reproduction is of two types :
end of veins of the leaves. Each minute pore opens (1) Asexual reproduction
in a small cavity which is lined by thin walled, soft (2) Sexual reproduction
parenchymatous cells. 1. Asexual reproduction : If the off-
Guttation is maximum in the state of more spring originates from cell obtained
absorption and less transpiration. The water from done parent only or from any part
droplets contain some dissolved waste substances of the biological body or from a
which deposit as a crust around the pores, on getting vegetative organ, then this type of
dry. reproduction is called asexual
reproduction. In this type of
8.12 Reproduction : reproduction, male and female gametes
are not formed. Asexual reproduction is
8.12.1 Meaning and need : You must have
of many types in invertebrate animals :
seen numerous saplings beneath various trees and
(i) Binary fission : In unicellular
plants, like neem, babool etc., during rainy season.
organisms, similar organisms
Similarly, you must also have observed babies of
originate from cell division or
various birds like sparrow, pigeon, hen etc. which
fragmentation. In this, the animal
come out of the eggs. All these living beings
divides into two similar types by

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 fragmentation. Example : (Euglena) (c) lateral (Paramecium)
Paramecium, Euglena, Amoeba (ii) Multiple fission : Prior to this type
etc. of division, the nucleus of the
individual divides many times
resulting in the formation of many
daughter nuclei. Later on the
cytoplasm divides. New generation
is obtained by the accumulation of
cytoplasm around each individual
nuclei. Thus the individuals of next
generation are produced from the
parent. Example : Plasmodium etc.

Fig. 8.34 : Multiple fission in Plasmodium

(iii) Regeneration : In some animals,

there exists a remarkable capability
Fig. 8.33 : Different types of Binary fission in of forming new organisms, of their
animals of the division protozoa - type, by division of their vegetative
(a) Irregular (Amoeba) (b) longitudinal parts. The animal divides into some
Hydathode
fragments and each fragment then
gives rise to an individual. Process
of reorganization of the organism is
Guard cell known as regeneration. Example :
Planeria, Hydra, Star-fish etc.
(iv) Budding : In some animals there
Intercellular
space
exist cells having the capacity to
reproduce a bud on the animal body
i.e. an outgrowth, which develops
into an individual. The new
organism, thus formed, seperate
from the parent organism only
Epidermis
when mature. This method is
known as budding. Example :
Hydra
Parenchyma

Vacular tissue

Fig. 8.32 Hydathodes

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 Fig. 8.36 : Budding in Hydra

2. Sexual reproduction : In this type of

reproduction, there is participation of
two individuals for the production of
new generation. Production of a new
organism, similar to the parents, by
fusion of male and female gametes
(sperm and egg) in known as sexual
reproduction. Sexual reproduction
takes place in higher invertebrates and Daughter nuclei
vertebrates. Merozoites
(i) Sexual reproduction in Hydra : Fig. 8.37 Reproduction System in Earthworm
The male and female organs, testes
and ovary respectively, are formed (iii) Reproduction in Man : In highly
on the body of Hydra in the form of Schizont
developed organisms
Daughter Cells the male and
swellings. Zygote is produced by female sex organs are present in
the fusion of male and female two separate individuals. The male
gametes. This zygote then develops reproductive cell is known as the
to form hydra. male gamete or sperm, which is
(ii) S e x u a l r e p r o d u c t i o n i n motile. The reproductive cell,
Earthworm : Earthworm is a present in female is known as the
hermaphrodite animal, therefore female gamete or the ovum, which
self fertilization do not occur in it. is bigger than the male gamete and
The male gametes mature prior to is non-motile.
the maturation of the female The human reproductive
gametes. In the male reproductive system is more advanced than that
system, the tests is situated in the of other evolved organisms. It is
10th and 11th segment, while in the activated at a particular age, which
female reproductive system ovary is known as the puberty. In boys,
is situated in the 13th segment of puberty is at the age of 13-14 years
the body. Mating takes place in while in girls it is at the age of 10-12
earthworm during rainy season. For years. Human reproductive system
this purpose, two earthworms come can be studied in two parts :
in contact with each other. The eggs (a) Male reproductive system :
of earthworm remain safe in a The organs that produce the
yellow sac like cocoon and the
fertilization takes place in the Planaria Hydra Starfish
cocoon itself.

Fig. 8.35 Regeneration in various organisms

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 reproductive cells and the
organs which carry them to the Fig. 8.38 : Male reproductive system in humans
site of fertilization of the
reproductive cells, together (b) Female reproduction system :
forms the male reproductive As compared to the male
system. It is made up of testes, reproductive system, the female
spermatic ducts, vas deferens, reproductive system is more
penis, prostate glands etc. The c o m p l e x . TSperma
h e fthecae
emale
Bud male reproductive cell i.e. reproductive cell i.e. ovum is
sperm, is produced in theDaughter
testes. formed in the Spermiducal
ovary withfunnel
the
In males, a pair of hydra testes Testes sac help of some hormones.
Testes
The
(testicles) is present in the female reproductive system is
scrotum situated outside the made up of a pairOvaryof ovaries,
abdominal cavity. This is fallopian tubes, uterus and
Oviducal funnel
because sperm-development vagina. At the time of birth,
requires a lower temperature numerous immatureVas deferens
eggs are
than that of the body. Testes is present in both the ovaries. At
Accessory
made up of numerous glands puberty, these eggs start
seminiferous tubules. These maturing. The internal
Spermaticlining
duct of
coiled structures open into the the ovary is made up of
epididymis. The distal end of epithelial cells which
Prostateform
glandthe
the epididymis opens in the vas eggs. This is known as
deferens which stores and oogenesis. In front of each
nourishes mature sperms and ovary is a funnel shaped
move them to the ejaculatory structure which opens into the
duct. The ejaculatory duct fallopian tube. The fallopian
connects the vas deferens to the tubes of both sides join together
urinary tract (urethra). The to form a bag like structure the
urethra is surrounded by a uterus. The uterus leads to the
muscular organ, the penis and vagina via a cervix.
opens out by means of a pore. During mating sperms reach the
Both urine and the seminal fluid fallopian tubes through the vagina
are passed out from this and fertilizes the egg. The fertilized
common opening. The prostate egg then establishes in the uterus
glands situated near vas and gradually develops into an
deference secrete a milky fluid. embryo. A cord like structure, the
Testosterone regulates the placenta, is responsible for the
formation of sperms and the nourishment of and excretion from
sexual characters visible during the developing embryo. The female
adulthood among boys. The hormones, progesterone and
motile sperms mainly comprise oestrogen are responsible for the
of the genetic material and a sexual symptoms of the female
long tail which helps the sperm body.
to swim upto the female
gamete.

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 Urinary
bladder
Seminiferous tubule

Seminal
vesicle

Urethra
Prostate
gland
Epididymis
Ejaculatory
Testis duct
Fig. 8.39 Female reproductive system in
Human beings Scrotum

In the mammalian females there are

two types of ovarian cycles : 8.12.3 Reproduction in plants : In plants,
(i) Menstrual cycle : If not reproduction takes place by both asexual and sexual
fertilized, the egg cell remains methods. Following are the major methods of
alive only for a day, after reproduction in plants.
ovulation. Then after, the Asexual Reproduction in plants : In this
internal wall of the uterus along method, a new plant develop from the cells obtained
with the blood vessels break from only one parent or from some special
down and passes out in the form vegetative structures. Following are the commonly
of blood flow which is known occurring methods of asexual reproduction in
as menstruation. It lasts for a plants:
duration of 4-7 days. In women, (a) Budding : Asexual reproduction in
it is a regular process which yeast, which is used for bread
occurs after a gap of 28-30 days. formation, takes place by budding. In
This is known as the menstrual this method a small spherical outgrowth
cycle. The initialization of develops from the surface of the yeast
menstrual cycle at the time of cell. This is known as the bud. Now the
puberty in females is known as nucleus present in the cell divides by
menarche which indicates the mitosis to form two daughter nuclei.
beginning of the reproductive One of these nuclei moves to the bud
phase in women. while the other remains in the parent
(ii) Estrous cycle : In most cell. After some time the bud takes the
mammals, the reproductive form of a mature cell and separates
period is in a particular season from the parent cell to form a new yeast.
which is known as the estrous
cycle or the reproductive phase.
During the reproductive phase,
after ovulation there is an
intense desire for mating, in
females and they reproduce ,
i.e. produce off-spring. This
cycle occurs in all the female
mammals like dogs, cat, cow Fig. 8.40 Budding in Yeast
etc. Sometimes in a yeast cell many buds

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 develop one above the other forming a vegetative organs of the plant, like - root
chain of buds. Thus, the asexual stem or leaves, is known as vegetative
reproduction by budding occurs. propagation (The word 'asexual
(b) Sporogenesis : This is the most reproduction is not used in case of higher
common method of asexual plants). In lower plants like Spirogyra,
reproduction in fungi. In this method a Oscillatoria etc. vegetative reproduction is
structure - the sporangium - develops in by fragmentation.
the mycelia. The nucleus of the Making use of the vegetatively reproducing
sporangium divides many times capabilities of various plants, human beings
resulting in the formation of numerous have developed some methods of vegetative
daughter nuclei. A little cytoplasm propagation for developing multiple plants
gathers around each nuclei and forms a at a fast rate, in lesser time, without any
spore. When the spores mature, the change in characteristics of plants of
sporangium bursts open and the spores improved varieties having desired
thus liberated forms new fungal characters. Using these methods we can
mycelia, on coming in contact with the make our home, fields and gardens more
soil or substratum. Example- Rhizopus. ornamental and economically beneficial.
These are the artificial vegetative
propagation methods.

Fig. 8.41 Sporogenesis in Rhizopus Fig. 8.42 : Vegetative reproduction by leaf

Vegetative Reproduction : Artificial Vegetative reproduction :

You must have observed plants like wheat Following are the methods of vegetative
jau, gram, bajra etc. developing from the reproduction developed by man :
germinating seeds. Have you observed seed (a) Cutting : A healthy, completely
production in plants like banana, rose, developed part of the root, stem or leaf
sugar-cane etc.? You will observe that seed of a plant is known as a cutting. When a
production does not occur in them because part of these cuttings is buried in soil,
of various reasons. However their roots develop from them and a new
vegetative parts have reproductive plant similar to the parent plant,
capability. New plants develop from the develops. Cutting technique is widely
roots of banana; rose, mogra stem; and used for commercial propagation of
bryophyllum leaves. Dormant buds are plants like grapes, rose, phalsa etc.
present on the roots of sweet-potato and on (b) Grafting : The method of combining
potato tuber which develops into new plant two plants together, is known as bud
by vegetative propagation. Thus grafting or grafting. In this method the
development of new plants, from the stem of two different plants is joined in

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 such a manner that they combine etc.
together in the form of a single plant. (c) Layering : This is the suitable method
of vegetative reproduction in plants
having long flexible branches, like
mogra, litchi, pomegranate etc. In this
method, rooting is done before
separating the branch from the parent
plant. In this method, rooting, on the
branches, is done by two methods :
(1) Mound (stool) layering method :
This is the simple method of
layering in which branch is bent
and buried or the soil is mounded
Fig. 8.43 Method of Grafting over to the lower new branches on
the stem. The soil is kept moist by
The plant with well developed root system is watering at an interval of 2-4 days.
known as the stock and the plant stem In about 15-20 days, roots originate
having better quality characters which is to from the buried parts of the stem.
be established on this root system is known
Spores Now, it is separated from the
as the scion. A healthy branch of the stock mother plant by cutting.
Sorangium
and a scion of similar diameter is cut and the Adventitious New Plant
scion is tied to the stock in such a manner bud
that their vascular region are in contact with
each other. Within
Fungala few days the tissues of
the stock andhyphae
scion combine with each other
and develop in the form of a single plant.

Bryophyllum

Fig. 8.45 : Technique of Layering

(2) Air layering of 'gutti-method' :

Fig. 8.44 Different stages of grafting : The branches in woody trees like
(a) prepared scion (b) rooted stock (c) Scion pomegranate, litchi etc. are very
inserted in the stock (d) Graft showing growth. high from the soil. For layering in
such plants, a groove is made by
Different varieties can be grafted on a single removing a ring of the bark of 1-2
stock. This method is widely used to year old branch, using a sharp
improve the varieties of various flowering knife. Moist moss is then tied
and fruiting trees. Example : lemon, orange around this groove using a piece of

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 jute or a polythene. For keeping the male and female reproductive parts are
moss moistened, a small hole is situated on separate plants. They are known
made at the bottom of an earthen as unisexual plants. We can understand
pot, through which a cotton or jute sexual reproduction in plants using mustard
string is passed and is tied around or datura flowers.
the moss. This earthen pot is then
Scion filled with water and is hung on a
branch above the one being
layered. The string uses the water
Stock of the earthen pot to keep the moss
moistered. After some (d) days, roots
(a) (b) (c)
originate from the ring devoid of
the bark. This branch is then cut
apart from the parent plant, below
the gutti and thus a new plant is
obtained. This method is known as
air layering or gutti-method.
Significance of vegetative reproduction :
(1) Vegetative reproduction is the only
method to maintain the variety of plants
like banana, orange, grapes etc. in Fig. 8.46 : Different parts of a flower
which either seeds are not formed
naturally or the rate of germination is The swollen part present at the apex of the
less and to ensure their availability at pedicel (the flower stalk) is known as the
commercial level. thalamus. All the four whorls of a flower -
(2) In many plants which develop from Calyx, Corolla, Androecium and
seed, it takes a long time to obtain fruits Gynoecium-are situated on the thalamus.
and seeds. Furthermore, there is no Androecium and Gynoecium are known as
Scion certainty of germination of all seeds the reproductive or the essential whorls
and formation of a plant from these while Calyx and CorollaBranch
are the accessory
seeds. Vegetative reproduction, in such whorls. The individual members New Plant
of these
plants ensure development of the new whorls are known as the sepal, petal, stamen
plants and we can obtain fruits and and carpel, respectively. Sepals are usually
flowers from these plants in a lesser green in color while the petals are coloured
time. and attractive. In the stamen there is a
Stock
(3) The new plants and fruits obtained from filament which has a flattened part, Soil the
them, are exactly similar to the mother pollen sac, at its apex. Pollen are formed in
plant. Thus the desired properties are the pollen sac. Two male gametes are
maintained from generation to formed in each pollen grain. The carpel is
generation whereas variations occur in divisible into three part - ovary, style and
plants that are developed from the stigma. The swollen part at the base is the
seeds. ovary, which contains the ovules. In each
Sexual Reproduction in Plants : The ovule there is a female gamete- the egg. A
flowering plants form the most highly long tube-like structure develops from the
evolved group in the plant world. Flowers upper part of the ovary. This is the style
bear the sex organs of the plant. In some whose flattened apex is known as the
plants both male and female reproductive stigma.
parts are borne on the same plant. Such Pollination :
plants are known as bisexual. In others, the The transfer of pollen grains to the stigma of

- 100 -
 the flower of the same species, is known as This is known as Double fertilization. After
pollination. The female and the male fertilization, ovule develops into the seed
gametes fuse after pollination. Pollination and the ovary into a fruit. Thus the sexual
may take place by insects, air, water or by reproduction is accomplished in a flower.
spontaneous dehiscence. The pollination of
a flower by the pollen-grains from the same
flower or from another flower situated on
the same plant is known as self-pollination, Stigma
while when the pollen-grains of a different Anther Style
Stamen
flowering plant of the same species pollinate Filament Ovary
the stigma, it is known as cross pollination.
Petal
Sepal

Ovule
Thalamus
Placenta
8.48 Fig.
Peduncle
Ovule and Embryo sac of a flowering plant

8.13 Regulation :
8.13.1 Sensitivity : Animals exhibit
response to its environment and also to the
changes in the environment. This process is
known as sensitivity. All the living beings
whether amoeba or human beings, exhibit
sensitivity. In all of them the mode of
responding may differ. If we prick a needle
to the pseudopodia of amoeba, it retracts
Fig. 8.47 Fertilisation in flowering plant them and forms a ball-like structure. In
higher animals the body is regulated by the
Fertilization and embryo development : nervous system and the endocrine system.
The pollen grains reach the stigma of a In non-chordata and other less developed
flower by pollination. Here the pollen- animals sensory cells are present instead of
grains germinate and forms a tube - the the complete nervous system which show
pollen tube. This tube enters the stigma and sensitivity towards changes in their
reaches the ovary. In the ovary, it enters the environment. The information received by
ovule through the micropyle. The two male the sensory organs reach the control center-
gametes thus reach the embryo-sac situated brain, spinal cord, ganglions etc. through the
in the ovule. Here, one of the male gamete nerves. This is known as the conduction of
fuses with the egg cell forming the zygote the impulse. These impulses are analyzed by
which develops into an embryo. This is true the control centers and the reaction is carried
fertilization. The other male gamete fuses to the affected organ or sense organ,
with the two polar nuclei, in the embryo sac. accordingly. In animals the function of
This is known as triple fusion. Thus during regulation is performed by the nerves at a
fertilization in angiosperms, there are two fast pace.
separate fusions within the embryosac - the 8.13.2 Nervous system : The function of
fusion of the two gametes (egg and male control and co-ordination of sensations in
gamete) and the fusion of the three nuclei animals, is performed by the nerves and the
(one male gamete and two polar nuclei). muscle tissue. Every organism lives

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normally in its environment and reacts to impulse which travel across the void
any sudden change in situations, like space or synapses and induces similar
touching to a hot substance, pricking of a impulse in the dendrites of the
nail in the foot, touching of a person etc., by adjoining neurons. This process
means of the nervous system. continues,
Chalaza i.e., first the information is
The nervous system is made up of many received, then it travels inAntipodal
the formcellsof
nerve cells or neurons. There are three parts Nucellus
electric impulse and then after it
of a nerve cell - Cell body, axon and Integuin the form of
transforms chemical
Central cell
ments
dendrite. signals and is conducted further. Polar nuclei
The nervous
Embryo system in human is
divisibleSacinto three parts (1) Egg Central
Nervous System (2) Peripheral
Micropyle Synergids
Nervous
Hilum System (3) Autonomic
Funicle
Nervous System.
(1) Central Nervous System : In this
system the brain and the spinal cord are
the control centers.
(a) Brain : This is the most soft and a
very important organ of the body. It
is present in the cranium region of
the skull which covers it and thus
protects it from the external shocks.
Fig. 8.49 Nerve Cell (Neuron) The brain has three main parts -
Fore-brain, Mid-brain and Hind-
(i) Cell body : Cytoplasm along with the brain. The weight of a normal
nucleus, other organelles, nissl body human brain is 1350 gram and its
and neurofibrils are present in this part volume is 1300 cc.
of the neuron. (i) Fore brain : This is the center
(ii) Axon : A long cylindrical projection is of the main sensations in the
present on one side of the cell body brain. Different areas of this
which is known as the axon. Cytoplasm part of the brain has centers for
is present in axon. It is covered with a hearing, smelling, viewing etc.
layer of lipid which is known as the Various sensory information
myelin sheath. It is an insulating sheath. are received at different points
There are many branches on the other in the forebrain. This part of the
end of the axon which terminates into brain controls voluntary
button-shaped structures. actions like thought,
(iii) Dendrites : Many branched dendrite r e c o g n i t i o n , m e m o r y,
are present on the cell body which contemplation, will power etc.
spread in all directions except in the Various body processes like
direction of the axon. hunger, thirst etc. are also
An electric impulse is generated by a controlled and coordinated by
chemical reaction when information is the fore brain.
received from the dendritic end of the (ii) Mid brain : The centers of
neuron. This impulse is carried to the most of the involuntary actions
cell body by the dendrites and then it are present in the mid-brain.
passes through the axon and reaches its For example : Watering of
other end. At the end of axon some mouth on seeing food,
chemicals are released by this electric contraction of the pupil in

- 102 -
 bright light, reflex actions etc. (2) Peripheral Nervous System : The
(iii) Hind-brain : It controls all the various nerves coming out of the central
involuntary actions of the body nervous system comprises the
like blood-pressure, vomiting, peripheral nervous system. It connects
heart beat, digestion, the rest of the body with the central
excretion, circulation etc. The nervous system. In humans 12 pairs of
regulation of muscular cranial nerves come out from the brain
movement of the hands and which reaches to organs like eyes, nose,
legs and other body parts is ear etc. and regulates them.
done by the cerebellum of the (3) Autonomic Nervous System : Various
hind brain. Walking down in a involuntary activities of our body, like
straight line is also controlled the heart beat, peristalsis, digestion etc.
by this part of the brain. are regulated by this nervous system.
Alcohol affects this part of the There are two parts of this system
brain, the most, in a drunk sympathetic nervous system and the
person and this is why they are parasympathetic nervous system.
unable to walk in a straight Reflex action and reflex arch :
line. Reflex actions are involuntary i.e. they
are not affected by our will power. They
are controlled by the spinal cord. There
are two roots of every spinal nerve -
dorsal root and ventral root. The dorsal
root is made up of the sensory nerve
filaments. The ventral root is made up
of the motor nerve filaments. The
sensory cells present in the skin gets
excited when a thorn is pricked in the
leg. This stimulus from the sensory
cells is carried to the dorsal root via the
sensory nerves in the form of an
Fig. 8.50 Human Brain impulse. In dorsal root this impulse
reaches the gray-matter of the spinal
(b) The spinal cord : It is long and cord. This information is analyzed in
cylindrical. It remains protected in the spinal cord and the essential
our vertebral column. Its anterior instructions are forwarded to the
end is connected to the medulla ventral root via the motor filaments.
oblongata of the brain and the The motor nerves then carry these
posterior end terminates in the form instructions to the affected organ, as a
of a thin thread in the vertebral result of which we withdraw our leg
column. 31 pairs of nerves come immediately. The rate of reflex action is
out from the spinal cord which are very high. In this process the entire
known as the spinal nerves. Its path from the sense organ to the
main function is to regulate the muscles of the affected organ is known
reflex actions. In this process it as the reflex arch. Reflex actions occur
carries the sensations to the brain very quickly thus protecting the
and then sends back the organism from the harmful sensations
communications and instructions instantly. The spinal cord controls the
received from the brain to the reflex action so the brain gets enough
affected organs. opportunity for other important body

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 functions. Iodine is very essential for thyroxine hormone.
Iodine deficiency in the body disturbs the balance of
thyroxine hormone in the body and this leads to the
goiter.
Thymosin hormone is secreted by the
thymus gland which is located in the chest. The
main function of this hormone is to develop the
immune system which enables our body to counter
the pathogens. The overactivation of this gland
results in enlargement of the tonsils and leads to the
disease tonsillitis.
Pancreas are located near the duodenum.
Insulin hormone is secreted by the pancreatic
glands. This hormone regulates the blood sugar. If
this hormone is not secreted in proper quantity the
Fig. 8.51 : Diagram of the reflex arch. blood sugar level increases or decreases which
results in a disease named diabetes.
8.13.3 Endocrine System : In human body Adrenal gland is located above the kidneys
there are ductless glands which directly release their and secrete the hormone adrenalin. This hormone
secretions in the blood stream. Such glands are
Cerebral is secreted directly into the blood and is then carried
known as the endocrine glands. Examples include -
cortex by it to the target organs Adrenalin helps the body to
Pitutary glands, pancreatic gland, thyroid Mid
gland etc. face stressful situations. When under stress our
(fig. 8.27). The substance secreated by endocrine
brain heart beat increases which in turn increase the
Fore
glands
brain is known as the hormone. These are supply of oxygen in our muscles. This enhanced
transported through our blood and reach the target blood supply is managed by decreasing the amount
areas or organs. Hormones conductCerebellum
and regulate of blood flow in some other organs. Even the rate of
various body processes like circulation, digestion,Hind respiration increases.
Spinal cord brain
metabolism, excretion, respiration etc. Their effect In males, the male reproductive glands are
is very slow and they are secreted in very minute present which secretes testosterone at puberty.
quantity. Testosterone is responsible for the development of
Pitutary gland is situated in the fore brain the secondary sex characters during adolescence
and secretes growth hormones. Pitutary gland is and development of male sex organs before birth.
also known as the 'master gland' because it regulates Female reproductive glands are present in
many other endocrine glands of the body. The females, which secretes estrogen. Estrogen is
Pitutary gland is controlled by the hypothalamus. responsible for the development of secondary sex
Therefore it is also known as the 'master of master characters in girls.
gland'. Imbalance in the growth hormone results in 8.13.4 Regulation in Plants by Hormones:
either very tall or a dwarf individual. Thyroxine It is the general belief that the plant growth depends
hormone is secreted by the thyroid gland. This gland on the minerals present in the soil and the
is present on either of the lateral side of the wind environmental factors. Now, it is a proven fact, that
pipe near the voice box, in the anterior part of the some chemical substances also influence the plant
lower neck. Unbalanced secretion of hormone (i.e. growth. These substances are generally produced in
either too much thyroid hormone or not enough) one part of the plant body and are then translocated
causes enlargement of the thyroid gland. This is to other parts where they influence the growth of
known as goiter. The goiter disease appears as a that part. These chemicals which regulates and
swelling in the neck. Thyroxine hormone is control the growth of various plant parts are known
responsible for the proper metabolism of as the plant hormones.
carbohydrates, proteins, fats etc. in our body which Uses of plant hormones in agriculture :
is essential for the proper functioning of our body. Plant hormones are used in agriculture on a

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largereceptor
Skin scale. TheyPin
are used to enhance or reduce At the age of 22 years he went to London to study
cells Sensing
growth. The main plant growth
Sensory neuron regulators include
Relay neuron medical science but because of his bad health he
Pain
Auxins (2, 4, D; 1, 4, 5-T, NAA etc.), Gibberellins, abandoned the thought of becoming a doctor and got
Control
Cytokinin, Ethylene and ABA (Abscisic acid). canal Of admission in the Christ College at Cambridge for his
these hormones ABA is the main growth retardant.
Dorsal White
B.Sc. Degree.
root Indole Butyric Acid (IBA) is used to induce
matter He returned to his motherland in 1885 and
rooting in stem cuttings and ethylene is used for taught physics at the Presidency College upto 1915.
early fruit ripening. Auxins are also used to remove
Venral During those days Indian teachers were paid just
weed that grow in gardens and crop fields.Grey
theroot one third the amount paid to the foreigners. As a
matter
There are a few basic differences in the plant protest Jagdish Chandra Bose continued teaching
and animal regulation.Motor
They neuron
include : without drawing a single penny as salary for the
1. In plants nervous system, muscles etc. initial three years. This resulted in the deterioration
Muscle while
are not present fiber they are present in of his economic conditions, with debts piling high,
animals. he even had to sell out his ancetral land. In the fourth
2. In plants there are no specialized tissues year, Jagdish Chandra was ultimately paid full
for conduction of information but salary from the date he joined the college. Bose was
animals do have such tissues. a famous teacher and in the class used scientific
3. The process of change of shape of cells demonstrations on a large scale while teaching.
in plants is entirely different from that Some of Bose's students like Satyendra Nath Bose
of animals. became famous physicist.
Famous Indian Scientists : Jagdish Chandra Bose was the first famous
Biography of Dr. Sir Jagdish Chandra scientist of our country who had an indepth
Bose : Dr. Sir Jagdish Chandra Bose was born on knowledge of physics, biology, botany and
30th November 1858 at a place named Mymensingh paleontology. He was a leading scientist who
in East Bengal (Now Bangladesh). His father, worked on the optics of radio and microwaves.
Bhagaban Chandra Bose was a leader of the He conducted many important researches in
Brahma-samaj and was the Deputy Magistrate at Botany. It is worth mentioning that he was the first
various places like Faridpur, Vardhaman etc. Sir Bhartiya resercher and scientist to obtain an
J.C. Bose received his basic education in a school at American patent. He is considered to be the 'father
his village, upto the age of 11 years. His father had a of radio science' He wrote science fictions also and
firm belief that a good knowledge of the mother is considered to be the 'father of the Bengali science
tongue is essential prior to learning english, so his fiction' also.
education started at a Bangla school. Dr. Bose in In November 1894, Bose used microwaves
1915 quoted at a conference at Vikrampur "In those of one millimeter range to ignite dynamite placed at
days, educating children in an english medium a distance and also to ring a bell, in a public display
school was a status symbol. In the Bangla school, I at Kolkata. In a Bengali essay "Invisible Light"
studied at, on my right hand side sat the son of one of (Adrashya Aalok) that "Invisible light can easily
my father's muslim servant while on the left hand enter brick walls and buildings etc. and hence can be
side sat the son of a fisherman. They were my used to communicate messages without the use of
playmates. I used to listen to their stories about wires."
birds, animals and aquatic animals with interest. Jagdish Chandra Bose made important
Probably these stories induced my interest in contributions in the sphere of Biophysics also. By
research on the composition of nature." After analyzing the changes in plant cells in different
completing the primary education Bose was sent to situations he concluded that plants are sensitive and
Calcutta to learn English and got his further have feelings. They can experience pain and love.
education at St. Xavier's school where he graduated Bose invented an instrument named 'Crescograph'
in physical science. It was here that Prof. Father and studied the response of plants towards various
Lafont inspired him to study Physics. Jagdish stimulants.
Chandra Bose was very much interested in Biology. In 1917 the title of "Knight" was awarded to

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Jagdish Chandra Bose and in 1920, Royal Society, 9. Haemoglobin is the respiratory pigment
London selected him as the Fellow of Royal Society present in the Red Blood Corpuscles (RBC).
(FRS) for his researches in Physics and Biology. 10. The pressure applied against the walls of the
The main point to be noted regarding his researches blood vessels is known as the blood-pressure.
is that he accomplished everything without any 11. The process of translocating the absorbed
costly apparatus and in a very simple laboratory. He nutritive substances, water and waste products
was thinking about establishing a laboratory from one part of the body to another, is known
equipped with various advanced apparatus. The as circulation. The system related to it is the
Bose Institute (Bose Science Temple) is the result of circulatory system.
his aforesaid thinking. It is a famous center of 12. Male reproductive cells i.e. sperms are
research in science and is located at Calcutta. produced in the testis. Female reproductive
Dr. Jagdish Chandra Bose died on 23 cell, the egg, is formed in the ovary.
November in 1937 at Giridih (Bengal Presidency). 13. Asexual reproduction in filamentous algae like
His life and work is a source of inspiration for our Spirogyra, Oscillatoria etc. takes place by
youth. The lesson to be learnt from Dr. Bose's fragmentation.
biography is that if there is talent and dedication in a 14. Dormant buds are present on the roots of sweet
person then high quality research can be conducted potato and potato tuber which produce new
even in simple laboratory with limited means. The plants by vegetative reproduction.
ideal personality and scientific attitude of Dr. Sir 15. Man has developed some methods of
Jagdish Chandra Bose will remain a source of vegetative reproduction by using the capability
inspiration for the youth. of reproducing vegetatively of various plants.
Many plants can be produced by these methods
in less time and at a faster rate.
Important Points 16. The swollen part on the tip of a pedicle is
known as the thallamus. The four whorls of a
1. Xylem and Phloem are found in the veins of flower - Calyx, Corolla, Androecium and
leaves. Gynoecium are situated on the thallamus.
2. The main function of xylem is conduction of Androecium and gynoecium are the
water to every part of the plant and the main reproductive whorls and Calyx and Corolla are
function of phloem is to translocate the food the accessory whorls of a flower.
material prepared in the leaves to all the parts 17. Waste products are formed as a result of various
of plant. metabolic processes and the process of
3. Stomata are present on the lower epidermis of a removing them from the body is known as
dorsi-ventral leaf. Gaseous exchange takes excretion.
place through these stomata. 18. No specific excretory organs are present in the
4. Conduction of water and minerals to various plants because most of the waste products
parts of a plant is through the stem. formed are used by the plant itself.
5. Plasmolysis occurs in plant cells. 19. Guttation takes place by special pores, the
6. Water moves up in the plant due to hydathodes.
transpiration- Cohesion - Tension.
7. The food consumed by animals is broken down Questions
into minute simple forms by specific organs,
with the help of various digestive juices. The Objective type :
specific organs for the purpose are known as the 1. In plants water condition takes place through :
digestive organs. (a) Phloem (b) Xylem
8. Stomach digests the food. The hydrochloric (c) Seive tubes (d) Epidermis
acid of the stomach makes the food acidic and 2. The water available in soil for plant use is :
kills the accompanying bacteria and other (a) Hygroscopic water
micro organisms. (b) Gravitational water

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 (c) Water obtained from guttation (b) Birds and fishes
(d) Capillary water (c) Fishes and snakes
3. Exchange through stomata, takes place of : (d) Man and frog
(a) Water vapour and gases
(b) Oxygen and Hydrogen Very short answer type questions :
(c) Oxygen and Carbohydrates 1. Excretion in aquatic plants occur by which
(d) Nitrogen and Water vapour method?
4. Food material is conducted through : 2. What is the function of the guard cells?
(a) Xylem (b) Phloem 3. What is uricotelic excretion?
(c) Stomata (d) Epidermis 4. Name the two main parts of a plant.
5. Repiratory pigment is : 5. Which conducting tissue is responsible for
(a) Red Blood Corpuscles conduction of water from the roots to the
(b) White Blood Corpuscles
(c) Haemoglobin leaves?
(d) None of the above 6. What is the function of Phloem?
6. The systolic pressure of a normal body is : 7. Define plasmolysis.
(a) 120 nm (b) 90 nm 8. What is respiration?
(c) 140 nm (d) 180 nm 9. What is Binary fission?
7. Which of the following is not a function of the 10. What is a Thallamus?
11. Give examples of air-layering technique.
stomach : 12. What is the need of reproduction in organism?
(a) Storage of food
(b) Absorption Short answer type questions :
(c) Digestion 13. Write the difference between the tap root and
(d) Complete digestion of fats
8. Main example of fragmentation is : the adventitious roots.
(a) Spirogyna (b) Bryophyllum 14. Differentiate between the xylem and phloem
(c) Yeast (d) Amoeba tissue.
9. The main method of reproduction in Rhizopus 15. Define the following terms :
is : Diffusion, Osmosis, Plasmolysis, endosmosis
(a) Binary fission (b) Budding 16. According to which theory does the water reach
(c) Sporogenesis (d) Multiple fission the leaves from the roots? Explain it.
10. Ovules are located in : 17. Describe the functions of stomata.
(a) Ovary (b) Style 18. How many types of circulatory systems are
(c) Anther (d) Embryosac present in animals? Explain giving examples.
11. In plant the metobolic process are mainly based 19. What are the anabolic and catabolic reactions?
on : 20. Why special excretory organs are not present in
(a) Protein (b) Fats plant? Explain.
(c) Carbohydrates(d) Vitamins 21. What is budding?
12. Hydathodes are present on : 22. Explain reflex action with example.
(a) Roots (b) Stem
(c) Leaves (d) Flowers Essay type answer questions :
13. Guttation can be observed when : 23. What is guttation? Explain with the help of
(a) Respiration is more example.
(b) More absorption and less transpiration 24. Explain the internal structure of a leaf?
(c) Photosynthesis is more 25. Explain Root Pressure with the help of an
(d) Diffusion is more experiment.
14. Ureotolic excretion occurs in : 26. Give an illustrated account of the respiratory
(a) Amoeba and Frog
system in human.

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27. Explain the method of grafting.
28. What is double fertilization? Elucidate.
29. Write a note on pollination.
30. Describe the reproductive system of human
with the help of welllabelled diagrams.

Answer Keys

1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (c)

6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (d)

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- 109 -
 Chapter-9

Force and Motion

In this chapter we will study about force and second case the displacement is of 5
motion. Before proceeding with the study of force meters (AC) and its direction is at an
and motion we will learn as to how are various angle of qº from AB.
physical quantities expressed.
Generally, the physical quantities are
expressed by their unit and numeric value. While meters meters
expressing some physical quantities even the
direction is to be mentioned along with the unit and Fig. 9.1 (a) Two displacements in the same
numeric value. direction
Physical quantities are classified into :
(a) Scalar quantities
(b) Vector quantities
9.1 Scalar and Vector Quantities :

meters
(a) Scalar quantities : The physical
quantities which can be expressed by
only the magnitude are known as the
scalar quantities. Scalar quantities do
not specify direction. Mass, time, meters
speed, density, energy, power etc. are
the examples of scalar quantities. For Fig. 9.1 (b) Two perpendicular displacements
example if the mass of a body is 5 kg,
then no direction is required to be (2) Two equal force F are working on a
mentioned for expressing it. body having mass M, as shown in
(b) Vector quantities : There are many the fig. 9.2 [The direction of the
physical quantities whose magnitude, force applied is shown by the arrows
alone, cannot describe them in the figure.
completely. We can understand this
with the help of the following
examples.

(1) Fig. 9.1 (a) and (b) shows the (a) (b)
distance travelled by a student. The
distance AB = 4 meters and distance Fig. 9.2 Forces applied on a body
BC is 3 meters. The distance
travelled by the student in both the We can say that the body in 9.2 (a) will
journeys is 7 meters but the remain static on appliccation of the force
displacement between the starting while in 9.2 (b) the body will move when
point A and the end point C is force is applied.
different in the two cases. In the first Thus it is clear from the above examples that
situation the displacement is of 7 the physical quantities like force,
meters where the movement is in the displacement etc. are expressed in terms of
same direction. However, in the their magnitude along with the directions.

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This type of quantities are known as the can also be depicted as A or A, where
vector quantities.
A=QP. In books both the methods are
The physical quantities which require
used but when writing it down it is
magnitude and a direction to be described
always easy to draw an arrow above the
completely are known as the vector
alphabet the magnitude of the vector is
quantities.
Presenting the vector quantities : Vectors expressed by the symbol or | A | or
are shown with an arrow like line. The simple alphabet A. The magnitude of a
length of the line fragment of the arrow is in vector is also known as intensity.
proportion with the magnitude of the
The magnitude of the vector A will be
physical quantity while the arrow denotes
the direction of the vector. | A | or A.
For example, if we have to depict the Unit Vector :
velocity of 30m/s in East direction, then we The unit vector of a vector A is the vector
will take an appropriate scale (for example whose magnitude is unit and the direction is
10m/s=1cm) and will draw a line to the sacle same as that of the vector A. The unit vector
(as shown in fig. 9.3) with the direction of
of vector A is represented by A (Note - A szis
the arrow towards East : Thus the vector QP
pronounced as A cap)
will display the desired velocity in terms of
It is expressed in the following manner :
the magnitude and the direction.
Point Q is the root point (or the tail point) of
A= |A|A
this vector and the point P is the apex. The
vector line fragment from Q to P is denoted A vector
i.e. A = = = unit
| A| magnitude of the vector vector
as . [Here the direction of the arrow
from Q to P is in the direction of the vector]. Thus the unit vector can be obtained by
dividing the vector with its magnitude.

9.2 Motion :
East In our daily life we find some things static
and others in a state of motion. The
buildings, trees etc. around us are still while
the cars on the road, the child walking down
or running, the flowing water, flying bird
etc. make us realize motion. Many times we
are unable to perceive motion directly but it
is inferred from the indirect evidence. For
Fig. 9.3 Depiction of Vector example the motion of air is inferred from
the movement of leaves and branches.
Representation of Vector : Following can Motion is a change in position of a body,
be the methods of writing a vector : particle or an object with respect to time.
(i) The alphabet of the tail is written first Similarly, no change in position of the
followed by that of the head and an object, with the passage of time expresses a
arrow is marked on them. For example static state of the object.
the above vector is depicted as QP. Same thing can be perceived by a person in a
state of motion and by another it may be
(ii) The vector can be symbolized by Bold inferred to be static. For example the
alphabets or with an arrow above the passengers of a train appears to be in motion
alphabet For example : The vector QP to a person standing near the rail line while
for a passenger in the train his co-passengers

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 are not in a state of motion because their known as simple linear or rectilinear
relative distance does not change. It is clear motion. Example : Movement of a ball
from these observations that change in in a long straight pipe.
position is a comparative phenomenon. (ii) Circular motion : When a particle or an
Therefore the state of motion and static state object moves on a circular path it is
are always in relation to a reference point known as the circular motion. Example :
called the origin point. Movement of a stone tied to a rope
Reference Point : which is moved horizontally.
To have a complete knowledge of the (iii) Oscillatory motion : To and fro motion
position of an object one need to know the of an object around a mean position that
displacement of the object from the point of is repeated at a regular time interval is
origin (i.e. reference point) and the angle of known as the oscillatory motion.
the reference axis with the line joining the Example : Motion of a pendulum in a
point of origin and the present position of clock having pendulum.
the object. This is known as the direction of Block/Lump or Particle :
motion. Usually while studying motion of objects
we consider them to be a mass or a particle.
If during movement the object do not break
East
up into pieces it may be effectively
visualized as a unit and is called a block or a
s lump. The entire mass of the block is
ter
me supposed to be centralized at a point known
as the center of mass. When the shape of the
object is negligible as compared to the
meter meter distance travelled by it, it is considered to be
a particle. For example the size of a ball in
Fig. 9.4 Position in relation to the reference comparison to the distance travelled by it in
point a field, is considered to be a particle.

In fig. 9.4 the object A is situated at a 9.3 Distance and Displacement :

distance of 10 meters from the reference The distance AB and BC in fig. 9.1 (a) and
point O. The angle between OA line and OX (b) are 3.0 meter and 4.0 meter respectively. But AC
axis is of 45º and OX is in East direction. distance is different in both cases. The simple linear
Here the line OA is forming an angle of 45º distance between the initial and the final position of
towards North. Therefore the object A is 100 the object is known as its displacement. It is a
meter away from the reference point O vector quantity. On the other hand, the distance
making an angle of 45º from East to North. travelled to reach the final position from the initial
Similarly the object B is 50 meters East from position is a scalar quantity. In displacement we
the point of reference; object C is 50 meters mention the direction in which the distance is to be
west of the point of reference. Therefore measured. Both distance and displacement are
motion can be comprehensively defined as : concerned with measure of length. Hence they are
"Continuous change in the position of an expressed in the unit of length. The SI unit
object with time, relative to the point of (international unit) for both is meter. If the
reference is known as the motion of the measurement of displacement is expressed without
object." mentioning the direction then it is known as the
Motion of the object can be of many types. magnitude of displacement.
Some main types are : In fig. 9.1. (a) the magnitude of the distance
(i) Simple linear motion : If the object covered and the displacement is the same i.e. 7
moves along a simple straight line, it is meters. In fig. 9.1 (b) the distance AB+BC = 7.0

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meters while the displacement will be 5 meter (i.e. Time t is always positive hence the direction
AC) at an angle of qº from AB. of velocity is always the same as that of the
displacement. If in a one dimensional motion the
9.4 Speed : distance towards right hand side from the point of
The distance travelled by a moving body in origin is taken as positive and that towards left hand
unit time is known as its speed. Generally, objects side is taken as negative then if the displacement is
are in a state of non-uniform motion, therefore, we positive even velocity will be positive while in case
express it in term of average speed. The average of negative displacement the velocity will be
speed is determined by dividing the total distance negative. The SI unit of velocity is meter /second
travelled in a given time interval by the total time (m/s).
taken. If a body covers a distance s in a particular
Distance travelled by the object direction in time t with a uniform velocity, then the
Average Speed = velocity of the body will be
Time taken to cover the distance
d s
vav = v =
t t
here the object is covering a distance d in time t.
Speed is a scalar quantity. Its unit in SI or s=v×t
system is meter/second [m/s]. The speed of vehicles If only the magnitude is considered then
used for travelling is generally expressed in terms of s=v×t ...... (9.2)
kilometer/hour (km/h). Example 9.2 : A bus is moving in east direction. It
Example 9.1 : A student covers a distance of covers a distance of 200 km in four hours.
100 km in two hours by his vehicle. Determine the Determine the velocity of the bus.
average speed of the student's vehicle. 200 Km
Solution : =
Distance 4 h
Solution : Speed =
Time Here Distance = 200 km (in east direction)
Time = 4 h
100 km
= 200 Km
2 h. Therefore velocity =
4 h
= 50 km/h.
9.5 Velocity : = 50 km/h (in east direction)
Along with the speed of a body, it is also Hence the velocity of the bus is 50km/h
essential to know the direction in which it is towards east.
moving. The distance covered by a body in unit time
in a particular direction, is known as its velocity. 9.6 Difference between Speed and Velocity :
Velocity is a vector quantity. To determine the Speed is the magnitude of motion. For
velocity the displacement of the body is divided by example if two scooters are moving at a speed of
the time taken for the displacement. If displacement 40km/h in opposite directions then their speed will
is denoted by s time by t and velocity by v then be similar but their velocity will be different. Speed
is a scalar quantity while velocity is a vector
Distance (in a particular direction) quantity.
Velocity =
Time
9.7 Uniform motion :
Displacement If an object covers a uniform distance in a
=
Time uniform time interval then the motion of that object
s is said to be a uniform motion. For example,
v = suppose we are travelling in a car and we have a
t wrist watch which can show time to the accuracy of
........................... (9.1)

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second. Taking one of the mile-stone on the road as slope of BC is more than that of OA- which means
the point of origin, note the time at every that the speed of the car during the return journey
consecutive mile-stone. was more as compared to the speed while going to x.
Suppose our observation comes out to be as
under :
Number of milestone Time
(distance in km.) (in second)
Origin mile stone Zero second
1 km mile stone 100 second

Distance
2 km mile stone 200 second
3 km mile stone 300 second
4 km mile stone 400 second
5 km mile stone 500 second
Time
Fig. 9.6 Distance -time graph of the non-
uniform velocity

9.8 Non-uniform Motion and Acceleration :

Distance in kilometer

We know that the velocity of a moving car,

scooter, cycle etc. does not remain uniform at the
time of journey. Usually, the vehicles move with a
non-uniform velocity. We all have experienced a
journey by train. We know that the velocity of the
train between two stations is not uniform. At a
Time in second railway station, while starting, its velocity increases
from zero and then at the next station its velocity
Fig. 9.5 The distance -time graph for a uniform again decreases down to zero.
motion We know that the velocity of a moving car,
scooter, cycle etc. does not remain uniform at the
If we draw a graph between the distance time of journey. Usually, the vehicles move with a
travelled by the car and the time taken to cover that non-uniform velocity. We all have experienced a
distance, for the observations recorded above, then journey by train. We know that the velocity of the
the graph comes out to be a straight line as shown in train between two stations is not uniform. At a
fig. 9.5. This straight line denotes a uniform motion. railway station, while starting, its velocity increases
The slope of the distance time graph denotes the from zero and then at the next station its velocity
speed of the body. again decreases down to zero.
The distance - time graph of a journey The change in velocity per second is known
provides us with some important information about as acceleration. It is denoted by a. Thus the rate of
the journey. The slope of the curve informs us about change of velocity of an object is known as
the low or high speed. Fig. 9.6 shows the journey- acceleration.
curve of another car. It is clear from the curve that If the initial velocity of an object is u and
the car moves with a uniform speed from the origin after time t the velocity is v then the acceleration
upto the time t1 and covers a distance x. The car will be :
remains static at that point for the time interval t1 to t2 Change in velocity
i.e. the car has stopped at point x for the given time acceleration =
interval (t1 to t2). Here the slope of the line AB is zero time taken for the change
therefore the speed is zero. Then the car moves back v–u
from x to the point of origin during the time interval a =
t
t2 to t3. The motion again is a uniform motion; but the ............ (9.3)

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 In case of a motion with uniform
acceleration the value of its acceleration and
average acceleration will be the same at any given
point of time.
The acceleration is positive when there is an

Velocity
increase in velocity and it is negative when the
velocity decreases. In case of a simple linear motion
the direction of the acceleration will either be in the
direction of the velocity or in its opposite direction.
Negative acceleration is also known as deceleration. Time
It is clear from equation 9.3 that when a body moves
Fig. 9.7 Velocity-time graph
with a uniform velocity, its acceleration will be zero.
i.e. when v = u ; a = 0
An object moving with constant velocity v
Unit : The unit of acceleration is obtained by
covers distance s in time t, then the distance
dividing the unit of velocity with that of time.
travelled by it can be calculated using
Unit of velocity formula 9.2
Unit of acceleration = s=v×t
Unit of time In fig. 9.7 OC on the axis OX denotes time t
m/s and OA on axis OY is the velocity V.
= Therefore the area of the rectangle OABC
s
=v×t
i.e. on a velocity time graph the value of the
= m/s2
distance covered in time t is equal to the
Thus the SI unit of acceleration is
value of the area ABCO. In other words, the
meter/second2 (m/s2).
area between the curve of a velocity-time
graph and the X axis denotes the distance
9.9 Graphical Representation of Motion : travelled in time t.
A line graph is used to study velocity. Line
(ii) For a body moving with uniform
graph is used to demonstrate the inter-dependence
acceleration : Fig. 9.8 shows the
of two physical quantities. For example for a body
velocity-time graph of a body moving
in motion a line graph may be used to show the
with uniform acceleration. The
dependence of a physical quantity, like the velocity,
equation for the velocity of a body
acceleration, distance etc. on time.
moving with uniform acceleration can
Velocity time graph :
be obtained from this velocity-time
(i) For a body moving with uniform
graph.
velocity : The velocity-time graph of an
object (cycle, scooter, train, bus etc.)
moving with a uniform velocity v is
Velocity

shown in fig. 9.7. Since the velocity

remains constant with time hence in the
graph the curve appears parallel to the x
axis in the form of a simple line.

Time

Fig. 9.8 Velocity-time graph of a body moving

with uniform acceleration.

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 In this graph the initial velocity of the Equations 9.5, 9.6 and 9.7 are known as the
body is u which increases to v with time equations for a uniform acceleration
t. If the body would have been moving motion.
with a uniform velocity u then the (iii) The velocity time graphs for non-
distance travelled by it in time t would uniform acceleration motion are shown
be equal to the area of the field AOCD in fig. 9.8 (a) and (b)
of the graph. Here the velocity is
changing because of the accelerated
motion of the object. The distance s
covered by it in the time interval t will
be equal to the area of AOCDB in the
graph. The shape AOCDB is a Fig. (a)
trapezium

Velocity
Therefore Distance s = Area of AOCDB
= Area of the rectangle AOCD +
area of the triangle ADB.
1
= AO × OC + AD × BD
2 Time
Here OC and AD are parallel which are
equal to u and BD = BC – CD = (v–u)
Therefore distance s = ut + ½ t (v–u)...(9.4)
If the uniform acceleration of the body is 'a'
v–u
then acceleration a =
t
\ v–u=a×t
or v = u + at ...................... 9.5 Fig. (b)
On placing the value of (v–u) from equation
Velocity

9.5 in equation 9.4

1
s = ut + 2
t (at)
1 2
= ut + at ....................... 9.6
2
Equation 9.6 shows the relation for Time
determining the distance s covered in time t
by a body moving with uniform Fig. 9.9 Non-uniform acceleration motion
acceleration. (a) and (b)
v–u
From equation 9.5 t = . On placing
a In fig. 9.9 (a) the velocity increases from
it in equation 9.6 we get zero to v1 in time t1. From A to B the object is
2 moving with a positive acceleration while
v–u 1 v–u
s=u + a during time t2 the body shows negative
a 2 a acceleration from B to C.
On simplifying it In fig. 9.9 (b). The object is moving with
positive acceleration for the first 2 seconds.
uv – u2 v2 – u2 – 2uv The velocity then remains uniform from 2 to
s= + 6 seconds i.e. acceleration is zero. The
a 2a
acceleration then becomes negative
or 2as = v2 – u2 between 6 to 8 second time interval and after
2 2
or v = u – 2as .................. 9.7 8 second the velocity becomes zero.

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 Example 9.5 The initial velocity of an
Example 9.4 : Starting from rest, a train
object is 4m/s. This object is moving with an
attains a speed of 72 km/h in 10 minutes. If 2
acceleration of 2m/s . Find the velocity of
the acceleration of the train is uniform then
the object after 5 seconds and the distance
determine (a) Acceleration of the train (b)
covered by it.
The distance covered by the train while
Solution :
attaining this velocity. 2
Given u = 4 m/s t = 5 sec a = 2m/s
Solution :
Velocity v = u + at
Given u = 0, v = 72 km/h t = 10min
v=4+2×5
v = 72 km = 14 m/s
h
72 × 1000 m Distance s = ut + 1 at2
= 60× 60 s 2
= 4 × 5 + 1 × 2(5)2
= 20 m/s. 2
Similarly t = 10 mins = 20 + 25
= 10 × 60 = 600 s = 45 m
(i) If the acceleration of the train is a 9.10 Force :
then In the previous section we have studied
v–u about the motion of an object. In day to day life we
a=
t observe that some efforts are to be made to bring
20 – 0 objects from a state of rest into a state of motion or to
= bring a moving body to a static condition. For
600 example we have to push a static table to move it or
1 2
brakes are applied to stop a moving vehicle. Thus
= m/s the physical quantity to bring about a change in the
30
static condition or in the moving condition or the
2 2 effort to bring about a change is the force. It is not
(ii) We will use the formula v = u + 2as to essential that the state of motion changes when force
determine the distance is applied to the object, for example the wall
2 2
2as = v – u remains static even on application of force with the
v 2 – u2 hands.
s= Force is the physical quantity which brings
2a
about a change in the state of motion or in the state of
(20)2 – 0 rest or even tries to bring about the change. It is a
=
1 vector quantity.
2× We should know the following three things
30
in order to get complete information regarding the
(20)2 × 30 force being applied on a body.
= (i) The point of action of the force being
2 applied i.e. the point at which the force is working.
20 × 20 × 30 (ii) Magnitude of the force.
= (iii) Direction of the work done by the force.
2 Therefore force is a vector quantity which
has a direction along with the magnitude.
= 6000 m
= 6.0 km

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9.11 Newton's Laws of Motion : Examples of the Inertia of Resting state :
Sir Isaac Newton was the first one to Many examples of this law exist in our day
establish the laws governing the motion of objects. to day life. We will describe some of them over here.
We get the actual definition of force from these For the purpose we will perform some activities.
laws. The quantitative relation between the applied Activity 9.1 : Take an empty glass. Cover it
force and the state of motion of the object is also with a thick, smooth card board piece and place a
obtained from them. Scientist Galileo had five rupee coin on it. Now strike forcefully at the
performed some experiments in seventeenth card board as shown in fig. 9.10 with your fingers.
century which later on laid the foundation of the You will observe that cardboard moves away while
Newton's laws. the coin falls in the glass.
On the basis of his experiments Galileo
stated that if an object is moving in a simple linear Coin Cardboard Cardboard
manner then it will continue to move on that simple
line with the same velocity unless some type of
external force is not acting on it. This last clause is
most important and essential. For example - When Glass Glass
we roll a ball on the floor it stops after covering
Coin
some distance. The velocity of a mass decreases as it
moves up and ultimately becomes zero and it falls Fig. 9.10
back on the ground. In these examples some
external forces are acting on the moving objects Why the coin did not move away with the
because of which their movement changes. card board? It is because the inertia of the coin keeps
In the first example the frictional force it in the state of rest whereas the cardboard moves
working between the ball and the floor hinders the because of the sudden application of force on it.
motion of the ball because of which it slows down Activity 9.2 : Stack 8-10 similar coins (i.e.
and ultimately becomes static. In the second all of rupees one or two or five etc.). Take another
example the gravitational force of the earth hinders coin and strike it with your fingers in such a manner
motion. If these hindering forces are removed some that it collides with the lower most coin of the stack.
how then the object, once in a state of motion will It will be seen that only the lowermost coin will be
always continue to move with the same velocity. displaced from the stack and the others remain
stacked together. This again is because the inertia of
9.12 Newton's First Law of Motion : the remaining coins prevent them from moving.
According to this law, an object in a state of
rest tends to remain in the state of rest and a body
moving in a direction with a particular velocity will
continue to move with that velocity in that direction
until and unless an external force is applied to it. The
object opposes any change in its state of rest or of
motion. This property of the object is known as
inertia. The object remains in the state of the motion
in which it is, unless some external force does not Fig. 9.11
work on it. Therefore force is to be applied if the
static condition of an object is to be changed. It is Some other events of inertia of rest in daily
because of this, that Newton's first law is also life include :
known as the Law of Inertia. This law of motion (i) The passengers of a bus or a car
can be divided into two parts. experience a push towards back side if
1. Law of Inertia of Rest : According to this the vehicle is suddenly moved from a
law a body in a state of rest will remain in the state of state of rest. This is because of the
rest until some external force works on it. inertia of rest of the passenger.

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 (ii) The dust particles come out from dirty better to board off the vehicle once it has
quilts, mats etc. if they are hung and stopped.
then struck at with a stick because of Inertia and Mass
this inertia. The inertia of all objects is not equal. It is our
(iii) If a horse starts running suddenly the daily experience that if we apply force to
rider falls back. The reason for this also throw a rubber ball and an iron ball of the
is the inertia of rest. same radii it is always easier to throw the
(iv) Again it is because of the inertia of rest rubber ball. Similarly, it is easy to carry an
that fruits fall down when branches are empty bag as compared to one filled with
shaken. books. It means all the objects do not resist
2. Law of Inertia of Motion : the change in its state of motion equally. The
According to this Law if an object is moving resistance to the change in the state of
it will continue to move with uniform velocity in a motion of an object depends on its mass.
straight line until some external force works on it. Greater the mass of an object, higher will be
Examples of Inertia of Motion : its inertia. Hence, the mass of an object is the
(i) You must have seen the event of broad measure of its inertia.
jump. In it the player, before leaping
forward, comes running with a speed. 9.13 Newton's Second Law of Motion :
At the time of jumping his inertia of A cricket ball moving with a normal velocity
motion is maintained and he is able to is easily caught hold of by the fielder whereas it may
jump for a greater distance. be fatal for the person trying to stop a bullet fired
(ii) If brakes are applied to a speeding from a gun, although it's mass is very less as
vehicle, the passengers bend forward. compared to that of the ball. Therefore, the quantity
This is because of the inertia of motion. obtained by multiplying the mass of the object with
When the vehicle was moving the entire its velocity is highly meaningful i.e. is of great
body was in a state of motion. However, significance. Newton presented the concept of
when brakes are applied the lower half momentum by the statement of his Second Law of
of the body which is in contact with the Motion.
vehicle becomes static while the upper The momentum of a moving body is defined
half remains in the state of motion by mass and velocity. If the mass of the moving
because of inertia. As a result the body is depicted by m and its velocity by v then the
passenger bends forward. Seat belt is momentum p of the body will be :
tied by passengers in planes and
vehicles when there are possibilities of p =m v ............. (9.8)
sudden change in velocity. If we consider only the magnitude then
(iii) When a person jumps off a moving bus p = mv
or train he falls head on. This is because Momentum also is a vector quantity. The SI
when in the vehicle, whole of his body unit of momentum is kg m/sec (kilogram meter per
was moving with the same velocity. second).
When he jumps down his legs become The Newton's Second Law of Motion for a
static on coming in contact with the moving object is expressed as :
ground while the upper part of the body The rate of change of the momentum of an
is in a state of motion with the speed of object is directly proportional to the force applied on
the vehicle. Therefore he falls head on. it and its direction is the same as that of the force
To avoid falling off, one should run for applied.
some distance in the direction of the Suppose the velocity of a body of mass m is
motion of the vehicle after jumping off. u. The velocity changes from u to v after time t when
Then after gradually the entire body a force F is applied on the body in the direction of its
balances itself and stops. However, it is velocity, then :

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 Initial momentum p1 = mu ......(9.9) surface of the ground backwards and
Momentum after time t p2 = mv ...... (9.10) the earth, in turn, apply the same
Change in momentum in time t amount of force on our feet as a
Dp = p2 – p1 = m (v – u) reaction, in the opposite direction, as a
Therefore the rate of change of momentum result we move forward. Now you must
have understood why it is difficult to
m(v–u) move on sand or smooth floor.
= (ii) While swimming in water, the swimmer
t pushes the water backwards with his
From Newton's second law
hands and feet (i.e. applies force). The
m(v–u) reaction of this force pushes him
Fa forward.
t
m ( v – u ) F is moved backwards with the
(iii) The water
or F = K where K is a constant a = of oars while rowing a boat. The
t help m
water applies a force on the boat, as a
Here ( v – u ) is the rate of change of 100because
reaction, N of which the boat
t =
moves forward.
5 kg
velocity i.e. acceleration a.
Therefore F = Km × a ......... (9.11)
We take the unit of force in a way so that the
value of constant K remains one.
Placing the value of K as 1 in equation.
9.11 we get
F=ma .......... (9.12) Fig. 9.12 Movement of Boat on water
Now we can derive the unit of force from
equation 9.12. By substituting the international unit (iv) The propeller blades of the aircraft
for mass and acceleration in the equation we get throws the air backwards so the force
applied by the displaced air moves the
Kilogram × meter aircraft forward.
Unit of force F =
second2 (v) When bullet is fired from a gun the force
is applied on the bullet in the forward
Kilogram × meter direction. An equal force is applied on
= 2
= Kg m/s2
second the gun in the opposite direction. But
This unit of force is named as Newton the mass of gun is much greater than
symbolized by N. that of the bullet therefore the gun
moves in the backward direction with
Kg m very less velocity and the shoulder of
N= 2 the gun-man experiences a slight
s
We obtain a method of measuring force from backward push.
the Newton's second law. If we know the mass of an
object and the acceleration generated in that body on
application of the force, then we can measure that
force. Other units of force are dyne and poundal
1 Newton = 105 dyne and
1 Poundal = 13825.7 dyne
Example 9.6 : How much force is required
2
to generate an acceleration of 10m/s in an object
having mass of 5kg? If the force is doubled what Fig. 9.13 The action and reaction forces, while
firing a gun

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 (vi) When rockets are propelled gases a body of mass m changes to p2 in time t because of
escape from the tail end at a very high the application of force F on it. Then according to
speed and as a reaction the rocket is the Second Law of Motion
propelled in the direction opposite to We obtain a very important Law of
that of the escape of gases and it rises Conservation of Momentum from Newton's Second
high up in the space. Law of Motion. Suppose the initial momentum p1of
a body of mass m changes to p2 in time t because of
the application of force F on it. Then according to
the Second Law of Motion

F = Force on Rocket
Rocket (Reaction)

or F =

Now if force is zero i.e. F = 0

Force on Gas
then p1 = p2 ........ (9.13)
(Action)

ThisGas
means that change in momentum will
be zero or that the value of momentum will remain
constant. This is known as the Law or Theory of
Fig. 9.14 Action and Reaction forces, on a Conservation of Momentum. It can be expressed as
rocket under : "It the external force applied on a body
or a system is zero then the entire momentum of that
We may get confused that if each force of system remains conserved i.e. the value of
action has an opposing force of reaction then momentum remains constant with time."
how the objects move? From the above
examples it is very clear that the forces of We will understand it by the following
action and reaction although are equal and examples :
are applied in opposite directions, they (1) To understand the Law of Conservation
cannot nullify each other because they work of Momentum we will consider a simple
on two different objects. Equal forces situation in which there are only two
applied in opposite directions can nullify particles (Fig. 9.15), A and B which are
each other only when they work on a single glass balls whose mass is m1 and m2
object and that too in the same simple line. respectively and initial velocity is u1 and
On the basis of the above mentioned u2. Suppose
examples and experiments we get the
following information regarding the
Newton's Third Law of Motion.
(1) Every action has a reaction.
(2) The forces of action and reaction are
Force of acceleration
appliedequal
on the and
bulletin opposite directions.
(3) The forces of action and reaction work Fig. 9.15 Collision of two balls
Reaction force applied
on two different objects hence
on the gun their
mutual balancing is not possible.
The momentum of ball A before and after the
9.15 Conservation of momentum : collision is m1u1 and m1v1 respectively.
We obtain a very important law of Therefore, the rate of change of momentum
conservation of momentum from Newton's Second of ball A will be
Law of Motion. Suppose the initial momentum p1 of
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 entire momentum after explosion
comes out to be zero.
Suppose the mass of the larger piece is
Similarly, for ball B the rate of change in m1 (v1 – u1)
2m and velocity is v1 and the mass of the
momentum will t
smaller piece is m and its velocity is v2,
then after explosion
2mv1 + mv2 = 0
m2 (v2 – u2)
If the force applied by A on B is F12 and that
applied by B on A if F21 then according to t
Newton's Second( p2 –Law
p1 )of Motion :
t
p2 – p1
t m1 (v1 – u1)
F12 =
t
Fig. 9.16 Momentum inman 2 (v 2 – u2)
explosive bomb
Now according to the Third Law of Motion F21 =
t
the force exerted by A on B will be equal but This means that the piece of mass m will
opposite in direction to the force applied on move in opposite direction to the one
A by B having mass 2m with a velocity 2v1.
Therefore F12 = – F21
9.16 Friction :
We are well versed with friction. This force
opposes the mutual motion between two
objects. mThe frictional force
1 (v1 – u1) m2 (v2 is
– u2always
)
or m1 (v1 – u1) = – m2 (v2 – u2)
applied opposite to the=direction
– of motion.
t t
m1u1+m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 ........ 9.14 It is a common observation that a ball covers
This refers to that the total momentum greater distance on a surface as smooth as
before the collision is equal to the total glass, as compared to that on a rough road. It
momentum after the collision. is easy to cycle on an asphalt concrete road
Thus we observe that the total momentum of as compared to cycle on a rough road. The
the system before the collision is equal to the friction can be reduced by smoothing the
total momentum after the collision i.e. surface but it cannot be eliminated
momentum is conserved when no external completely. Friction even works on objects
force is acting on the system. This result is in moving in air. Now we will consider the
accordance with the Law of Conservation of dependence of the frictional force that
Momentum. occurs between two surfaces.
(2) In figure 9.16 B is an explosive bomb Limiting Friction : Try to push a brick
which
Prior to initially is in a state
Collision After of
therest. Since placed on a table with your finger. Initially
Collision Collision
its velocity is zero its initial momentum when the value of the force being applied is
will be zero. Now if it explodes in two less the brick will not move. At this time the
parts whose mass are in the ratio of 2:1, force applied on the brick and its frictional
then after explosion their velocity will force are in balance with each other and are
be in a linear manner but in opposite acting in opposite directions. As we increase
direction in such a manner that the the force being applied even the frictional

- 122 -
 force increases and at the point when the Friction on objects moving in air and
value of the force applied increases more fluid :
than a limit, the brick moves. The magnitude Force of friction acts on bodies moving in air
of the force which is just enough to move the or liquid too, however, this force is less as
brick (i.e. neither more nor less than that compared to that on solid surface. When
required) is known as the limiting friction. meteors enter the earth's atmosphere they
experience the air's force of friction because
of their very high velocities, emit intense
heat and start glowing. Most of them
vaporises before reaching the earth's
surface.
The high speed vehicles, motor-cars,
airplanes and spaceships
Brick are of special
shape and design in order to reduce the force
of friction of the air experienced by them
Fig. 9.17(a) : The force applied by a finger to while moving.
move a brick Control of Friction : Friction always
opposes motion between two surfaces. The
Sliding Friction : The friction that develops parts of a machine which are in a state of
between two surfaces when an object slides motion keep rubbing and become warm.
on top of a surface is known as the sliding This is because of friction and the wear off
friction. The sliding friction acts to the point of parts. We have to apply the necessary
till there is relative movement of the two force in order to keep the object moving
objects. Force of friction operates even with the uniform velocity, to refute the force
when the external force being applied is of friction.
removed, as a result the velocity of the body We can control friction but only upto a limit,
decreases and ultimately it comes to a halt. by using the following methods :
Rolling Friction : As shown in fig. 9.17, if a (i) Friction is less on smooth surfaces,
brick is placed on 3-4 cylindrical rollers like therefore the friction can be reduced by
pencil or cylindrical pieces of iron and is making the surface of the moving parts
pushed, it moves easily. The friction of the machine, smooth.
experienced by bodies moving on wheels or (ii) The vehicles, air-crafts and engines of
on rollers is known as the rolling friction. the trains are made of a special shape in
order to reduce friction.
(iii) Rolling friction is always very less as
compared to the sliding friction. It is
because of this reason that small steel
balls, known as ball-bearings are used
in the components of the machine
which are in a Brick
state of constant motion,
to reduce friction. Ball-bearings are
present in the wheels of a bicycle too.
Ball-bearings reduce friction which
Fig. 9.17(b) Rolling motion for moving a brick saves energy and effort.
Lubricant : Some special type of
The value of rolling friction between two substances known as lubricants, are used to
similar surfaces is less than that of the reduce friction lubricants may be solid,
sliding friction. Therefore tyres and rollers liquid or gaseous. In light machines like
are used in various machines. cycle, watches etc. thin oil is used as a

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 lubricant where as in heavy machines thick less floor we will slip and fall.
oil or grease is used. When lubricant is 2. Force of friction is helpful in the
applied between the two moving surfaces, movement of tyres on the road. Without
its particles occupy the spaces between the friction it will be difficult to move ahead
irregular regions of the surface and forms a or turn the vehicles around.
thin layer between them. Now the 3. The vehicles come to a halt on applying
movement is in this layer thus reducing brakes because of friction.
friction. Compressed air is also used as a 4. The transfer of rotation power from the
lubricant. Air under high pressure is passed motor to the machine through the belt or
in between the moving components of some chain is possible because of the
machines. This not only reduces the friction existence of the force of friction.
but also prevent dust particles from settling 5. The wall and wood holds nail or screw
on the surface. Similarly, the powder used because of friction.
on a carom-board acts as a lubricant while 6. Without friction we cannot hold a pen or
playing. pencil in our hand to write.
Need of friction : Although the force of 7. It will not be possible to tie a knot or
friction reduces the efficiency of machines weave a cloth without the availability of
by dissipating their energy but under many friction.
situations there is a need to increase friction. Disadvantages of Friction :
The match box and match sticks are made 1. Energy is dissipated because of friction.
rough to increase friction so that the match This reduces the efficiency of machines.
sticks ignite easily. While walking when we 2. In vehicles nearly 20% more fuel
lift the foot to place it forward, the other leg consumption is there because of
counters the reaction force generated friction.
because of the presence of friction. Similar 3. The components of machine wear and
is the case with the tyres of the vehicles. The tear because of friction.
tyre applies a backward force in order to 4. It is due to friction that heat is generated
move ahead. The reaction force generated in machines which hinders their smooth
due to friction prevents the tyre from working and cause damage.
skidding and the tyre rolls in the forward
direction. If the force of friction is less, as is 9.17 Thrust and Pressure :
the case in sand and mud, the tyre will keep Thrust : The vertical force applied to the
revolving at that point only when force is surface of an object is known as thrust. Its SI
applied. The rough surface of vehicle tyres unit is Newton.
increases the force of friction while moving Pressure : Force applied per unit area on an
on the road. This increases their grip and object is known as pressure. It is a scalar
prevents skidding. The vehicles are halted quantity.
by using brakes, because of the force of
friction.
Now you must have understood the reason
2
of our slipping when we place our foot on Its SI unit is Newton per meter square (N/m )
the banana peel and why it is difficult to which is known as Pascal (Pa)
walk on a smooth floor. Again the reason is 1 Pascal = 1 Newton per meter square
lack of friction in the two cases. 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
Pressure depends on the following two
factors :
Advantages and Disadvantages of Friction : 1. The force applied
Advantages of Friction : 2. Area of the surface
1. Friction helps us to walk. On friction- If the area of two surfaces is equal, then,

- 124 -
 more the force applied greater will be the than the density of the water, then the body
pressure. If same force is applied than the will float in water. On the other hand, if the
object with greater surface area will density of the object is more than the density
experience less pressure. of water, it will sink.

9.18 Buoyancy : 9.19 Archimedes' Principle :

The ship made up of iron and steel do not A stone is tied to a spring balance and is
sink in sea water while a sheet of same weighed. Note its weight. Now note the
weight of iron or steel will sink. Similarly, weight when this stone is dipped in water
the iron nail sinks in water while the cork filled in a vessel. A change in weight will be
floats. To understand such phenomenon we observed.
will have to understand buoyancy. You will observe that there is decrease in the
"Buoyancy is the property of a fluid to exert reading on submerging it in water. This
an upward force, also known as upthrust, on decrease will be equal to the weight of the
a body that is submerged in it." water displaced by the stone.
In a fluid the following two forces act upon
an object :
First : The force of gravitation of earth on
the object (weight of the object), in
downward direction
Second : Force of buoyancy of water on the
object, in upward direction.
The sinking or floating of the object in water
depends on the relative values of the two
forces.
1. If the weight of the object is more than
the force of buoyancy, then the object
will sink. Fig 9.19 (1) Weight of the stone suspended in
2. If the weight of the object is less than the air (2) Weight of the stone on submerging it
force of buoyancy, then it will float in a in water.
partially submerged manner.
3. If the weight of the object is equal to the "When an object is partially or completely
force of buoyancy then the body will be immersed in a fluid, it experiences a force in
completely submerged but will float. the upward direction which is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by it. This force
is known as the buoyancy force." This is
known as the Archimedes' Principle.
Uses :
1. It is useful in determining the relative
density of the substance.
Force 2. It is used while designing ships and
Pressure = submarines.
Area 3. Lactometer and hydrometer are based
on Archimedes' principle. (Lactometer
Fig. 9.18 On placing on water surface, the iron is used to measure the purity of milk
nail sinks while the cork floats while hydrometer is used to find the
The knowledge of an object sinking or density of fluids).
floating in water can be acquired by its 4. This explains the floating of ice on
density. If the density of the object is less water.

- 125 -
 distance travelled by an object, in a particular
9.20 Density : direction in unit time is known as velocity. It is a
Mass of a unit volume of a substance is vector quantity. The unit for both, i.e. speed and
known as its density velocity is m/s.
8. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
Its unit is m/s2.
9. Uniformly accelerated motion of an object is
expressed by the three Mass
equations :
(i) v = uDensity
+ at =
Volume
3 –3 (ii) v = ut + at2
SI unit of density is Kg/m or Kgm . m
(iii) v2 = u2 + 2asd =
V
9.21 Relative Density : 10. Force is the physical quantity which brings
Generally the density of a substance is about a change in the state of motion or the state
expressed in relation to the density of water. of rest of a body.
The ratio of the density of substance and that 11. Imbalanced force generates motion in an
of water is known as the relative density of object.
that substance. 12. A body remains in its state of rest or in a state of
motion along a simple line, until and unless a
non-balanced force acts upon it. The tendency
of a body to resist a change in the state of rest or
of motion is known as its inertia. This is
Density of a substance
Relative density is a ratio of similar Newton's
RelativeFirst Law=of Motion.
Density
quantities hence do not have any unit. 13. Newton's Second Law ofDensity Motion of water
:- The rate of
change of momentum is directly proportional
Important Points to the force applied on the object. The direction
1. The physical quantities having only the of the change in momentum is always in the
magnitude and no sense of direction are known direction of the force applied.
(1) (2) 14. Newton's Third Law of Motion :- For every
as the scalar quantities.
2. The physical quantities which require a action there is an equal and opposite reaction
direction along with magnitude, for their and these act on two different objects.
expression, are known as vector quantities. 15. Force of friction always resist the motion of the
body. Friction depends on the smoothness and
3. The vector obtained on dividing a vector A with roughness of the two surfaces which are in
its magnitude is known as the unit vector. motion in contact with each other. Force of
friction can be controlled to some limit.
16. The force applied on unit area of an object is
known as Pressure. The unit of force is N/m2 or
Pascal (Pa). A
4. Continuous change in the position of an object 17. When a solid is A immersed
= in a fluid, an upward
from the reference point is known as motion. force equal to the |weight
A| of the fluid displaced
5. The motion of the body is known as the uniform by it, is applied on it. This is known as the Force
motion if the body covers same distance in the of Buoyancy.
same specific time interval. 18. If the density of a solid is more than the density
6. If the body covers different distances in a of the fluid, then it sinks. However, if the
specific time interval then the motion of the density of the solid is less than the density of the
body is said to be non-uniform. fluid then it will float.
7. Distance travelled by an object in unit time is
known as its speed. It is a scalar quantity. The
Questions

- 126 -
 Objective type questions : applied to it, then
1. Which of the following is a vector quantity : (a) Its velocity will increase
(a) Work (b) Time (b) Velocity will remain constant
(c) Mass (d) Gravitational force (c) The body will stop after sometime
2. Two forces of 4N and 3N are working on the (d) Speed will increase
same body in opposite directions. Then the 10. The inertia of an object depends upon :
magnitude of the force on the particle will be : (a) Center of gravity of the object
(a) 5 N (b) 7N (b) Mass of the object
(c) IN (d) Between IN and 7N (c) Gravitational acceleration
3. Rate of change of velocity is : (d) Shape of the object
(a) Force (b) Momentum 11. An object of 5 Kg weight is moving in a simple
(c) Acceleration (d) Displacement line with an acceleration of 10m/s. The
4. Unit of momentum is : magnitude of the force working on the object
(a) Newton meter will be :
(b) Newton Kilogram/meter (a) 50 N (b) 0.5 N
(c) Newton meter/second (c) Zero (d) 2 N
(d) Kilogram meter/second 12. When a force is applied on an object :
5. The velocity time graph of an object moving (a) Its motion may change
with uniform velocity is (b) The direction of its motion may change
(c) Its shape may change
(d) All of the above
13. The weight of a body having mass 1 Kg will
(a) (b) be:
(a) 1 Newton (b) 9.08 Newton
(c) 9.8 Newton (d) 8.9 Newton
14. If the mass of an object is m, velocity is v and
acceleration is a, then its momentum p will be :
(a) p = ma (b) p = mv
(c) (d)
(c) p = m/v (d) p = v/m
15. A body cannot change its state of rest or of
motion because of its :
6. The momentum of an object depends upon : (a) mass (b) weight
(a) Mass of the object (c) acceleration (d) inertia
(b) Displacement of the object 16. If the force applied on the surface of an object is
(c) Time taken for displacement doubled, then the pressure will :
(d) All of the above (a) reduce to half (b) not change
7. The equation relating the Force (F) mass (m) (c) double itself (d) become four times
and acceleration (a) is :
(a) F = ma (b) m = aF Very short answers type question :
1. What will be the acceleration of a body moving
(c) a = mF (d) ma =
with a uniform velocity of 40m/s after 10s?
2. A moving body of mass m and having a
8. Unit of force is :
velocity u collides with the wall and rebounds
(a) Kilogram – meter – second
2 with the velocity u. What will be the change in
(b) Kilogram – meter – second
2 its momentum?
(c) Kilogram – meter / second
3. What will be the distance covered in 30 mins by
(d) Kilogram – meter / second
a train moving with a velocity of 20km/h.
9. If a body moves in a straight line with a
4. The area between the velocity time graph of a
uniform velocity and no external force is

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 moving object and its time axis is equal to 10. Suggest method to reduce friction.
what? 11. The linear momentum of a car and a truck are
5. The principle of rocket is based on which one of equal. Whose velocity will be more?
the Newton's laws. 12. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of
6. What is the direction of the force of friction of a friction.
moving bicycle? 13. What happens when we shake a wet cloth?
7. Why a cricket player pulls his hands gradually Explain your observation.
with the moving ball while holding a catch? 14. Why a person pulling out water from a well
8. Why a player runs for some distance prior to falls backward if the rope breaks off suddenly.
jumping in a high jump /broad jump event. 15. Explain why a person getting off from a moving
9. Why a person standing in a moving bus falls in bus falls in the forward direction.
the forward direction if the bus halts suddenly? 16. The ship made of iron floats on the surface
10. What will be the magnitude of the force on a while a sheet made up of iron sinks. Explain.
body moving with constant velocity? 17. Differentiate between Density and Relative
11. What efforts should be made by a person Density.
standing in the middle of a frozen lake to reach 18. Write the Archimedes' Principle.
the shore?
12. What is 1 Newton force? Essay type answer questions :
13. What is Inertia? 1. Explain scalar and vector quantities. What is
14. On applying brakes the vehicle stops. What will the way of writing a vector quantity? Define
be the momentum of the vehicle in the process? unit vector.
15. What is the momentum of the gun and its bullet 2. Explain Uniform and Non-uniform Motion.
before it is fired? Find the equation of motion with the help of
16. What is Thrust? velocity time graph.
17. What is the unit of Relative Density? 3. Define the Equations of Balanced and
Unbalanced forces. Explain with the help of
Short answer type questions : suitable diagram that only unbalanced force
1. Define : can generate motion in an object.
(i) Displacement (b) Velocity 4. Explain the Newton's Laws of motion taking
(iii) Acceleration examples from the day to day life. Establish the
2. What is meant by Uniform Motion? Give an relation between force, mass and acceleration
example? on the basis of the Second Law.
3. If action is always equal to reaction, then 5. What is meant by Inertia? Explain taking two
explain how the horse cart pulled by a horse, example.
moves forward? 6. Define Momentum. With the help of diagram
4. The fruits fall down when branches are shaken show that the Momentum is conserved during
forcefully. Give reason. the direct collision of two moving objects.
5. Explain the reason why some space is left
empty in the tanker while filling water in it? Numerical Questions :
6. Explain why the boat moves in the opposite 1. A ship having a mass of 3×107 Kg is in a state of
direction when the passenger jumps out of it? rest. It is pulled to a distance of 3m by applying
7. Comment on the following statement - "On any a force of 5×104 N. If the friction of water is
object two forces work in a pair, only one force negligible then find the speed of the ship.
is not possible on it at a given time. 2. The speed of a bus increases from 25km/h to 70
8. Differentiate between the dynamic friction and km/h in 5s. Determine the mean acceleration of
the rolling friction the bus.
9. What is the Law of Conservation of 3. The momentum of a child riding a bicycle is
Momentum? Explain with the help of an 400 kg m/s. The cycle is moving with a velocity
example? of 5 m/s. Find the mass of the child along with

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 the bicycle.
4. A child throws a ball in the upward direction
and then catches it after 8 sec. Then determine
(a) the velocity with which the ball was thrown
up
(b) At what height will the velocity of the ball
will become zero?
(g = 9.8 m/s2)

Answer Key

1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (c)

6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (a) 12. (d) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (d)
16. (c)

Numerical formula
1. 0.1 m/s 2. 2.5m/s2 3. 80 Kg.
5. (a) 39.2 m/s 6. 78.4 m

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 Chapter-10

Gravitation
Activity 10.1 this episode. He thought as to why the apple fell
- On leaving a stone from hand it towards earth? Why was it not attracted towards the
automatically falls down on the earth moon. Thus on the daily life observations Newton
surface. proposed the theory of Gravitation.
- Some force is to be applied if we want to In this chapter we will study about the
throw up the same stone in the upward Gravitation and the Universal Laws of Gravitation.
direction. We will also consider the movement of object under
In the last chapter we have studied that force the influence of the gravitational force, the change
is required to change the movement or direction of in weight of objects and why do objects fly in the
motion of an object or body. On considering the space.
force required in the above activities we understand Let us see as to how circular motion takes
that on leaving any object freely it moves towards place.
the surface of the earth. This means, that the earth Activity 10.2 :
exerts some invisible force on the object, which is - Tie a small stone to a piece of a thread.
known as the Gravitational Force. When the object - Move the stone on a circular path by
is thrown up an external force is applied by the catching hold of the other end of the
person throwing it up. At that time also earth's thread, as shown in fig.
gravitational force is working on it and hence its - Observe the direction of the movement
velocity gradually decreases down to zero. Then of the stone.
after it again starts falling down towards the earth - Now leave the thread and observe the
surface. This also is an example of earth's direction of movement of the stone.
gravitational force. Another example of this force is
the movement of water drops from the clouds to the
earth surface.

10.1 Gravitation :
It is said that once Newton was sitting
beneath an apple tree and an apple fell on him.
Newton was inspired to find the reason underlying

Fig. 10.1

Before we left the thread the stone was

moving in a circular path. At that time it experienced
a force towards its center which is known as the
Centripetal Force. This force is responsible for the
circular motion of the objects.
On leaving the thread the stone proceeds in a
simple line and then moves in a free manner i.e. the
circular motion ends on removing the Centripetal
Force.
The movement of moon around the earth is
due to the presence of centripetal force. This

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centripetal force is derived from the earth's
gravitational force.
Gravitational Force occurs naturally
between all the objects of the world, but we are
unable to experience the gravitational force Fig. 10. 2
working between the normal objects. Since the mass
of celestial bodies is more this force becomes (1) F a Mm ........... (i)
effective and controls their motion. 1
It was in fifth century that the Bhartiya (2) F a ........... (ii)
d2
astronomer Aryabhatt propounded the geocentric
From equation (i) and (ii) we get
model to understand the movement of planets.
Nearly 500 years before Newton and Kepler, mM
Fa
Bhaskaracharya in the grah-ganit section of his d2
famous work Siddhantsiromani had discussed the
gravitational power of earth and the planetary GMm
or F=
movements, in detail. Bhaskaracharya calculated d2
the radius (R) and circumference (2pr) of the earth. ........ (10.1)
The western scientist Copernicus (1473-1543)
propounded the model of the movement of celestial Here G is the proportional constant known
bodies on the basis of Aryabhatt's vision. Even as the Universal Gravitational constant.
Kepler and Galileo also worked out some laws to The value of G has been worked out to be
clarify the understanding about the movement of the 6.67×10 –11 Newton–meter 2 –Kilogram 2 , from
planets. various experiments. Its value does not depend on
The famous seventeenth century scientist the nature of the particles, medium, time,
Isaac Newton (1642-1727) gave the Laws of temperature etc., i.e. it remains the same at every
Motion and the Universal Law of Gravitation. place. Hence it is known as the Universal Constant.
These were based on substantial scientific logic and The earth also attracts things towards itself. This,
were proved mathematically. The contributions of earth's force of attraction is known as the Force of
these scientists in the sphere of physics were very Gravitation.
important. Derivation of the unit of G :
From equation 10.1 : Fd2 = GMm
10.2 Universal Law of Gravitation : 2
Each particle (body) of the universe exerts a or Fd ........ (10.2)
G=
force of attraction towards itself on every other Mm
particle (body) which is known as the Gravitational When we place the units of F, d and Mm in
Force. equation (10.2), the SI unit of G obtained will be
According to the Law of Gravitation "the 2
force of attraction between two particles of matter or Nm
2
bodies is directly proportional to the product of their Kg
masses and is inversely proportional to the square of Many phenomenon can be easily interpreted
the distance between them. The direction of this by the Law of Gravitation. Some of the important
force is the same as the direction of the line joining ones includes :
the two particles". (1) The force that binds us to the earth
Suppose two bodies of mass M and m are (2) Movement of planets around the sun
placed at a distance d from each other. Then the (3) Movement of the moon around the earth
gravitational force F working between will be (4) Occurrence of tides in the sea.
Example 10.1 : The mass of the earth is
approximately 6×1024 Kg and that of the moon is
22
approx. 7.4×10 Kg. If the distance between the

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 5
earth and the moon is 3.84×10 Km, then calculate to a certain height and then starts falling
the force exerted by the earth on the moon down.
Nm2 (ii) A stone when left from some height
Here G = 6.7×10–11 automatically falls downwards.
Kg2 You have seen that in the first case the stone
Solution : moves up for some distance. This distance depends
24
Mass of the earth M = 6×10 Kg upon the force applied by you. In this situation the
Mass of the moon m = 7.4×1022 Kg direction of the movement of the stone is opposite to
5
Distance between the two d = 3.84×10 Km the direction of the earth's gravitational force.
Nm2 Therefore, after attaining a certain height the stone
-11
G = 6.7×10 starts falling down.
Kg2 In the other situation the stone automatically
5 5
d = 3.84×10 Km = 3.84×10 ×1000 m falls down from some height when left. This is
= 3.84×108 m known as the free fall. In this case the direction of
The force applied by the earth on the moon the movement of the stone and that of the force of
–11 24 22 gravitation, both are the same.
F = GMm = 6.7×10 ×6×10 ×7.4×10 In both the above cases the velocity of the
d
2
3.84×108×3.84×108 body changes thus its movement is under the
= 20.17×1019 N influence of the gravitational acceleration.
20
= 2.02×10 N
Example 10.2 : A ball of 40 Kg mass 10.3 Gravitational Acceleration :
-6
experiences a gravitational force of 0.25×10 Kg When the change in an object's velocity i.e.
weight by another ball of 80 Kg mass. The distance acceleration, is due to the earth's force of
between the centers of the two balls is 30 cm. If the gravitation, it is known as the Gravitational
gravitational acceleration g = 9.8m/s2 then calculate Acceleration. It is denoted by g and its unit is ms–2.
the gravitational constant. From the second law of motion
Solution : Force = mass × acceleration
Here m1 = 40 Kg or F = mg ......... (10.3)
m2 = 80 Kg On equating equation (10.1) and (10.3) we get
–6
W =F = mg = 0.25×10 ×9.8 Newton
r = 30 cm = 0.3 meter GMm
mg = G
d2
G m1m2 GM
F= 2 g=
r d2 ......... (10.4)
Fr2
G=
m1m2 Here M is the mass of earth and d is the
distance of the object from the center of the earth.
0.25×10–6×9.8×0.3×0.3 The value of g decreases with the increase in value
= of d.
40×80 If the radius of earth is R then the
225×98×10
–11 gravitational acceleration on the earth's surface gs
= will be :
32×100
-11
= 6.89x10 Nm / Kg
2 2 GM
gs = 2
R
Activity 10.3 ........(10.5)
(i) When a stone is thrown up it moves up
It is clear from fig. 10.3 that the radius of the

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earth is more at the equator as compared to that at the Table 10.1
poles. Therefore, the value of g will be more at the Name of Mass Radius gravitational
24
poles as compared to that at the equator. Planets X10 (Kg) (Km) acceleration
(m/s2)
Mercury 0.33 4879 3.7
Venus 4.87 12104 8.9
Earth 5.97 12756 9.8
Mars 0.642 6792 3.7
Jupiter 1898 142984 23.1
Saturn 568 120536 9.0
Uranus 86.8 51118 8.7
Neptune 102 495.28 11
Pluto 0.014 2370 0.7

Fig. 10.3 [Pluto has been removed from the category

of planets in 2006].
As we move to height h the value of g Question 1. Which Planet has the maximum
decreases. value of 'g' and why?
Calculation of the value of gravitational Question 2. What is the value of 'g' on
acceleration at the earth surface : mercury?
Mass of earth M = 6×1024 Kg Make questions on your own based of this
Radius of earth R = 6400 Km table and discuss with your friends.
= 6400×1000 m
6
= 6.4×10 m The gravitational acceleration on moon
From equation 10.5 is 1.61 m/s2 which is about 1/6 of the earth's
gravitational acceleration .
GM
gs = 2
R 10.4 Movement of objects under the
-11
6.7×10 ×6×10
24 influence of the earth's force of gravitation :
= 6 6 It is clear from the equations 10.4 and 10.5
6.4×10 ×6.4×10 that the Gravitational Acceleration experienced by
various objects does not depend upon the mass and
= 9.8m/s2 or ms–2 shape of the objects. This means that different
Therefore the value of earth's gravitational objects should fall down with the same rate when
–2
acceleration = 9.8 ms . dropped from the same height. But is it so? Again we
will perform an activity to get an answer.
10.3.1 Gravitational acceleration of different Activity 10.5
planets : - Take some stones, coins, feathers and
The gravitational acceleration of any planet papers. Throw them down from the
depends upon its mass and radius. In other words, terrace of your house and observe. Do
heavier a planet comparatively more will be its all of them reach the earth
gravitational acceleration. simultaneously?
Activity 10.4
- In the table given below, the mass, The initial velocity of the free falling
radius and gravitational acceleration of objects is zero.
various planets have been tabulated.
- Keeping in mind the dependencies of g The value of gravitational acceleration 'g'
study the given table and try to answer remains constant for a height of some kilometers
the questions given below : from the earth's surface. Therefore to study the

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motion of objects near the earth's surface, the Example 10.4 : An object is thrown up
equation for uniform acceleration motion described vertically if it reaches to a height of 10m then
in the last chapter is made use of. calculate :
Here the acceleration a is replaced by the (1) The velocity with which the object was
gravitational acceleration g. If the resistance due to thrown up.
air is considered to be negligible, then : (2) Time taken by the object to reach the
(i) The equations of motion on throwing an highest point.
object in the upward direction Solution : Here the maximum height
v = u – gt reached
h = ut –
2 2
v = u – 2gh
1
2
gt2
} ........ (10.6)

here h is the height of the object from the

h= 10 m
final velocity v = 0
gravitational acceleration g = 9.8 m/s2.
2 2
(1) v = u + 2gh
2
surface at the given moment of time. O = u – 2gh
2
(ii) The equations of motion for a free falling u = 2gh
2
object : u = 2×9.8×10=196
v = gt
s = 1 gt2
2
2
v = 2 gs
} ........ (10.7)

Example 10.3 : A bread from the beak of a

u = 196
= 14 m s–1.
(2) v = u – gt
O = u – gt
u = gt
crow sitting on the neem tree reaches the earth's
u 10
surface in 2 seconds. Taking the value of g as t= = = 1.43 s
10m/s2, Calculate the following : g 9.8
(i) What will be the velocity of bread on
reaching the earth's surface? 10.5 Mass :
(ii) What will be the average velocity of the In the last chapter you have studied that
bread during these two seconds. Mass is the measure of the inertia of an object. In
(iii) How high is the crow's beak from the other words, greater the mass of a body more will be
earth? its inertia. The mass of a body remains the same
Solution : every where; whether it is on earth or in space.
(i) The final velocity [as from equation
10.7] 10.6 Weight :
On earth the weight of an object is a type of a
v = gt
force that takes it towards the earth. As per
definition the weight of a substance is the force by
\ v = 10 × 2 = 20m/s which it is attracted towards the earth.
(ii) Average velocity : Mathematically F = mg
u + v 0+20 \ the weight of the body w = mg.
v= = = 10 m/s
2 2 Think what is the unit of weight and why
(iii) The height of the beak will be the
distance travelled, hence
Since the value of g at a given point is
2 constant, therefore, the weight of an object is
s = ½ gt
proportional to it's mass. The mass remains the same
= ½ x 10 x 4 with the change in the value of g but the weight
changes .
= 20 m

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10.7 Weight of an object on the Moon : (2) Even the food is to be ingested in the
Weight of a body on Moon is the force with form of a paste directly from the tube by
which the moon attracts it towards itself. The mass squeezing it.
of moon is less as compared to that of the earth (3) All the things inside the space craft are
therefore even the force of attraction will be less. We afloat.
can say that the weight of an object on moon is (4) If the astronaut measures himself with a
relatively less than that on earth. spring balance, in the space craft, his
Since we have seen that the gravitational weight will be zero.
2
acceleration on moon is 1.61 m/s which is 1/6 of (5) If an object is tied and hung with a string
that present on the earth's surface, whose on the space craft, the tension in the
2
gravitational acceleration is 9.8 m/s , therefore the string will be zero.
weight of the object on moon will be 1/6 of its Here the point to be noted is that in an
weight on earth. artificial satellite everything experiences
Weightlessness : weightlessness while the case is not so on a
If you have sat in the swings put up in fairs, natural satellite. This is because the natural
you must have experienced that when the swing satellite exerts gravitational force because
comes down from up we experience reduction in of its mass, which is more. The mass of an
weight. artificial satellite however, is less and hence
it applies negligible gravitational force and
the object is in a state of weightlessness in its
environment.

Important Points
1. Some or the other type of force is responsible
for the motion of an object. The centripetal
force is responsible for the circular motion.
2. Every object of this universe applies a force of
attraction, naturally, on every other object,
which is known as the force gravitation. All the
stars, planets galaxies and small atomic
particles are included in the term 'object'.
Basically, the notion of weight is because of 3. The gravitational force acting between two
the reaction force being applied on the object. If the objects is mathematically represented as under.
cable of a lift coming in downward direction beaks, It is also referred to as the Universal Law of
there will be free fall of the lift and we will Gravitation
experience weightlessness, i.e. zero weight. GMm
In case of weightlessness the reaction force. F=
d2
(R) = 0 Thus, artificial satellite continuously falls
freely toward the center of the earth and all the where M and m are the masses of the objects
things present in it including the organisms, are in a concerned and d is the distance between them.
state of weightlessness. In such a condition some G is the constant of proportion whose numeric
very interesting results have been observed. For Nm2
–11
example : value is 6.67×10
(1) The water filled in the glass will not fall Kg2
even if the glass is inverted. This is 4. If there is a change in the velocity of an object
because on tilting the glass, the water of under the influence of the gravitational force,
the glass being heavy will float in the then it is known as the gravitational
form of drops. Therefore an astronaut acceleration.
cannot drink the water of the glass. 5. The equation for the value of gravitational

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 acceleration on the earth's surface is movements includes Aryabhatt, Varahmihir
GM and Bhaskaracharya. Western scientists who
g= 2 where M and R are have made valuable contributions in the field
R includes : Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler and
mass and radii of the earth respectively. The Newton.
numeric value of the gravitational acceleration
2
on earth surface is 9.8 m/s .
6. The value of gravitational acceleration Important Questions
decreases as we move up from the surface or Objective type :
move down to some depth from the surface. 1. The Newton's Law of Gravitation is universal
7. The value of gravitational acceleration because :
decreases as we move from the poles to the (a) It is always of attraction
equator. (b) It is applicable on all the members and
8. The value of gravitational acceleration on the particles of the solar-system.
surface of any planet depends upon its mass and (c) It is applicable on all the masses, at all the
radius. distances and is not influenced by the
9. The largest planet of our solar system is Jupiter medium.
and hence its gravitational acceleration also is (d) None of the above.
the maximum. 2. Which is the force responsible for the circular
10. The initial velocity of the freely falling body is motion of object :
zero whereas the final velocity of an object (a) Gravitational force
thrown in the upward direction is zero. (b) Frictional force
11. Every particle, body or object has a mass which (c) Centripetal force
is not dependent on the gravitational force (d) None of the above
while the weight of the object depends on the 3. The value of the Universal Constant G depends
gravitational force. upon :
12. The relation between the weight and mass of an (a) Nature of the particles
object is W = F = mg. Here F, the weight of the (b) Medium present between the particles
object is expressed in unit of Newton, m is the (c) Time
mass of the object and g is the gravitational (d) Does not depend on anything
acceleration whose unit is m/s2. 4. The weight of a person on earth surface is 60 N
13. The weight of an object on a planet or satellite then his weight on moon will be :
depends on the value of its gravitational (a) 60 N (b) 30 N
acceleration. For example the gravitational (c) 20 N (d) 10 N
th
acceleration on moon is 1/6 of that on earth 5. An object of mass m is taken into a very deep
and hence the weight of an object on moon will mine then :
th
also be 1/6 of its weight on earth. (a) Its mass increases
14. A free falling body is in a state of (b) Its mass decreases
weightlessness because the reaction force on it (c) Its weight decreases
is zero. (d) Its weight increases
15. All the things in an artificial satellite are afloat 6. On doubling the distance between two masses,
because they are in a state of weightlessness. the gravitational force between them :
16. The understanding about the astronomical (a) Remains unchanged
objects and their movements has become easy (b) will become one fourth
because of the calculation of their gravitational (c) will be reduced to half
force. (d) will double itself
17. The important names of Bhartiya scientist who
made contribution in the field of astronomical Very short answer type questions :
bodies, gravitational force and planetary 1. From where do the satellite derives the

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 centripetal force required by it to revolve round their contributions in the field of gravitation.
the planets? 13. The objects in an artificial satellite are in a
2. Can the gravitational mass of a body be condition of weightlessness while it is not so on
measured in an artificial satellite? a natural satellite. Why?
3. What will be the change in the gravitational
force between two masses if the distance
between them is doubled? Essay type questions :
4. If the mass of a body is 10 Kg then what will be 1. Find the value of gravitational force between
its weight on the earth surface? two balls each having a weight of 10 Kg placed
5. Write the formula of the gravitational force at a distance of 50 cm from each other.
between two bodies. 2. Calculate the gravitational force on a 40 Kg
6. On which principle does a ball pen work? object placed on the earth's surface. The radius
24
7. A person can jump on the Moon for a greater of the earth R is 6400 Km and its mass is 6×10
height. Why? Kg.
8. Two bodies of 1 Kg each are at a distance of 1 3. A stone is thrown up in the air with an initial
2
meter from each other. Write the value of velocity of 20m/s. Taking g = 10m/s calculate
gravitational force between them. the following :
9. Why does the moon not fall down on (i) time taken by the stone to attain the
experiencing the earth's gravitational force? maximum height
10. What is the main reason for oceanic tides? (ii) distance travelled by the stone.
4. Find the Gravitational Acceleration on the
Short answer type questions : moon surface if the mass of the moon is
1. Write the Universal Law of Gravitation. 0.073×1024 Kg and its radius is 1738 Km.
2. On the earth's surface the value of g is 5. A stone is thrown from a 125 m high tower.
maximum at what point and why? Calculate (i)time taken to reach down
3. Write the value of the universal constant of (ii) final velocity of the stone
gravitation along with its unit. 6. If the radius of the earth becomes half of the
4. What is Gravitational Acceleration? Write its present radius then the mass will become 1/8th.
formula. What will be the g of this earth of half the
5. Clarify the difference between the mass and shape?
weight of an object.
6. What is meant by Free Fall? Give examples of Answer Key
free fall. 1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (b)
7. What will be the change in weight of a person
moving from the poles of the earth to its equator
and why?
8. What is weightlessness? Give two interesting
examples of weightlessness.
9. Write the three equations of motion for a freely
falling body. Also write the meaning of the
symbols.
10. An object is thrown in the upward direction
with a velocity u so that it attains a height of h.
Write the three equations for the movement of
the object.
11. What are the difficulties faced by an astronaut
due to weightlessness.
12. Who were the ancient Bhartiya astronomy
scientist prior to Kepler and Newton? Write

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 Chapter-11

Sound
There are different forms of energy like 11.1 Propagation of sound :
mechanical energy, electric energy, heat, light The substance through which the vibrations
energy, nuclear energy etc. One more form of of objects pass is known as the medium. Sound can
energy is the sound energy. We hear sound from propagate in all three medium solid liquid and gas.
different sources in our day-to-day life. The When something vibrates the particles of the
sensation generated in our ears by the sound medium transfer their energy to the nearby particles
vibrations help us to hear voices. of the medium by vibrating. As a result the
Activity 11.1 : Can you hear sound on neighbouring particles start vibrating and similarly
striking the prong of a tuning fork on a rubber pad? pass on their energy to their neighbouring particles.
We will observe that on striking on a rubber pad the Thus the sound (energy) reachs our ears passing in
prong of the tuning fork starts vibrating. If this the form of vibrations from particle to particle. In
vibrating fork is brought near a ball suspended with the ear these vibrations or disturbances generate
a thread even the ball starts vibrating as shown in stimuli because of which we are able to hear the
fig. 11.1. sound. In sound propagation, only the vibrations are
propagated. The total displacement of the particles
of the medium remains zero.
Thread
Tennis ball

Vibrating tuning forte

Fig. 11.1 : Fig. 11.2 :

The vibrating tuning fork touching a Series of compression and rarefaction
suspended ball in sound propagation

Activity 11.2 : Various musical instruments Air is the most normal medium for sound
and their part which vibrate to produce sound propagation. As shown in fig. 11.2 the vibrating
Musical Instrument Part that vibrates body pushes air to cause compression. When the
Gitar, Sitar Wire vibrating body moves back rarefaction is generated.
Flute The air These compressions and rarefactions form the
inside the flute sound waves which propagate in the medium.
Drum Screen Compression is an area of high pressure and
Hormonium Reeds activated rarefaction is the area of low pressure.
by air Sound needs medium to travel :
Similarly the school bell rings when we Sound is a mechanical wave and a medium
strike it with a hammar which generates vibrations like- air, water, iron etc. is required for its
and hence sound. The above observations make it propagation. It cannot move in vacuum. This can be
clear that sound is produced by the vibrations observed by a simple experiment.
generated.

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 Activity 11.3 : An electric bell is suspended fro of the direction of the disturbances i.e.
in a bell jar and its sound is heard when we press the vibrations.
switch from outside. Now, vacuum is created in the
jar with the help of a suction pump. As the amount of
air in the bell jar decreases, the sound of the bell also
reduces. When there is the condition nearing
vacuum the sound of the bell stops being heard.
From this activity it is clear that a medium is
required for the propagation of sound. This is the
reason why we will not hear what our friend speak
on the moon because there is no atmosphere on Fig. 11. 4
moon. Longitudinal wave in a slinky
(pre compressed helical spring)
Electric
current
The regions where the coils come close to
Switch each other are known as compressions (c) while the
Cork
regions where the coils are away from each other are
Belljar
Electric bell known as rarefactions (R). The waves of the
propagation of disturbances in the slinky are known
as longitudinal waves. In these waves the
displacement of the particles of the medium is in the
direction of the propagation of disturbances i.e.
parallel.
Vacuum Pump
11.2 Characteristics of a sound wave :
Fig. 11.3 The bell jar experiment There are three characteristics features of a
sound wave :
Nature of sound waves : (i) Frequency
Waves can be of two types depending upon (ii) Amplitude
the direction of vibration and propagation : (iii) Speed
(i) Transverse waves : The waves in The sound wave has been graphically
which the vibrations are vertical to the represented in fig. 11.5. Here the distance of
direction of propagation are known as propagation has been shown along x-axis and the
transverse waves. Examples - light average value of the pressure of the medium at the
waves, energy transmitted in a stretched given point of the time is shown along the y-axis.
rope etc. On studying the various points on the graph
(ii) Longitudinal waves : The waves in we observe that points 1, 5, 9, etc. are the regions of
which the vibrations are in the direction maximum pressure while at the points 3, 7, 11 the
of the propagation are known as pressure is the least. The points of high pressure are
longitudinal waves examples : waves the regions of compression of sound propagation
generated in a spring, sound waves etc. while the points of low pressure are the rarefaction
Sound waves are the longitudinal waves. We regions. The distance between two consecutive
can understand the propagation of longitudinal compressions or two consecutive rarefactions is
waves by the following activity. known as the wave length. It is generally denoted by
Activity 11.4 : A spring (slinky) is held in l.
the two hands as shown in the fig. 11.4. Now stretch
one of its end and then give it a sharp push towards
the other end. If a dot is marked on this it is observed
that the dot moves in the parallel direction i.e. to and

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 3. Sound intensity is related to its energy.
Loudness :
1. The measure of the sensitivity of ears is
known as the loudness of the sound.
2. Loudness of the sound cannot be
measured.
Fig. 11.5 : Graphical representation of the 3. Loudness of sound depends more on the
sound wave sensitivity of our ears as compared to
the wave energy.
Frequency : "The number of vibrations or Some facts regarding the characteristics of
oscillations occurring in unit time is known as the sound are as under :
frequency of the sound wave". It is denoted by u and 1. Pitch is the property of sound because of
it's SI unit is Hertz (Hz). which it is shrill or heavy. Pitch cannot
Time period : "The time taken by two be measured but can be experienced.
consecutive compressions or rarefactions to pass a 2. Pitch depends on the frequency of the
particular point is known as the time period of the sound. The pitch of the high frequency
wave." In other words the time taken by the particles sound is high. This sound is shrill to
of the medium to complete one oscillation is known hear. On the other hand the pitch of low
as the time period. It is represented by T and its SI frequency sound is low and is the heavy
unit is second (s). sound.
The relation between the frequency and the 3. The pitch of buzzing mosquito is high
time period is while that of the roar of a lion is low.
4. Loudness is the property of sound on the
1
frequency = ..... (11.1) basis of which it is loud or soft to listen.
Time period (T) The loudness of soft or quiet sound is
Amplitude : The maximum displacement less while that of the loud sound is more.
of the disturbance of the medium from the 5. The loudness of sound depends on the
equilibrium position is known as the amplitude. It is medium of sound propagation as well as
represented by A. the sensitivity of the ears. The same
Velocity and Wave Equation : In a wave, sound can be loud for one person while
the distance travelled in one second by a point (like for the other it may be soft.
compression or rarefaction) is known as the wave 6. Quality or timbre is characteristic of
velocity. sound on the basis of which two sounds
Distance having the same pitch and loudness can
We know that velocity = be distinguished from each other.
Time Example 11.1 : The frequency of a sound is
r
Therefore V = = lu ......(11.2) 4 KHz and its wavelength is 17.5 cm. What will be
T the time taken by it to move by a distance of 3.5 km?
This equation is known as the wave equation Solution : Frequency u = 4 KHz = 4000 Hz
and it is true for all types of waves. The velocity of v = lu = 0.175 m × 4000 Hz
the wave depends on the medium and remains 700 m/s.
constant in a medium. When the frequency of a The wave has to cover a distance of 3.5 km,
wave in any medium increases, the wave length will so the time taken by it will be
decrease.
d 3.5×1000 m 35
Intensity : t= = –1 = = 5s
1. The sound energy passing a unit area in v 700 ms 7
one second is known as the intensity of Thus, the sound will take 5 seconds to cover
the sound. the distance of 3.5 km.
2. The sound intensity can be measured. Example 11.2 : In a given medium the

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frequency of the sound wave is 220 Hz and its perpendicular i.e. angle of incidence is
velocity is 440m/s.Calculate the wave length of this equal to the angle of reflection.
wave. (2) Incidence sound, reflected round and
Solution : the perpendicular lie on the same plane.
Frequency of the wave u = 220 Hz Activity 11.5 : Two similar pipes are
Wave velocity = 440 m/s arranged near a wall, on a table, as shown in fig. 11.6
Formula : place a clock or some other source of sound at the
V = lu open end of one of the pipes. Try to listen to this
sound by placing your ear at the open end of the
V 440
l= = = 2m other pipe. Adjust the angle of the second pipe to
u 220 hear the sound clearly. Now measure the angles of
these pipes with the perpendicular drawn.
11.3 Speed of sound in different media :
Speed of sound depends upon the properties Wall
of the media including its temperature. The speed of
sound is more in solid and less in gaseous media.
The speed of sound increases with the increase in Table
temperature. Normally, the speed of sound at 0ºC is Clock Ear
330 m/s. Table 11.1 shows the speed of sound in
different media.
Table 11.1
Speed of sound in different media at 25ºC

State Substance Speed (m/s) Fig. 11.6 Reflection of Sound

Solid Aluminium 6420
Nickel 6040 We find that
Steel 5960 (1) The sound is heard with utmost clarity
Iron 5950 when the angles made by the two with
Brass 4700 the perpendicular are equal i.e. Ði = Ðr.
Liquid Water (Marine) 1531 Echo : If we shout loudly in front of any
Water (distilled) 1498 proper reflecting object - like a building, well, hill
Ethanol 1207 etc. we will hear our own voice after some time. This
Methanol 1103 is known as the echo. To hear a clear echo there
Gas Hydrogen 1284 should be a time interval of atleast 0.1 sec between
Helium 965 the original sound and the reflected sound. If the
Air 346 speed of sound at room temperature is 350m/s then
Oxygen 316 to listen to a clear echo the distance of the barrier
Sulphur-di-oxide 213 should be half of the total distance i.e. 1 of
1 2
11.4 Reflection of sound : (350×0.1) = × 35 = 17.5 m. More than one echos
2
Like light, sound is also reflected by the can be heard because of repeated reflections of the
surface of a solid or liquid and follows the same sound
laws of reflection as the light does. These laws are :
(1) The angle between the direction of the 11.5 Reverberation :
incidence of the sound and the The sound produced in an auditorium or a
perpendicular drawn on the point of large hall is repeatedly reflected by its walls causing
incidence of the sound on the reflecting persistence of the sound after its source has stopped.
surface is the same as the angle of the This repeated or multiple reflection, which results in
direction of reflection and the

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the persistence of the sound, is known as cannot be heard. They are produced at
reverberation. the time of earth quake, volcanic
erruptions and in animals like whale,
11.6 Uses of Multiple Reflection of Sound: elephant etc.
(1) Loudspeaker, horns and musical (3) Ultra sound : The sound whose
instruments like shahnai are designed in frequency is more than 20,000 Hz
a manner that the sound spreads in all (20KHz) are known as the ultra sound
the directions. The sound waves waves. They can be produced by the
produced by them are reflected many vibrations of the quartz crystal. Animals
times and then are send towards the like bat, cat, dog etc. and some birds and
listener. insects use ultra sound waves for
(2) Stethoscope is an important instrument signaling. They are used to measure the
in medical research which is used by the depth of the oceans, in medical science
doctors to listen to the sound of heart and to remove fog at Airports. In air the
and lungs. In it the sound reaches to the wave length of these waves is less than
doctor's ears by multiple reflections. 1.6 cm.
(3) The roof of the concert halls, seminar Applications of Ultrasound :
rooms and cinema halls is curved so that Ultra sound are high frequency waves. Ultra
the sound reaches to all parts of the hall sound is extensively used in the field of medical
after reflection. science and in industries. Some of its uses are as
follows:
Sound screen (i) Ultra sound is used to find out the cracks
and other defects in metallic blocks.
Ultra sounds are passed through the
metallic blocks and indicators are used
to detect the transmitted waves. If there
Source of sound is any defect the ultrasound waves are
reflected which indicates defect in the
block.
(ii) Ultrasound are used to clean the objects
which are not reachable. The objects to
be cleaned are placed in the cleansing
Fig. 11.7 Sound screen used in large halls. solution and ultrasound waves are
passed. The particles of dust, grease and
Range of Hearing : dirt separate and fall apart due to the
Sound waves on the basis of the range of high frequency.
their frequency can be of the following types : (iii) Ultrasound waves are reflected from
(1) Audible sound waves : The sound various parts of the heart and an image
waves which can be heard by our ears is formed. This is known as the
are known as audible sound. The electrocardiogram (ECG).
frequency of these waves lies between (iv) Ultrasound is also used in the
20 Hz and 20 KHz. These are known as ultrasound sonography. In it images of
the lowest and highest limits of the various organs like liver, gall bladder,
audibile frequency. These waves are uterus, kidney etc. are obtained using
produced by the resonance air column, ultrasound waves. Ultrasonography is
tuning fork, violin etc. made use of to examine the embryo
(2) Infra sound waves : The sound waves during pregnancy and to detect any
of frequency less than 20Hz are known irregularities. This technique is used to
as the infra sound waves. These waves detect tumours.

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 (v) Ultrasound is also used to break the 11.8 Structure of Human Ear :
kidney stone into minute pieces so that We listen with our ears. Ear converts the
they come out along with the urine. variations of the pressure in air due to audible
Bats emit ultrasound waves while flying at frequencies, into signals that reach the brain via the
night and to find food and then detects the reflected auditory nerves.
waves. Bats cannot see so they generate high pitch The structure of ear is shown in fig. 11.9.
ultra sound vibrations which are reflected on The outer ear is known as the 'pinna'. It collects the
striking the barriers or insects other prey. These are sound from the surroundings and send them to the
then detected by bat's ears and it comes to know auditory canal. On the end of the auditory canal
about their position. there is a thin membrane called the ear drum. When
the compression due to sound reaches the
11.7 : Sonar membrane the pressure on the outside of the
This is a device in which ultrasound is made membrane increases and pushes the ear drum
use of to determine the distance, direction and speed inwards and at the time of rarefaction the membrane
of objects present in the water. The English moves toward outside. Thus vibrations are
synonym of the word SONAR is Sound Navigation generated on the ear drum.
and Ranging.
Ear Pinna
Mechanism : In sonar, there is a transmitter
Hammer
and a detector and it is put on the boat or ship as Anvil
Stirrup
shown in fig. 11.8. The ultrasound waves generated Auditory nerve
Cochlea
by the transmitter travels in water and after colliding
with the object or sea floor are reflected. These Ear drum
reflected rays are detected by the detector which
Auditory canal
converts them into electric signals. The distance of Eustachian tube
the object from which the sound waves are reflected
can be calculated by knowing the speed of sound (in Inner ear
External ear
water) and the time interval between transmission Middle
ear
and detection of the ultrasound.
Suppose the time interval between Fig. 11.9 Structure of ear
transmission and detection of ultrasound signals is t
and the speed of sound in marine water is v and if the Three bones - the hammer, anvil and stirrup
object is at a depth d then the distance travelled from magnifies these vibrations manifold. The middle ear
the ship to the object and back to the ship will be 2d. conducts these changes in pressure to the inner ears.
Then 2d = v × t. The cochlea in the inner ear converts these pressure
variations into electric signals and send them to the
brain. The brain then interprets them in the form of
Boat or Ship sound.

11.9 Radar [Radio Aim Detecting and

Water surface
Ranging]:
Detector Radar is a scientific equipment. It was
Transmitter invented by Taylor and Leo C Young in 1922. This
instrument is used in detection of air crafts moving
in space and to determine their position. It makes
Sea floor
use of radio waves to find out distant objects, their
location i.e. direction and distance. Radar can locate
things situated at distances much more than can be
Fig. 11.8 Sonar perceived by our eyes and can identify their exact
location. Nothing like fog, smog, rains, snowfall,

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smoke or darkness can hinder its functioning. microsecond means a distance of 1 mile. Some
However, radar cannot compete with our eye, as it radars can sense the presence of objects upto the
cannot know the colour and minute details of the distance of 199 miles. Good instruments measure
object. There is only a sense of presence of the the distances with an accuracy of 15 yards and the
object. Objects that are odd from the background variation in distance does not influence the
and large objects like ships on the sea surface, high measurement much. The angle of the height or the
flying air-crafts, islands, sea shore etc. can be direction of the target object can be measured to an
detected easily by the Radar. In 1886 Heinrich accuracy of 9.96 part of a degree. The position is
Hertz, the inventor of radio waves, had proved that clearly observed in the Cathode-ray-tube of Radar.
radio waves could be reflected from the solid Knowledge of direction :
objects. In 1925 the reflection of radio pulse had The antenna is rotated or is moved to and fro
been made use of to detect the distances and by 1939 to know the target. When the antenna is in the
many instruments working on the principle of Radar direction of the target the image of the target is seen
had been formed. But radar was used on large scale on the cathode ray tube screen. This image is known
from Second World War onwards. as the pip. Pip is most clear when the antenna is in its
direction. The antenna of the radar are highly
direction oriented. They concentrate the radio
waves into screwed beams and special type of
reflectors in the instrument condense these beams.
Waves with very small wave length i.e. those having
high frequency are used for the functioning of the
radar. An instrument known as the multi cavity
magneton is required for the production of these
beams. Functioning of modern radars is not possible
without this multi cavity magneton.

Components of a Radar :
Fig. 11.10 Radar

Method for Position Location : Target

Radio waves are transmitted from radar and
the time taken by them to return , on being reflected Transmitter
from the distant object is measured. The velocity of
Oscillator Radar
radio waves is 1,86,999 miles per second. Therefore Transmitance
the distance of the object can be easily calculated on Reception
knowing the time taken. The exact location of the Switch
reflector, that is, the target object is known by the
high direction sensing antenna on the Radar. The Indicator Radar receiver
actual position of the object becomes known by
knowing the distance and direction. The transmitter Fig. 11.11 : Components of a Radar and its
of the radar emits momentary but intense pulses of functioning
radio waves at regular intervals. The receiver
receives the reflected waves from outer objects, if Modulator : The essential impulse of high
present, in the time interval between the two pulses. electric power provided to the Radio frequency
The exact timing of reception of reflected waves is Oscillator is obtained from the modulator.
known by the electric circuits and the distance is Radio frequency Oscillator generates the
then known instantly by the indicators marked in high frequency power impulses from which the
proportion to time. One microsecond (10 lakh part radar signals are formed. Antenna transmits these
of a second) refers to 164 yards and 19.75 impulses to the sky and receives them back.

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 Receiver detects the radio waves that (i) Transverse waves (ii) Longitudinal
returns . waves
Indicator provides information gathered by 4. Sound is produced because of vibration of
the antenna to the radar operator. different objects. Sound waves are longitudinal
Synchronisation and measurement of waves.
range is done by the modulator and the indicator. 5. Sound travels in a medium in the form of
These are just the basic components of the consecutive compression and rarefaction.
radar, the details however are modified and fine 6. The distance between two consecutive
tuned according to the purpose for which the radar compressions or two consecutive rarefactions
has to be used. is known as wave length. It is represented by l.
Use of Radar : 7. Time period (T) is the time taken by a wave for
The sudden attacks during wars has become a complete oscillation of the disturbance of the
nearly impossible because of radar. It pre informs medium.
the arrival of ships, aircrafts and rockets. The 8. Frequency (u) is the total number of
presence of radar on aircraft informs of the other
arriving aircrafts. Because of this instrument the oscillations in a unit time. u = 1/T
fighter planes successfully reach their target and 9. The speed of a wave is equal to the product of
return. With the help of radar it is possible to know
its frequency and wave length i.e. v = ul.
what is happening in all the directions, in the sky, on
10. Intensity of the sound is 'amount of sound
the ground in a radius of 299 miles, from the central
energy passing a unit area in one second.'
controlling point. We can come to know of the
11. The speed of sound basically depends upon the
presence of boats on the sea and other ships,
nature of the medium of propagation and its
whether it is day or night. They also help in
temperature.
shooting missles on enemy ships.
12. The direction of incidence of sound on a
During times of peace also the radar have
reflector (wall etc.) makes an angle with the
many uses. They have made boat, ship or air craft
perpendicular drawn at the point of incidence,
monitoring more safe because the drivers are able to
which is always equal to the angle made by the
view the hills, glaciers and other hurdles from a
perpendicular with the direction of the
distance. Radar helps the airplanes to know their
transmitted sound wave. The direction of
exact height from the earth surface and facilitates
incidence of the wave, that of transmitted wave
landing at airports during night. On 19th January
and the perpendicular all three lie in the same
1946 the United States of America's troop first
plane.
established contact with the moon by means of
13. A minimum time interval of 0.1 second
radar. The radio signals had to cover a distance of
between the original sound and the reflected
4,59,999 miles to contact moon and it took a time of
sound, is essential, for hearing the echo, clearly.
2.4 seconds.
14. Sound has three properties :
(i) Pitch (b) Loudness
(iii) Quality
Important points
15. The range of sound audible to human ears it 20
1. The motion of a particle which is repeated
Hz to 20KHz.
continuously after a definite time is known as
16. The sounds of frequency less than 20 Hertz are
recurrent motion.
known as infra sound while those having
2. The recurrent motion of a particle to and fro
frequency more that 20 KHz are known as ultra
from a point in a simple line is known as the
sonic.
vibrational motion or oscillatory motion.
17. Ultra sonic sound has many uses in medicine
3. On the basis of the type of vibrations of the
and industries.
particles of the medium, waves can be of two
18. Sonar is a device used to measure the depth of
types :
sea or to detect some visible object under water.

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19. Ultra sonic waves are used in Sonar. (c) 50 Hz (d) 1 Hz
20. Tone is the sound generated by the mixture of 10. The time period of the seconds-hand of a watch
many frequencies. is :
21. Radar is used to detect the air-crafts moving in (a) 1 minute (b) 1 hour
the space and to determine their position. (c) 12 hours (d) 24 hours
11. The limit of audibility is :
Important Questions (a) 200 Hz to 20,000 Hz
(b) 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz
Objective type : (c) 2 Hz to 20 Hz
1. The wave having compression and rarefaction (d) more than 20,000 Hz
is known as : 12. To listen to the echo the sound should reach our
(a) Transverse wave ears at least after :
(b) Longitudinal wave (a) 0.1 s (b) 0.5 s
(c) Light wave (c) 1 s (d) 2 s
(d) Ultra violet waves 13. The frequency of the waves used for
2. The relation between velocity v, wavelength l ultrasonography is :
and frequency u is : (a) 20 Hz
(b) Less than 20 Hz
(a) v = ul (b) l =vu
(c) From 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz
(c) u = vl (d) v = l/u (d) More than 20,000 Hz
3. Longitudinal waves can be generated in : 14. Unit of amplitude is :
(a) solid and gas (a) m (b) m/s
(b) solid and liquid (c) Hz (d) None of the above
(c) gas and liquid 15. The velocity of sound in vacuum is :
(d) solid, liquid and gas (a) 3×108 m/s
4. The vibration of the particles of the medium in (b) 330 m/s
longitudinal waves is : (c) Sound cannot move in vacuum
(a) In the direction of the wave (d) None of the above
(b) Vertical to the direction of the wave
(c)The particles do not vibrate Very short answer type :
(d) at an angle of 60º to the direction of waves 1. Longitudinal waves can be generated in which
5. The speed of sound is maximum in : type of medium?
(a) air (b) solid 2. The sound waves produced in iron are of which
(c) water (d) Both water and solid type?
6. The time period of the hour-hand of a clock is : 3. The sound waves produced in air are of which
(a)1 hour (b) 24 hours type?
(c) 12 hours (d) None of the above 4. If a wire tied between two pegs is stretched
7. If the speed of a wave is 350 m/s and its wave- vertically to its length and is left, then which
length is 50 cm then the frequency of the wave type of wave will be produced in the wire.
will be : 5. What is the SI unit of wave length?
(a) 13500 Hz (b) 700 Hz 6. What is the SI unit of frequency?
(c) 400 Hz (d) 300 Hz 7. Which type of waves will be generated if a
8. The number of complete oscillations made in freely hanging slinky is stretched and is left?
one second is known as : 8. What is the type of movement of the hands of a
(a) Amplitude (b) Speed clock?
(c) Time period (d) Frequency 9. Define wave length.
9. The time period of a vibrating body is 0.02 s. 10. Define frequency.
The frequency of vibrations will be : 11. What is a Radar?
(a) 100 Hz (b) 20 Hz

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 Short answer type questions :
1. What is essential for production of sound? Numerical Questions :
2. What do you understand by motion of a wave? 1. An object is vibrating 6600 vibrations per
3. What are longitudinal waves? minute. If the velocity of sound in air is 330 m/s
4. What is required for the propagation of then find :
waves? (i) Time period (ii) Frequency
5. What is transferred during wave propagation (iii) Wave length
from one point to another? Energy or some 2. The time period of a body is 0.004 s. Find its
physical mass? frequency.
6. Give two examples of longitudinal waves. 3. The distance between two adjacent crests of a
7. Are waves generated by a bullet fired from a wave is 30 cm and its frequency is 450 Hz. Then
gun or a stone hurled from a catapult? determine the velocity of the wave.
8. Write the method of 'position location' by a 4. A wave of frequency 256 Hz is propagating at a
radar and the uses of radar. speed of 330m/s. What will be the speed of a
9. What is the difference between the wave having frequency of 512 Hz, in the same
longitudinal and the transverse waves? medium?

Essay type Questions : Answer Key

1. Define the following : 1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (b)
(i) Amplitude (ii) Frequency 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (a)
(ii) Time period (iv) Wave-length 11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (a) 15. (c)
2. Write the relation between :
(i) Time period and frequency Answer for the numeric questions
(ii) Frequency, wavelength and velocity 1. (i) 1/110 seconds
3. Answer the following : (ii) 110 Hz
(i) What is the distance travelled by the wave (iii) 3m
when the particle of medium completes
one oscillation? 2. 250 Hz
(ii) The sound waves in air are transverse or
longitudinal? 3. 135 m/s
(iii) Write the names of the wave/waves which
can be generated in a long slinky. 4. 330 m/s
(iv) Give two examples of each : the
longitudinal waves and the transverse
waves.
(v) Name the physical quantity whose unit is
Hz.
4. Write the uses of ultrasound.
5. Write the extended form of SONAR. How
will you determine the depth of sea by using
reverberation range?
6. Explain, with the help of a suitable diagram,
the working of the human ear.
7. Write the laws of reflection of sound.
Describe an activity to verify them.
8. What is ultrasound? How can it be used to
detect the defects in metallic blocks?
9. Elucidate the components of a radar and their
functions.

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 Chapter-12

Celestial bodies and Indian Calendar

12.1 Celestial Bodies :

In your earlier classes you have studied that riddles and puzzles, have witnessed the beautiful scenes
of the moons and the stars. Even you can see this mesmersing view at night. You can see numerous stars -
some very bright and others not so. A few of them twinkle while others do not. Some stars appear near to each

Fig. 12.1

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other in the form of groups. Some group of stars work keep a holiday on which day?
form special shapes in the sky, by their arrangement. - From where do we get the knowledge of
So this is how our universe appears to some extent. all such things in our day to day life?
Many other celestial bodies can be observed using Teachers express answers given by the
astronomical telescope, which are invisible to our students in a comprehensive manner and make it
naked eyes. On observing minutely these views clear that all these information have been mentioned
change because all celestial bodies are in a state of in our Bhartiya calendar since time immemorial.
continuous motion. Various astronomical event can be predicted on the
Activity 12.1 basis of mathematical calculations provided in the
- Divide all students in groups of five almanac.
each. Bhartiya Almanac (Calendar) :
- Teacher should write the following lines There are five main parts of the Bhartiya
on the black board : "Enlist the celestial calendar, hence it is known as the 'Panchang'. They
bodies that you have seen, heard of or are :
have read about. 1. Tithi (Date) : This is similar to the date
- Compile all the names that turn up in of the english months, but it is related to
various groups on the black board. the lunar month. There are two phases
There are many small, big and very big in a lunar month which are known as the
bodies in the universe. These are known as the 'Shukl paksha' and the 'Krishan Paksha'.
celestial bodies. Sun, stars, planets, asteroids, There are 15 'tithis' in each 'Paksha', two
meteorites, comets, galaxies, moon - all are celestial of them are the Full Moon (Poornima)
bodies. You must have heard about polar-star, sapt- and the New Moon (Amawasya).
rishi mandal etc. from your elders - they also are 2. Vaar (days) : It is the same as the days
celestial bodies which have their own light and are of the week and are seven in number.
therefore known as the stars. 3. Nakshtra (Constellations/asterisms) :
One such star is our Sun. There are many The path of revolution of moon about
the earth has been divided into 27
stars farther away from the Sun, hence they appear sectors. A nakshtra is a sector along the
small and appear to shine to a lesser extent. Many of lunar ecliptic.
the stars are much larger than our Sun. The extent 4. Yog (Combination) : It refers to the
of the universe is beyond our imagination. It has difference at a given time in the
been described, though in another form, even in our movement of sun and moon. There are
Vedas. 27 Yog. It is an auspicious moment.
Indian calendar (almanac) is an 5. Karan : Half of the part of a tithi is
astronomical book based on mathematical called a karan. Thus there are two
calculations in which are mentioned the names of karans in a tithi, to calculate the micro-
various celestial bodies and their movements. effects of a tithi.
Millions of years ago when there were no watches or Apart from these the 'panchaang' presents
other type of time measuring devices, our ancestors many other information in a very accurate manner.
determined time, date, month etc. by observing the Some of them have been enumerated as under :
position of these celestial bodies. The Indian - The daily sun-rise and sun-set time for
almanac was prepared on this basis. various cities.
Activity 12.2 - Time of appearance of moon.
The teacher discuss the following questions - Movements of sun, moon and various
with the students : planets.
- When is full moon seen in the sky? - Revolution of various planets in
- When is there no moon in the sky? Nakshatra and Rashis i.e. in asterisms
- When and on which day the lunar and constelations.
eclipse occurs? - Daily tithi, increase and decay in them.
- The workers involved in construction - Rashi, description of the twelve months.

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 The Bhartiya pachang shows the daily The current prevalent panchang is based
calculations of the time and moment and the on the Bhartiya Panchang. In it, along with the
position of celestial bodies at each given moment. various astronomical events, the festivals and
Of the five parts of a 'panchang', information specific events of all religions have been
regarding nakshatra and tithi is being presented in mentioned. It is available in the language of the
this chapter. specific community.

Fig. 12.2

12.3 Nakshatra : The moon completes its revolution about the

The group of stars in the sky is known as the earth in about 27 days. The constellations present
constellation. In it stars are observed in a along the lunar ecliptic are known as nakshatra. The
recognizable pattern. They are very far from the sun ecliptic of moon has been divided into 27 sectors and
and appear to be static because they do not revolve these nakshatras present there in, are named. The
around the sun. These groups of stars have been table below enumerates the detailed description of
named for identification purpose. These names are these 27 nakshatra (Table 12.1).
on the basis of their apparent form or are identified
with some mythological figures.

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S. Name of No. of Shape or -
They revolve around the sun because of
No. Nakshatra stars Identity its gravitational force.
1. Ashwini 3 Horse - The bodies revolving around the sun are
2. Bharni 3 Triangle known as planets and those revolving
3. Krtika 6 Agnishikha around the planets are known as the
4. Rohini 5 Cart satellites. All these planets and satellites
5. Mrigashira 3 Head of a dear are the members of our solar family.
6. Ardra 1 Bright Among the celestial bodies our earth
7. Punarvasu 5 or 6 bow & quiver comes under the category of planets.
8. Pushya 1 or 3 Ruby Colour - The planets do not have their light and
9. Ashlesha 5 The tail of a dog heat. They only reflect the light of the
10. Mgha 5 Plough sun and other planets.
11. Purvafalguni 2 bed (the front leg) - Sun is the biggest body of our solar
12. Uttarafalguni 2 bed (4 legs) system. Its mass makes up more than 99
13. Hast 5 hand palm percent of the mass of our solar system.
14. Chitra 1 bright jewel, pearl It is nearly ten lakh times bigger than
15. Swati 1 Kumum our earth and is a large ball mainly made
16. Vishakha 5 and 6 triumphal arch up of gases like hydrogen and helium. It
17. Anuradha 7 winnowing is a powerful source of energy. Only a
basket small part of the energy emitted by sun
18. Jyeshtha 3 Snake reachs the earth surface. Sun is the
19. Mool 9 or 11 Shankh reason for rains on the earth, occurrence
20. Purvashad 4 Elephant tusk of day and night and change of seasons.
21. Uttarashad 4 winnowing This solar energy affects the life cycle of
basket all the planets and animals.
22. Shravan 3 Arrow or Trident In the modern era eight celestial bodies have
23. Dhanishtha 5 Drum been categorized as the planets, but according to the
24. Shatbhisha 100 empty circle "Bhartiya Panchang" there are nine planets. In the
25. Poorv 2 Bell shaped given chapter we will study about these planets from
bhadrapda both point of view.
26. Uttara 2 Twins Planets and their movements according to
bhadrapda the modern science :
27. Rewati 32 Fish
Table 12.2
The name of the 28th nakshatra is Abhijeet
which has been considered with Purvaashad. Name of Mass Radius Distance Time for Time for
Planet From Sun Revolution for
Rotation
24 6
12.4 Solar system and its planets : (x10 Kg) (Km) (x 10 Km) (days) (hours)
You have already studied about our solar Mercury 0.33 4879 57.9 88 1407.6
system in your previous classes. Here we are again Venus 4.87 12104 108.2 224.7 –5832.5
Earth 5.97 12756 109.6 365.2 approx 24
going to get the detailed information about our solar Mars 0.642 6792 227.9 687 24.6
system in brief : Jupiter 1898 142984 778.6 4331 9.9
- The solar family is made up of the Saturn 568 120536 1433.3 10747 10.7
Uranus 86.8 51118 2872.5 30589 –17.2
celestial bodies that are revolving in Neptune 102 49528 4495.1 59800 16.1
elliptical paths around the sun.
- In the solar family there are planets, The celestial bodies present in the solar
satellites, meteorites, comets, asteroids system have been categorized into three categories
and many unknown bodies which are according to the approval of International
revolving around the sun. astronomical union conference, Prague (24 August

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2006), the celestial bodies present in the solar Ganymede, Io, Europa, Callisto etc.
system have been categorized into three categories The famous ring around Saturn actually
(1) Planets : The above mentioned eight consist of thousands of spiral belts of waves. All
planets have been recognized in this around it there is a ring of gas and minute rock
category. The first four i.e. Mercury, debris. Its famous satellites are Phoebe, Tethys
Venus, Earth and Mars have been Mimas etc.
termed as the terrestrial planets because It is clear from the table 12.2 that more is the
they have a ground while the next four distance of the planet from the sun greater is its time
i.e. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune of revolution in its orbit.
are heavy planets made up of gases.
Do you know, on 24 September 2014 the
(2) Dwarf planets : Pluto, Aries, Ceres etc.
Bhartiya scientists were successful in
(3) Smaller solar system bodies : It
establishing our space shuttle in the orbit of
comprises of 166 known satellites and
Mars. This Mars space ship was completely
other small astronomical bodies
indegenous and was launched from Sri Harikota
including asteroid belt, comets
Andhra Pradesh. It took eleven months to reach
meteorites and the dust present in
the orbit of Mars. It is the first example in the
between the planets.
entire world that our country successfully
The dust and gaseous bodies revolving in
established it in its maiden attempt at a very low
the space are attracted towards the earth because of
cost.
its gravitational force. When they enter the earth's
atmosphere they shine bright because of their According to Bhartiya Panchang the
friction in the atmosphere and most of them are celestial bodies which affect our earth are
burnt down to ash before reaching the earth's considered to be the planets. The nature and
surface. They are known as meteor. Those bodies movement of these planets are very much similar to
which do not burn away completely and fall on the the ones obtained by modern science after
earth in the form of rocks, are termed as meteorite. calculations.
There is no atmosphere at Mercury. This is
nearest to the sun. Here the nights are very cold and Planets and their movement according to
the days are very hot. There are clouds of sulphuric Bhartiya Panchang
acid in the atmosphere of Venus. The ground S. Name of The planetary movement
surface is laden with rocks and volcanoes. It is the No. Planets time (to travel in a rashi)
brightest planet and in common parlance is known
1. Sun One month in one rashi
as the evening star and morning star. It is also known
2. Moon 2.25 days in a rashi
as earth's sister because its size and mass are equal to
3. Mars 1.5 months in a rashi
that of earth.
4. Mercury 0.75 month in a rashi
The Earth rotates from west to east
5. Venus 0.75 month in a rashi
therefore we can see the sunrise in the east and the
6. Jupiter 13 months in a rashi
sun-set in the west. Venus and Uranus rotates from
7. Saturn 2.5 years in a rashi
east to west.
8. Rahu 1.5 years in a rashi
Mars is also known as the 'Red Planet'. Its
9. Ketu 1.5 years in a rashi
highest mountain is "Nix Olympia" which is three
times higher than Mount Everest. Recent
Rahu and Ketu both come under the
discoveries have indicated the presence of life on
category of shadow planets. They are the points of
this planet. Mars has two satellites : Phobos and
intersection of the apparent path of the sun with the
Deimos.
moon. They are in exact opposition to each other.
Jupiter is the largest planet of our solar
They are the positions of the moon in which eclipse
family. Its famous red spot is actually a large
occurs. In Bhartiya Panchang other planetary
hurricane situated in the disturbed clouds. Of the 16
movements have also been described which will be
satellites of this planet the important ones are -

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studied in higher classes. 12.5 Rashi (Signs) :
Like nakshtra's have been named on the
The light of the sun takes approximately basis of the path of moon, similarly rashi are related
eight minutes to reach earth. The light with earth's movements. The earth's orbit has been
reflected from the moon takes about 1¼ divided into twelve sectors, each sector is
seconds to reach the earth, when the velocity considered to be a rashi.
8
of light is 3×10 m/s. According to the Bhartiya Panchang the

Fig. 12.3

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names of these rashis and their shape are on the basis for 6 months is daily from east to south-west. This is
of various constellations present in the sky. The known as "Northern Movement" i.e. in the Northern
sectors of the rashi-chakra are bigger as compared Hemisphere. For next six months the daily position
those of the nakshtra-chakras. Therefore in each to of sun is east to north-west. This is known as
there may be 2 or 3 nakshatras. Each nakshatra has Southern Movement.
been divided into four steps. Therefore there are 9 During Northern Movement the position of
charans in a rashi. earth is such that the sun's light remain on the earth
In other words we may say that since earth for more time therefore the days are long and nights
takes nearly one year to move around the sun, are short in the Northern Hemisphere. The tilt of the
therefore the sun will remain in each rashi for about northern hemisphere towards sun i.e. the northern
one month. The position of these rashis is known as movement starts from "Makarsakranti". Thus
the twelve solar months. Peruse the different shapes makarsakranti signifies the progress from darkness
of the various rashis in the table given below (table towards light. The six signs that fall in the path of the
12.3). earth during northern movement are Capricorn,
When the earth moves from one rashi to Aquarius, Pisces, Aries, Taurus and Gemini.
another it is known as the sakranti i.e the sun's Similarly, the Southern Movement i.e. tilt of the
transition. When sun transits in Capricorn it is northern hemisphere away from the sun and
known as Makar sakranti. Mostly it is on 14 January. Southern Hemisphere towards the sun, begins from
the "Karka sakranti". During this time sun rays fall
Table 12.3 directly on the Southern Hemisphere and hence the
days in the northern hemisphere are short while the
S.No. Rashi/sign Shape nights are long. The remaining six rashis which fall
in the path of earth during this time i.e. southern
1. Aries Ram
movement are Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio
2. Taurus Bull
and Sagittarius .
3. Gemini Pair of male
and female
4. Cancer Crab
5. Leo Lion
6. Virgo Girl
7. Libra Balance
8. Scorpio Scorpion
9. Sagittarius Bow
10. Capricorn crocodile
11. Aquarius pot
12. Pisces fish

12.6 Northern Movement and Southern

Movement : Fig. 12.4 Revolution of the Earth
You must have heard that during
Mahabharat Bhishm "Pitamah" slept on a bed of
arrows, before his death, waiting for the sun to start st nd
On 21 June and 22 December the
the northern movement. In this chapter we will Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn
understand what is the meaning of northern receives direct rays of the sun, respectively.
movement. (21st June - Summer solstice and 22nd
You know that our earth revolves around the December - Winter solstice.)
sun. This is known as Earth's orbit. If we divide the
earth's orbit into two halves, then the position of sun

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 When the Equator receives direct rays of
the sun i.e. neither of the two poles is tilted
towards the sun, the length of the day and
night is equal i.e. 12 hours each. This happens
st
twice a year - on 21 March (Spring Equinox)
nd
and 22 September (Autumn Equinox).

Activity 12.3 :
- Ask the students what all is done on the
day of Makar Sakranti.
- Discuss the scientific and moral basis of
the activities done on Makar Sakranti.

The sun is considered the stationary

member of our solar family, hence by
movement of sun, we mean change in position
of sun due to earth, movement. It is similar to
the case when we see a tree from the window of
a moving train.
S. Longitudinal difference Tithi
No. between the sun & moon
12.7 Transition of Mercury and Venus :
1. 0-12 Pratipada or Ekam
Many predictable celestial events take place 2. 12-24 Dwitya
in our sky. Some of them are repeated after years. 3. 24-36 Tritiya
These events appear differently in different parts of 4. 36-48 Chaturthi
the earth. Two such events are the Mercury transit 5. 48-60 Panchmi
and the Venus transit which are being described 6. 60-72 Shashthi
7. 72-84 Saptmi
here: 8. 84-96 Ashtmi
Venus Transit : Transit of Venus occurs 9. 96-108 Navmi
when the Venus comes in between the earth (or any 10. 108-120 Dashmi

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 11. 120-132 Ekadashi appears in Aries rashi and Ashwini Nakshtra and
12. 132-144 Dwadashi gradually increasing phase by phase becomes the
13. 144-156 Tryodashi
14. 156-168 Chaturdashi full moon in Chitra Nakshtra, then this month
15. 168-180 Poornima becomes the "Chaitra" (because of Chitra
Nakshtra). In other words, the month is named on
This duration of fifteen days is the brighter the basis of the location of the moon, on Full Moon
phase or Shukla paksha. Similarly, for the next day, in a particular nakshtra. Like the full moon will
fifteen days the longitudinal angle decreases i.e. be in Kritika Nakshtra during the Kartik month. The
180-168 degree is the pratipada of the darker phase table below enlists the nakshtras with their
respective months.

Table 12.5

S. Nakshtra Rashi Name of

No. the month
1. Chitra Aries Chaitra
2. Vishakha Taurus Vaisakha
3. Jaishtha Gemini Jyaishtha
4. Poorvashada Cancer Asadha
Uttarashada
5. Shrvan Leo Sharavana
6. Poorvabhadrapada Virgo Bhadrapada
Uttarabhadrapada or Bhadra
7. Ashwini Libra Ashwin
8. Kritika Scorpio Kartik
9. Mrgshira Sagittarius Margshirsh
10. Punarvasu/Pushya Capricorn Paush
11. Magh Aquarius Magh
12. Poorafalgun Pisces Falgun
Uttarafalgun

or Krishan paksha and so on till it is Amavasya with There is a difference in the duration of
the longitudinal difference between the moon and the lunar year and the solar year because of
the sun being 12-0 degree. the difference in the rate of revolution of the
In this way both Krishan paksha and Shukla moon and the earth. To co-ordinate between
paksha last for a duration of 15 tithis each; each tithi the lunar and solar months there is an increase
beginning at a different time of the day and vary in in lunar month, every three year, which is
duration i.e. the duration of all thithis is not the known as the 'adhik maas'. One month is
same. decreased in every 150 to 200 years.
12.9 Celestial relation of the names of the 12.10 Knowledge About Bhartiya Scientists
Bhartiya months : You have learnt about so many things about
In the previous section you came to know this universe in this chapter, have you ever thought
about the twelve solar months which are related to of who provided all these informations and
the movement of the earth in relation to the sun. calculations?
Similarly the lunar months are governed by the This is the result of the continuous efforts of
movement of the moon. There are 12 lunar months numerous astronomers, mathematicians and
which have been named according to the scientists over the years. The results and inferences
constellations and rashis in the path of the moon's of one scientists are carried by another and in this
orbit. manner theforward knowledge expands. It is on
For example after amavasya, when the moon the basis of the concepts and principles presented

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by our ancient philosophers and scientists that many accurately.
of our modern equipments, gadgets, machines etc. 2. Earth rotates on its own axis.
are invented. 3. Relation between the circumference
The contribution of Bhartiya scientists in and radius of a circle.
various spheres has been immense and have 4. Area of a triangle.
astonished the world by the depth and 5. Presented hypothesis regarding the
understanding of the subject concerned. You will geocentric model of the solar system
feel proud to study about the brief biography and the and analyzed the reasons for the solar
contributions made by them, that have been and lunar eclipse.
presented in the following section. 6. The time taken by earth to rotate around
fixed stars was calculated to be 365
Aryabhatt : days 6 hours 12 minutes 30 seconds -
Aryabhatt was a great astronomer and which by the present day calculations
mathematician of ancient Bharat. He was born in have an error of just 3 minutes 20
476 BC. He studied at Nalanda and later on taught at seconds.
this institute as he was a knowledgeable person. He 7. Calculated the perimeter of the earth
brought into existence, great texts like Aryabhatiya which was just 0.2% less than the actual
in a very short time. It is a purely mathematical and value.
astronomical scientific text. 8. Aryabhata was the first person who
The direct description of Aryabhatt's work created the sine tables from 0 to 90º.
has been known from the Aryabhatiya text only. The The methods of astronomical calculations
entire work consists of 108 verses and 13 extra in the presented by him were very spectacular which
form of introduction. It has been divided into four
chapters :
1. Geetikpaad (13 verses) describes the
bigger units of time like - Kalp,
Manvantar, Yug etc.
2. Ganitpaad (33 verses) is a compilation
of geometric progression and simple,
quadratic, simultaneous and
indeterminate equations.
3. In Kaal Kriyapaad (25 verses) these
are the different units of time and the
method of determining the position of
planets at a particular day. It also
includes the calculation of "adhika
mass" (i.e. the extra lunar month) and
"Kshya mass' (i.e. the decay month or
the decrease in lunar month) and the
names of the various days of a week.
4. Golapada (50 verses) includes the
geometric and trignometric aspects,
orbits, shape of the earth, reasons of day
and night etc.
Aryabhata had initiated the discoveries a
thousand years ago for which Copernicus became
famous (1473-1543 AD). The main discoveries by
Aryabhata include :
1. Represented the value of pie (p)

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remained useful as the micro-calendar in Europe for Bhaskaracharya or Bhaskar II :
centuries. The calculation of dates done by Bhaskar II, who is also known as
Aryabhata and his followers have been of practical Bhaskaracharya was born in 1114 AD at Bijapur,
importance in Bharat. Karnataka. He was the famous mathematician and
The various discoveries made by Aryabhata astronomer of twelfth century in Bharat. He wrote
without the availability of advanced means are of the first text with full and systematic use of the
great significance. To commemorate his work, the decimal number system. Bhaskaracharya wrote
first Bhartiya satellite was named as "Aryabhata". simple commentaries on the work of Aryabhata for
He was a revolutionary thinker. He the common man to understand. He also wrote his
presented his correct opinion, although against the own texts based on these works. He wrote a book
prevailing traditions, and paved the path of healthy Siddhant Shiromani in Sanskrit at the age of 36
traditions of scientific research in Bharat. years. It has four parts - Lilawati, Bijaganitadhyay,
Varahmihir : Grahganitadhyay and Goladhyay which are the
Varahmihir was a Bhartiya mathematician detailed descriptions of arithmatic, algebra,
th th
and astronomer of the 5 -6 century. He was born in Planetary mathematics and sphere. He was the chief
a Brahmin family at Ujjain in 499 AD. He learnt the of the Ujjain's Astronomical observatories. Much
traditional mathematics and astronomy from his before Newon, Bhaskaracharya had mentioned, in
father Adityadas and carried extensive research in one of his texts that the earth pulls celestial bodies
the field. He invented the time measuring device. towards itself by virtue of a special force. 'Karan
The iron-pillar at Indraprastha was constructed by Kautuhal' is another composition by Bhaskar II, in
him and established the observatory at which he has done various astronomical
Jundishahpur on the invitation of the emperor of calculations. It is referred to while preparing the
Iran. All these present a glimpse of his almanac (panchang). In another text,
contributions. The center of advanced mathematical Suryasiddanta, Bhaskaracharya had made it clear
science developed by him at Patthak (Ujjain) that earth is round and moves around the Sun
remained unique for seven hundred years. continuously in a defined orbit.
On his visit to Kusumpur (Patna) Bhaskara II also completed the incomplete
Varahmihir met the great mathematician works of the famous mathematician Bhramgupta
Aryabhatta. Young Varahmihir was so much (598-665 AD) whom he considered to be his Guru.
impressed by him that he made astrology as his aim Bhaskaracharya was the first mathematician who
of life. Chandragupt II on coming to know about his stated that the answer of any number divided by
extent and depth of knowledge, included him in his zero, is infinity. During the era when
nine gems. Varahmihir gave important formulae in Bhaskaracharya was born and remained active in
the field of trignometry, optics and astronomy. the field of science, was the time when many
Morever he worked on the accuracy of the sine superstitions prevailed in our society. At such a time
tables prepared by Aryabhatt I. He died in 587 AD. a rumour was spread by staunch and traditional
Panchsiddhantika summarises five earlier superstitious people that earth was baseless and was
astronomical texts - Surya Siddhanta, Romak sinking. They did it by misinterpreting the Puranic
Sidhhanta, Paulisa Siddhanta, Vasishtha Siddhanta texts for selfish ends to keep their control over the
and Paitama Siddhanta. Varahmihir was the first society on the whole. At such a time, Bhaskar II, the
person in the history who said that there exists a great astronomer, fulfilled his duty as a scientist, by
force which attracts things to the earth. Today that stating that although Earth is baseless but various
force is known as the gravitational force. planets & nakshtras present around it kept it in a
balanced position by exerting gravitational force on
Varahmihir's main aim was to connect it. The earth will remain as such and will never sink.
mathematics and science to public interest. In These facts are all the more important
fact, this has been the tradition in Bharat from because the Bhartiya astronomers declared these
Vedic times. Varahmihir totally followed it. facts years before the western astronomers and
scientists did, which is a substantial proof of Bharat

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being the forerunner in the field of science. Uranus and Neptune.
Bhaskara's astronomical views have been 7. Jupiter is the biggest planet of our Solar
translated in various languages, over the years. System. Moon is a natural satellite of Earth.
Thus the important Bhartiya information regarding 8. According to the Bhartiya Panchang the
mathematics and astronomy were accepted on a celestial bodies, whose gravitational force
global level. The great scholar Faizi, of Samrat affects the earth, are known as the 'grah' or
Akbar's court, translated Bhaskaracharya's work planet. They are 9 in number viz. Sun, Moon,
'Lilawati' in Persian. This text was translated into Mercury, Venus, Jupiter, Mars, Saturn and two
English by an english scholar Colebrooke in 1710. shadow planets named Rahu and Ketu.
As a tribute to the works of this great astronomer - 9. All the planets orbit around the sun and at the
mathematician, the Government of India named its same time rotate on their axis. The time of
second artificial satellite 'Bhaskara'. revolution and rotation is different for each
The term II is connected to his name to planet.
distinguish him from Bhaskara I who was born in 10. The earth completes its one revolution around
approx 6th century. He also, was a famous the sun in 12 months. The earth's orbit has been
mathematician. divided into 12 parts. The constellation
Other Bhartiya mathematicians who have (nakshtra) present in each part of the orbit are
done commendable work includes Brahmguta (628 known as the Rashi. They are - Aries, Tauras,
AD), Jain mathematician Mahaveeracharya (80 Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio,
AD), Shri Bhaskaracharya (991 AD) Ramanujan Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius and Pisces.
(1887) Subhramanyan Chandrashekhar (1936). 11. If the earth's orbit is divided into two parts of
Sawai Jai Singh II (1686-1743 AD) of the Jaipur six months each, during six months the
Royal family who built observatories at Jaipur, northern hemisphere is tilted towards the sun
Delhi, Mathura, Varanasi and Ujjain. These are and receives the direct sun rays. This is the
known as the Jantar-Mantar. northern movement (Uttarayan). During next
six months the tilt of northern hemisphere is
away from sun. The sun's position being east -
Important Points south west. This is the Dakshirayan or the
1. Stars, sun, planets, asteroids, meteorites, southern movement.
comets, galaxies, moon etc. are the celestial 12. When during its revolution around the sun,
bodies of our universe. Mercury comes in between the Sun and the
2. The Bhartiya almanac (panchang) is the book Earth, it appears as a dark spot on the sun's face
based on various calculations and provides which gradually moves ahead. This is known as
information regarding the position and the Mercury Transit. Similarly Venus transit
movement of various celestial bodies. also takes place. These events have been
3. There are five main parts of the panchang - observed by scientists and will happen in future
Tithi, Vaar, Nakshatra, Yog and Karan. too.
4. The constellations of specific shape lying in the 13. At the end of Amavasya the longitudinal angle
moon's orbit are known as the nakshatras. between the sun and the moon is more or less
There are 27 nakshatras recognizable during the same in the same rashi. Gradually during
the movement of the earth and moon. moon's movement there is a change in this
5. Our solar family is made up of various celestial angle. The tithis pratipada occurs when the
bodies orbiting around the sun in different angle is 0-12º. Thus other thiti also occur for
paths. These include planets, asteroids, each consecutive 12º longitude.
comets, satellites etc. 14. There are two phases in each month (Maas)
6. The number of planets recognized by the Shukla paksha (increasing phase) and Krishan
international astronomical union is 8 which, in paksha (decreasing phase). Each paksh has 15
order of there distance from the sun are - tithis. The last tithi of sukla paksha is Poornima
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars. Jupiter, Saturn,

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 while that of krishan paksha is Amavasya.
15. The Lumar Month is named according to the Very short answer type questions :
position of the moon on full moon day in a 1. Who was the author of the book Lilawati based
given nakshatra. The twelve lunar months - on arithematic?
Chaitra, Vaishakha, Jaishtha, Aashad, Shravan, 2. The first Bhartiya satellite has been named after
Bhadrapada, Ashwini, Kartika, Margshirsh, which great scientist?
Paush, Magh, Phalgun, are all named on this 3. Which tithi falls after Chaturdashi of the
basis. brighter phase (Shukl paksha)?
16. The analysis and forecast of various celestial 4. What will be the name of the lunar month if the
events is possible by having the knowledge of moon on Purnima is in Mrigshira Nakshtra?
the nature, movement and mutual relation of 5. Which planet has the smallest period of
the celestial bodies. In ancient Bharat, many revolution?
renowned astronomers and mathematicians 6. Write the name of the planets according to their
like Aryabhata, Varahmihir, Bhaskaracharya increasing distance from the sun.
etc. worked on various formula, theory and 7. Name the terrestrial planets.
new information in the field and have 8. Apart from earth, which planet has the
astonished the world. possibility of existence of life?
9. According to the Bhartiya Panchang which
Questions 'grah' belong to the category of shadow
Objective Type : planets?
1. The celestial bodies having their own light and 10. Two planets A and B are at a distance of X and
heat are known as : Y, from the sun, respectively. If the value of Y is
(a) Stars (b) Planets more than X, then which planet will have a
(c) Satellites (d) Meteor longer revolutionary period.
2. In which category has moon been placed in the
solar system ? Short Answer Type Questions :
(a) Star (b) Planet 1. Write the names of planets with increasing
(c) Satellite (d) Asteroid distance from the earth?
3. The number of nakshatra according to 2. Write the name of the five parts of the Bhartiya
panchang is : Panchang.
(a) 15 (b) 27 3. What is meant by Nakshtra? How many
(c) 12 (d) 07 nakshtras are there? Name any five nakshtra.
4. What is the number of rashis according to the 4. How is a tithi determined according to the
Panchang : Bhartiya Panchang? Explain in brief.
(a) 15 (b) 27 5. Write the names of the planets according to
(c) 12 (d) 07 their increasing size.
5. Which is the largest body of our solar system 6. What is meant by northern and southern
(a) Jupiter (b) Sun movement?
(c) Earth (d) Saturn 7. Explain the various motions of the earth.
6. Which is the largest planet of our solar-system : 8. According to the Bhartiya Panchang, rashi are
(a) Jupiter (b) Saturn related to whose movement? How are the rashis
(c) Uranus (d) Neptune determined?
7. The "adik mass" (extra month) appears in the 9. What is the meaning of Makar-Sakranti?
lunar calender at an interval of : 10. What do you understand by "adhik maas"?
(a) 1 year (b) 2 years 11. Explain mercury transit. Compare it with the
(c) 3 years (d) 4 years Venus transit.
8. At the initiation of the southern movement the 12. Write the names of lunar months according to
earth is in which rashi : the Bhartiya Panchang.
(a) Cancer (b) Leo
(c) Capricorn (d) Aquarius

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 Essay type answer questions :
1. Write the main points of the biography of
Aryabhata and explain his contributions in
detail.
2. Outline the biography of Bhaskaracharya and
describe in detail the work accomplished by
him.
3. What is the basis of the nomenclature of the
Bhartiya months (maas)? Write the names of
the Bhartiya months (lunar months) and
explain in detail the celestial position formed at
that time in the sky.
4. Write in detail about our solar system.

Answer Key
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (b)
6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (a)

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 Chapter-13

Environment

13.1 Meaning of Environment : has considered the five abiotic components, i.e.
The etymological meaning of environment earth, water, energy, space and air, to be the resource
is surround (French 'Environment' = to surround). In for the composition of living beings
Webster dictionary environment h as been defined (Ramcharitmanas 4). The abiotic and biotic
as the group of all the conditions which affects the components of environment are being transformed
existence, growth and progress of an organism or a at a large scale because of the changes brought about
group of organism. Thus it includes all the by the scientific and technological revolutions
components and conditions of the surrounding that during the last century. It is because of this reason
affects the existence growth and progress of that the third subcomplex has been included. In it an
organisms. It can also be said that environment is a artificial environment has been created for the
"Life Support System" because the existence and living organisms. Haber termed it as the Tech-
perpetuation of all the constituent organisms of the ecosystem in 1989.
biosphere depends on it. The science related to the This environment of the living beings can be
study of the mutual activities of environment and in the form of natural, physical, chemical and
the organisms living there in is known as Ecology. biological form. The environment includes the
Living beings remain embedded in their fauna, flora and their related factors like - light, air,
environment which (i.e. the environment) provides water, soil, sound, humidity etc. Earth's
all the resources for its protection and perpetuation. environment is also known as Biosphere. It includes
The requirements for the support and continuity of Hydrosphere, Atmosphere and Lithosphere.
living beings does not remain constant for the Environment includes all the things that surround
various phases of their life cycle-from birth to death, the living world and influence their life in different
i.e. they are variable. Environmental factors are ways.
changeable with space and time. Hence at a given In Bharat, from vedic period only, there has
time and space, the existence and perpetuation of a been a tendency of exploration, testing and analysis
living being depends on the integration of its ever of the environment. Its knowledge has also been
changing needs and environmental rate of keeping described in the Purans, Veds and Upnishads. It has
up with them. been mentioned in these scriptures that origin of
The physical, chemical, biological, human is from the five elements : earth, water, fire,
scientific and technological components of the space and air. Environment has been described in
environment surrounding the living beings have Vishnu Puran, Vrahat Samhita, Charak Samhita and
been broadly categorized in the following three sub Sushrut Samhita. Examples of environmental
complexes : awareness have been mentioned at many points in
(a) Abiotic sub complex the epics like the Ramayan andthe Mahabharat.
(b) Biotic sub complex and Biotic and abiotic components are included
(c) Scientific and technological sub in the environment. Biotic factors include animals,
complex plants, micro-organisms and humans while abiotic
There are many factors in each sub complex factors include air, water, soil, temperature,
which affect each other at the complex level and moisture, topography etc. These components of the
thus all the three sub-complexes form the total environment function together and keep
environmental complex by interacting with each coordination with each other and also transform
other. The living beings are supposed to be lodged in each other’s effects. Environmental studies include
this complex. In his epic-Ramcharitmanas, Tulsidas the study of its various components, including their

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promotion, conservation and management. Upanishads presents policies to conserve resources
13.2 Environmental Pollution : for our future generations. Samrat Ashok's
The meaning of the words pollution and inscriptions perhaps is the first record of wild life
pollute as given in Oxford dictionary are as under : conservation. They reveal that Ashok had made
Pollute : Contaminate (or make air, water hospitals and reserved areas for protection wild life
etc. impure) with harmful or poisonous substances. and birds. The moghul attacks on our country were
Pollution : The presence in or introduction quite unfortunate, in the sense that it destroyed our
into the environment of a substance which has social system to an extent that our ancestor's
harmful or poisonous effect. knowledge of times immemorial was concealed.
Thus it is clear that pollution cannot be The so called development related to the
defined in exact words, however the word can be technological revolution and blind-pace for
analyzed in order to form a concept of environment. technological development has set the concern for
Pollution is the unwanted change in the air, water, nature at backfoot. Neglect of long term benefits for
soil, biological creatures etc. which degrades the humanity and the desire to obtain instant benefits
basic composition of these resources. It can have have generated conditions which are having
adverse impact on the biotic components, specially harmful effects on plants, animals and human-life.
man, by bringing about direct or indirect changes in
one or more abiotic components of the environment. 13.2.1 Air pollution
Some pollutants like bad-odour, noise etc. can have The air that forms the atmosphere is actually
psychological consequences. At times they become a mixture of various gases. It includes oxygen the
risky and hazardous for human heath. life-giving, indispensable gas for respiration and
Pollution can be categorized into two types other metabolic processes of living beings.
(1) Those which result in harmful changes,
in the physical and chemical Table 13.1
components of the environment, for Composition of Air on the basis of volume
man. S.No. Component Percentage
(2) Those in which some new substances
are incorporated in the environment by 1. Nitrogen 78.09
the modern industrial and technological 2. Oxygen 20.95
activities of man. As compared to the 3. Carbon-di-oxide 0.03
first category of pollutants these new
substances are negligible. Other components include Argon, Krypton,
Increase in population is a direct attack on Helium, Ozone, Carbon-mono-oxide, water vapour,
natural resources. Modern man believes that earth is Ammonia, Methane etc.
made for man. He is authorized for the exploitation
of resources. Our Father of Nation had said that 13.2.2 Causes of Air Pollution :
"Earth provides enough to satisfy every man's needs Air pollution may be caused naturally or
but not every man's greed." Thus the prime reason may have anthropogenic (caused by man) origin.
for the exploitation of nature and the danger of Following are the natural causes of air pollution :
pollution is the greed and ignorance of man. 1. Volcanic eruption : In this gaseous
If evaluated judiciously, it will be obvious pollutants such as Sulphur-di-oxide
that the fast growing population, unplanned (SO 2 ), Hydrogen sulphide (H 2 S),
destruction of forests, urbanization, Carbon-mono-oxide (CO) etc. are
industrialization, the blind-pace of development etc evolved.
are the actual reasons of the ever growing pollution. 2. Forest fires.
In Bharat, the awareness about nature has 3. Marsh gases (like methane - CH4).
been there since Vedic times. Environmental 4. Products of natural decomposition of
conservation had been an integral part of life- various organic and inorganic
practices in the entire Vedic and Post-vedic era. substances.

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 5. Suspended particulate matter. surface - thus entrapping it. Activated
6. Extra-terrestrial substances. charcoal, silica gel. Resin etc. are used
7. Cosmic-dust. as adsorbents. In this process the
8. Allergens and irritants like pollens, adsorbents may be reused hence it is an
spores etc. economic (thrift) process.
Following are the examples of pollutants of 2. Absorption : This also is a physical
anthropogenic origin : process. In it the gases are allowed to
1. Industrial effluents (discharge) dissolve in fluids. Water is the best
2. Vehicular effluents solvent or medium for absorption.
3. Domestic effluents 3. Condensation : The gaseous vapours
4. Substances produced by burning of are controlled by condensation. It is the
fossils best method for removing the
5. Explosives and other chemicals used in hydrocarbons having very low vapour
wars etc. pressure at ambient temperature, (i.e.
6. Various substances used in agriculture air temperature of the surroundings).
and agricultural practices. Air pollution can be satisfactorily
Effect of Air Pollution : controlled by using water or air cooled
These pollutants have adverse effects on condensers.
human health. Given below are a few pollutants and 4. By chemical reactions : Pollutants can
their effects. be removed from the air by various
1. Sulphur-di-oxide : Chest congestion, chemical reactions.
headache, vomiting etc. Disorders
caused by it may become fatal. 13.2.5 Water Pollution :
2. Oxides of nitrogen : They cease the Water is the most valuable resource of the
activity of cilia. This is the reason why planet earth, on which the life of all organisms
carbon and dust particles may reach the depend. It is the main component of all living
lungs causing various respiratory beings. In some organisms it forms upto 90% of the
disorders. body weight. History reveals that all the great
3. Hydrogen sulphide : Causes irritation civilizations prospered on the banks of various
in throat and eyes and nausea. rivers. Non-judicious use and wastage of water
4. Carbon-mono-oxide : It reduces the converted these civilizations into graveyards. Water
oxygen carrying capacity of blood and provides natural beauty to landscapes and generates
causes fatigue. aesthetic beauty in them. It is the basis of
5. Hydrogen cyanide : If affects the nerve entertainment and water sports. It is an important
cells and results in dry throat, vague component for human health. Its pollution gives rise
vision, headache etc. to many epidemics and water-borne diseases.
6. Ammonia : It causes swelling in upper
respiratory tract. 13.2.6 Causes of water pollution :
As in case of air pollution, even water-
13.2.4 Control of Air Pollution : pollution has two reasons (1) Natural and (2)
Judicious and limited use of resources can Anthropogenic. In the natural process of water
control air pollution. A few strategies of controlling pollution fusion of natural substances like salts,
it, include : chemicals, minerals and products of the
1. Adsorption : It is a physical process decomposition of the water soluble plant and animal
that depends upon the surface products are involved. All of them are washed off to
properties of some substances. In it the water bodies like ponds, lakes, puddles, rives etc. by
flow of liquid and gas is coupled with a the rain water and ultimately they may reach the
solid, so that the solid holds a thin film oceans or ground water. The oceanic water is saline
of the liquid or gas on the outside because accumulation of various salts which are

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brought down to it, over centuries, by the ever Water treatment (2) Waste water treatment, (3)
flowing rivers. Waste water recycling (4) Product recovery. The
The present day problem of water-pollution following techniques of waste water treatment can
is the result of the modern industrial activities. Dirty be made use of :
domestic water, sewage water, sewage, urban (1) Oxidation and stabilization ponds - The
wastes, industrial effluents, agricultural wash-out, effluent water is stablized in these
oil-grease, decomposition products of the solid ponds which gets oxidised in sufficient
waste etc. when immersed in natural water bodies sun-light and hot-climate.
result in water pollution. The water soluble (2) Treatment of sewage effluent water and
pollutants from air and land ultimately reach water reuse it for agricultural purpose.
bodies thus polluting them. The soluble effluents (3) Remove the pollutants :
then may reach down to the ground water sources. (a) separation of salts by reverse
Various substances which pollute water by osmosis
dissolving in it include : (1) Acids (2) Base (3) Coal (b) removal of metals by electrolysis,
(4) Dyes (5) Fats, Soap and waxes (6) Gaseous ion dispersion resins etc.
adjunct (dissolved gases) (7) Fertilizers (8) (c) Controlled culture of water hyacinth
Insecticides (9) Weedicides (10) Farm products (11) (though it is very harmful for the
Poisonous metals like mercury and its compounds existence of water bodies)
(12) Synthetic detergents (13) Oil (14) Proteins and (d) Root zone treatment technique.
carbohydrates (15) Dissolved solids (16) Other There is a need to have a water management
organic pollutants (1) Poly chlorinated biphenyls policy, on a local level, with the aim of making
(PCBs) (b) Phenol and phenolic compounds (c) available water for human consumption. Following
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (d) Aldehydes measures may be taken for ensuring water
(17) Radioactive substances (18) Thermal availability :
pollutants which include heated industrial waste 1. Take proper measures to control
water or water from the cooling towers of the pollution of puddles, rivers, rivulets,
nuclear power plants (19) Colours (20) Biological lakes etc.
pollutants - Virus, Algae, Fungi etc. (21) Odour and 2. Conservation of natural vegetation.
(22) Turbidity etc. 3. Improvement in the catchment area of
All the fourteen big rivers of Bharat, rivers, rivulets, lakes, ponds etc.
including Ganga, Yamuna, Godavari, Gomti, Kosi, 4. Proper sewage treatment before
Kauvery, Ravi, Son, Chinaab, Jhelum, Narmada, immersing it in water bodies.
Mahi, Tapti and Krishna are the victims of intense 5. Construction of water reservoirs.
water pollution. 6. Development of underground water
reservoirs on large scale.
13.2.7 Effects of water pollution : 7. Rain water harvesting.
If the pollutants accumulating in the oceanic 8. Recharging the ground water and
waters cross the threshold, then the planktons which aquifers.
release nearly 60% of the photosynthesis oxygen of
earth, will land into a condition of mismanagement 13.2.9 Soil pollution :
and disaster. It will be very difficult even to estimate Soil is the part of lithosphere which interacts
the harm caused by decrease in dissolved oxygen with atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. Thus
level to levels less than the biological oxygen it fulfils the fundamental requirements of terrestrial
demand. living beings. Soil provides the essential elements to
planets which then produce organic substances
13.2.8 Control of water pollution : from which the basic needs of human - food, cloth
Integrated water and waste management and shelter - are fulfilled.
programs are required to get rid of the menace of In soil, different types of particles are
water pollution. This approach comprises : (1) present in different combinations and proportions. It

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has inter-particulate spaces that are filled with air etc. These chemicals do not decompose, in general
and water. If the soil is not well aerated, the spaces and remain in the soil. Plants, at times, absorb them
between soil particles get water logged and prevents and they reach the higher trophic levels by means of
the growth of the root system. This happens in soil the food chain. In this process, there is
which lack proper drainage and the soil becomes biomagnification of these substances and they
water logged. become toxic for human consumption.

13.2.10 Causes of Soil Pollution : 13.2.11 Noise pollution :

Soil pollution has resulted from the modern The sound energy, which flows in unit area
life style, and the human activities related to of the medium in unit time, is measured in
industries and agriculture. A few important sources watt/meter square. The sound pressure can also be
of soil pollution includes : measured in Newton/meter square (N/m2). The
1. Industrial wastes/effluent : The solid loudness of sound is expressed in terms of a unit
and liquid effluent from industries are 'sone'. 1 Sone = 40 dB sound amplitude. 1 dB
spread on the soil without any type of (decible) = 0.002 microbar sound pressure
2 –16
pre-treatment. The fly-ash which (dynes/cm ) - approx. 10 watt energy. The range of
spreads for miles harm the soil to a great human hearing may vary from 0 to more than 120
extent. The minerals, chemicals, toxins dB. Generally a sound of 80 dB is considered to be
etc. of the effluents pollute the soil and critical level to damage the ears. Therefore this and
make it barren. higher amplitude sounds are considered to be
2. Urban effluents : Paper, glass, metallic pollutant.
boxes, plastic, fibres, food-waste, WHO (World Health Organization) has
rubber, dyes, paint etc. are the solid fixed 45dB as the safe noise level for any city. A
urban wastes which pollute the soil to a sound level of more than 90dB for more than 10
large extent. The liquid urban wastes milliseconds leads to aural reflex action and
include the organic and inorganic contracts the tympanic membrane. Sound of more
chemicals, oil, grease, toxic substance than 140dB changes the direction of movement of
etc. which spread on the soil and ear ossicle, because of which the intensity of sound
pollutes it. These effluents have received by internal ear decreases. This protective
pathogens which cause various reflex action can protect us from the danger of loud
diseases. noise only for some time. On the basis of these facts
3. Agricultural activities : In-judicious, 65dB has been accepted to be the limit to tolerance,
unforeseen use of chemical fertilizers in in hospital areas, according to international
excess and excessive irrigation makes standards.
the soil water logged and devoids the Noise pollution affects human health, ease
soil of the essential nutrients. This and efficiency. It may contract blood vessels and
makes the soil barren. may increase the secretion of a hormone - adrenalin
The concentration of soluble salts increases which generates blood pressure. This results in
in the soil due to excessive use of chemical strained muscles which may lead to psychological
fertilizers every year. Such soils are known as the tension, nervous disorder and madness. high level
saline soil. If the sodium content of such soils of noise pollution may lead to mental fatigue, high
increases they become alkaline and are known as the cholesterol level, heart attack and may damage
alkaline or sodic soil. Both the types of soils - brain, kidney, liver etc. and may cause long-lasting
alkaline and saline - are known as 'usar' in Bharat. damage to the ciliated cells on the inner lining layers
They are the most unsuitable soil for agriculture. which may lead to deafness.
In modern-agricultural practices, various Thermal Pollution :
chemicals like- pesticides (like DDT), fungicides The temperature of a natural water body
bactericides and herbicides are used on large scale increases if hot effluents are added to it, causing
to protect plants from pathogens, diseases, weeds thermal pollution. This reduces the water quality

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and harms aquatic and terrestrial organisms. The suspended particles etc.
sources of thermal pollution include : 4. Decrease in density
1. Coolants of nuclear power plants : 5. Decrease in viscosity
The temperature of the effluent coolants (b) Chemical conditions :
of these power plants is on an average 6. Increase in chemical oxygen
10ºC higher than the water entering the demand (COD)
system. This affects the aquatic life 7. Increase in biological oxygen
adversely. demand (BOD)
2. Effluents of the thermal power 8. Increase in toxicity
plants: These power plants use coal for (c) Biological effects :
generating electricity. For the purpose, 9. Changes in physiological
water from nearest water body is made activities
use of and then the effluent having a 10. Change in Metabolic rates
temperature of at least 15ºC more is 11. C h a n g e i n b i o c h e m i c a l
again sent to the water body. This warm parameters
effluent reduces the amount of 12. Interference in reproduction
dissolved oxygen which results in the 13. Variation in the rate of
death of fishes and other aquatic living reproduction
beings. 14. Increase in direct mortality of
3. Effluents from the hydro electric aquatic organisms.
power plants : This is perhaps the only (d) Effect on Biological communities:
process of power generation in which 15. The distribution patterns of
there is negative thermal loading of a living organisms change.
water system. 16. Unwanted changes in algal
4. Industrial effluents : The cloth, paper, population.
sugar etc. industries produce heated 17. Formation of water blooms by
effluents which have a temperature that cyanobacteria.
is approximately 8 to 10ºC high. The 18. Attack of destructive organisms.
effect caused by the temperature of In order to reduce thermal pollution the
these effluents depends on the original plant design should be altered to reduce the
temperature and size of the water body. temperature of the effluents. The effluents produced
5. Domestic sewage: The domestic may be cooled off to normal temperature before
sewage is immersed in water bodies immersing them in water bodies. For the purpose
without pre-treatment. Normally, the special cooling tanks or towers can be constructed.
temperature of the domestic waste is
higher and hence may increase the 13.3 Ecology :
water temperature. This leads to Environmental study is a part of ecology.
reduction of the number of aquatic The word ecology has originated from a greek word
organisms. This may also lead to 'Oikos' which means 'a place to live' and 'logos'
anaerobic conditions because of which means 'to study' i.e. to study about the habitat of
fishes may die. Some of the physical living organism. According to Ernst Haeckel (1868)
and chemical changes and the adverse "ecology is the mutual interaction of living
effect of thermal pollution on the organisms with its biotic and abiotic environment."
biology of living beings and biological Each organism obtains different substances
communities, includes : from the environment to survive. For example -
(a) Physical conditions : oxygen is essential for respiration; similarly plants
1. Increase in temperature need carbon-di-oxide, water and sun-light for
2. Increase in vapour pressure photosynthesis. The minerals required for plant
3. Increase in the silting-rate of growth are obtained from soil. Animals obtain their

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food from plants and micro-organisms and human components biotic and abiotic.
being obtain food from plants and animals. (1) Abiotic components : It includes
Metals like copper, aluminium, iron etc. are inorganic, organic and climatic factors like - air,
used to make machines, utensils, ship, aircrafts etc. water, soil, sun light etc.
These metals are obtained from minerals. Coal, (i) Inorganic substances : It includes
petroleum and natural gas are used as domestic and nutritive elements and components
industrial fuel. In this way the living beings use like - carbon, nitrogen, sulphur,
various substances found on earth. phosphorus, carbon-di-oxide,
The substances required by living beings for water etc. They are cycled in the
sustenance of life are known as Resources. All the ecosystem.
substances that are present in nature and are (ii) Organic compounds : It includes
essential for the flow of life of living beings are proteins, fats, carbohydrates,
known as Natural Resources. Air, wind, soil, humic substances etc. They are
vegetation, animals, minerals, sun-light, fossil fuel basically related to the living body
etc. are natural resources. and connect the abiotic and biotic
components.
13.4 Ecosystem : (iii) Climatic factors : They are of two
It is the structural and functional unit of types -
biosphere and is characterized by self sustenance. (a) Environmental factors like
i.e. ability to continue a healthy state without sun-light, temperature,
outside assistance. It is an open system and depends humidity, precipitation etc.
on sun-energy. Ecosystems may be small or big. (b) E d a p h i c f a c t o r s l i k e
There is a continuous exchange of minerals and topography, soil texture etc.
energy between neighbouring ecosystems. Hence, (2) Biotic components : The living
all the ecosystems are interlinked and inter related. components of the environment are
The web of inter-linked ecosystems is known as the known as the biotic components. They
biosphere. The term 'ecosystem' was first of all can be further categorized as producers,
used by a British Ecologist Arthur Tansley in 1935. consumers and decomposers.
It is made up of biotic and abiotic components. (i) Producers : These are the
According to Eugene P. Odum (1963) ecosystem is chlorophyll containing plants
the basic unit of ecology in which the biotic and which include algae, grass, trees
abiotic components interact with each other and etc. They convert solar energy into
both components are important for the continuum chemical energy during
(uninterrupted existence) of life. Animals are photosynthesis. They are the
holozoic and do not prepare their own food; they source of food for majority of
depend - directly or indirectly - upon plants for their animals. They are also termed as
food requirements. Although plants synthesize their autotrophs as they synthesize their
own food yet they depend on various abiotic factors. own food.
From a broader perspective, the earth we live upon (ii) Consumers : These are the
is itself a giant ecosystem whose various biotic and organisms which cannot synthesize
abiotic components interact with each other. It is their own food and depend on other
because of this reason that structural and functional organisms for their nourishment.
changes occur continuously in the ecosystem. They are known as the consumers
Although it appears to be impossible to control the and are heterotrophs. Mostly they
entire Bioshpere but to facilitate its study it can be are animals. Animals which
subdivided into various ecosystems. directly depend upon plants for
their food are known as
13.5 Structure of Ecosystem : herbivorous. For example - grass
Ecosystem is made up of two main hopper, goat, sheep, rabbit etc. The

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 animals which depend upon Ecosystem
herbivorous animals for their food ¯
requirement are known as ¯ ¯
carnivorous. For example snake, Natural Ecosystem Artificial Ecosystem
lion, frog etc. They may be (eg. Crop field,
predators or parasites. The ¯ laboratory)
animals which can derive their ¯ ¯
food from both plants and animals Terrestrial Aquatic
are known as omnivorous. For (forest, grassland,
example - cockroach, man etc.
desert) ¯
(iii) Decomposers : This category
mainly includes bacteria and fungi. ¯ ¯
In an ecosystem bacteria generally Fresh water Marine water
work upon the animal tissue while ¯
fungi on plant tissue. They digest ¯ ¯
dead organic matter with the help Lotic Lentic
of enzymes and in this way the (river, stream) (lake, pond)
basic elements of the cell
components are released into the 13.6 Biogeochemical cycle :
atmosphere, which are then reused
The harmony between the biotic and abiotic
by producers.
components of the biosphere keeps it dynamic and
stable. There is transfer of substance and energy
13.5.1 Types of ecosystems :
between the various components of biosphere due
to this co-ordination. Let us consider the various
Ecosystem are of two types :
processes that keep this balance.
1. Natural ecosystem : They are naturally
13.6.1 Water-cycle
under their own control and are self
You have seen how it rains following
sustained with the human interference
vapourisation of water from water bodies and then
of the least order.
there condensation. But we have never seen the seas
(a) Terrestrial ecosystem : Example-
and oceans drying. Then how is water replenished in
Forest, grassland, desert etc.
these reservoirs.
(b) Aquatic ecosystem : They are of
two types (i) Fresh water and (ii)
marine water. The fresh water
ecosystem again may be of two
types lotic (example - river,
streams etc.) and lentic (example -
pond, lake etc.).
2. A r t i f i c i a l e c o s y s t e m : T h e s e
ecosystems are man-made and are
under their control. Example crop-land
which includes fields of wheat, bajra,
rice etc. Here man tries to control the
biotic community and physico-
chemical factors.
Apart from the above systems, even the
space eco-system has been recognized.
Fig 13.1 Water cycle in nature

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 The entire process by which water forms
water vapour, forms clouds and then comes back to
the earth surface in the form of rains and then flows
into the oceans is known as the water cycle.
This cycle is not so easy and simple as it
appears to be by the statement given. All the water
that comes down to earth does not directly flow into
the oceans. Some of it percolates into the soil and
forms part of the water table. Some of this ground
water flows out in the form of streams on the earth
surface or we bring it to the surface through wells
and tube wells. For the various life processes the
terrestrial living beings use this surface water. (fig.
13.5.1)
As is a well known fact, water dissolves
many substances. When water flows through
soluble minerals some of them dissolve in it. These Fig. 13.2 Oxygen cycle in nature
are then carried over to oceans by water flowing in
the rivers and rivulets and they are then used by the 13.6.3 Carbon cycle :
aquatic flora and fauna. Carbon is present on earth in various states.
13.6.2 Oxygen cycle : It is present in the form of diamond and graphite in
Oxygen is one of the most abundant element its original form. In atmosphere it is present in the
on earth. Its quantity is nearly 21% of the form of a compound - carbon-di-oxide; carbonates
atmospheric gases. It is also present on a large scale, of various minerals and hydrogen carbonate.
on the earth surface, in the form of water and other Furthermore, all the life forms are based on carbon-
compounds and in air in the form of carbon-di-oxide based molecules like - proteins, carbohydrates, fat,
also. It is present in the form of metal and silicon nucleic acid and vitamins. The exo and endo
oxides in the earth's crust. It is also present in the
form of carbonate, sulphate, nitrate and oxides of Co2 in
minerals. It is an essential component of atmosphere
biomolecules like - carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic
acid and fats or lipids.
Respiration and decomposition

But when we talk about oxygen cycle, we

are basically concerned with cycle that keeps the
Carbonic comp-
oxygen levels in nature balanced. Oxygen from ounds (Plants)
atmosphere is used in three processes - Respiration,
combustion and formation of oxides of nitrogen.
Oxygen returns to the atmosphere by only one
process i.e. photosynthesis. This forms the outline
of oxygen cycle in nature.
Although we consider oxygen to be of Carbonic comp
importance in the respiratory process but for some ounds (Animals)
Carbonates
organisms, mainly bacteria elemental oxygen is in water
toxic. Actually nitrogen fixation does not take place Inorganic Coal
in the presence of oxygen. carbonates
(Shells)
Petroleum
Lime Stone

Fig. 13.3 Carbon cycle

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skeleton of many organisms is made up of carbonate forms.
salts. Carbon is incorporated in various forms of life What happens to nitrogen after it forms
through the process of photosynthesis which takes various nitrogenous molecules. The plants,
place in the presence of sunlight in the chlorophyll generally, absorb nitrates and nitrites and convert
containing plants. The carbon-di-oxide present in them into amino-acids which are used in protein
the atmosphere or in dissolved form in water is synthesis. There are some other bio-chemical
converted to glucose by the process of options which are used for synthesis of other
photosynthesis. These molecules of glucose either nitrogen containing complex molecules. These
convert into other molecules or provide energy for proteins and other complex compounds are then
the synthesis of other important molecules. used by the animals. When the plant or animal die,
Glucose is used in the process that provides various bacteria present in the soil converts the
energy to living beings. Glucose is oxidized to nitrogenous compounds into nitrates and nitrites
carbon-di-oxide, with or without oxygen, by the and other type of bacteria break down these nitrate
process of respiration. The carbon-di-oxide thus and nitrite molecule into nitrogen element.
formed goes back into the atmosphere. Carbon-di-
Nitrogen in
oxide also enters the atmosphere through the atmosphere
process of combustion where fuel is used to cook Denitrification Nitrogen
fixation
food, warm it, or in transportation and various
industries. Actually after industrial revolution man Nitrates
started using fossil fuels on a large scale, to the Cytoplasm of
green plants
extent that the amount of carbon-di-oxide in
Cytoplasm
atmosphere has nearly doubled. Like water even (Animals)
carbon is recycled by various physical and chemical
processes.
Nitrification Nitrites

13.6.4 Nitrogen cycle : Ammonisation

Nearly 78% of our atmosphere is made up of
nitrogen gas. This gas is the component of many Ammonia
Nitrification
molecules essential for life. For example : proteins,
nucleic acid - DNA and RNA and some vitamins.
Atmospheric and industrial fixation
Nitrogen is found in other bio molecules
also like alkaloids and urea. Thus nitrogen is an Fig. 13.4 Nitrogen-cycle in nature
essential nutrient for all organisms. The life would
be simple if all the organisms use nitrogen present in Thus in nature there operates a nitrogen
the atmosphere, directly. But this does not happen in cycle in which nitrogen, passing from its basic form
nature. Apart from some bacteria, most of the other in atmosphere converts into simple molecules in the
organisms are unable to convert the inactive soil and water and then in living beings it forms very
nitrogen into nitrates, nitrites etc. "Nitrogen fixing" complex compounds. Later-on they break down,
bacteria are found either as free living forms or in releasing the nitrogen atoms back into the nature.
symbiotic association with some types of dicots.
Generally, these nitrogen fixing bacteria are present 13.7 Green House Effect :
in special root nodules of pod bearing plants. Apart In a glass house, the internal temperature is
from these bacteria, the nitrogen atoms also form very high as compared to the external temperature
nitrates and nitrites by various physical reactions. because the glass does not allow the heat waves to
The high temperature and pressure generated in the transmit back in the atmosphere. This concept is
atmosphere at the time of lightening, converts made use of in maintaining, warm tropical plants in
nitrogen to oxides of nitrogen. These oxides the cold climate. This type of cover is known as a
dissolve in rain water and form acid which fall on green house.
earth surface; then after it is used by various life Similar, phenomenon occurs in the

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atmosphere too. Some gases prevent the escape of been observed above Antarctica. It is very difficult
heat into the outer atmosphere. Increase in the even to think about the hazardous effects the life on
amount of such gases in the atmosphere may rise the earth will be subjected to, in the absence of this
average temperature of the earth's atmosphere. This ozone layer, which is thinning rapidly. Serious
type of effect is known as the green house effect. efforts are required to be undertaken to protect it.
Carbon-di-oxide is a green house gas. Increase in
the amount of carbon-di-oxide in the atmosphere Important points
will increase the heat content of the atmosphere.
These activities lead to global warming. 1. Environment is a "Life Support System"
because the existance and perpetuation of all
13.8 Ozone layer : the components of the Biosphere depends on it.
The elemental oxygen is generaly present in 2. The existence and perpetuation of a living
the form of bi-atomic molecule. However, in the being at a given place and time depends on the
upper layer of atmosphere tri-atomic molecules are harmony between the speed of the ever
also present. Its formula is O3 and is known as changing needs of the living being and that of
ozone. In contrast to the biatomic oxygen the environment.
molecules, the ozone is toxic. We are lucky that 3. The biotic and abiotic components of
ozone is unable to remain near the surface layers of environment are being transformed on a large
earth. It absorbs the harmful radiations of the sun. scale because of the changes brought about by
Thus it prevents those radiations from reaching the the scientific and technological revolutions of
earth surface which may harm various life forms. the past century.
Recently, it has been detected that the ozone 4. Environment is also known as the Biosphere. It
layer present in upper atmosphere is degrading. includes Hydrosphere, Atmosphere and
Different types of compounds, made by man, for Lithosphere.
example the chloro-fluoro-carbons (CFCs) are 5. Environment includes the (i) biotic and (ii)
present in the atmosphere in a stable state. CFCs are abiotic components.
chlorine and fluorine containing organic molecules. 6. Pollution is the undesired change in the
They are very stable and do not degrade even by physical, chemical and /or biological
biological processes. Once they reach near the characteristics of air, water, soil, living beings
ozone molecules, they react with them. This results etc. which degrades the raw nature of the
in decrease in the amount of ozone and this leads to resources.
thinning of the ozone layer. Recently ozone hole has 7. Man-made pollutants includes :
Industrial effluents, vehicular effluents,
domestic effluents, substances produced by
burning fossil fuels Explosives and other
chemicals etc. used in battle field, substances
used in agriculture and other agricultural
activities.
8. The modern day problem of water pollution is
the result of activities of modern industrial
civilization.
9. Integrated water and waste management
programs are required to combat the problem of
water pollution.
10. In soil there are different types of particles
which are connected to each other in different
proportions. There exist spaces between these
Fig. 13.5 Satellite pictures showing particles which are filled with air and water.
ozone hole above Antarctica.

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11. World Health Organization has decided that the degraded naturally. They harm the ozone layer,
limit of upto 45dB is the safe limit of noise for a which forms a protective cover around earth.
city.
12. Thermal pollution results from increase in Questions
water temperature due to addition of hot
effluents in a natural water reservoir. This Objective type :
reduces water quality and harms the aquatic as 1. Which of the following is not an air pollutant :
well as the nearby terrestrial life forms. (a) Marsh gases (b) SO2
13. According to Ernst Haeckel (1868) Ecology is (c) CO2 (d) DDT
the mutual relation of living beings with their 2. Who coined the term ecosystem?
biotic and abiotic environment. (a) Odum (b) Tansley
14. The substances required by living beings for (c) Haeckel (d) Haber
remaining alive are known as the resources. All 3. The main gas responsible for the Green House
the substances which are present in the effect is :
environment and are essential for the flow of (a) CO2 (b) SO2
life are known as natural resources. (c) NO2 (d) CO
15. Ecosystem is the basic unit of ecology. The 4. Which of the following is an artificial
biotic and abiotic components present therein ecosystem :
interact with each other and both are important (a) Forest (b) Grassland
for the perpetuation of life. (c) Desert (d) Cropland
16. Decomposers : They mainly include the 5. Adsorption, absorption, condensation etc. are
bacteria and the fungi. In an ecosystem bacteria useful for the control of which type of
usually degrade the dead animal matter while pollution:
the fungi are responsible for the degradation of (a) Air (b) Water
plant material. (c) Thermal (d) Soil
17. Artificial ecosystem : These systems are
controlled by man; for example cropland which Very short answer type questions :
includes wheat, bajra, rice fields etc. 6. Define the term 'ecology'.
18. Oxygen is used in the atmosphere during the 7. Write the names of two main air pollutants.
three basic processes of respiration, 8. What are decomposers?
combustion and formation of oxides of 9. Define noise pollution.
nitrogen. 10. Write the chemical conditions produced by
19. Nitrogen fixing bacteria are either present free thermal pollution.
in nature or in symbiotic association with some
species of dicotyledonous plants. Generally, Short answer type questions :
these nitrogen fixing bacteria are present in 11. Write the names and examples of the abiotic
special root nodules of pod bearing plants. components of the ecosystem.
20. Some gases prevent the escape of heat from the 12. What is Global Warming?
earth's atmosphere. Increase in the quantity of 13. What is artificial ecosystem ? Give example.
such gases can increase the average
temperature of the atmosphere. This effect is Essay type questions :
known as the Green House Effect. Carbon-di- 14. Explain the causes and effects of air pollution.
oxide is an example of green house gas present 15. Give a schematic description of the nitrogen
in the atmosphere. cycle.
21. Various compounds like chloro-fluoro-carbons
(CFCs) which are produced by human being, Answer Key
remain stable in the atmosphere. CFCs are 1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (a)
organic compounds containing chlorine and
fluorine. They are very stable and are not

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 Chapter-14

Health, Disease and Yoga

14.1 Meaning of Health : digestion, excretion, translocation etc. Along with
"Healthy body is the first happiness" and these, some roughage is also essential for proper
"Healthy mind resides in a healthy body" are the digestion. Roughage chiefly comprises
quotes which are very old and prevailing ones and indigestible cellulose, which absorbs water and
are absolutely correct. Health is essential, rather increases the quantity of food so that constipation
mandatory, for everyone. Only a healthy person can does not occur. (fig. 14.1)
accomplish any work smoothly and efficiently.
Milk and Milk products : To be consumed in less
14.2 Significance of Health : There are Protein and quantity : Fatty food
To remain healthy is essential to lead a Vitamins in it and sweets included
happy life. If we are healthy we will be able to use alongwith calcium Increase Blood sugar
our potential to the maximum: physically, mentally
and socially. We can lead a happy life by remaining Includes fruit- Flesh and fish
healthy. Vitamin and fiber contain Vit C,
Being in good physical condition is the main containing food. Zinc and Iron
characteristic of our being healthy. Only a healthy
person can build a healthy and strong nation. Much
emphasis is being given in our country on remaining Includes cereals, To be taken
healthy. legumes, in more
vegetables, quantity.
Generally a healthy person means the one salad.
who is physically fit, whose head and heart are
healthy, family is healthy and who lives in a healthy
environment.
It is essential to remain healthy in order to be Fig. 14.1 Balanced Diet
able to perform our tasks in a smooth and efficient
manner. Only a happy, disease free and healthy Components of a Balanced diet :
person can have the potential to accomplish the The main components of a balanced diet are
work efficiently therefore to improve the quality of as under :
life it is essential to focus on the complete state; (1) Carbohydrates :
particularly efficiency, being energetic, satisfaction Carbohydrates (starch and sugar) are the
and peace levels. main source of energy for our body. Although they
are not very rich source, but are the most cheap ones.
14.3 Balanced Diet and its Components : Generally, carbohydrates provide for 60% to 80% of
A balanced diet is one which has all the the total food energy of our diet.
nutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, When we consume fruits, vegetables and
water and minerals) in proper quantity (Table 1). other vegetable products, we receive large
Carbohydrate and fat provide energy to the body. quantities of plant cells whose cell wall is made up
Protein is essential for growth and formation of of cellulose - a carbohydrate. Our body does not
cellular components. Minerals and vitamins are have enzymes to work upon cellulose hence they act
required for the biological reactions taking place in as roughage.
cells and tissues. Water plays an important role in (2) Fats :
various cellular and biological functions like On being oxidised, fats provide double the

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 Components of a Balanced Diet

¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
Components to Components to Components for Water and
provide energy build body protection Roughage
¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
Carbohydrates Protein ¯ ¯ Fibrous
¯ Vitamins Minerals food
Fat
amount of energy as provided by carbohydrate. It is in a balanced diet. Water is present in the cytoplasm,
because oxygen is less in fat molecules. Apart from blood-plasma and the interstitial fluid of the tissue.
providing energy they also help in formation of It is present in many processes in the form of a
structural components of cells and tissue; for solution. Water regulates our body temperature by
example cell membrane and other organelle. Fat is sweating and evaporation and in this way plays an
also stored by the body for future usage. If we important role in the excretion of waste substances
consume food in such large quantities that the body from the body. The water required by our body is
is unable to utilize all the energy produced from it majorly obtained from the water we drink and other
then the extra energy is deposited below our skin, in liquid substances like tea, coffee, fruit juices, milk
the form of hypodermal adipose. We obtain fat from etc. Some water is also produced as a by-product in
butter, ghee, paneer milk, yolk, nuts, flesh and all oxidation and other reactions.
edible oils. The salad, vegetables and fruits having more
(3) Protein : of fibres and rind provide roughage in our diet. They
Protein is the member of the nutrient group are good for digestion and help in the movement of
of which our body is majorly made up of. In the excreta. Porridge and maize have good roughage
cytoplasm apart from water, remaining part is along with the nutrients.
mostly protein. Our body selects the amino acids as (5) Minerals :
per its requirement, re-organizes them and makes We need many metals and salts, like iron (Fe),
the specific proteins. Proteins are digested in the zinc (Zn), iodine (I), salt (NaCl), calcium phosphate
small intestine and the amino acids formed in the [Ca3(PO4)2] etc. for the different reactions of our
process are absorbed by the intestine. Then after, body. Together they are known as the minerals. You
they bind in new groups forming special proteins in must have observed that during summer months
the body cells from which the cells and tissue very often there are white stains on our cloths due to
develop - for example the skin, muscles, blood and sweat. It is mainly sodium chloride i.e. common salt
bones. Like carbohydrates and fats, even protein is a (NaCl). Even calcium salts are important to provide
compound made up of carbon, hydrogen and strength to our bones and teeth and is also essential
oxygen but it also incorporates some other elements for clotting. Sodium (Na) and Potassium(K) salts
like nitrogen and sulphur which play very are required to maintain osmotic concentration of
significant role in biological processes. There are cells and tissues. Iodine, in very small quantity is
some proteins which are derived directly from our essential for the formation of thyroid hormone. Iron
food. All plants contain some amount of protein, but is required for the formation of haemoglobin
groundnut, beans, cereals (Maize and Wheat) and protein. This haemoglobin is responsible for the
lentils are the best vegetarian sources. Meat, Fish, transportation of oxygen to various parts of our
Egg, Milk and Cheese are the source of animal body. Many compounds of phosphorus, chlorine,
proteins. copper, magnesium and zinc are also important to
(4) Water and Roughage : control many important reactions of our body and
Water and roughage are of equal importance for general health and growth.

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 (6) Vitamin :
Vitamins play an important role in our nourishment. They have a major contribution in body
metabolism. This component of our diet is helpful in the growth and development of our body. They are
present in very minute quantities in the food substances but their presence is essential (Table 2).

Table 1 :
Important nutrients in some common food substance
Carbohydrates Fat Protein Minerals
Rice, Idli, Bread Butter, groundnut Egg, Meat Calcium : milk
(Roti : wheat, jowar Ghee, Refined fish, milk curd, green
bajra) Casava, vegetable oil cheese, ground vegetable,
normal sugar, honey (mustard, ground nut, lentils Ragi.
jaggery, underground net, sunflower) Pea, Soyabean Iron : liver,
tubers like potato, nuts, animal fat egg, meat,
colocasia, sweet obtained from Pea, dry fruits,
potato, sweet juicy meat Green leafy vegetables
fruits Jaggery. Phosphorus :
Milk curd, green leafy
vegetables Sulphur :
egg, yolk Iodine : Sea food

Table - 2
Description of Vitamins Important for Man Vitamins Source Main disease Effect
1. Vitamin A Green leafy vegetables, Night blindness Lack of night
(Retinol) carrot, fish, liver vision
Soluble in fat oil
2.Vitamin B Milk, sea food, soya Beri-Beri Decrease in hunger,
Soluble in bean, whole grain, green weakness, in active
water vegetables, germinated -ness of muscles
lentils meat, potato headache, paralysis
3.Vitamin C Juicy fruits especially Scurvy Bleeding gums,
(Ascorbic acid) Amla, Lime, Orange, Red spots on
Soluble in water guava skin
4.Vitamin D Milk, Fish liver oil, Rickets In children the
(Calciferol) egg, produced by bones become
Soluble in fat the body itself in abnormal and soft,
the presence of sunlight interruptions in
the growth of teeth.
5.Vitamin E Green leafy vegetables, Sterlity the repreoductive
(Tocopherol) milk, butter, tomato and Paralysis epithelium gets
Soluble in fat liver, soyabean damaged and leads to
sterlity Paralysis due to
neuro muscular dystrophy
6.Vitamin K Milk product, almonds Haemmorrhage Continuous blood
(Phylloquinone) spinach, sunflower flow, Absence of
Soluble in fat seeds, soyabean, tomato clot foramtion
green vegetables

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14.4 Fast food : balance. This leads to various health problems. In
In the present day physical world, fast food young age body needs more of calcium that we
has become a popular alternative for our food. But it obtain from food products like egg milk etc. But the
does not provide the required nourishment to our increasing trend of synthetic beverages is retarding
body. It does not also fulfil the need for various healthy growth of our younger generation.
nutrients for our body to remain healthy. The person These drinks are rich in sugar content. Body
in turn remains tired and is not capable of doing the has to secrete excess of insulin to control the blood
daily chores. In our country we have many better, sugar level, which over a period of time may lead to
nutritive food products like - poha, pakore, idli, dosa diabetes. The high level of cholestrol in them is
germinated grains, fruits, egg, upma, gajak, tilpatti, responsible for increasing risk of heart problems
gur, sangri, mathri etc., which do not harm our body. (fig. 14.2).
Regular use of fast food leads to various The synthetic drinks do not let the various
diseases/disorders like fatness, hypertension etc. metabolic activities of our body to occur smoothly.
Healthy mind and healthy psyche results from This leads to tensed state in the body and results in
healthy body. But fast food like pizza, burger, various problems like brain cancer, mental and
noodles etc. do not provide a healthy body because
they do not have enough of proteins and good
carbohydrates and have large quantity of fats which
deposit in body and lead to various diseases like
heart attack, blood pressure, kidney dysfunctioning,
arthrites, diabetes etc. Thus because of fast food,
neither we have a healthy body nor a healthy psyche.
Obsessed mentality is responsible for many crimes.
Among humans, to remain healthy, a young
person needs about 1800-2600 calories, an adult
female 2200 and an adult male about 2000-3200
calories. The diet required to obtain these calories
must have less quantity of saturated fats, trans-fats,
cholestrol salt, sugars etc. But fast foods have an
excess of all these which is harmful for our body and
results in the development of serious health
problems. This is one of the main reason for obesity
among school children, weak and distorted
mentality and hence they are involved in crimes of Fig. 14.2
various nature and also suffer from serious health Effect of synthetic beverages
problems. and fast food on the body
Fast food is very high in calory content and
low in nutrition. Because of its easy availability and emotional defects etc. These drinks increase the
varied taste all the age-groups are attracted towards acid level of our body which gradually deforms our
it as a result the society on the whole is struggling digestive system. Synthetic beverages are unnatural
against various types of health concerns. We are substances which do not provide any nourishment
witnessing a range of fatal effects of all this. instead the present generation is struggling with its
negative impact. There is high concentration of
14.5 Effects of Synthetic Food Beverages : sugar, sodium and caffeine in these drinks which
In today's era the trend of synthetic results in dehydration of the body and also leads to
beverages has increased. These beverages are obesity and the various diseases that follow there-
contributing towards a range of diseases. They have from. The mental deformities being induced in the
been found to have high phosphate content, thus youth of our generation by their fallacious eating
disturbing our bodies calcium and phosphate habits is resulting in an increase in the crime rate in

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the present day society. To avoid these and various
other negative impacts natural drinks such as
coconut-water, lime-water, fruit juices, shakes etc.
should be used instead of the synthetic beverages.

14.6 Malnutrition :
Malnutrition refers to a lack of balanced
diet. The diseases due to malnutrition i.e. lack of one
or more nutrients in our diet are known as
malnutrition diseases or deficiency diseases. For a
balanced growth there should be a balanced
quantity of various nutrients like - proteins,
carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals and various Fig. 14.3
micro-nutrients, in our food. Diseases due to protein deficiency
In our country and in other developing (a) Kwashiorkor (b) Marasmus
countries people are malnourished in large number,
because they do not take a balanced diet. (B) Diseases due to carbohydrate
deficiency :
14.6.1 Causes of Malnutrition : Carbohydrates is the main source of
1. Poverty and ignorance energy in a balanced diet; therefore its
2. Unemployment and increasing deficiency leads to serious diseases :
population. Hypoglycemia : There is reduction in
3. Lack of food grains and food level of blood sugar because of
adulteration. unavailability of glucose in the body
4. Our food habits. due to carbohydrate deficiency in the
5. Mental agony and tension diet. The symptoms includes shakiness,
6. False notions fatigue, lack of energy etc.
(C) Diseases due to deficiency of
14.6.2 Symptoms and Causes of the Malnutrition minerals:
diseases : Minerals are the substances which
(A) Disease due to protein deficiency : strengthen bones, tissues and teeth and
Protein is essential for physical forms a healthy body. Many diseases
development of humans. In children develop in body due to deficiency of
maximum malnutrition is reported due various minerals (fig. 14.4) :
to protein deficiency. This leads to two 1. Calcium and Vitamin D : These are
main diseases (fig. 14.3) : important for maintaining bone
1. Kwashiorkor : It is a disease due to density. Calcium deficiency leads to
protein deficiency. The main pain and twitching in bones and
symptoms include - loss of appetite, muscles which results in repeated
swelling in body, change in skin fractures. In an adult body the
colour to yellow, dryness and magnesium level is to be maintained
irritability. to maintain the energy level because
2. Marasmus : It is due to lack of its deficiency leads to the deficiency
calories and protein deficiency. In of other minerals like potassium,
this disease the body starts drying, sodium and calcium. The symptoms
patient becomes feeble with weak of such a condition includes -
face, lustre-less, sinking eyes and jerking, twitching and nausea etc.
chronic diarrhoea. Potassium helps in smooth
functioning of the muscles. Iron

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 deficiency in the body results in hormone from the thyroid gland,
reduction of haemoglobin in the which controls various metabolic
body which is the symptom of a processes of the body. Many defects
disease-anemia. Zinc is responsible occur due to iodine deficiency
for mental growth and strengthening including various mental and
of the immune system. physical growth defects. The size of
2. Goiter : Iodine is an important thyroid gland increases and results
requirement of our body. It is in the symptom known as goiter.
required in very less quantity. It
helps in the secretion of thyroxine (D) Diseases due to Vitamin deficiency :

Goiter due to iodine deficiency Yellowing of teeth

(c) Spots on the body (d) Defective broken and damaged nails

Fig. 14.4 Diseases due to deficiency of minerals

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 Vitamins are not synthesized in the body For example - virus, bacteria,
hence they are supplied in the diet. mycoplasma fungi, protozoans,
1. Night blindness : It results from the helminthes etc.
deficiency of vitamin A. The patient 2. Chemical agents : The chemical
lacks night vision. substances which cause disease in the
2. Beri-beri : This disease is due to body are the chemical agents. For
deficiency of vitamin B1 which example - pollutants, spores, pollen
directly affects the nervous system. grains, the urea and uric acid being
The symptoms are - loss of appetite, produced in the body etc.
weakness in body, inactive muscles 3. Nutritional agents : Excess or
etc. deficiency of various nutritional
3. Scurvy : This disease develops due substances also act as agents of disease
to deficiency of vitamin C. It results development : For example -
in symptoms like formation of skin- carbohydrates, minerals, fats, proteins,
spots, bleeding gums etc. This also vitamins etc.
weakens the body immunity system. 4. Mechanical agents : Disease causing
4. Rickets : Rickets disease develop in agents which cause diseases because of
children due to deficiency of mechanical injury. Examples - friction,
vitamin D; in adults it is known as injury, wound, bone fracture, muscle
osteoporosis. Bone disability sprain or strain etc.
develops from this disease which 5. Physical agents : Factors like heat,
lead to bow-shaped legs, pigeon like cold, humidity, electric shock, sound or
chest and decay of teeth enamel. radiations which cause diseases.
5. Sterlity : Deficiency of vitamin E 6. Deficiency or excess of substances :
leads to sterlity. Substances like hormones, enzymes
6. Haemorrhage : This disease etc. cause physical disorders and
develops due to deficiency of diseases if deficient or present in
vitamin K. It prevents formation of excess.
blood clots and leads to excessive
bleeding. In extreme condition it 14.8 Communicable and Non communicable
leads to the death of the patient due diseases :
to excessive blood loss. Diseases have been categorized into two
types on the basis of their nature and causal agents
14.7 Diseases : (A) Communicable and (B) Non-communicable
Various pathogens present in the diseases.
environment enter the body and make it diseased. (A) Communicable diseases : Diseases
White blood cells (WBC) kill the pathogens that caused by various living factors like -
enter the body. In many circumstances if WBC are bacteria, virus, protozoa etc. can be
unable to kill the pathogens they destroy various transmitted from person to person and
organs in the body and as a result a healthy person are hence known as communicable
becomes diseased. diseases.
Development of abnormality in the general
processes of body or any part thereof is known as a 14.8.1 Viral diseases :
disease. (i) Chicken pox :
It is commonly known as "choti mata".
14.7.1 Causes of Disease : Pathogen : Varicella virus
1. Biological agents : The organisms Symptoms : Fever, coughing, intense
which become the reason for disease pain in back and neck, itchy blister like
development are known as pathogens. rashes on the skin. (Fig. 14.5)

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 Treatment : The things used by
infected patients should be disinfected Capsid Glycoprotein
and the patient should be taken to health
center, well in time. Antibiotics should
be used for its cure and prevention.

RNA

Reverse Transcriptase
Red Enzyme Viral coat
rashes
Fig. 14.6 : HIV virus

Blisters
Prevention : Using sterlised needle, by not
marrying an infected person, infected mother
should not get pregnant, by having safe sex.
Treatment : HIV cannot be cured but can be
Fig. 14.5 Patient suffering from chicken pox controlled by using ART (Anti retroviral therapy). A
combination of HIV drugs are used for treatment of
(ii) Poliomyelitis : HIV.
Pathogen : Entero virus - It is the (iv) Dengue : It is also known as the bone
smallest known virus. breaking fever or dandy fever. It is a viral disease
Symptoms : Stiffness in neck, lying that is transmitted by female Aedes aegypti
down of the patient without movement, mosquito bite.
weakness in limbs, nervous system and Symptoms : Fever, feeling cold, intense
muscles are also influenced. In case of pain in muscles and joints, weakness, loss of
intense infection, physical disability is appetite, dizziness, decrease in the number of blood
caused. platelets, fall in pulse rate, possibility of death etc.
Treatment : Proper and regular Treatment : Mycophenolic acid and
vaccination of children as scheduled by ribavirin are used to control the growth of dengue
the pulse polio campaign. virus controlling the mosquito population by
(iii) Aids (AIDS- Acquired Immuno various means like adding gambusia fish in lakes
Deficiency Syndrome) and water tanks. There is no specific medicine or
Pathogen : HIV virus (Human vaccine to cure dengue.
Immuno - Deficiency Virus). (Fig.
14.6) 14.8.2 Bacterial Diseases :
Symptoms : Loss in body weight, The diseases that develop due to bacterial
persistent fever, diarrhoea, ulcers in the infection are known as bacterial diseases. A few
throat, loss in general body immunity, important ones include :
swelling and irritation on skin, lymph (i) Tuberculosis or TB :
glands are affected. Pathogen : Mycobacterium
tuberculosis.
Transmission of disease : Sexual contact Symptoms : Fatigue, loss in weight,
with infected person, on coming in contact with the blood tinged cough, fever, cold, chest
blood of the infected person, on being born of an pain, heaviness of voice etc.
infected mother, by using infected needle etc. Transmission of the disease : Living in

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 Viral genome Ades mosquito

Nucleo-capsid
Human
E and M protein

Viral coat

Fig. 14.7 : (a) Dengue Virus (b) Transmission of Dengue Virus

contact with a TB patient (i.e. sleeping, contact with the patient i.e. living,
sitting, eating moving etc. with TB eating, moving around, kissing etc.
patient), due to malnourishment, Treatment : Primary immunization of
consuming milk of an infected cattle, children is done using DPT vaccine
using things used by infected person, (Diptheria, Pertussis and Tetanus). It is
smoking, drinking hukka and chewing done as prevention against diphtheria,
tobacco etc. whooping cough and tetanus.
Tr e a t m e n t : M e d i c i n e s l i k e Various antibiotics like-penicillin,
streptomycin, vitamin B-complex and erythromycin etc. are also
isoniazid are important for its treatment. administered.
BCG (Bacillus Calmette Guerin) (iii) Jaundice : This disease leads to liver
vaccine is used against tuberculosis and cirrhosis. It is also known as icterus.
is administered to newly born child. Jaundice is a sign of diseases like
(ii) Diptheria : It is a serious bacterial hepatitis. The patient becomes yellow
infection generally of children but even due to increased level of bilirubin.
adults are infected. Symptoms : Inactive liver, increase in
Pathogen : Corynebacterium level of bilirubin, body weakness,
diphtheriae. yellowing of skin, liver cirrhosis etc.
Symptoms : It affects the mucous Transmission of disease : It develops
membrane of the throat and nose, with due to use of contaminated water.
laziness and lethargy, loss in appetite, Treatment : New Livfit medicine is
fever, headache, dizziness and in prescribed to keep the liver healthy.
extreme cases the nervous system, heart Hepatitis vaccination should be done.
and lungs are also affected. Bleeding (iv) Leprosy :
with nasal mucous, congestion which at Pathogen : Mycobacterium leprae.
times may lead to death. Symptoms : Loss in skin sensitivity,
Transmission of disease : Generally is appearance of colourless spots on the
spread by direct contact with the skin, thickening of skin in the infected
patient. The bacteria spreads in the area, dissolving of the skin etc. It also
atmosphere by flies, sneezing, affects nerves, skin, fingers and toes.
coughing, spitting in environment etc. Transmission of disease : By living in
The disease is transmitted by direct contact with infected person for long.

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 Treatment : It is diagnosed by the in urine too. Fatigue persists and the
lepromin test and is treated at the patient feels weak. External dose of
leprosy prevention centers. insulin is injected in the blood to
control the sugar level.
14.8.3 Protozoan Diseases : (ii) Cancer : Cancer may occur in any
(i) Amoebiosis : body part. It may be caused by many
Pathogen : Entamoeba histolytica factors like-smoking, chemicals,
Symptoms : Mucous and blood are carcinogenic factors (like X-rays,
excreted along with the stool of the UV radiations etc.) In it there is
infected person. There is twitching of irregular cell growth and division
the intestines. Ulcers develop in the which leads to formation of ever
colon (large intestine). If it infects the growing tumors. This condition is
liver it leads to anaemic hepatitis. known as cancer.
Prevention : Wash vegetables Symptoms : Reduction in body
thoroughly before use, Amoebic weight, formation of tumors,
vesicles should be completely persistent wounds, headache,
destroyed using chlorine, phenol, cresol stomach ache, change in shape of
etc. Antibiotics like Tetracycline testicular chamber/mammary
teramycin etc. are used for treatment. glands, bleeding while urinating etc.
(ii) Malaria : Treatment : The diseased part is
Malaria in humans is transmitted by the removed by surgery. The cancerous
bite of the female Anopheles mosquito. cells are destroyed with the help of
The pathogen plasmodium is present in radiations and medicines, use of
the saliva of this insect. antibiotics, alkaloids etc., surgery
Pathogen : The four species of by radio therapy or Bone-marrow
plasmodium are as under transplantation etc. Medicines -
1. Plasmodium vivax Vincristine, Vinblastin.
2. Plasmodium ovale
3. Plasmodium malariae 14.9 Patanjali :
4. Plasmodium falciparum In yoga traditions, Maharshi Patanjali is a
Symptoms : Body ache, twitching of revered person. He is known as the 'father of yoga'.
limbs, headache, chills, shivering, loss The 'ashtang yog' propounded by Maharshi
of appetite, anemia, weakness, lethargy, Patanjali is not a notion, religion, caste or creed.
short tempered. Rather it is a complete method of leading life. The
Treatment : Spray of insecticides to kill tradition of yog dates back at least to the
mosquitoes. Clean the water filled Mahabharat era. Yog provides focus to the deviated
ditches, use mosquito nets. Use of and distracted mind and end conflict of thoughts i.e.
medicines like quinine, chloroquinine mental deviations. Yog helps us to inculcate many
etc. qualities in our life, like - abstinence, truth, non-
B. Non-Communicable Diseases : violence, self-contemplation, contentment,
Disease which are not transmitted from discipline, focus, concentration, self-control,
person to person are known as non- dedication etc. which leads to the transmission of
communicable diseases. positive energy and thoughts in the human body and
(i) Diabetes : It is also known as the this is very essential for todays' generation. Today's
sugar disease. It result from generation lacks these qualities. Patanjali decided to
insufficient secretion of insulin from provide all these benefits to the humanity. Now-a-
the pancreas. There is increased days we have conquered many of the irretrievable
level of blood sugar or blood diseases by yog. (fig. 14.8)
glucose along with high sugar level

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 yog these basic elements of life and many other
fundamental transformations which are essential,
occur. The person who performs yog is pious and
non-violent, i.e. does not believe in rajsik, tamsik
and violent tendencies. Yog maintains a balance
between the individual and the masses. Yog induces
a flow of spiritual and prudential idealogy in a
person's life.
Yog is a very transcendental, useful and
practical subject, it is a science of transformation.
Yog is not just for the sages, monks, saints etc. but
every individual, whether he be a businessman,
farmer, serviceman, worker or students, they can be
benefited from it.
Fig. 14.8 Maharshi Patanjali Yog is a very ancient bhartiya lifestyle. The
body becomes disease-free and graceful (agile).
14.10 Effects of Yog on Health : Yog leads to overall development of an individual.
Yog has surfaced as a 'life giving elixir' in 21st June 2015 was celebrated as the international
the present day, tensed life. There are two faces of Yog Day. Most of the countries of the world have
yog - physical yog and the spiritual, philosophical, understood the utility of yog.
emotional side. From physical health to the Ashtang Yog :
attainment of trance (samadhi), the journey of yog is Maharshi Patanjali outlined the eight-steps
very easy, simple, scientific, certified, practical and for attainment of union between body, mind and
universal. Life is supposed to have three basic spirit which leads to everlasting peace. These steps
elements - thoughts, feelings and actions. On doing are known by the term - Ashtang Yoga. These eight

Padmasan or Kamlasan Sarvangasan Gorakshasan or Bhdrasan

Chakrasan Ardhmatsyendrasan Dhanurasan

Fig. 14.9 Different types of Yogasans

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steps are as following : arthritis, swelling, reduction in number
(1) Yam : (Social discipline ) : This is the of platelets etc.
first element of Ashtang Yog. By 2. With yog there is improvement in the
adopting it the mind is diverted from physical and mental health of the
violence etc. and is self-focused. It is the individual.
universal morality. 3. Yog brings out a person from a state of
(2) Niyam : (Personal discipline) : By internal depression. Thus reducing the
niyam, individual learns the intensity of the criminal and violence
compliance of the laws, customs, mentallity.
commands or rules for a disciplined life. 4. By following yog on a regular basis the
On adopting it the person develops a physical balance of the body is
good character. maintained even in the old age.
(3) Asanas : Body postures which result in 5. Yo g l e a d s t o q u a l i t i e s l i k e
stability and happiness. (fig. 14.9) self contemplation, spontaneity,
(4) Pranayam (Control and regulation of p r a c t i c a l i t y, e m o t i o n a l i t y,
the breathing process) : Its purpose is concentration and firm determination.
to receive, regulate and balance the vital 6. Yog and pranayam subdues the
energy that resides in our body. excitation of the nervous system which
(5) Pratyahara : (Control of the senses) : delivers us from the tensed life.
Divert the mind and senses from the 7. Yog enhances the action-potential of
external environment and make them our immunity system so that we can
introvert. Pratyahara leads to complete defend ourselves against various
control of senses i.e. the senses follow disease.
the mind instead of the mind following 8. Yog guides an individual to perform the
the senses. right deed which enhances the positive
(6) Dharana (Concentration) : It means health and well being.
the immovable concentration of the 9. Yo g a n d m e d i t a t i o n i n d u c e s
mind on any one of the body areas like enlightenment in the person so that in
navalpoint, heart-lotus, bhumadya, the present day culture, of competition,
Baharandh, nose etc. the anger and other destructive
Due to pratyahar, when the mind and emotions are subdued and a positive
senses are diverted from the external approach is inculcated.
sensations and they become introvert, at 10. The healthy body achieved by yog leads
that time focusing them at a particular to a better work-culture and the person
point is known as dharna. serves others and the nation, on the
(7) Dhyaan : (Sadhna or Meditation) : whole, in a better way.
When an individual frees himself from 11. The internal body organs are activated
the time and space shackles and by yog postures which leads to happy
concentrate, then the stage is that of and healthy long life.
dhyaan, i.e. perfect contemplation. 12. Immunity of the body increases.
(8) Samadhi (Self realization) : In it the 13. Body becomes flexible.
individuality of a person is lost 14. Yog develops the mental and physical
internally and externally in meditation. power to keep the mind peaceful and the
The individual goes beyond senses under control.
consciousness. It is the stage of perfect 15. Yogie postures purify blood.
bliss - the height of meditation. 16. Yog is a non-violent activity by which
Effect of Yog on Health : moral values are inculcated.
1. Yog improves the flow of oxygenated 17. Yog excels various body glands. Thus
blood which help to cure problems like assisting in balanced development of

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 the body. Nagarjuna also composed many texts on
To summarize, we may say that yog Ayurveda, including - 'Aarogya manjiri', 'Yogsaar',
leads to comprehensive development of 'yogashtak' etc. Many chemists used his knowledge
an individual and a disease free long for furthering their research.
life.
Important points
14.11 Life of Nagarjuna :
Nagarjuna was a renowned metallurgist and 1. A balanced diet is one which incorporates all
alchemist of ancient bharat. He was born near the nutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, fats,
Somnath in Gujrat at Daihak district. His period is vitamins minerals and water) in proper
of about 7th and 8th century - the period of ayurveda quantity.
metallurgy. Nagarjuna was an alchemist. 2. Fast food and synthetic beverages are harmful
His treatise "Ras-ratnakar" and "Rasendra- for our body and gradually develop many
mangal" are well known. serious diseases.
In 'Ras-ratnakar' there is depiction of metal- 3. Malnutrition means unavailability of balanced
purification and the representation of their diet for the body. The diseases which develop
properties. The most famous being the reference of due to deficiency of one or more nutrients, in
mercury (use of mercury). The chemical actions the diet, are known as malnutrition or
mentioned therein, still astonish the scientists. deficiency diseases.
Various experiments to prepare mercury 4. Protein deficiency leads to the Kwashiorkor
compounds have been described in it. It also and Marasmus diseases.
presents a survey of the standard of metallurgy and 5. Deficiency of calcium leads to symptoms like
alchemy in the country. The methods of purifying pain in muscles and bones and twitching. It also
silver, gold, tin, etc. have been described in it. results in repeated fractures.
To prepare life saving drugs and other 6. Goiter develops because of iodine deficiency.
substances from mercury, Nagarjuna made use of 7. Beri-beri disease develop due to deficiency of
animal and plant elements, acid, minerals etc. He vitamin B1 and deficiency of vitamin C results
suggested various acids prepared from vegetation to in scurvy.
dissolve many metals. Many scientists have 8. The diseases caused by various living factors
obtained their in-depth knowledge of chemistry by like - bacteria, virus, protozoa etc., which are
studying the treatise written by Nagarjuna. transmitted from person to person are known as
Nagarjuna has described many important chemical communicable diseases. Examples - AIDS,
processes, like distillation, sublimation Jaundice, Tuberculosis etc.
liquidification etc., in his books. All these processes 9. AIDS is transmitted by HIV.
play a pivotal role in chemistry till date. Nagarjuna 10. Diseases which are not transmitted from person
had also described the process of forming gold or to person are known as non-communicable
the metals with the gold-like yellow lustre, in his diseases. It is limited to the patient suffering
book. from it. Examples - diabetes, cancer etc.
All these facts make it clear that Nagarjuna 11. Yog assists in the development of the physical
had deep and intense knowledge about the chemical and mental health of a person.
properties of various substances. Modern chemistry 12. Maharshi Patanjali is known as the 'father of
has developed from alchemistry. Hence in Bharat, yog'.
Nagarjuna is considered to be the promoter of 13. Nagarjuna was a renowned scholar of
metallurgy. Nagarjuna had described the method of chemistry of the ancient period.
preparing mercury ash and then its use to keep the 14. Nagarjuna edited a book named "Sushruta
body healthy, for long. Samhita" and added a new chapter named
Nagarjuna edited a book named 'Sushrut "Uttar tantra".
Samhita' and added a new chapter 'uttar tantra'. This
chapter describes method to prepare medicines.

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 Important Questions communicable diseases with examples.
Also explain the factors responsible for
Multiple Choice Questions : development of a disease.
1. Kwashiorkor disease develops due to 16. What is Yog? Name some of the important
deficiency of which nutrient in the diet : yoga. Elucidate the effect of yog on health.
(a) Carbohydrate (b) Protein 17. Explain the life-history of Nagarjuna and
(c) Fats (d) Minerals Patanjali.
2. Which of the following disease is not by-birth -
(a) Leprosy (b) Titanus Answer Key
(c) Malaria (d) Chicken pox 1. (b) 2. (e) 3. (b) 4. (e) 5. (c) 6. (d)
(e) None of the above
3. The food component, considered to be the chief
source of energy is :
(a) fat (b) carbohydrate
(c) protein (d) Water
4. Disease due to Vitamin D deficiency is :
(a) Leprosy (b) Titanus
(c) Malaria (d) Chicken pox
(e) None of the above
5. AIDS is not transmitted by :
(a) Blood (b) From mother to children
(c) Touch (d) Sexual relations
6. Which of the following characters develops in a
person, by Yog :
(a) Self contemplation
(b) Optimism
(c) Discipline
(d) All of the above

Very short answer type questions :

7. What are the main components of a balanced
diet and their main sources.
8. Name the vitamins essential for our body.
9. Name the deficiency disease of Iodine.
10. Name the diseases caused by virus.
11. Write the symptoms and treatment of Dengue.

Short answer type questions :

12. Explain the effects of fast food on our body.
13. What is malnourishment? What are its reasons?
Name two diseases that are caused due to
malnourishment.
14. What is a balanced diet? What is the role of
minerals in the balanced diet? Describe the
diseases due to mineral deficiency.

Essay type answer questions :

15. How many types of diseases are there? Explain
the difference between communicable and non-

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 Chapter-15

Natural Resources and Agriculture

We know that earth is the only planet where earth's average temperature constant.
life exists. Temperature, water and food are required Of all the substances present on the earth's
for life. To fulfil the basic needs of all living forms surface water is most abundant. More than 70% of
on the earth, energy from the sun and the resources the earth's surface is submerged with water. Most of
available on earth are required. We fulfil our needs the water of the earth's surface is present in the
from air, water, soil, plants, animals etc. present in oceans and seas. This water is saline. Non-saline,
the nature. Man uses these gifts of nature in the form i.e. fresh water is present on the poles, as
of resources. Actually, even man is a resource underground water, in the rivers, lakes, ponds etc.
because develops other resources using his Water is an essential component of the protoplasm
knowledge. Any physical substance becomes a of the living cells. Water is a universal solvent in
resource when man considers it to be of some which various nutrients dissolve and enter the plant
importance and some value is added to it. The value body. All the metabolic reactions occurring in the
may be economic, moral or aesthetic. All the cell take place in the aqueous media. Thus all the
substances obtained from nature which used by life-processes of organisms depend on water. Apart
other organisms, along with humans, are known as from this growth, types of plant communities and
natural resources. They include air, water, soil, their distribution are also controlled, to a large
minerals, fossil fuel, plants and animals. extent, by water.
Soil is the upper fertile layer of land. It is
15.1 Significance of Air, Water and Soil : formed by the weathering of rocks. The organic
There is a thick cover of atmosphere all substances formed by the decay of remains of plants
around the earth. It stretches for a height of 300km and animals by microorganisms mix with these
from the earth's surface. 92% of its air, however, is particles of rocks and form the actual soil. The black
present upto the height of 20 km. coloured organic substances produced by the decay
Various gases are present in it in different of dead parts of plants and animals by the
proportions. 78.09% of the atmosphere by volume microorganisms are termed as Humus. Humus is
consists of Nitrogen, 20.95% of oxygen, 0.03% of the store-house of the plant nutrients. Plants obtain
carbon-di-oxide and 0.00006% of Hydrogen. Apart nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K),
from these gases Argon, Neon,Helium etc. are the calcium (Ca) and other minerals and salts from the
other gases present in the atmosphere. soil.
The gases present in the atmosphere are very Nitrogen 78.09%
essential for plants and animals. In nature cycles of
oxygen, nitrogen, carbon-di-oxide etc. operate
between the atmosphere, soil and living beings and Oxygen 20.95%
maintains a balance. Evay living organism uses
oxygen. Plants use the carbon-di-oxide from
atmosphere in the process of photosynthesis to Argon 0.90%
prepare food. Similarly even nitrogen is essential
for photosynthesis. The bacteria and blue-green Other gases
algae present in soil and plant tissue fix the
atmospheric nitrogen and increases the fertility of Carbon-di-oxide
the soil. Atmosphere is a bad conductor of heat and 0.03%
covers the earth like a blanket. Thus keeping the
Fig. 15.1 Composition of Air

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15.2 Movement of Air : Pollution are of the following types :
Of the various atmospheric factors, wind is
an important factor which affects organisms, 15.3.1 Air Pollution :
especially in the plains, sea-shores and high- Sufficient amount of oxygen in the air is the
mountains. Due to difference in air pressure on the result of photosynthetic activity of the nature. In dry
earth surface movement is produced in the air which air there is approximately 79% nitrogen, 20.9%
is termed as the wind. The reason for difference in oxygen, 0.03% carbon-di-oxide and rest part is of
air pressure is unequal heating. Equatorial regions gases like neon, helium, krypton etc. The main
produce more heat as compared to the northern and source of oxygen required for respiration and the
southern regions. This results in low air pressure in carbon-di-oxide for photosynthesis, is the
the Equatorial Regions, and the wind blows from atmosphere. Man is the main cause of atmospheric
the poles to the equator. According to the location pollution. The chief air pollutants include carbon-
the movement of air depends on various factors like mono-oxide, sulphur-di-oxide, hydrocarbon
geographical position, topography, height and mixture, the suspended particulate matter present in
distance from the sea, density of vegetation etc. the air, smoke and dust particles. The source of all
Wind affects the plant life directly and indirectly. these pollutants are coal burnt in industries and
The branches of trees fall off due to the fast household, petrol, gas ovens, automated vehicles
blowing winds. Flow of winds in the same direction etc.
for long durations brings about permanent changes
in the basic shape of the plants. Fast blowing winds
blow away the top soil from the ground and make it
barren. Anemometer is used to measure the
velocity of wind.

15.3 Pollution :
Environmental pollution is a much talked
about topic on social media like television,
newspaper and seminars, science magazines, other
magazines and periodicals etc. In the contemporary
era it is a very serious and alarming problem created Fig. 15.2 Air Pollution
by modern civilization. It has turned out to be a
global problem. (a) Smoke : The smoke released on
The dictionary meaning of pollution is "to burning of coal and other natural fuels
make impure or dirty" "desecrate (i.e. spoil contain many oxides of sulphur.
something that is valued or respected)" "to pollute" Sulphur-di-oxide is a harmful pollutant.
etc. According to a simple definition, "pollution is It affects the mucous membrane of eyes,
the unwanted-for or undesired change in the lungs and throat and causes many
chemical or biological properties of air, water and diseases. SO2 enter the plants through
soil, which is very harmful for the human life, stomata and forms sulphuric acid
ecology and natural resources. (H2SO4). This acid degrades
Substances made by humans and thrown chlorophyll. Lichens and Bryophytes
away after use, in nature, are the pollutants. Card- are more affected by sulpher-di-oxide
boards, metal, polythene bags, stones, pebbles, lime pollution. This gas kills them. Lichens
etc. left after construction of buildings, the fibers, are considered to be the indicator of
wood shavings, iron-fitings, various herbicides and this pollutant.
pesticides, exhaust of automated vehicles, industrial Smoke combines with fog and forms
wastes etc. - all are the by-products of smog. In it the sulphur-di-oxide reacts
anthropogenic activities and are the pollutants. with oxygen and forms higher oxides of
sulphur which form sulphuric acid with

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 water. This acid corrodes the stones and 3-4, benzepyrene formed by incomplete
walls of buildings. The acid formed by combustion of hydrocarbons cause
the pollutants released from the cancer. Oxides of nitrogen causes
petroleum refinery at Mathura has irritation in nose and the respiratory
increased the fear of corrosion of the tract.
marble of Taj Mahal.
Nitrogen-di-oxide (NO2) released from 15.3.2 Water Pollution :
the burning of fossil fuels oxidises to Water reservoirs, large fresh water lakes,
form Nitrate (NO3) which forms nitric ponds and rivers are the main sources of drinking
acid with water (HNO3). The nitric acid water for man and animals. Most of the towns, big
thus formed comes down to the earth cities, and industrial townships are also settled near
along with rain water. The rain these water sources. The domestic and industrial
containing nitric and sulphuric acids affluents are released directly in these water bodies.
dissolved in its water is known as the Now water pollution is a big problem in developing
Acid Rain. Acid rain increases the and developed nations. These sources of water are
acidity of soil and thus destroy its polluted by various pollutants like sewage,
fertility. It harms buildings, rail-roads, detergents, herbicides and insecticides dissolved in
monuments, statues etc. by corroding water, industrial affluents containing dissolved
them. Carbon-mono-oxide (CO) is organic and inorganic chemicals, harmful micro-
formed by incomplete combustion of organisms, soil sediments of rivers and rivulets
fuel. Approximately 50% of the total air deposited on the banks etc.
pollutants is the carbon-mono-oxide. (a) Sewage : Mostly it contains the organic
This gas enters the human body and substances which are oxidized to
combines with the haemoglobin in the carbon-di-oxide and water by micro-
blood. The rate of this combination is organisms. So if the quantity of sewage
210 times faster than the combination of released in water bodies is not much, it
oxygen with haemoglobin, therefore will not get polluted. Most of the wastes
there is lack of oxygen in human body in are oxidized by bio-degradation. But if
the presence of carbon-mono-oxide. the quantity of sewage released is more,
Other particulate contents of smoke like the population of micro-organisms will
soot, tar, dust particles etc. reduces increase and the dissolved oxygen
light. They gradually deposit on the present in the water will not be enough
earth, enters the animal body during for their respiration. Moreover the
respiration causing various diseases of amount of dissolved carbon-di-oxide
respiratory tract including lungs. They
also harm metal, painted surfaces,
clothes, paper, leather etc.
(b) Automobile exhaust : Automobile
exhaust consists of all the air pollutants
about which we have studied in the
preceeding paragraph i.e. smoke. This
exhaust is responsible for 60% of the air
pollution in today’s world. On burning
of 1000 gallon petrol approximately
3200 pound CO, 200-400 pound
carbonic vapour, 20.75 pound oxides of
nitrogen, 2 pound carbonic acids 2
pound ammonia and 0.3 pound solid
carbon particles are released. Fig. 15.3 Water pollution

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 will increase. Fishes and other aquatic deposited in the body and are then
plants and animals will die because of passed on from one trophic level to the
lack of oxygen and the river or lake will next in the food chain. Mercury and
gradually convert into a stinking pond other toxic metals from chemical
or puddle. industries and the mining activities
By calculating the amount of oxygen reach the rivers and then the oceans.
used in unit volume of water in the Corrosion of automated boats also leads
given time, the quantity of organic to the dissolution of mercury and lead in
pollutants can be inferred upon. This the water-body. It forms the toxic
measurement is known as the methyl-mercury which affects the
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD). nervous system of aquatic animals. The
The sewage released from leather other metal-pollutant of water is lead
industries, animal slaughter-houses, (Pb). It reaches the water bodies by lead
passenger-ships and boats etc. contains mining and corrosion of automated
many infections micro-organisms water boats and exhibits toxic effects by
which results in various diseases among percolating down the food chain.
human population like - Cholera, (c) Chemical fertilizers in the form of
typhoid, jaundice etc. Sewage is a good pollutants : Chemical fertilizers like
source of nutrients for the aquatic urea, potash, diammonium phosphate
organisms and make the water bodies etc. are used to increase the agricultural
eutrophic. This results in the rapid production. These fertilizers flow down
increase in the population of algae and to the water bodies and results in the
the water reservoir, lake, river etc. get formation of Algal blooms.
filled with the dense growth of these (d) Insecticides and fungicides : To
algae. This is known as the algal- destroy the insects and pathogens that
bloom. As these algae die the bacteria harm the crop, various insecticides and
decomposes them so that there is lack of fungicides are used on a large scale.
dissolved oxygen in the water-body. DDT, an insecticide, is widely used in
This also increases the pollution. Many agriculture to destroy the harmful
aquatic fishes and other animals and insects etc. Its excessive use over the
plants die under these anaerobic years has proved to be a hazardous
conditions. water and soil pollutant.
(b) Release of liquid affluents by various All these are non-degradable organic
industries : The liquid affluents of compounds. Their continuous use over
various industries like petro-chemical, the passage of time increases their
fertilizers, oil-refinery, medicines, concentration in soil and water. These
fibers, rubber, plastic etc. are hazardous chemicals also exhibit bio-
pollutants. The affluents from these magnification. Their concentration
sources contain many toxic chemicals gradually increases in the organisms of
and acids in dissolved conditions. They higher trophic levels. When the
pollute water and also pollute the concentration of DDT increases in the
ground water by perecolating down plant body their consumption by
through the soil. The lake water gets herbivorous organisms like insects,
polluted by these liquid affluents and fishes etc. introduces them into the food
the animals and plants present in such chain. The more the consumption of
water bodies are also killed. Many these infested plants the higher will be
severe diseases occur in animals and the deposition of the chemicals in the
man consuming this polluted water. herbivores from where they will be
Many of these toxic substances are passed on to the next trophic level on

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 being consumed. This how is the
concentration of these chemicals like
DDT reaches toxic levels and becomes
lethal. If these top carnivores, like the
big fishes in an aquatic food chain, are
consumed by humans they show
harmful effects on the health. The
polluted water is non-consumable and
have a bad-smell. It at times, is not even
fit for washing clothes or having bath
etc. It has the pathogens of may diseases
like typhoid, cholera, jaundice etc.
These diseases are transmitted by Fig. 15.4 Noise Pollution
polluted water.
where noise pollution is intense, loose their ability
15.3.3 Noise Pollution : to listen at a very young age. Noise increases mental
Sound is produced in many of the works tension and the heart beat. Excessive noise is bad for
performed by us. Conversation and music are good liver and brain functioning. The sudden loud noise
to listen to and we enjoy them. When the sound is is all the more harmful for our health. It hampers the
undesirable and annoying it is termed as noise. hearing ability and at times the person may even
When the sound intensity reaches levels that faint.
irritates us, we call it noise pollution. It is the Noise is the cause of many harmful
intensity that differs between a whisper and the loud physiological effects to our body. The pupil expands
sound produced by the engines of an air craft. The by intense noise, the yellowing of skin may be
intensity of sound is measured in terms of a unit observed, voluntary muscles may contract,
called Decibel. This unit was proposed by the secretion of digestive enzymes may be hampered,
famous scientist Graham Bell. It is expressed by db. blood pressure increases, the quantity of adrenalin
Sound at quiet places like libraries, radio-sound, in the blood increases which results in increased
recording room etc. ranges from 0 to 30 db. In the tension in nerves and increases restlessness.
quiet study rooms and in our homes this sound is
upto 50 db. In normal conversation also it is 50 db. 15.3.4 Soil Pollution :
The sound produced by trucks, buses etc. is of the The upper layer of land which is known as
range of 90 db. Machines at the industries produce soil is affected by soil pollution. Mineral
100 db sound while that produced by jet planes is substances, organic substances, soil water and
180 db. micro-organisms together make the soil. The ratio
The sound of intensity more than 80 db is a of these components is different in different types of
pollutant which is harmful for our hearing. We feel soils. The physical, chemical and biological
restless and disturbed by sound of 100 db intensity characters of each type of soil are definite. Hence
and that of 120 db or more produces severe unwanted change in the properties of soil is known
headache. Intense sound destroy our physical as soil pollution.
environment. The supersonic jet which moves at a Sources of Soil Pollution :
speed faster than sound leaves a trial of sound waves 1. Industry : Various industries like the
as it moves ahead. This is known as the Sonic boom. paper and pulp industry, oil refinery,
Sonic boom when collides with the earth surface industries preparing various chemicals,
weakend the buildings. vanaspati ghee, sugar, liquor various
Noise hinders with the smooth power plants etc., are the main sources
conversation. It reduces our hearing power and of soil pollution. Most of the industrial
disturbs our mental peace. The citizens, residing in furnaces produce ash which pollutes the
over populated cities and industrial townships, soil.

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2. Mining : During various mining fertility. In other words the land
processes the topsoil and subsoil are becomes barren.
removed forming deep pits. This is also 4. Chlorine containing hydrocarbons like
accompanied by surface pollution of the DDT; 2, 4-D; 2, 4, 5-T etc. are not
nearby land. degraded and hence accumulates in the
3. Agriculture : Agriculture is directly soil. Along with water and minerals
influenced by the revolution in the field even these pollutants are absorbed by
of chemistry. To increase the the plants and thus enter the food chain
agricultural production the use of where they make various trophic levels
advanced seeds and better irrigation poisonous.
facilities is accompanied with use of 5. Garbage not only reduces the aesthetic
fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides, sense of the landscape but also results in
weedicides etc. These chemicals pollute pollution of the soil as well as
the soil to a large extent. atmosphere.
4. Garbage : Garbage includes domestic 6. Explosions carried out during mining
wastes such as paper, glass, cloth, iron processes reduces the agricultural
and aluminium containers, plastic productivity of the adjoining areas.
containers, polythene bags, pieces of 7. Radioactive elements accumulate in the
rubber, leather, animal compost, wastes upper layer of atmosphere after the
of building material etc. The garbage conduction of nuclear test. These come
disposal is a big source of soil pollution. down to earth with rain water and
5. Radioactive substance : Alpha and pollute the soil and water bodies.
gamma radiations are emitted from the Management of Pollution :
degradation of radioactive substances. Pollution is undoubtedly increasing in the
The radioactive elements released atmosphere day by day. Following measures
during atomic tests enter the soil and can be taken to reduce and regulate the
pollute it. atmospheric pollution :
6. Dead organisms : Soil is also polluted 1. The masses at different levels of the
by the carpses of birds and other society will have to be made vigilant
organisms thrown out in the open. towards this problem by educating and
Effects of Soil Pollution : making them aware of the methods of
1. To meet the ever growing demand of conservation using interesting media,
food of the ever growing population picture books, posters, movies, videos,
more production from crop-lands is articles, T.V. programmes, dance-drama
required. To achieve this chemical depicting environmental pollution and
f er tilizer s alon g w ith v arious conservation strategies etc. For the
fungicides, insecticides, weedicides purpose various seminars and functions
etc. are used. These toxic chemicals kill should be organized. The youth of the
even the beneficial microorganisms, as country should come forward for the
a result the process of natural soil purpose and make important
formation (pedogenesis) stops. contributions in the direction.
2. The rate of photosynthesis slows down 2. Various pollution regulation systems
because of the insecticides, weedicides, and curriculum based on conservation
fungicides etc. sprayed on the plants. of natural resources should be made
3. Regular irrigation and use of fertilizers compulsory for all the classes at school
increase the soil salinity and some of the and college level.
unwanted elements increase in the soil. 3. Every country should take controlled
This disturbs the balance of various care of various aspects of atmosphere so
nutrients in the soil and reduces its that even the new pollutants can be

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 known, timely, and controlled amplify sound intensity and to transmit
immediately. it to distances should be banned. Sound
4. The inflammable solid wastes should be absorbers should be used in auditoriums
burnt in large furnaces made for the and use of ear-plugs should be
purpose. The gases released on burning compulsory for workers in the
them should be well treated to reduce industries.
their polluting effect before letting them
escape in the environment. 15.4 Light and Radiation :
5. Solid pollutants like sewage, dung, Light is essential for living organisms. It
remains of plants and animals etc. affects many physiological processes in the plants,
should be buried deep under soil in large directly (for example transpiration, photosynthesis,
pits, away from the residential areas. plant movements etc.) and indirectly (respiration,
After some time they will degrade and absorption, growth, plant hormones etc.). Light
will convert into humus which can be plays an important role in development and
used for agricultural purpose. expansion of vegetation and controlling the species
6. Non-flamable solid wastes like ash, composition. Sun light is the main source of energy
glass, PVC metal etc. should be broken in nature. Green plants synthesize food with the help
down into pieces and should be used to of light by the process of photosynthesis. This food
fill pits in barran lands. is the basis of bio-energy in the bio-sphere.
7. Automated vehicles which are not The part of radiant energy or
based on fossil fuels should be electromagnetic rays of the sun which forms the
encouraged. Catalytic converters visible spectrum is known as the visible light. The
should be used in vehicles using fossil radiations reaching the earth from the sun are of the
fuels like petrol, diesel etc. Special wavelength range 300nm to 1000 nm. Of these only
devices should be used in the fire-place the radiations in the ranging from of 390 nm to 760
and chimneys of industries to purify the nm are visible to eyes i.e. the radiations of
escaping gases to some extent for wavelength 390 nm to 760 nm are known as the
example - scruber, cyclone separators, visible light. On passing through a prism the visible
electro-static precipitators etc. light scatters into light of different wavelengths for
8. Unmindful use of fertilizers, example violet (390 nm-430 nm) indigo (430nm-
insecticides, weedicides etc. should be 470 nm) blue (470 nm- 500 nm), green (500 nm- 580
banned. nm) yellow (580 nm- 600 nm), orange (600 nm- 650
9. Use of wood as a fuel should be nm) and red (650 nm- 760 nm). The radiations of
completely banned. Heavy penalties wavelength less than violet color are known as the
should be imposed against cutting of ultra-voilet rays while those having wavelength
trees. more than red are the infra-red radiations. The light
10. Use of paper disposables and card board radiations having lower wave length have more
cartons should be banned. quantum energy while those with bigger
11. U s e o f d e t e rg e n t s s h o u l d b e
discouraged and use of soap for
cleaning clothes should be promoted. Gama X Ultra- Infra-red Micro Radio
12. Use of plastic disposables and rays rays violet rays rays waves waves
polythene bags should be banned and
the plastic containers, bottles etc. Visible light
should be recycled and reused.
13. The affluents from cities and industries
should not be released in water bodies. 39nm 76nm
14. Unnecessary use of horns in vehicles
should be avoided. The devices used to Fig. 15.5 Light Radiations

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wavelengths have lesser energy. manure. Compost is rich in organic
15.5 Manure and Fertilizer matter as well as various nutrients.
Like food is essential for the development, Vermi-compost is prepared from the
growth and health of human being, so are the plant and animal wastes by rapid
nutrient substances essential for the growth of degradation using earthworms.
plants. Plants obtain their nutritive substances from (ii) Green manure : Pod bearing,
the air, water and soil. 16 nutritive elements are leguminous plants like- sunhemp,
essential for plants. Carbon and oxygen are obtained moong, gwar etc. are grown in the fields
from the atmosphere, water provides for the before growing crops. After they attain
hydrogen and oxygen and the remaining 13 sufficient height they are mixed with
elements are obtained from the soil. Out of these 13 the soil by ploughing them down. These
elements, 6 nutrients are required in greater quantity plants convert into green manure and
and are known as the macro nutrients while the replenish the nitrogen and phosphorus
remaining seven are required in very small amount content of the soil.
and are known as the micro nutrients. Deficiency 15.5.2 Fertilizer :
of these elements affects various physical processes Fertilizers are the plant nutrient prepared
of the plant including reproduction, growth and commercially. They provide nitrogen, phosphorus
resistance towards various diseases. To increase and potassium. They results in good vegetative
production these elements are to be added to the soil growth of plants and keep them healthy. Fertilizers
in the form of manure and fertilizers. Various are used to increase the production. Fertilizer should
elements obtained from air, water and soil are as be used carefully. Many-a-time the fertilizers are
under : washed away due to over irrigation and plants are
Air - Carbon and oxygen not able to absorb them properly. Use of excess of
Water - Hydrogen and oxygen fertilizers leads to soil and water pollution
Soil- (i) Macro nutrients : Nitrogen, continuous use of fertilizers reduces the soil
Phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, fertility. It adversely affects the life cycle of various
Sulphur subterranean organisms and microorganisms. We
Micro nutrients : Iron, Manganese, Boron, can increase the agricultural production by using
Zinc, Copper, Molybdenum, Chlorine. fertilizers in lesser time but after some time the soil
15.5.1 Manure : fertility reduces rapidly. However the benefits of
The amount of organic substances is more in using manure persists over long period of time.
manure. It is prepared by the decomposition of dead Organic farming is the technique of farming in
plant parts and animal wastes. Manure replenish the which chemical fertilizers, insecticides, weedicides
soil with organic substances and nutrients and etc. are not used at all or in case of intense need they
increases its fertility. More quantity of organic are used only is very small quantities. In this
substances in manure improves the structure of soil. technique organic manure recycled agricultural
We use bio-waste to produce manure. Use of wastes and cattle wastes, biological agents like
manure reduces the need of fertilizers and thus helps blue-green algal cultures, bio-fertilizers etc. are
in environmental conservation. Manure may be of made use of. Neem leaves and turmeric powder are
the following types on the basis of use of various used as bio-insecticides during storage.
bio-materials and the process of preparing it :
(i) Compost and vermi-compost : For 15.6 Crop :
composting, the agricultural wastes like Carbohydrate as source of energy is
the feaces of animals, dung etc., obtained from cereals like wheat, rice, maize, bajra
vegetable rind and trash, weeds etc. are and jowar, protein is obtained from pulses like pea,
filled in pits. These animal and gram, black lentil, urd, moong, arhar etc. and the oil-
agricultural wastes are decomposed seeds like soyabean, groundnut, til (sesamum),
using micro-organisms. This castor, mustard, alsi (flex) and sunflower provide us
decomposed material is then used as with the essential fats. Vegetables, spices and

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condiments and fruits provide various vitamins and (1) High production : Increasing the
minerals along with some amount of proteins, fat production per hectare.
and carbohydrates. Fodder crops like berseem, oat, (2) Improved varieties : The quality of the
grass etc. are cultivated to provide for the cattle crop produce is different for every crop.
feed. Hence, their regular production, proper For example the quality of protein in
management and distribution is essential to provide pulses, quality of oil in oil crops, high
for the needs of the large population. quantity of vitamins and minerals in
Bharat is a big country. Here climate fruits and vegetables etc.
conditions like temperature, humidity and rains (3) Biotic and Abiotic resistance : The
vary from region to region. Hence different types of crop production may decrease due to
crops are cultivated in different parts of the country. various biotic (diseases, insects etc.)
Crops can be broadly categorized into two on the and abiotic (drought, salinity, water
basis of season : logging, heat, cold, frost etc.) factors.
(i) Kharif crops : These are the crops The varieties tolerant to these factors
which are sown during rainy season. In Bharat the can increase the production under
rainy season is from June to September. It includes adverse conditions.
paddy, maize, soyabean, groundnut, moong etc. (4) Change in maturation period :
(ii) Rabi crops : Crops grown in winter Economically it is beneficial to use
season are the rabi crops. Wheat, gram, pea, varieties with reduced duration, from
mustard and flex are some of the major rabi crops. sowing to reaping. The farmers, hence,
may obtain more than one crop produce
15.7 Varieties of Crops : in his field per year. Reduction in time
Good production of crops depend upon the reduces the expenses of crop
selection of varieties for cultivation. Various useful production. The loss of produce is
qualities (like disease resistance, compatibility with reduced if the crop maturation is
fertilizers, quality of the produce and high simultaneous.
production) of the crop varieties can be chosen by (5) Broad compatibility : Production of
breeding. Desired traits can be introduced in the varieties having broad compatibility
varieties by hybridizations. In the hybridization will be helpful in stabilizing the
technique plants with different genetic properties produce in different environmental
are hybridized. Another method of crop conditions. Some varietes may then be
improvement is introduction of the desired genes. used for cultivation under varied
This results in the production of genetically altered environmental conditions.
varieties. Before adopting any new variety it is (6) Optional qualities of the crop : Long
essential to ensure that the variety can give and dense branching is the desired
sufficient produce in various environments at quality for fodder crops, so that there
various places. Good quality seeds should be made will be more production using less of is
available to the farmers. In other words the seeds nutrients. In this way various improved
should be of the quality which germinate properly in varieties may be used to enhance
favourable conditions. production.
Crop production depends upon the weather,
quality of soil and availability of water. Since 15.8 Crop Pattern :
weather prediction like drought, floods etc. is The land becomes barren by continuous use
difficult, so crops which can grow under varied of chemical fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides
environmental conditions are more useful. etc., therefore need was felt of techniques which
Similarly varieties which can grow in saline soil could be used for crop cultivation, on a continuous
have also been developed for some crops. The basis, without harming natural resources. This is
objective of improving crop varieties includes : known as the long term agriculture.
Methods such as mixed farming, mixed

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cropping and crop-rotations are used for long-term soil and maintain nutrient balance, crop
agriculture. rotation is adopted. Crop rotation is
(a) Mixed farming : The needs of the growing of different crops in succession
farmer cannot be fulfilled by the in the field in a planned manner.
produce of small patches of land. So the In crop rotation cultivation of cereals
farmer adopts other methods to increase should be altered with the cultivation of
productivity. These include - animal pod-bearing leguminous plants so as to
husbandry, fisheries, horticulture and replenish the soil nitrogen.
agriculture. This practice not only
increases the farmer’s income but also 15.9 Crop Protection :
utilizes the land available to the In the fields crop is affected by weeds,
maximum. Mixed farming, thus, is a insects, pests and various diseases. If the pests and
system of farming which involves the weeds are not controlled in time, they can cause
growing of crops along with raising the immense harm to the crop.
livestock. Weeds are the unnecessary plants that grow
(b) Mixed cropping : When only one type along with the crop plants. For example : Vilayati
of crop is grown in a field, the Gokhru (Xanthium), Carrot-grass (Parthenium),
requirements of all the crop plants are Motha (Cyperus rotundus). These weeds compete
alike. It will use some of the nutrients for food space and light and use various nutrients of
which will reduce in quantity over time the soil thus reducing the production. Therefore, for
while others will not be used at all. To healthy growth of crop plants, the weeds should be
avoid the imbalance of nutrients now-a- removed from the fields right from the beginning.
days two or more than two type of crops Usually, insect-pests attack the plants in
are grown together in the field. This three ways (1) they cut the roots, stem and leaves of
type of cropping pattern is known as the plants i.e. they chew them (2) they suck the
mixed cropping. For example, Wheat cellular juices from various parts of the plant (3)
and gram; wheat and mustard; they bear the fruits and stem and enter it, i.e. they
groundnut and sunflower etc. If due to perforate it. Thus they damage the crop and reduces
adverse weather conditions or due to production.
other reasons, one of the crop fails, at In plants diseases are caused by casual
least the produce of the other will be organisms like bacteria, fungi, virus etc. They are
available. present in soil, water and air and are transmitted to
The following things should be kept in the plants through them. The weeds, insects and
mind while selecting crops for mixed diseases can be controlled by various methods. The
cropping. most common of all is use of chemical pesticides.
1. One crop should be of long period Various insecticides, fungicides and weedicides
while other of short period. belong to this category. These chemicals are
2. One crop should be long and other sprayed on the crop and are used for seed and soil
should be dwarf. treatment. But their excessive use leads to many
3. One crop should have deep root problems. These chemicals may be toxic for plants
system while the other must have and animals and may cause environmental
surface roots. pollution. Mechanically removing the weeds is
(c) Crop Rotation : The fertility of land another method. Preventive measures include
reduces due to continuous cropping of sowing the crop on time, preparing proper beds,
the same crop over the years. The inter cropping and crop rotation, for controlling the
production of that crop reduces due to growth of weeds. The pests can be controlled by
deficiency of certain nutrients in the using resistant varieties and ploughing the land
crop land since they are the ones being during summer months. Deep ploughing during
used continuously. So to replenish the summer months kill the pests and uproots the weeds

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and exposes the seed of weeds to the heat, thus
destroying them.

15.10 Methods of Irrigation :

All organisms needs water to remain alive.
Water is of great importance for the growth and
development of flowers, fruits and seeds. Water is
absorbed, along with the dissolved minerals and
fertilizers from the soil, by the roots. In plants there
is approximately 90% water. Water is important
because seeds cannot germinate in dry conditions.
The nutrients dissolved in water are translocated to
all parts of the plant. It protects the plant from frost
and hot air. For healthy growth of crop plants, Fig. 15.6 Sprinkler Irrigation System
watering the fields on a regular basis is essential.
Watering the fields at different time intervals is (ii) Drip System : In this method water
known as irrigation. The time and frequency of reaches down directly to the roots, drop
irrigation differs with the crop, soil type, season etc. by drop. Therefore it is known as the
The frequency of irrigating will be comparatively drip system. This is the best method of
more during summer months. irrigating the fruit trees, gardens and
Sources of Irrigation : Well, tube-well, other plantations. Water is not wasted in
lakes, ponds, rivers, dams and canals are the various this method and the plant receives
sources of water. The methods of taking water to the continuous supply of water, drop-by-
fields from the sources differ from region to region. drop. This system is a boon for areas
In traditional methods cattle or workers are having scarcity of water.
used. They are cheap but less efficient. They include
(i) Pulley (ii) Chain pump (iii) Dhekli and (iv) Rahat
(water lifting).
Water is lifted either manually or by using
pumps. Diesel, biogas, electricity or solar energy is
made use of to drive the pump.
Modern Methods of Irrigation : We can
use water economically by using modern methods
of irrigation. These methods include :
(i) Sprinkler System : This method is
used for uneven land where water
availability is less. Rotating nozzles are
attached to the upper ends of vertical
pipes, these pipes are at a definite
distance from each other and are Fig. 15.7 Drip System
connected to the main pipe. When water
is sent to the nozzles via the vertical 15.11 Agriculture :
pipes they rotate, sprinkling water over Contemporary agriculture is the combined
the crop plants in a manner similar to the effort of arts, science and technology. In it crops
rains irrigating the crop. with desired characteristics can be obtained using
principles of science and genetic engineering.
Hence the basic need of food and cloth of the fast
growing human population can be met .
Various stages of advanced agriculture

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includes : varieties are used and pesticides are
(1) Improved seeds : The quality of seed is sprayed.
improved for more production, disease
resistance, uniformity in time of 15.12 Animal Husbandry :
maturity, adaptation for various Animal husbandry is the supplementary
environmental conditions. occupation of agriculture. From ancient times man
(2) Mineral nutrition of the crops : Crop has domesticated animals and have used them. In
plants need various nutrients for modern times due to mechanization, the
preparing food and for growth. Plants dependence of man on animals has decreased, yet
obtain their nutrients from air, water and animal husbandry is generating employment for a
soil. Different types of manure and large section of our population. As compared to
fertilizers are used to supply nutritive other countries there are maximum number of
elements to the soil. Dung manure, domesticated animals in Bharat and it is number one
compost, vermi-compost and green in milk production. Animal husbandry includes
manure are used as manure - Urea, di- caring and domesticating animals such as cows,
ammonium phosphate, super buffaloes, camels, sheep, goats, horses etc. and
phosphate, ammonium sulfate and obtaining milk, flesh, leather, dung etc. from them
calcium ammonium nitrate are used as and using them for agriculture.
fertilizers.
(3) Weeds : Farmer sow the seeds of the 15.12.1 Milk production :
crop plant but many other seeds present Milk production is an important part of the
in the soil germinate along with the crop business of food products. Man has been using the
seeds and produce plants. The milk produced by other mammals for their young
undesired plants that grow along with ones, for his own use, since ancient times. The milk
crop plants in the field are known as obtained from mammals, immediately after the
weeds. birth of young ones is known as colostrum. In an
There is competition for water, mineral average milk there is 87.3% water, 4.5% fat, 4.6%
salts etc. between the crop plants and the carbohydrate, 3.5% protein 0.75% minerals, 0.85%
weeds. This results in lack of fat-less solid substances. The maximum protein
availability of sufficient water and (6.25%) is present in sheep milk and cows' milk has
nutrients for the crop plants. The weed about 3.21% proteins. Various products like curd,
plants grow fast and cover the crop plant cream, butter, mawa, ghee, milk powder etc. are
thus hindrance is generated for the sun obtained from milk.
light to reach the crop plants. Some Because of high nutritive value bacteria
weeds produce special chemicals from grow very rapidly in milk and spoils it. Milk can be
their root system and have adverse stored for many days after pasteurization and
effect on the crop plants. Weeds are the cooling.
shelter for various pests and pathogens
and hence increases the chance of 15.2.2 Cattle breed :
disease development. The cost of crop Cow, buffalo, goat etc. are domesticated for
increases because of the cost of milk production. From milk production point of
weeding. Weeds can be controlled view the deshi varieties of cow includes Sahiwaal,
physically i.e. uprooting them manually Sindh, Gir, Devli, Hariyanawi etc. while the foreign
or by chemical and biological methods. breeds include Redden, Holstein, Jerry etc. The
(4) Plant diseases : Dys-functioning of the murrah, jafarabaadi, surti etc. are the varieties of
plant or any part thereof is known as the buffalo preferred for more milk production.
plant disease. Disease develop in plants Similarly the breeds of goat are Jamanapaari,
by virus, bacteria and fungi. To control Barbery, Sirohi etc.
disease in crop plants, disease resistant

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15.12.3 Animal feed : etc. White Leghorn is the breed with maximum egg
Extra animal feed should be given to production.
bovines and pregnant cattles along with the regular
feed. Animals should be fed upon 2/3 part of hay and 15.13.2 : Dwelling and food :
1/3rd green fodder. Animal feed should consist of Arrangement for safe dwelling and nutritive
40% grains, 40% pomace (Khali) and 20% left over food is essential for good growth and healthy fowls.
of wheat flour straining (chokar). Apart from this 50 The dwelling should be at some height. No water
gm of salt and 30 gms mineral powder should also should be puddled near the dwelling and it should be
be given to the cattle. well aerated and ventilated.
Yellow maize, groundnut pomace, small
15.12.4 Animal health : wheat particles, meshed rice grains, jowar, fish
The animal should remain healthy. powder, pebbles containing lime, salt etc. are used
Production reduces in sick and unhealthy animals. as food.
For prevention of diseases animals should be
vaccinated from time to time and animal shelters 15.13.3 : Health :
should be kept neat and clean. Animals may suffer Infectious bronchitis, Marek's disease,
from diseases caused by virus, bacteria, fungi and Ranikhet, Plague, Small pox etc. are the main viral
worms. The main diseases of animals along with diseases in poultry. Proper vaccination should be
their vaccines and vaccination are listed in the table done to prevent these diseases.
given below :
S.No. Disease Vaccine Time 15.14 Apiculture :
Man has been using honey obtained from
1. Khurpka Poly vaccine Every year
(paw festering)
honey-bee since ancient times. Honey is a high
and Muhpka energy food stuff. It contains glucose, fructose,
(festering of sucrose, minerals etc. It is used as a medicine and as
mouth) a preservative. The wax obtained from bee hive is
2. Diphtheria H. S oil, Every year known as the bee-wax. It is used in cream, floor
Adjuvant
vaccine
polish, shoe polish and sculpturing. Now-a-days,
3. Glandular Anthrax spore Every year honey bee are reared to obtain honey.
disease vaccine
(Gilte-rog)
4. Tuberculosis BCG vaccine After every three
years
5. Small pox RP Tissue After every three
vaccine years

15.13 Poultry Farming :

The main aim of poultry farming is to obtain
eggs and meat. Apart from this, by products like
feathers, manure blood etc. are also obtained. The
poultry industry fulfils a major part of the demand of Male Female Worker
proteins in the country, in the form of eggs and meat.
Fig. 15.7 Honey bees
15.13.1 : Poultry Breed :
The poultry breed of Bhartiya origin 15.14.1 Honeybee - a social insect :
includes Red jungle fowl, Aseel, Chatgoan, Bustra The form and function of honey bee varies.
etc. They are reared chiefly to obtain meat. Foreign There are three types of honey bee in a hive. Queen,
breeds (Exotic strains) includes Rhode Island Red, Male and worker. Queen bee can be recognized by
Plymouth Rock chicken, Leghorn, white Leghorn its elongated abdomen while males have very big

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prominent eyes. The Queen bee dominates the hive, Steps of Fish-culture :
and controls it by secreting a substance with typical
smell. The queen bee lives in the hive only. The male 15.15.1 Dwelling :
in their single coitus flight with the queen deposit Fishes are cultured in natural water sources
sperms with the queen for the life-time. After this like sea, lakes, ponds and river but artificial water
the male bees die spontaneously or they are expelled reservoirs are also used for the purpose. Places with
from the hive. clay-rich soil are considered good for constructing
Queen bee lays two type of eggs. The water reservoir.
generation of worker or queen from the fertilized
eggs depends on their nourishment. The larvae 15.15.2 Various species of fish :
which are fed upon the royal jelly develop into Fishes are produced more in fresh water as
queen bee. The first formed queen bee kills the other compared to that in saline water. Rohu, Mrigla, katla
developing queen bees. Thus there is a single queen etc. are the indegenous fishes cultured in fisheries
bee in a hive. Males develop from the unfertilized and common carp, silver carp etc. are the exotic
eggs. species of fishes which are also cultured.

15.14.2 Artificial Apiculture : 15.15.3 Food for fishes :

The main species of honey-bee includes In natural water bodies minute aquatic
Apis mellifera, Apis dorsata, Apis florea and Apis plants and micro-organisms are the food for fishes.
indica. Of these, Apis mellifera is used for In artificial water bodies rice husk, particles of
Apiculture. The hives of this species are large with cereals, wheat pieces, almond pomace, soyabean
more accumulation of honey and the number of etc. are provided to the fishes as food.
honey-bee is also greater. Apis dorsata is the species
with sting. 15.15.4 Fish production :
For artificial Apiculture, artificial hives of The seeds of fish (i.e. spawn) are collected
the shape of closed boxes are prepared. In the with the help of nets from the breeding places of the
artificial hives there are larger egg chambers and rivers. Fertilized eggs are obtained from these
plates of metal or plastic. There is a coating of wax seeds. The small fishes which emerge from the eggs
on these plates and they form the support for the are known as the fry. After some time fry transform
formation of hives. There are many perforations in into fingerlings or parr. The fingerlings are then
the closed box, through which the honey bee can taken to the fish cultivation tanks. Fingerlings are
enter the hives. treated with bactericidal substances like copper
The artificial hives are placed in gardens or sulphate, formalin, Potassium permanganate or salt
near the fields from where they may get the nectar. to kill the infectious bacteria present there.
The worker bees collect the nectar and converts it
into honey. Honey is collected in the cells of the 15.15.5 Fish storage :
artificial hive and is obtained by removing the plates When sufficiently big, the fishes are caught
from the hive. using nets in the water reservoirs or by passing
current in the water body.
15.15 Fishery :
Fishery has been established as a profession 15.15.6 Fish shielding :
because fishes are a good source of human To prevent rotting of the fish they are
nourishment. Fishes are used as a major food preserved by burying them in ice.
material. The by products of this industry includes
oil rich in vitamins, protein, fins, skin scales etc. Important Questions
Fishery is a combined form of agriculture and 1. The substances which are obtained from nature
animal husbandry because fishery is a type of and are used by man and other organisms are
animal husbandry while producing food from fishes known as natural resources.
in the water reservoir is agriculture. 2. Living beings use oxygen for respiration and

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 carbon-di-oxide is used by plants for Questions
photosynthesis.
3. 70% of the earth is submerged under water. Objective type Questions :
4. The upper fertile layer of earth surface is known 1. Growing different crops in a field in a planned
as the soil. manner is known as :
5. N, P, K are the important nutrients for the (a) Mixed cropping (b) Mixed farming
plants. (c) Crop cycle (d) Intra cropping
6. Movement in air is generated by the difference 2. According to the volume, the amount of
in air pressure on the surface of the earth. carbon-di-oxide present in the atmosphere is :
7. Anemometer is used to measure the wind (a) 0.03% (b) 0.003%
velocity. (c) 0.0003% (d) 0.3%
8. Undesirable changes in the physical, chemical 3. Acid rain results from :
and biological characters of air, water and soil (a) Air pollution (b) Water pollution
are known as pollution. (c) Soil pollution (d) Sound pollution
9. Carbon-mono-oxide, sulphur-di-oxide, hydro- 4. Of the following which nutrient is obtained by
carbons, smoke and dust are the main air the plants from the soil :
pollutants. (a) Carbon (b) Hydrogen
10. The nitric acid and sulphuric acid formed in the (c) Oxygen (d) Nitrogen
atmosphere is washed down to earth surface 5. Which of the following is a Kharif crop :
with the rain water resulting in acid rain. (a) Soyabean (b) Wheat
11. The rate of combining of carbon-mono-oxide (c) Gram (d) Pea
with haemoglobin is far more as compared to
that of oxygen. Very short answer type questions :
12. Sewage, detergents, pesticides, insecticides, 6. Name the device used to measure the speed of
industrial affluents etc. are the main water wind.
pollutants. 7. What is pollution?
13. Excessive growth of algae in water bodies is 8. What are the natural resources?
known as algal blooms. 9. What are algal blooms?
14. Decibel is the unit of measuring sound. 10. What is sonic boom?
15. The wavelength of visible light is 390 nm to 11. What is mixed farming?
760 nm. 12. What is the name of the gas present in
16. Cultivating same type of plants at a place on maximum amount in the atmosphere?
large scale is known as a crop. 13. Which gas is used by plants during respiration?
17. The crops sown in rainy season are known as 14. What is the reason for wind movement?
kharif crops while those sown in those sown in 15. Write the name of fowl with maximum
winters are the rabi crop. production.
18. Growing different crops in the field according
to a planned programme is known as the crop- Short answer type questions :
cycle. 1. What is humus? What are its benefits?
19. Unwanted plants growing along with crop 2. How does acid rain occurs? Write the side
plants are known as weeds. effects of acid rain.
20. Maximum protein (6.25%) is present in the 3. What is Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)?
sheep milk (among the milk producing 4. Describe the negative effects of air pollution.
animals) 5. What is bio magnification? Explain.
21. White leghorn breed of fowl produce 6. What is noise pollution? Explain the negative
maximum number of eggs. effects of noise pollution.
22. Honey bee is a social insect. 7. Write four reasons of soil pollution.
8. Write four methods to control air pollution.

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9. What is the difference between manure and
fertilizer.
10. How is vermi-compost prepared?
11. What is Organic Farming? Explain.
12. How is artificial apiculture done?
13. Write the name of the breeds of cow and
buffalo. Which produce more milk?
14. Write the names of a few cattle diseases.
15. What is Mixed Cropping? What are its
benefits?

Essay type answer question :

1. What is long term cultivation? Explain the
various methods of long term cultivation.
2. Write the name of the products of fisheries and
explain the various steps of culturing fishes.
3. What is irrigation? Explain the modern
methods of irrigation.
4. Describe the aims of improvement in varieties
of crop plants.
5. What is water pollution? Describe the causes
and negative impacts of water pollution.

Answer Key
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (a)

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 'kCnkoyh (Glossary)
vfHkdsUnz cy & Centrifugal force okfgr ey & Sewage
vuqla/kku & Research fofdj.k & Radiation
vkSlr osx & Average Velocity o.khZyod & Chromoplast
vkdk’k xaxk & Galaxy fonyu & Cleavage
viorZu & Refraction fo"kk.kq & Virus
va’k & Degree foHkT;ksrd & Meristematic
vfn’k & Scalar okfgfudk & Tracheid
vfHky{k.k & Characteristics okfgdk & Vessel
vko`fÙk & Frequency oSKkfud & Scientist
vkorZdky & Time Period ok;qe.My & Atmosphere
vk;ke & Amplitude oS|qr vi?kVu & Electrolysis
vuqj.ku & Reverberation fo"kkDr & Toxic
viJO; & Infra Økafr iFk & Revolution Path
vEyh; o"kkZ & Acid Rain d{kk & Orbit
viektZd & Detergent Ñf=e mixzg & Artificial Satellite
vojDr & Infra-red DoFkukad & Boiling Point
vk/kk=h & Matrix d{k & Orbit
vkRe?kkrh FkSfy;k & Suicidal bags dks’k & Shell
vUrnzZO;h tkfydk & Endoplasmic reticulum dhVuk’kh & Insecticide
vUrjkoLFkk & Interphase doduk’kh & Fungicide
vUR;koLFkk & Telophase dksf’kdk & Cell
vko`rchth & Angiosperm dksf’kdk foKku & Cytology
vuqdy w u & Adaptation dksf’kdk dyk & Cell Memberane
vtSfod & Abiotic dksf’kdk nzO; & Cytoplasm
vknzZrk & Humidity dsUnzd & Nucleus
vf/k’kks"k.k & Adsorption dksf’kdk fHkfÙk & Cell Wall
vo’kks"k.k & Absorption d’kkfHkdk & Flagella
vi?kVd & Decomposer dksf’kdkjl & Cell Sap
vkisf{kd & Relative dsUnzdnzO; & Nucleoplasm
o`Ÿkkdkj xfr & Circular Motion dsfUnzd & Nucleolus
fo"kqor js[kk & The global line dksf’kdk pØ & Cell Cycle
ok;q izfrjks/k & Air Resistance dsUnzd foHkktu & Karyokinesis
foLFkkiu & Displacement dksf’kdk nzO; foHkktu & Cyto Kinesis
osx & Velocity Dykse & Gill
fojyu & Rarefaction [kxksyfon~ & Astronomer
fonyu & Cleavage [kxksy HkkSfrdh & Astrophysics
foKku & Science [kjirokj & Weed
oSKkfud fof/k & Scientific Method xfr ds fu;e & Law of Motion
o.kZØe & Spectrum xq:Ro & Gravity
fo|qr foltZu ufydk & Electric Discharge Tube xq:Roh; cy & Gravitational Force

216
xzg & Planets izdk’k o"kZ & Light Year
xfrfof/k & Activity ijkcSx a uh & Ultraviolet
xfr & Motion izkÑfrd mixzg & Natural Satellite
xq.klw= & Chromosome izcyrk & Loudness
TokjHkkVk & Tides ijkorZu dks.k & Angle of Reflection
tM+Ro & Inertia izfr/ofu & Echo
tSfod vko/kZu & Biological Magnification ijkJ`O; & Ultra
thok.kq & Bacteria i{ekHk & Cilia
ty vi?kVuh ,Utkbe & Hydrolytic Enzyme i`"Boa’kh & Chordata
tUrq dksf’kdk & Animal Cell iwf.kZek & Full moon day
tuu & Reproduction iz.kksn & Thrust
tjk;qt & Vivipary ijek.kq fl)kUr & Atomic Theory
thou pØ & Life Cycle iqjkouLifr ’kkL=h & Paliobotanist
thok.kqHkksth & Bacteriophage ij[kuyh f’k’kq & Testtube Baby
thu fofue; & Crossing Over ijek.kqdrk & Atomicity
tSofofo/krk & Biodiversity ijek.kq Hkkj & Atomic weight
tyksn~fHkn & Hydrophyte i;kZoj.k & Environment
tSfod & Biotic iznw"k.k & Pollution
thok’e & Fossil izn"w kd & Pollutant
ty e.My & Hydrosphere ikfjfLFkfrd ra= & Ecosystem
tho e.My & Biosphere ifjfLFkfrdh & Ecology
?k"kZ.k cy & Friction Force iz{ksi.k & Launching
?k"kZ.k & Friction ihfBdk & Stroma
?kjsyw dpjk & Garbage iwoZ dsUnzdh; dksf’kdk & Prokaryotic Cell
?kuRo & Density i’pkoLFkk & Anaphase
?kVd & Component ruko & Tension
nzO;eku & Mass rkjke.My & Constellations
nwjh & Distance rqY;dkyu & Synchronisation
nksfy= & Oscillator rkjs & Stars
nkc & Pressure Roj.k & Acceleration
f} chti=h & Dicot rjaxnS/;Z & Wavelength
n`<+ksrd & Sclerenchyma rkjddk; & Centrosome
Hkkj & Weight rkjd dsUnz & Centriole
ek=d & Unit rhozrk & Intersity
e`nrw d & Parenchyma raf=dk Ård & Nervous Tissue
Hkkjghurk & Weight lessness eqDr iru & Free Fall
izfrfØ;k & Reaction e/kqeD[kh ikyu & Apiculture
ikB~;kad & Reading mYdk’e & Bolide
iks"k Lrj & Tropic level mYdk & Meteors
izkÑfrd foKku & Natural Science Ård & Tissue
ijkorZu & Reflection mYdkfi.M & Meteorites
ijkofrZr fdj.k & Reflected Rays moZjd & Fertilizer
ikni dksf’kdk & Plant Cell mRIykodrk & Buoyancy

217
Å"ekxfrdh & Thermodynamics lihZ & Sliding
mRifjorZu & Mutation lalk/ku & Resource
mHk;pj & Gill {kqnz xzg & Asteroids
mikip;h & Metabolic cy & Force
mRiknd & Producer cgqdksf’kd tho & Multi Cellular Ogranism
miHkksDrk & Consumer yksVuh & Rolling
jkf’kpØ & Zodiac yod & Plastid
jkf’k & Sign of Zodiac yo.kenksn~fHkn & Halophyte
pUnzek dh dyk,¡ & Phases of moon JO; & Audible
pkyuh ifV~Vdk & Sieve plate jkMkj & Radar
/kwedsrq & Comets jklk;fud la;ksx & Chemical Combination
/kkrq deZ & Metallurgy fjfDrdk & Vacuole
/kzqorkjk & Pole Star ekaMqyVsj & Modulator
/kqvk¡ & Smoke e.M & Starch
/kwe&dqgjk & Smog ekr` dksf’kdk & Mother Cell
/ofu & Sound ewyxksi & Root Cap
/ofu cwe & Sonic boom ewy jkse & Root hair
/kkfRod f=T;k & Metallic radius e`rthoh & Saprophyte
leLFkkfud & Isotope ewykHkkl & Rhizoido
leekfjd & Isobar eRL; & Pisces
lIrf"kZ & Ursa Major fuokZr & Vaccum
lkSj ifjokj & Solar System ’kSoky Cywe & Algal bloom
lqik"kh & Eutrophic ’khrksn~fHkn & Cryophyte
ljhl`i & Reptile ’kkduk’kh & Herbicide
lkoZf=d fu;e & Univershal Law ’olu & Respiration
lfn’k & Vector ’kfDr x`g & Power House
lEihM~;rk & Compressibility ,ddksf’kd tho & Unicellular Organism
lkis{krkokn & Relativity ,d chth i=h & Monocot
laogu Ård & Vascular Tissue uhys&gjs ’kSoky & Blue Green Algae
lgthfork & Symbiosis gfjr yod & Choroplast
lwpd & Indicator ;qXeut & Zygote
lapj.k & Propagation ;qXed & Gamete
lqdsUnzdh; dksf’kdk & Eukaryotic Cell ;kaf=d Ård & Mechanical Tissue
lgdksf’kdk & Comapanion Cell tho&fodkl & Evolution
laihM+u & Compression tho&tuu okn & Theory of Biogenesis
laosx & Momentum Lor% tuu okn & Theory of spontaneous
Lusgd & Lubricant generation
LFkwydks.k Ård & Collenchyma czãk.M & Universe
LFky e.My & Lithosphere vkdk'kxaxk,a & Milky ways
LFku/kkjh & Mammalia xzg & Planet
LQhr & Turgid cq/k xzg & Mercury
lw{edk; & Microbody 'kqØ xzg & Venus
lgla;kstd f=T;k & Covalent Radius eaxy xzg & Mars

218
iks"k.k & Nutrition QsQM+s+ & Lungs
ikpu & Digestion yky :f/kj df.kdk & Red Blood Corpuscles
dkcksZgkbMªsV & Carbohydrate or RBC
olk & Fat 'osr jDr df.kdk & White Blood Corpuscles
çksVhu & Protein or WBC
[kfut yo.k & Mineral jDr {kh.krk & Anemia
foVkfeu & Vitamin vkfyUn & Auricle
ty & Water /keuh & Arteries
:{kka’k a a & Roughage f’kjk,a & Veins
ekalkgkjh & Carnivores :f/kj nkc & Blood Pressure
eq[kxqgk & Buccal cavity nksgjk ifjlapj.k ra= & Double circulation system
Loiks"kh & Autotrophs ân; & Heart
ijiks"kh & Heterotrophs vUrZvkfyUnh; iV & Inter auricular septum
lokZgkjh & Omnivorous vUrfuZy;h iV & Inter ventricular septum
ijthoh & Parasites vi?kVuh ;k vip;h & Catabolic
vok;oh; 'olu mip;h ;k la’ys"kh & Anabolic
;k vukWDlh’olu & Anaerobic respiration ew=k’k; & Urinary bladder
var%ijthoh & Endoparasite o`Dd & Kidney
vkek’k; & Stomach ew=okfgfu;ka & Ureter
vkgkjuky & Alimentary canal ijkfuL;anu & Ultrafiltration
tBj jl & Gastric juice ew= ufydk;sa & Uriferous tubules
or Nephrons
vkaf’kd ijthoh & Partial parasites
tuu & Reproduction
vkWDlh’olu & Aerobic respiration
iqu#n~Hkou & Regeneration
LFkk;h ijthoh & Permanant parasite
vySfa xd tuu & Asexual reproduction
cká ijthoh & Ectoparasite
ySfa xd tuu & Sexual reproduction
jlk;u&la’ys"kh & Chemoautotrophs
f}fo[k.Mu & Binary fission
çk.khleHkksthiks"kh tUrq & Holozoic organism
raf=dk ra= & Nervous System
'kkdkgkjh & Herbivores
çfrorhZ fØ;k & Reflex action
xzluh & Oesophagus
çfrorhZ pki & Reflex arch
eyk’k; & Rectum
fu;eu & Regulation
[kehjhdj.k & Fermentation raf=dk{k & Axon
leiks"kh & Halophytic æqek’e & Dendrite
uklkfNæ & Nostril vUr%L=koh ra= & Endocrine System
uklkekxZZ & Nasal passage vUr%L=koh xzafFk;ksa & Endocrine glands
uklkxqgk & Nasal chamber xyx.M & Goiter
'okluyh & Trachea LokLF; & Health
Loj;a= & Larynx jksx & Disease
'oluh & Bronchi ;ksx & Yoga
'oluhdk,aa & Bronchioles tSfod dkjd & Biological agent
ifjlapj.k & Circulation jksxtud & Pathogen
ok;qdks"k & Airsac or Alveoli ân; jksx & Heart disease
mPNokl & Exhalation
uuu
219