Acknowledgment

First of all, I would like to express my thanks to Allah

who helped me in finishing this work.
I would like to express my deepest gratitude and full
thanks to Prof. Dr. Hamza Khalil, Professor of Stratigraphy,
Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Tanta University,
for his kind supervision guidance, great support in
suggesting the problem, encouragement, providing me with
references related to subject and critical view valuable
continuous supervision.
Also, I would like to thank my family and my friends who
helped and encouraged me during working on this research,
and for everyone who gave me an advice or an information
to finish this .My grateful thanks to all the staff members in
Geophysics Department, Faculty of Science, Tanta University
for their encouragement and morality during this work.

Gehad Youssef Helal

 Content

Title Page No.

List of figures
Abstract
Chapter 1: Introduction 1

Chapter 2: Source Rock 4

2.1. Definitions of source rock types 5

2.2. Characterizing of source rocks 5
2.3. Determining source rock potential 6
2.4. Types of source rocks 6
2.5. Maturation and expulsion 7
2.6. Mapping source rocks in sedimentary basins 7
2.7. World class source rock 8
Chapter 3: Reservoir Rock 9

3.1. The properties of reservoir rocks 9

3.2. Types of reservoir rocks 10
3.2.1. Sandstone reservoir rocks 10
3.2.2. Carbonate reservoir rocks 11
3.2.3. Siliciclastic Reservoir 12
3.2.4. Shallow and Deep Marine Reservoir 12
3.2.5. Lacustrine Reservoir 13
3.2.6. Eolian Reservoir 13
3.2.7. Fluvial Reservoir 13
3.2.8. Deltaic Reservoir 14
3.2.9. Carbonate Reservoir 15
3.2.10. Reef Reservoir 15
3.2.11. Clastic Limestone 16
3.2.12. Dolomite 16
3.2.13. Afanitic Limestone 17
3.3. Another Type of Reservoir 17
3.4. Reservoir rock properties, interpretations and their significance on a 18
petroleum system.
3.5. Other factors affecting the volume of the reservoir rocks. 19

3.6. Methods for determining rock properties. 20

3.7. Reservoir rock properties calculation formula. 20

3.8. Reservoir Porosity 20

3.9. Reservoir Permeability 21

Chapter 4 : Cap Rocks 23

4.1. Types of cap rock in petroleum system 24
4.1.1. Type I 24
4.1.2. Type II 24
4.1.3. Type III 25
4.2. Characteristics of the Caprock 27
4.2.1. Seal Capacity & Permeability. 28
4.2.2. Faulting & Fracturing 30
4.2.3. Seal Thickness and Continuity 32
4.2.4. The Preferred Seal Type I - Halite Caprocks 32
4.2.5. The Preferred Seal Type II - Multiple Confining Layers 34
4.2.6. Cautionary Note - The Importance of High Quality Seismic Surveys 34

Summary 36
References 38
Arabic Summary

List of figures
Figure Content Page No.
No.
Figure 1 Source, Reservoir and Cap Rocks 2
Figure 2 Scheme of classification of reservoir rocks. (Adapted from 11
Nichols,2009, from lecture handout by Alamsyah).
Figure 3 Fig. 3. Depositional environment and grain size. 12
Figure 4 Fig. 4. Modern dunes classification (Adapted from McKee, 13
1979)

Fig 5 Change in grain size of bed load in Mississippi River from 14

Cairo, Illinois, to the mouth. (Form U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers 1935 in Berg 1985).
Fig 6 Diagrammatic cross sections of depositional units within 14
deltas. (A) Delta Concept of Gilbert (1885) showing topset,
foreset, and bottomset beds; (B) Deltaic and neritic facies
from Frazier (1967); (C) Sediment types and depositional
units of an idealized delta.
Fig 7 Depositional environment of marine carbonate. 15

Fig 8 Reef habitat in the shallow sea. Adapted from Alamsyah 16

Fig 9 Comparison of reservoir rock types around the world in 17

1956 (based on Knebel& Rodriguez, 1956 in
Koesomadinata, 1980)
Fig 10 Average permeability for various producing fields on the 22
UK and Norwegian continental shelves. (Gluyas et al.
2004; from Spencer et al. 1987; Abbots 1991; Gluyas et al.
1992; Oxtoby et al. 1995).
Fig 11 Cap Rocks 23

Fig 12 Preferred seals for CO2 storage reservoirs in comparison to 28

hydrocarbon reservoir seals

Abstract
This essay deals with the study of stratigraphic sequenceadaptability
(source, reservoir, and cap).

The origin of petroleum will be considered to be from organic

sources, the diagenesis of fundamental organic compounds contained
in organic matter accumulated with sediment under anaerobic
conditions in a low- energy environment. Clays are important source
rocks of petroleum.

Petroleum store in permeable rocks under the influences of gravity

and the hydrodynamic field unit it can migrate no further and
accumulates in at raptor disperses at the surface .

The concentration of oil and from the reservoir rock into an

accumulation commercialize is the final step in the formation of a
pool.
 Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 2
Source Rock
 Chapter 3
Reservoir Rock
 Chapter 4
Cap Rocks
Summary
References
‫‪Arabic Summary‬‬

‫الملخص العربً‬
‫صخور المصدر ‪:‬‬
‫هى الصخور القادره على تحوٌل المواد العضوٌه الى مواد بترولٌه تحت ضعط و حراره معٌنه‬

‫وٌمكن تقسٌم الصخور المصدر إلى أربع فئات رئٌسٌة على األقل و هم ‪( :‬فعال ‪ ,‬محتمل ‪,‬‬
‫بقاٌا فعالة و أنفق) كما أن يكون المصدر صخرة ‪ ,‬و ٌجب أن ٌكون للصخور ثالث مٌزات و‬
‫هم ‪( :‬كمٌة المواد العضوٌة و القدره على إنتاج الهٌدروكربونات المنقولة و النضج الحراري )‬

‫هناك العدٌد من أنواع الصخور المصدر وتتشكل صخور المصدر من النوع ‪ 1‬من بقاٌا‬
‫الطحالب المودعة تحت ظروف نقص األكسجٌن فً البحٌرات العمٌقة كما تتشكل صخور‬
‫المصدر من النوع ‪ 2‬من بقاٌا العوالق البحرٌة والبقاٌا البكتٌرٌة المحفوظة تحت ظروف‬
‫موكسده فً البٌئات البحرٌة و كذلك تتشكل صخور المصدر من النوع ‪ 3‬من المواد النباتٌة‬
‫األرضٌة التً تم تحللها بالبكتٌرٌا والفطرٌات تحت ظروف موكسده ‪.‬‬

‫الصخر الخازن ‪:‬‬

‫خزان الصخور هً الصخور التً لدٌها القدرة على تخزٌن السوائل داخل المسام‪ ,‬بحٌث‬
‫السوائل (المٌاه والنفط والغاز) ٌمكن أن تتراكم ‪ ,‬الخزان الصخري هو صخر ٌحتوي على‬
‫مسامٌة‪ ,‬نفاذٌة‪ ,‬تراكم هٌدروكربونً كاف وآلٌة ختم لتشكٌل خزان ٌمكن أن تنتج منه التدفقات‬
‫التجارٌة من الهٌدروكربونات ‪.‬‬

‫هناك عدة أنواع من الصخور الخزان منها ‪ :‬الصخور الحجر الرملً الخزان‪ ,‬كربونات الخزان‬
‫الصخور‪ ,‬سٌلٌسٌكالستٌك خزان‪.‬‬

‫مسامٌة الخزان هو الخاصٌة التً تقول كٌف ٌسهل اختراق الصخور‪ .‬وٌعرف أٌضا بأنه مقٌاس‬
‫لقدرة صخور الخزان على احتواء السوائل أو تخزٌنها ‪.‬‬

‫أنواع المسامٌة األولٌة هً‪( :‬بٌن الجسٌمات ‪,‬داخل الجسٌمات )‪.‬‬

‫كما ناتحظ أنالمسامٌة الثانوٌة هً المسامٌة التً تشكلت بعد ترسب ٌؤدي إلى زوجٌن آخرٌن‬
‫من أنواع الخزانات و هم ‪ ( :‬حل المسامٌة و مسامٌة مكسورة) ‪.‬‬

‫الننفاذٌة هو مقٌاس لقدرة السائل لتمرٌر من خالل المتوسطة التً ٌسهل اختراقها النفاذٌة هً‬
‫واحدة من المهم لتحدٌد خزان فعال ‪.‬‬
 ‫الصخر الحابس ‪:‬‬

‫هو الصخور التً تمنع تدفق من فلوٌد معٌن فً درجة حرارة معٌنة والضغط والظروف‬
‫الجٌوكٌمٌائٌة و هناك عدة أنواع من الصخور الحابسة ‪.‬‬

‫الصخر الحابس هً نموذجٌة للتسلسل األرجوانً فً حالة من الضغط المستمر النوع االول ‪:‬‬

‫النوع الثانى ‪ٌ :‬رتبط الصخر لحابس مع الصخور ضغط خارج الحد من اللدونة وقد فقدت‬
‫القدرة على االنتفاخ على اتصال مع الماء هذه الصخور ال تحتوي على تورم المعادن الطٌنٌة‬

‫النوع الثالث ‪ :‬الصخر الحابس هً نموذجٌة للصخور مع مصفوفة جامدة والتكسٌر الشدٌد‪.‬‬
‫وتطور هذه الصخور أساسا على المنصات القدٌمة فً المناطق ذات الحركة التكتونٌة‬
‫المنخفضة‪.‬‬
 Tanta University
Faculty of Science
Geology Department

An Essay on

Source, Reservoir and Cap Rocks

Essay Submitted to the Geology Department, Faculty of Science,

Tanta University, in Partial Fulfillment of Requirement of the
Degree of B.SC. In Geophysics

Presented By
Gehad Youssef Youssef Helal
"4Th Year Geophysics"

Supervised by
Prof. Dr.

Hamza Khalil
“Prof. of Stratigraphy”

2017
 ‫جامعة طنطا‬
‫كلية العلوم‬
‫قسم الجيولوجيا‬

‫بحث في‬

‫صخور المصدر و الخزان والغطاء‬

‫بحث الستكمال متطلبات الحصول علي درجة البكالوريوسفي الجيوفيزياء‬

‫إعداد‪:‬‬
‫جهاد يوسف يوسف هالل‬
‫"رابعة جيوفيزياء"‬

‫إشراف‪:‬‬
‫أ‪.‬د‪.‬‬
‫حمزة خليل‬

‫‪۲۰۱ ٧‬‬
Chapter one

Introduction

Both crude oil and natural gas occur naturally in subsurface deposits. Crude oil is
a black liquid that is sold to refineries to be refined into products such as gasoline and
lubricating oil. Natural gas is a colorless, odorless gas that is sold to gas pipelines to be
transported and burned for its heat content. There are many different types of crude oils
and natural gases, some more valuable than others. Heavy crude oils are very thick and
viscous and are difficult or impossible to produce. Light crude oils are very fluid,
relatively easy to produce, rich in gasoline, and more valuable.
Some natural gases burn with more heat than others and are more valuable.
Some natural gases also contain almost pure liquid gasoline called condensate that
separates from the gas when it is produced. Condensate is almost as valuable as crude
oil. Sulfur is a bad impurity in both natural gas and crude oil. Sour crude oils contain
sulfur, and sour natural gases contain hydrogen sulfide and are less valuable. The crust
of the earth in oil- and gas-producing areas is composed of sedimentary rock layers.
Sedimentary rocks can be source and reservoir rocks for gas and oil.
These rocks are called sedimentary rocks because they are composed of
sediments that were formerly loose particles such as sand grains, mud, and seashells
or salts that precipitated out of water. Sedimentary rocks are millions of years old and
were deposited when the sea level rose and covered the land many times in the past.
These sediments are relatively simple materials such as sands deposited along
beaches, mud deposited on the sea bottom, and beds of seashells. Ancient sediments,
piled layer upon layer, form the sedimentary rocks that are now sandstones composed
of sand grains, shales composed of mud particles, and limestones composed of
seashells. These are drilled to find and produce oil and gas.
The source of gas and oil is the organic matter (dead plant and animal material)
that is buried and preserved in some ancient sedimentary rocks. They rise due to
buoyancy through fractures in the subsurface rocks. The rising gas and oil can intersect
reservoir rock, which is a sedimentary rock layer that contains billions of tiny spaces
called pores.

-1-
 A common reservoir rock is sandstone, composed of sand grains like those on a
beach. Sand grains are like spheres, there is no way the grains will fit together perfectly.
There are pore spaces between the sand grains on a beach and in a sandstone rock.
Porosity is the percent of reservoir rock that is pore space, and it is commonly 10 to
30%. The gas and oil flow into the pores of the reservoir rock layer. Because the
reservoir rock also contains water, the gas and oil will continue to rise by flowing from
pore to pore to pore up.

The movement of gas and oil up the angle of the reservoir rock toward the
surface is called migration. As the gas and oil migrates up along the reservoir rock, it
can encounter a trap. A trap is a high point in the reservoir rock where the gas or oil is
stopped and concentrated. In the trap, the fluids separate according to their density.
The gas is the lightest and goes to the top of the trap to fill the pores of the reservoir
rock and form the free gas cap.
The oil goes to the middle to fill the pores and form the oil reservoir. The
saltwater, the heaviest, goes to the bottom. To complete the trap, a caprock must
overlie the reservoir rock. The caprock is a seal that does not allow fluids to flow
through it. Without a caprock, the oil and gas would leak up to the surface. Two
common sedimentary rocks that can be caprocks are shale and salt.

Fig.1. Source, Reservoir and Cap Rocks

-2-
 Most gas and oil deposits are located in basins where sedimentary rocks are
relatively thick. Subsurface deposits of gas and oil are found by locating traps. In some
areas, the rock layers that crop out on the surface can be projected into the subsurface
to discover traps. Today, these surface rocks can be mapped using photographs from
airplanes and satellites. In the subsurface, the rocks in different wells that have already
been drilled are matched by correlation to make cross sections, and maps of the depths
to the top of subsurface reservoir rocks and their thickness are drawn.

-3-
Chapter 2
Source Rock

A source rock is a rock that can generate natural gas and/or crude oil. Gas and
oil form from ancient organic matter preserved in sedimentary rocks. As sediments are
deposited, both inorganic mineral grains, such as sands and mud, and organic matter
(dead plants and animals) are mixed. Most organic matter is lost on the surface by
decay, a process of oxidation. The decaying organic matter on land gets oxygen from
the air, and the decaying organic matter on the ocean bottom gets the oxygen from out
of the water. Some organic matter, however, is preserved. It was either rapidly buried by
other sediments before it decayed or was deposited on the bottom of a sea with
stagnant, oxygen-free waters.

The black color in sedimentary rocks comes primarily from its organic content.
Black-colored, organic-rich sedimentary rocks include coal, shale, and some
limestones. When woody plant material is buried, it is transformed into coal and
methane gas (CH4) by temperature and time. This is why coal mines are dangerous;
they contain methane gas and sometimes explode. Coal deposits are drilled to produce
coal seam or coal bed gas, which is pure methane gas.

Shale is the most common sedimentary rock, and many are black. Black shale
commonly has 1 to 3% organic matter by weight and can have up to 20%. Green or
gray shale has only about 0.5% organic matter. Black shales contain a large variety of
organic matter that includes single-celled plants and animals that live floating in the
ocean, algae, spores, pollen and bacteria. They have the right chemical composition to
generate both natural gas and crude oil. In some areas, such as North Africa and the
Middle East, organic-rich dark limestones are also source rocks.

The first factor to be assessed in an exploration play in an area yet to be drilled is

whether a source rock is present. If so, then we ask, “How good is it? Will it generate oil
or gas? Has it generated hydrocarbons already?” To answer these questions, we must
know the basics of what constitutes a source rock, how to classify source rocks, and
how to estimate potential. This article provides a background in these fundamentals.

-4-
2.1. Definitions of source rock types

Source rocks can be divided into at least four major categories:

1. Potential
2. Effective
3. Relic effective
4. Spent
These categories and their definitions are shown in the table below.

Type Definition

Potential Rock which contains organic matter in sufficient quantity to generate and
source rock expel hydrocarbons if subjected to increased thermal maturation.

Effective Rock which contains organic matter and is presently generating and/or
source rock expelling hydrocarbons to form commercial accumulations.

An effective source rock which has ceased generating and expelling

Relic effective
hydrocarbons due to a thermal cooling event such
source rock
as uplift or erosion before exhausting its organic matter supply.

An active source rock which has exhausted its ability to generate and
Spent source
expel hydrocarbons either through lack of sufficient organic matter or
rock
due to reaching an overmature state.

2.2. Characterizing source rocks

To be a source rock, a rock must have three features:

 Quantity of organic matter

 Quality capable of yielding moveable hydrocarbons
 Thermal maturity

The first two components are products of the depositional setting. The third is a function
of the structural and tectonic history of the province.

-5-
2.3. Determining source rock potential

The quantity of organic matter is commonly assessed by a measure of the total

organic carbon (TOC) contained in a rock. Quality is measured by determining the types
of kerogen contained in the organic matter. Thermal maturity is most often estimated by
using vitrinite reflectance measurements and data from pyrolysis analyses.

The table below shows the most common methods used to determine the potential of a
source rock.

To determine… Measure…

Quantity of source rock Total organic carbon (TOC) present in the source rock

 Proportions of individual kerogens

Quality of source rock
 Prevalence of long-chain hydrocarbons

 Vitrinite reflectance
Thermal maturity of source rock
 Pyrolysis Tmax

2.4. Types of source rocks

Source rocks are classified from the types of kerogen that they contain, which in
turn governs the type of hydrocarbons that will be generated.

A. Type 1 source rocks are formed from algal remains deposited

under anoxic conditions in deep lakes: they tend to generate waxy crude oils
when submitted to thermal stress during deep burial.

-6-
 B. Type 2 source rocks are formed from marine planktonic and bacterial remains
preserved under anoxic conditions in marine environments: they produce both oil
and gas when thermally cracked during deep burial.
C. Type 3 source rocks are formed from terrestrial plant material that has been
decomposed by bacteria and fungi under oxic or sub-oxic conditions: they tend to
generate mostly gas with associated light oils when thermally cracked during
deep burial. Most coals and coaly shales are generally Type 3 source rocks.

2.5. Maturation and expulsion

With increasing burial by later sediments and increase in temperature, the

kerogen within the rock begins to break down. This thermal degradation
or cracking releases shorter chain hydrocarbons from the original large and
complex molecules occurring in the kerogen.

The hydrocarbons generated from thermally mature source rock are first
expelled, along with other pore fluids, due to the effects of internal source rock over-
pressuring caused by hydrocarbon generation as well as by compaction. Once released
into porous and permeable carrier beds or into faults planes, oil and gas then move
upwards towards the surface in an overall buoyancy-driven process known
as secondary migration.

2.6. Mapping source rocks in sedimentary basins

Areas underlain by thermally mature generative source rocks in a sedimentary

basin are called generative basins or depressions or else hydrocarbon kitchens.
Mapping those regional oil and gas generative "hydrocarbon kitchens" is feasible by
integrating the existing source rock data into seismic depth maps that structurally follow
the source horizon(s). It has been statistically observed at a world scale that zones of
high success ratios in finding oil and gas generally correlate in most basin types (such
as intracratonic or rift basins) with the mapped "generative depressions". Cases of long
distance oil migration into shallow traps away from the "generative depressions" are
usually found in foreland basins.Besides pointing to zones of high petroleum potential
within a sedimentary basin, subsurface mapping of a source rock's degree of thermal
maturity is also the basic tool to identify and broadly delineate shale gas plays.

-7-
2.7. World class source rock

Certain source rocks are referred to as "world class", meaning that they are not
only of very high quality but are also thick and of wide geographical distribution.
Examples include:

 Middle Devonian to lower Mississippian widespread marine anoxic oil and gas
source beds in the Mid-Continent and Appalachia: (e.g. the Bakken Formation of
the Williston Basin, the Antrim Shale of the Michigan Basin, the Marcellus
Shale of the Appalachian Basin ).
 Kimmeridge Clay – This upper Jurassic marine mudstone or its stratigraphic
equivalents generated most of the oil found in the North Sea and the Norwegian
Sea.
 La Luna Shale – This late Cretaceous Turonian formation generated most of the
oil in Venezuela.
 Late Carboniferous coals – Coals of this age generated most of the gas in the
southern North Sea, the Netherlands Basin and the northwest German Basin.
 Hanifa Formation – This upper Jurassic laminated carbonate-rich unit has
sourced the oil in the giant Ghawar field in Saudi Arabia.

-8-
 Chapter 3

Reservoir Rock
Reservoir Rocks are the rocks that have ability to store fluids inside its
pores, so that the fluids (water, oil and gas) can be accumulated.
In petroleum geology, reservoir is one of the elements of petroleum system that can
accumulate hydrocarbons (oil or gas). Reservoir rock must be has good porosity and
permeability to accumulate and drain oil in economical quantities.

A fundamental property of a reservoir rock is its porosity. However, for it to be an effective

reservoir rock, THE fundamental property is permeability. Both porosity and permeability are
geometric properties of a rock and both are the result of its lithologic (composition) character. The
physical composition of a rock and the textural properties (geometric properties such as the sizes
and shapes of the constituent grains, the manner of their packing) are what is important when
discussing reservoir rocks and not so much the age of the rock.

3.1. The properties of reservoir rocks

According to Society of Petroleum Engineers Glossary, a reservoir rock is a

rock containing porosity, permeability, sufficient hydrocarbon accumulation and a
sealing mechanism to form a reservoir from which commercial flows of hydrocarbons
can be produced. Porosity and permeability are the reservoir rock most significant
physical properties.

A fundamental property of a reservoir rock between them is porosity. However,

for explorationists, an effective reservoir rock, the most fundamental reservoir rock
property is its permeability. Both of them are geometric properties are the result of its
lithological, structural and compositional behavior (composition). These physical
compositions of a rock and the textural properties are geometric such as sizes and
shapes of the rock grains, their arrangement system and packaging.

The efficiency of reservoir rock account on different important properties,

however in this paper discussing on reservoir rocks properties, porosity and
permeability are main topics to focus on. As discussed in last paper (Assignment I,
2014) petroleum system is made of different elements which encompass reservoir

-9-
rock. Moreover, it is found in a sedimentary basin whereby explorationists are able to
study its stratigraphy and its sedimentology (rock history) to determine if there is a
likeliness of the existence of petroleum system.

After they (explorationists) come up with concluding the existence of a

petroleum system, they go for further scientific tests-collecting different data and
analyzing them to be able to decide about drilling and completion of a petroleum
system. Significant part of their scientific studies on particular petroleum system is on
estimating the possible quantity of hydrocarbons (crude oil) that may be present there.
The reservoir content is estimated by means studying rock properties which can be
determined in a direct way or indirectly.

The indirect are done through laboratory measurements on core samples of

reservoir rock of interest which constitutes direct methods of porosity data acquisition.
This is done by measuring a bulk and their pore (empty spaces in a rock). Its bulk
volume is gravimetrically determined when a core-sample is having an irregular
shape. A petroleum system may have one or more reservoir rocks, and reservoir rocks
may have different property basing on their types. Types of reservoir rock depend on
kinds of their contents, composition, morphology and sedimentology.

3.2. Types of reservoir rocks.

As a rock to be named a reservoir has to be a porous and permeable

lithological structure. It encompasses sedimentary rocks. These sedimentary rocks
may be made of sandstones (quartz sand or arksosic sandstone), carbonates mud
or dolomite. Dolomites mostly form good reservoirs because the common reason
behind it is that there is Mg, 13% smaller than Ca in a way that during
dolomitization, there is a total decrease in volume of the material by 13%, here by
13% porosity is gained.

3.2.1. Sandstone reservoir rocks

The term sand refers to a specific grain with sizes between (62 µm – 2
mm). The performance of the sandstone as a reservoir rock is described by its
combination of porosity and permeability depending on the degree to which the
sand dominates its. The favorable texture is depicted by packaging of similar sized
grains, not a combination of coarse and fine grained composition. The best

- 10 -
 sandstone reservoirs are those that are composed mainly of quartz grains of sand
size of nearly equal sizes or silica cement, with minimal fragmented particles.
Sandstone reservoirs are generally 25 meters thick.

3.2.2. Carbonate reservoir rocks.

The most fascinating aspects of carbonate reservoir rocks are their content.
Carbonates are usually made of fossils which “range from the very small single cell
to the larger shelled animals”. Most carbonate rocks are deposited at or in very
close neighborhood to their site of creation. The "best-sorted" carbonate rocks are
Oolites in which encompass grains of the same size and shapes even though
Oolites are poorly sorted.

Fig. 2. Scheme of classification of reservoir rocks. (Adapted from Nichols,2009,

from lecture handout by Alamsyah).

- 11 -
3.2.3. Siliciclastic Reservoir
Siliciclastic sedimentary rocks are the most abundant of the sedimentary rock.
They are formed from the detritus left over from the weathering of igneous,
metamorphic, and older sedimentary rocks.

Fig. 3. Depositional environment and grain size.

3.2.4. Shallow and Deep Marine Reservoir

According to type of sedimentary rock, hydrocarbon reservoir can be divided

into two groups. There are clastic sedimentary rock and non clastic sedimentary rock.
On the clastic sedimentary, contained some precipitation area, as one in marine area.
Rock Type can be formed in deposition marine areas such as shelf sandstone and
turbidity sandstone.

Shelf sandstones: formed from precipitating in the shallow marine area. Sands
transported by water current from river to shallow marine area. Because of that process,
has been formed sands body around the grow delta and maybe form the fan like in
delta.

Turbidity sandstones: rock formed in deep marine area with rotation force
existing rotation deep current so as formed the coarse layer which has interaction with
shale layer in the deep marine. Shape from deposition of turbidity sandstones can be
like a lens, duct, or fans.

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3.2.5. Lacustrine Reservoir

This type of reservoir formed in basin containing water surrounded by land and
initially formed by tectonic processes, volcanic, rifting, soil movement, and the erosion
by the wind on the coast or in land. The texture of sedimentary rocks in the
environments usually granules grained and the size between 2 mm – 4 mm.

3.2.6. Eolian Reservoir

Formed in large areas with the accumulation of sand deposition. The sediment
resulting from wind-blown sand. The clastic texture of the environment is granules (2
mm – 4 mm) and coarse (over 2 mm).

Fig. 4. Modern dunes classification (Adapted from McKee, 1979)

3.2.7. Fluvial Reservoir

Type reservoir generated by the flow of the river where the process is formed by
3the erosion, transport and deposition of forming depositional formation.

- 13 -
 Fig. 5. Change in grain size of bed load in Mississippi River from Cairo, Illinois,
to the mouth. (Form U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1935 in Berg 1985).
3.2.8. Deltaic Reservoir
On this type of reservoir, it was formed by the accumulation of lacustrine
sediments. Very fine grain sediment rocks.

Fig.6. Diagrammatic cross sections of depositional units within deltas. (A) Delta
Concept of Gilbert (1885) showing topset, foreset, and bottomset beds; (B) Deltaic
and neritic facies from Frazier (1967); (C) Sediment types and depositional units
of an idealized delta.

- 14 -
3.2.9. Carbonate Reservoir

Fig. 7. Depositional environment of marine carbonate.

Adapted from Alamsyah Carbonate rocks is a sedimentary rocks with carbonate

fraction more than 50%. Carbonate rocks can be used as a reservoir because of its
porosity and permeability. Carbonate rocks can be classified to clastic and non clastic
sediment. Its environmental formation is Tropic Ocean. The porosity concept of a
carbonate rock might be a little bit more complex than other rocks, because of its vary
secondary porous, from carbonate dissolution made from skeletal remain and microbe
with cement. Almost all of carbonate reservoir type accumulated as a shallow marine
sedimentary, except on a pelagic chalk and deep marine re-
sediment reservoir carbonate in Mexico seas. Carbonate reservoir rocks can be found
as a clastic limestone, carbonate framework (reef), and dolomite.

3.2.10. Reef Reservoir

Reef is a framework made of sea organism containing skeletal, grow in shallow
clean water where sunlight can reach as nutrition. Reef distribution is varies, some on
the edge of the shelf and become a barrier, some scattered called patch reef. Patch reef
can reach a few kilometer sizes while barrier can be elongated along the edge and limit
the exposure with basin. Meanwhile the shape of a reef can be a pole (pinnacle) or
lengthened (fringing). Both can become a good reservoir. Reef is a non-clastic
carbonate rocks without transportation process on its formation.

- 15 -
 Fig. 8. Reef habitat in the shallow sea. Adapted from Alamsyah

3.2.11. Clastic Limestone

Clastic limestone usually associated with oolit and become a pretty

good reservoir. Limestone associated with oolit often referred to as calcarenite. The
Deposition is in shallow marine environments along the coast with high energy (strong
wave currents). Porosity may be extremely high because of the dissolution, but
permeability is not far from 5 milidarcy. It is called clastic because oolit associated with
limestone is present through the transport process before finally deposited.

3.2.12. Dolomite

Dolomite formed by processes of calcite dolomitization from other carbonates

(e.g. limestone). Dolomitization occurred not long after the process of sedimentation.
Dolomitization process can be reviewed as the secretion of magnesium contained in
sea water into the compounds associated with carbonate Dolomite production begins
from the Pre-Cambrium, continued from Paleozoic to Mesozoic, up to Tertiary time.
Calcite will be replaced with the dolomite compound that has smaller volume, so that
the space between the pores of the rock grew wide.

This resulted in the cavities. Calcite that has not been dolomitized will dissolve
quickly and arising secondary pores, sometimes with very large size. Dolomite has its
price of porosity as high as limestone porosity, which is about 20-30%. However,
permeability is very high, reaching up to 5 mills Darcy to 2 Darcy. Hence, dolomite

- 16 -
carbonate reservoirs has higher production of hydrocarbon than limestone. According
Zenger (1980) estimates that 80% of carbonate reservoirs in the USA contains
dolomite, while the 20% rest of it contains limestone.

3.2.13. Afanitic Limestone

Afanitic limestone formed in shallow ocean areas with low levels of energy,
such as for example in the lagoon. This limestone has a very fine grain size and tight.
However, the porosity and permeability was appeared by the events of dissolution
and cracking that causing this type of limestone have secondary porosity. Thus, it can
be a reservoir of oil.

3.3. Another Type of Reservoir

Although the porosity and permeability are poor, shale, silt stone, limestone can
even act as reservoir due to fractures in the rock body (secondary porosity – secondary
permeability). For example, an oil field in Florence, Colorado which is having shale
(Lower – Upper Cretaceous) as reservoir rock.

Then, it shows that for other than sedimentary rocks (igneous – metamorphic) could
be reservoir rock if there are in fracturing state. For example, in Cuba, the oil is obtained
from ultra-base igneous rock or volcanic rock that has fractured. There are eight oil
fields in Cuba in 1964 that produce 710 barrels oil per day. Reservoir from this type has
a very small percentage compared to the reservoir from sedimentary rock (about 1% of
the overall reservoir in the world).

Fig. 9. Comparison of reservoir rock types around the world in 1956 (based on
Knebel & Rodriguez, 1956 in Koesomadinata, 1980)

- 17 -
 Volcanic rocks are igneous rocks that formed on the earth surface (extrusive
igneous rock). Volcanic rock can be formed from mafic minerals such as olivine,
pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite, or felsic minerals such as feldspar, muscovite, and
quartz.[7] For example, oil obtained in Jatibarang (West Java, Indonesia), produced from
fractures that occur in volcanic rock (tuff). Oil production from volcanic
rock reservoir shows higher production in initially, and then shows a rapid decline in
production.

3.4. Reservoir rock properties, interpretations and their significance on a

petroleum system.

 Porosity of reservoir is the property that tells how porous a rock is. It is also
defined as a measure of the capacity of reservoir rocks to contain or store
fluids. The porosity is genetically classified basing on standard sedimentologic
description of reservoir rock; there are primary and secondary porosity.

1. The primary porosity types ar-8e:

I. Inter-particle- In this type by which rock content was quickly lost in

muds and carbonate sands through compaction and
cementation respectively. This type is mostly found as
siliciclastic sands.

II. Intra particle porosity by which the porosity is made of interiors of

carbonate skeletal grains.

2. Secondary porosity

It is the porosity formed after deposition leads to other couple of reservoirs

types:

I. Dissolution porosity type is made of carbonate dissolution and leaching.

It is also called carbonate reservoirs.

II. Fracture porosity which is characterized by not being voluminous.

Porosity can also be classified basing on rock morphology. There are three types of
morphologies to the pore spaces which are:

A. Caternary in which the pore open to more than one throat passage.

B. Cul-de-sac in which the pore open to only one throat passage.

- 18 -
C. Closed pore in which there is no connection with other pores.

 Permeability is a measure of the ability of a fluid to pass through its porous

medium. Permeability is one of important to determine the effective reservoir.
Porosity and permeability are two properties describing the reservoir rock
capacity with regard to the fluid continence. Moreover, a reservoir rock can be
porous without being permeable. For example it is said to be permeable if and
only if the pores “communicate”. Hence for explorationists, knowing reservoir
rock permeability is a key mile stone because it is important for being used to
determine if it really has sufficient commercial accumulation of oil, indeed
measuring it is very difficult. The measuring of permeability can differently be
understood basing on two different ways. When the porous medium is
completely saturated by a single fluid, the permeability will be
described absolute, become described as effective permeability when its
porous medium is occupied by more than one fluid

3.5. Other factors affecting the volume of the reservoir rocks.

1. Grain size and pattern arrangement: Apart from the arrangement pattern of
grains size which effect rock properties, the actual size of the grains does not
affects the permeability of a neither reservoir rock nor porosity.
2. Shape of the grains: grains with high sphericity tend to pack themselves well
to make a minimum pore space, the fact which increases angularity and
hence pore space volume increases.
3. Sorting or uniformity of size of the grains: size of grains has an effect on
reservoir properties; the more uniform the grains are sized, the great proper
volume of voids spaces. Thereby mixing grains of different sizes tends to
decrease total volume of void space.
4. Subsequent action to the sediments (compaction): The more grains are
compacted, more the volume of void spaces decreases. However the
compaction of sand is less effective than the way clay does.
5. How the grains were formed.

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3.6. Methods for determining rock properties.

Reservoir rock properties such as porosity and permeability are directly or

indirectly measured. The direct methods consists of measuring the core sample
taken from the parallel lithological area of the reservoir rock to assess them while
the indirect methods consist of using data collection, well logs, seismic,
production tests, etc., the porosity data are used in the basic reservoir to evaluate
volumetric calculation of fluids in the reservoir and calculating fluid saturations
and geologic characterization of the reservoir

3.7. Reservoir rock properties calculation formula.

Porosity: ф= , Vp=VB-VS ,

Ф symbolizes porosity, Vp (volume of all pores), Vs represents volume occupied

by other particles (Matrix materials), VB represents the total volume, ƿ represents
their respective densities.

Permeability: the permeability of a reservoir reckons on the determining the flow

of a fluid which depends on constan, k , Darsey constant. With q representing
flow rate, A the area section of pores, µ represents viscosity constant of fluid and
dp/ dL represents the infinitesimal change of flowing pressure.

3.8. Reservoir Porosity

Porosity is the void space in a rock that can store the fluids. It is measured as either a
volume percentage or a fraction (expressed as a decimal). In the subsurface this
volume may be filled with petroleum (oil and gas), water, a range of non hydrocarbon
gasses (CO2, H2S, N2), or some combination of these. [1]

Porosity is symbolized in phi (ϕ) and its value is expressed in percentage. Porosity
value calculation:

- 20 -
Porosity divided into two types, absolute porosity and effective porosity. Absolute
porosity is the ratio of the total pore volume in the rock to bulk volume, obtained by the
calculation:

Effective porosity is the ratio of interconnected pore volume to bulk volume, obtained by
calculation:

Based on the way of its formation, there are two types of porosity:

Primary porosity is porosity that formed while sedimentary rock deposited.

Secondary porosity is porosity that formed after the sedimentary rock deposited.

3.9. Reservoir Permeability

Permeability is an intrinsic property of a material that determines how easily a fluid can
pass through it. In the petroleum industry, the Darcy (D) is the standard unit of
permeability, but milidarcies (1 mD = 10-3 D) are more commonly used. A Darcy is
defined as a flow rate of 10-2 ms-1 for a fluid of 1 cp (centipoise) under a pressure of
10-4atm m-2. Permeability in reservoir rocks may range from 0.1 mD to more than 10 D.

- 21 -
 Fig .10. Average permeability for various producing fields on the UK and
Norwegian continental shelves. (Gluyas et al. 2004; from Spencer et al. 1987;
Abbots 1991; Gluyas et al. 1992; Oxtoby et al. 1995).

- 22 -
Chapter 4
Cap Rocks

Cap rock is a rock that prevents the flow of a given fluid at a certain temperature
and pressure and geochemical conditions.

Fig .11. Cap Rocks

For a long time, the only force causing the movement of oil and gas in the
subsurface was believed to be buoyancy. If so, then to form oil and gas accumulation,
their migration paths must have been stopped by a roof, i.e., caprock (seal). Clays,
shales, carbonates, evaporites, and their combinations can form caprocks.
The same rocks react differently to different fluids. In some cases, rocks serve as
satisfactory or good conduits for water, but form barriers for oil or gas movement. In
some other situations rocks yield oil but stop gas movement, etc. This is determined by
capillary forces, the magnitude of which depends on fluid and rock properties (fluid
density, fluid viscosity, rock structure, rock wettability) and pore size (capillary forces
almost disappear when the pore diameter exceeds 0.5mm).
All aforementioned rock and fluid properties are strongly affected by the
subsurface temperature and pressure and geochemical environment. Caprock is a rock
that prevents the flow of a given fluid at a certain temperature and pressure and
geochemical conditions. Therefore, the necessary properties of a rock to act as a seal
will be different for different fluids. The same rock with different fluids may or may not

- 23 -
have sealing properties up to a complete inversion (caprock - reservoir). The caprocks
can be categorized into three types.

4.1. Types of cap rock in petroleum system

4.1.1. Type I
Caprocks are typical for argillaceous sequences in a state of continuing
compaction; they are developed in areas of young subsidence of Earth‟s crust, with
abnormally high pore water pressure. Sealing properties of these rocks are determined
by the amount of capillary pressure at the contact of the reservoir and caprock, the pore
pressure of water saturating the caprock, initial pressure gradient of water and the
variation of hydraulic forces in the section.
Oil and gas accumulations have higher potential energy than that of the
formation water. These accumulations can be stable only if this energy is equal to or
less than the caprock breakthrough energy. Pore water pressure in compacting
argillaceous beds is always greater than the pressure in the adjacent reservoir beds.
As a result, sealing capability of the Type I caprocks is determined by
hydraulic sealing, by the amount of capillary pressure, and by the pressure at which
water begins to flow through caprocks. Just the capillary pressure alone in such
caprocks may exceed 100kg/cm2. This means that the Type I caprocks is capable of
confining an oil accumulation having almost any column height. It appears that sealing
capability of argillaceous caprocks does not depend on their thickness describes only
the aforementioned caprock type.

4.1.2. Type II
Caprocks are associated with rocks compacted beyond the plasticity limit and
having lost ability to swell on contact with water. Such rocks do not contain swelling clay
minerals, and interstitial water contains surfactants. Consequently, pore water in these
rocks does not have initial pressure gradient.
This type of caprocks is encountered mostly in the Paleozoic and Mesozoic
sediments of young and old platforms. There are no clear-cut overpressure
environments there, but there is a relatively clear hydrodynamic subdivision in the
section. the hydrodynamic environment may improve or lower the sealing capability of
caprocks. In an extreme case, the water potential in the reservoir may exceed the water
potential of the bed overlying the caprock by the value of capillary pressure.

- 24 -
 In such a situation, the caprock will be open for the vertical flow of hydrocarbons,
and the trap will not exist even when potential distribution in the reservoir bed is
favorable.

4.1.3. Type III

Caprocks are typical for rocks with a rigid matrix and intense fracturing. Such
caprocks are mainly developed over the old platforms in regions of low tectonic mobility,
with no detectable hydrodynamic breakdown of the section. Formation water potential in
such regions is practically equal throughout the section and corresponds to the
calculated hydrostatic potential.
The correlation between clay mineralogy and their sealing properties are as
follows "The permanency in the composition of the silicate layer is a characteristic of the
kaolinite group minerals. As a result, replacements within the lattice are very rare and
the charges within a layer are compensated.
The connection between silicate layers in the C-axis direction is implemented
through hydrogen atoms, which prevents the lattice from expanding, ruling out the
penetration of water and polar organic liquids. The silicate layer in the montmorillonite
mineral group is variable due to a common isomorphic replacement in octahedral and
narrower tetrahedral sheets. This replacement results in the disruption of the lattice
neutrality.
Extra charge that occurs with such replacements is compensated by exchange
ions. Ion properties that maintain lattice neutrality in montmorillonite minerals (valence,
size of the ion radius, polarization, etc.) define the capability of the lattice to expand
along the C-axis. As a result, water and polar organic liquids can penetrate the
interlayer spaces. This, in turn, leads to an increase in the volume, which drastically
lowers permeability and some other properties, but at the same time improves sealing
capabilities.
The silicate layer of the illite mineral group is similar to the montmorillonite one.
However, the excessive negative charge of the lattice is due mainly to the isomorphic
replacements within tetrahedral sheets. The proximity between the source of negative
charge and basal surfaces causes a stronger connection between the silicate layers of
illite group compared to montmorillonite‟s."

- 25 -
 Admixture of sand and silt degrades the sealing properties of clays. Especially
important are the textural changes due to this admixture. Not only the mineral
composition of a rock and organic matter content, but also the pore water are important
in forming the major sealing properties of clays, such as degree of swelling and
compressibility.
The relatively low-temperature pore water is retained in argillaceous rocks up to
a temperature of 100C to 150C. The temperature of water removal is higher when the
concentration of dissolved components is higher.
Pore water is located within pores of argillaceous rocks, and at the surfaces and
along the edges of individual microblocks and microaggregates that comprise clays.
The interlayer water causes swelling in montmorillonites and in degraded illites. The
order in water molecules positioning, relative to the clay mineral blocks and aggregates,
is rapidly altered with an increase in distance between these blocks and aggregates.
Thus, a very important information for the evaluation of the role water plays in the
formation of sealing properties is the knowledge of the structural status of the layer in an
immediate contact with the particles surface, and the role the cations having different
charge density play in the preservation of water molecules structure.
Exchange ions play a leading role in the formation of "water clouds" around
microaggregates and microblocks of montmorillonite minerals and an insignificant role,
with kaolinite minerals. The role played by the illite group minerals occupies an
intermediate position. Carbonates caprocks include micro- and fine-grained, massive
and laminated limestones. Almost all limestones are dolomitized to some extent and are
subject to fracturing.
This adversely affects their sealing properties. Carbonates with a substantial clay
content have laminated texture. As a rule, this results in a deterioration rather than an
improvement of sealing properties due to the emergence of weakness zones at the
contact between different lithologies. Evaporite seals, which are common, include salt,
anhydrite, and sometimes shales.
It is a common (and probably erroneous) belief that such seals are the best and
most reliable. Brittleness of these rocks at the surface conditions contradicts that belief.
Besides, cores recovered in the Dnieper-Donets Basin and North Caspian Basin display
macro- and microscopic fractures, which sometimes cut monolithic salt crystals. The
fractures may be healed by secondary salt, but often contain traces of oil and
sometimes gas bubbles. Sometimes core samples are completely saturated with oil.

- 26 -
 Permeability measured at the surface conditions can reach 100–150mD and
even higher. It was established, however, that these rocks easily become plastic even
at a relatively low hydrostatic or, even, uniaxial pressure (o100MPa) and the properties
change with temperature. Some people considered plasticity as an important sealing
property. In this connection, they believe that salt has the best sealing properties.
They also believe that the reliability of caprock is not directly related to its
thickness. Thus, properties of evaporites as seals change widely during the catagenesis
(and in time). Similar changes also affect the other types of seals albeit not so
obviously. Inclusions, such as organic matter, silt, clay or carbonate particles degrade
sealing properties of evaporites due to the formation of zones of weakness around such
inclusions.
A careful study of numerous logs from Dnieper-Donets Basin showed the
presence of clay interbeds between the top of accumulation and the evaporite sequence
in all cases. It appears that these interbeds in most cases act as caprock.

4.2. Characteristics of the Caprock

A large amount of expertise regarding caprock performance is available from

hydrocarbon exploration, production, and storage operations. However, while there are
many similarities in seal performance criteria, there are also key differences that must
be considered when storage of CO 2 is being evaluated, as a caprock that is adequate
for hydrocarbon storage may not be adequate for CO2 storage. For example, in terms of
seal capacity and resistance to fracturing, the most effective sedimentary seals for
hydrocarbons are gas hydrates followed by evaporites In comparison, methane gas
hydrates should not under any circumstances be considered as a potential seal for
CO2 storage reservoirs due to the high probability of an exchange reaction occurring,
indeed they should be classed as a geohazard and avoided To form an effective seal
for CO2 storage purposes the sealing lithology needs to be:

 impermeable to CO2
 unfaulted and relatively ductile (resistance to fracturing)
 laterally continuous, maintaining a constancy of properties over a large area

- 27 -
 Fig. 12. Preferred seals for CO2 storage reservoirs in comparison to hydrocarbon
reservoir seals

Differing ability to form a hydrocarbon seal is related to inherent ductility in the

subsurface (after Warren, 2007 & Downey, 1984). For CO2 storage additional factors
must be taken into account - most notably potential chemical interactions with methane
hydrates and carbonates.

Caprocks considered suitable for CO2 storage operations include evaporites (e.g. halite
or anhydrite), shales and mudstones (e.g. Bachu, 2005). In their site selection
framework, Pawar et al. (2006) also include carbonates. These caprock types are
discussed below in relation to their ability to form an effective seal for CO 2 storage
purposes.

4.2.1. Seal Capacity & Permeability

A fundamental requirement for an effective seal is that the entry pressure of the
caprock be greater than the buoyancy pressure of the CO 2 stored in the reservoir
beneath.

- 28 -
The seal entry pressure or seal capacity is the capillary pressure at which CO 2 will leak
into the pore space of the caprock.

This is dependent on both rock and fluid parameters. Rock parameters include
the size distribution of continuous pore throats – the small space at the point where two
grains meet which connects two larger pore spaces. Fluid parameters include the fluids
(or gases) present (e.g. CO2, hydrocarbons, water), the density of the fluids, and the
interfacial tension of the fluids.

The permeability of a rock is a measure of its ability to transmit fluids, and is a

function of pore space distribution and connectivity (e.g. porosity and pore throat
distribution). The units of permeability are length 2, and it is typically quoted in darcies (d)
or millidarcies (md), where 1 d (103 md) is approximately equal to 10 -12 m2. Formations
that transmit fluids readily, such as sandstones, are described as permeable and tend to
have many large, well-connected pores. Impermeable formations, such as evaporites,
shales and siltstones, tend to be finer grained or of a mixed grain size, with smaller,
fewer, or less interconnected pores.

Massive bedded halite (sodium chloride; NaCl) units contain few if any
interconnected pore throats, and the permeability of halite is very low with typical values
less than 10-6 md, and some of the tighter halites having permeabilities as low as 10 -7 to
10-9 md (Ehgartner & Tidwell, 2000; Beauheim and Roberts, 2002; Warren, 2007).
Massive anhydrites (calcium sulphate; CaSO 4) also have low permeabilities in the
region of 10-5 md (Beauheim and Roberts, 2002), and entry pressures for massive
evaporite deposits are correspondingly high (Warren, 2007).

Molecular diffusion of CO2 through halite is also restricted, as the distance

between NaCl lattice units is 2.8 x10 -10 m (2.8 Å), while the molecular diameter of
CO2 is somewhat larger at 3.34 x10-10 m (3.34 Å).

A typical shale seal has a permeability of 10 -1 to 10-5 md, with rare values as
low as 10-8 (Warren, 2007). Shales tend to be water bearing, and typically have entry
pressures that are lower than those of evaporites by a factor of 2-3 (Warren, 2007).
Even though shales are respectable seals, over time shale can allow substantial
diffusive leakage of methane and even liquid hydrocarbons via inherent microporosity

- 29 -
(less so if the shales are organic rich), and could be expected to also allow diffusive
leakage of CO2.

4.2.2. Faulting & Fracturing

The caprock should ideally be unfaulted, as faults could provide migration

pathways for the CO2 to leak out of the reservoir. Thus, extensively faulted and
fractured sedimentary basins are not good candidates for CO 2 storage, unless the faults
and fractures are sealed (closed) and CO 2 injection will not reopen them (Bachu, 2005).
It is this selection criterion that makes seismically active areas unattractive as potential
storage targets (Bachu, 2005).

In some situations, for example in faulted halite layers, faults can become
resealed, and therefore do not present a migration pathway. Other types of sealed faults
also exist (e.g. clay or shale fault smears or gouges), and are indeed often responsible
for the formation of structural traps. However, their sealing nature would need to be
confirmed by detailed analysis to ensure the integrity of the storage site.

In some instances, while the fault itself is effectively impermeable and sealed to
lateral cross-fault flow, there may be a high permeability damage zone in the adjacent
rocks that will act as a migration pathway through the top seal (e.g. CO 2 leakage in the
northern Paradox Basin, Utah; Shipton et al., 2005). As highlighted by Fisher & Knipe
(2001), there is a lack of definitive models to explain why in some circumstances faults
act as conduits for fluids, whereas in others they form barriers.

In an effort to improve understanding, these authors recommended the creation

of a quality controlled database containing examples of how faults affect fluid flow in
petroleum reservoirs, noting that ultimately any method developed to predict fluid flow
properties of faults requires an understanding of the main controls on fault permeability
(Fisher & Knipe, 2001).

The importance of faults as flow conduits can be simply illustrated by comparing

flow through a rock with low permeability to flow through an unsealed fault or damage
zone. Assuming Darcian flow (flow is directly proportional to permeability), then if we
consider a rock unit 1 km in length on each side with a relatively low permeability of 10 -

- 30 -
8
md, and cut by a fault with a permeability of 1 md (low compared to a typical reservoir
permeability of ~100-200 md), then that fault only has to be 10 µm wide for flow through
the fault to equal flow through the entire rock unit (or looking at it another way, flow
through a unit area of the fault will be 10 8 times faster than flow through the rock).

With the probable exception of thick halite deposits, almost all potential caprocks
will at some time in their burial history be subject to microfracturing and leakage – i.e.
most reservoirs are inherently „leaky‟. In a study considering the world‟s giant oilfields,
Macgregor (1996) concluded that on a geological timescale oil pools are dynamic short
lived phenomena, where the median age of 350 giant oilfields is 35 Ma, and one third of
these fields show evidence for post-entrapment destructive processes.

Indeed, only 1 in 10 prospective hydrocarbon reservoirs (where geological

surveys indicated the presence of potential source, reservoir and seal rocks) are found
to actually contain petroleum reserves, suggesting that up to 90% have leaked over
geological time (Deffeyes, 2005). In the present day petroleum leakage to the surface is
thought to be occurring in roughly 50% of the 370 basins worldwide (both onshore and
offshore) with known petroleum reserves (Clarke and Cleverly, 1991). Migration through
faults also represents the principal mechanism that delivers CO 2 to the seafloor at
natural CO2 vent sites (see Chapter 3 and the summary of known vent sites provided
in Appendix 3.A).

Further understanding of fluid and gas migration through fault zones can be
obtained through the study of leaking systems as an analogue for failed storage
reservoirs. To date, detailed studies on CO 2migration pathways in natural systems have
focused on the more readily accessible on land systems, such as the Paradox Basin in
Utah (e.g. Shipton et al., 2005). Nevertheless, hydrocarbon migration from subseafloor
storage reservoirs through the seal and overburden has been widely studied and can
provide valuable information on potential pathways for CO 2 leakage.

In particular, the identification of hydrocarbon leakage sites above a target

storage reservoir (e.g. the presence of cold seeps, gas chimneys, pock marks or
carbonate mounds) could signal the presence of flow paths through both the seal and
overburden. Such a site should not be considered for CO 2 storage, unless it can be
proven that the hydrocarbons originate from a different reservoir (e.g. if the target

- 31 -
CO2 storage reservoir underlies the hydrocarbon reserve and is separated from it by an
intact seal).

4.2.3. Seal Thickness and Continuity

Theoretically, the thickness of a seal does not contribute to seal capacity. In

reality, a bed only a few cm thick is unlikely to be laterally continuous unbroken unit
capable of maintaining a stable lithic character over a sizeable area. Thus seal
continuity rather than measured seal capacity (e.g. entry pressure) becomes the most
important factor in assessing seal quality.

Indeed, as noted by Warren (2007), average values of seal properties measured

on discrete core samples are next to useless without a reliable geological model for the
reservoir - what is needed is the knowledge of the likeliest weakest point in the seal
across the structure of interest. A thicker seal provides many layers of contingent
sealing beds and so gives a larger probability of a sealing surface being continuous
over an entire target storage reservoir.

In hydrocarbon exploration, shale seals more than 50m thick and evaporate
seals more than 10m thick are considered adequate for hydrocarbon trapping, while
evaporate seals more than 30m thick are considered excellent (Warren, 2007).

4.2.4. The Preferred Seal Type I - Halite Caprocks

Macgregor (1996) found the main controls on oilfield preservation to be post-

entrapment tectonism and seal type, concluding that the potential for giant oilfields is
the greatest in quiescent basins with evaporite seals. By the same token, the greatest
potential for secure storage of CO2 on geological timescales would also be in quiescent
basins with evaporite seals (personal communication S. Hazledine & Z. Shipton).

Evaporite seals with their extremely high entry pressures, very low permeability,
and large lateral extents can maintain seal integrity over wide areas even when
exposed to a wide range of subsurface temperature and pressure conditions.
Furthermore, unlike most other rock types, halite is ductile at relatively low temperatures
and pressures and will flow under differential pressure at (geologically) rapid rates of up
to meters per year. This not only gives halite a low susceptibility to fracturing, but even if

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a halite bed fractures, those fractures will quickly reanneal and crystal lattice binding will
be reestablished by a combination of flow and pressure solution induced
recrystallisation (Warren, 2007). Indeed, it would appear that the only way that
CO2 could migrate through an unfractured halite bed, even by diffusion, is if the halite
contains impurities than render it locally porous and make it brittle during deformation.

The ability of evaporites to form highly efficient seals is clearly demonstrated by

consideration of the number of hydrocarbon reserves that are sealed by evaporites.
Even though evaporites constitute less than 2% of the worlds sedimentary rocks
(compared to mudstones and shales which comprise 65%), 14 of the world‟s 25 largest
oil fields and 9 of the world‟s 25 largest gas fields are sealed by evaporites (Grunau,
1987; Warren, 2007).

The plastic self sealing properties of halite have also been exploited in salt
cavern storage operations, where purpose made salt caverns (formed by dissolution
mining of large salt deposits) have been used as hydrocarbon storage facilities and
contaminated waste repositories for over 60 years. Salt caverns have also been
discussed as potential CO2 sequestration sites (Dusseault et al., 2002; Shi & Durucan,
2005). A large body of literature regarding the self sealing behaviour of halite in relation
to cavern closure is available.

Despite the excellent properties of halite seals with respect to safety of

CO2 storage, they may not be widely utilized as storage reservoir caprocks due to
economic driving forces (personal communication S. Haszledine). For example, the
North Sea Basin contains a widespread Permian salt layer (the Zechstein Salt) which
stretches from the East Coast of England to Northern Poland and reaches a
depositional thickness of c. 1 km in the basin centre (salt tectonics in the North Sea
Basin are discussed by Stewart, 2007).

Indeed, this formation forms the seal of the K1-2B demonstration storage project
in the North Sea. However, the Permian salt layer is overlain by other potential storage
targets such as sandstone aquifers capped by mudrocks (e.g. the Triassic Bunder
Sandstone in the southern North Sea). These shallower sites may well be utilized more
widely for CO2 storage, despite the better sealing qualities of the deeper salt layer, as
the costs of storage would be significantly lower.

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4.2.5. The Preferred Seal Type II - Multiple Confining Layers

The ideal storage reservoir would be overlain by multiple confining layers,

where if primary leakage were to occur, the CO 2 would migrate vertically through the
overburden and become trapped under a second confining layer (and so on).

The new CO2 storage facility at the Snøhvit LNG Project (operated by Statoil) is
an example of a storage reservoir overlain by multiple confining layers. The following
summary of the Snøhvit storage project is after Maldal & Tappel (2004):

In the Snøhvit field, the main recoverable gas volume is located in the Stø
Jurassic formation. This reserve is CO2 rich, where CO2 is separated from the well
stream and re-injected into the subsurface. The target CO 2 storage reservoir is the
Tubåen formation, which is located approximately 60m beneath the Stø formation and
separated from it by the Nordmela 1 and 2 formations. The Tubåen formation is
dominantly sandstone, with a formation thickness of 45-75m and is expected to store 23
Mt of CO2 over the lifetime of the Snøhvit project. Nordmela 1 and especially Nordmela
2 contain extensive shale layers (25–30 m thickness of massive shale) providing
barriers to vertical migration of CO2.

A CO2 content of 5 mol% in an existing gas cap in the Tubåen formation, as well
as proven gas reservoirs in the area with up to 80 mol% of CO 2, are strong indicators
that CO2 will be permanently sealed in this formation. Nevertheless, should leakage
through the caprock occur, the CO2 will enter the Stø formation from which it was
initially extracted, i.e. it will remain separated from the ocean and atmosphere.
Furthermore, primary leakage would be readily identified through an increase in the
CO2 content of the producing well streams.

4.2.6. Cautionary Note - The Importance of High Quality Seismic Surveys

Targeted discovery of a potential storage site must conduct a detailed seismic

survey of the caprock seal, specifically a high resolution 3D seismic survey. The spatial
resolution of traditional 2-D seismic techniques is on the order of 30m at reservoir
depths of 3-4 km (at shallower depths resolution will be correspondingly better).

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 This may well prove insufficient to resolve key features that are determinant in
the performance of the caprock (personal communication, Z. Shipton & S. Haszeldine).
For example, if a salt deposit is interbedded with permeable layers with thicknesses on
the order of 10m, this would most likely appear as a continuous salt deposit in a 2-D
seismic survey.

Similarly, faulting where the fault throw is less than the seismic resolution
would not be identified. Either of these scenarios (or a combination of the two) could
result in the deposit being assessed as a suitable seal, where in fact low permeability
flow paths are present. In comparison, 3-D seismics offer spatial resolution on the order
of ~10m, and should provide sufficient resolution for correct caprock assessment .

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 Summary
1-Source Rock:

Is a rock that is capable of generating or that has generated movable quantities

of hydrocarbons.

Source rocks can be divided into at least four major categories:

 Potential
 Effective
 Relic effective
 Spent

To be a source rock, a rock must have three features:

 Quantity of organic matter

 Quality capable of yielding moveable hydrocarbons
 Thermal maturity

There are several of types of source rock

 Type 1 source rocks are formed from algal remains deposited

under anoxic conditions in deep lakes
 Type 2 source rocks are formed from marine planktonic and bacterial remains
preserved under anoxic conditions in marine environments.
 Type 3 source rocks are formed from terrestrial plant material that has been
decomposed by bacteria and fungi under oxic or sub-oxic conditions.

2-Reservoir rock

Reservoir Rocks are the rocks that have ability to store fluids inside its pores, so
that the fluids (water, oil and gas) can be accumulated. Reservoir rock is a rock
containing porosity, permeability, sufficient hydrocarbon accumulation and a sealing
mechanism to form a reservoir from which commercial flows of hydrocarbons can be
produced. There are several types of reservoir rock: Sandstone reservoir rocks ,
carbonates reservoir rock , Siliciclastic Reservoir .

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Porosity of reservoir is the property that tells how porous a rock is. It is also defined as
a measure of the capacity of reservoir rocks to contain or store fluids.
The primary porosity types are:

i) Inter-particle
ii) Intra-particle

Secondary porosity, the porosity formed after deposition leads to other couple of
reservoirs types.

A. Dissolution porosity
B. Fractured porosity

Permeability is a measure of the ability of a fluid to pass through its porous medium.
Permeability is one of important to determine the effective reservoir.

3-Cap rock

Cap rock is a rock that prevents the flow of a given fluid at a certain temperature and
pressure and geochemical conditions.

There are several types of cap rock:

 Type1: caprocks are typical for argillaceous sequences in a state of continuing

compaction
 Type2: caprocks are associated with rocks compacted beyond the plasticity limit
and having lost ability to swell on contact with water. Such rocks do not contain
swelling clay minerals.
 Type3: caprocks are typical for rocks with a rigid matrix and intense fracturing.
Such caprocks are mainly developed over the old platforms in regions of low
tectonic mobility.

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 References
Gerard Demaison: "The Generative Basin Concept" in: American Association of
Petroleum Geologists (AAPG) Memoir #35 : "Petroleum Geochemistry and Basin
Evaluation", 1984 , Edited by Gerard Demaison and Roelof J. Murris, ISBN 0-89181-
312-8.

Kimmeridgian Shales Total Petroleum System of the North Sea Graben Province –
USGS Bulletin.

James,K.H. 2000. The Venezuelan hydrocarbon habitat, Part 2: hydrocarbon

occurrences and generated-accumulated volumes. Journal of Petroleum Geology, 23,
133–164.

Carboniferous-Rotliegend Total Petroleum System Description and Assessment Results

Summary – USGS Bulletin.

Total Petroleum Systems of the Paleozoic and Jurassic, Greater Ghawar Uplift and
Adjoining Provinces of Central Saudi Arabia and Northern Arabian-Persian Gulf –
USGS Bulletin.

Gluyas, J., and Richard S., 2004, Petroleum Geoscience, Blackwell Science Ltd.

Alamsyah, M.N. 2015. Konsep Petroleum System (Handout Kuliah). Universitas

Brawijaya.

Klein, C., and A.R. Philpotts, 2013, Earth Materials: Introduction to Mineralogy and
Petrology, Cambridge University Press.

Berg, R.R., 1985, Reservoir Sandstones, Prentice Hall College Div.

Koesoemadinata, R.P.,1980, Geologi Minyak -Dan Gasbumi, Institut Teknologi

Bandung.

Noor, D., 2009, Pengantar Geologi, Universitas Pakuan Bogor.

Peter_Link]_Basic_Petroleum_Geology(bookzz.org).

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Elements-of-petroleum-geology.

Nontechnical Guide to Petroleum Geology (3rd ed.) Exploration, Drilling & Production.

Petroleum Formation and Occurence - B.P.Tissot , D.H.Welte.

Petroleum Geology [F.K. North, 1985]

Petroleum Geoscience [Jon Gluyas, R. Swarbrick, 2003]

Petroleum Geoscience (2nd ed.) From Sedimentary Environments to Rock Physics

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