Question -1: What is the difference between OSI stack and TCPIP

stack?

Answer -1: OSI stack has 7 layers while TCPIP has 5 layers. Presentation
and session do not exist in TCPIP stack. The idea here is to derive the
knowledge of functions of each of these layers. Let me brief the main
functions of each of these layers.
Layer-1(Physical layer): Takes care of providing reliable wired or wireless
connection, wired one will have voltage and current specifications. Wireless
one will have forward error connection, modulation techniques.
Layer-2(Data link or MAC layer): Takes care of providing peer to peer
reliable connection using addition of checksum or CRC. Also takes care of
incorporating Ethernet or MAC header with destination and source
addresses as well as length of the packet. Takes care of re-transmission of
erroneous packets.
Layer-3(IP layer): Takes care of routing the packet using ip address.
Layer-4(TCP or UDP layer): Takes care of multiplexing and DE multiplexing
of multiple applications. TCP is used for connection oriented and UDP for
connectionless system. Takes care of sequencing of received dis-ordered
packets.
Layer-5(session layer): Establishes, maintains and terminates the
connection. Helps in billing.
Layer-6(presentation layer): Used to communicate having systems with two
different syntax, such as EBCDIC and ASCII.
Layer-7(Application layer): Used to provide service to more than one
applications with the help of assigning unique port address of size 16 bits.
For example FTP has been assigned 23 and HTTP has been assigned
8080.
TCP vs UDP
Both protocols sit on layer-4(Transport layer) of the OSI layer just above
the IP layer.
Unlike TCP, UDP is connectionless and provides no reliability, no
windowing and no function to ensure data is received in the same order as
it was transmitted. However UDP provides some functionalities as
supported by UDP such as data transfer, multiplexing and has fewer bytes
of overhead in the data. This fewer bytes in the overhead makes UDP
protocol need less time in processing the packet and need less memory.
Also absence of acknowledgement field makes it faster as it need not have
to wait on ACK or need not have to hold data in memory until they are
ACKed.

Question -2: Explain protocol fields present in the Ethernet header

and IP header parts.
Answer -2: Ethernet Header = {source Ethernet address, destination
Ethernet address, type} IP header = {source ip address, destination ip
address, ....}
Circuit switching vs packet switching - difference between circuit switching and
packet switching

Following are the types of switching used for various applications.

• Circuit switching (CS): It is used for voice communication which requires
dedicated connection between calling and called party to take care of
latency requirements of real time voice calls.
• Packet switching (PS): It is used for data communication which does not
require dedicated connection. It is useful for less time sensitive internet
data or emails.
• Message switching (MS): It is used for message communication such as
SMS, MMS etc. for more information on how message travels from sender
to the receiver.
Difference between LAN MAN and WAN | LAN vs MAN vs WAN

LAN stands for Local Area Network, WAN stands for Wide Area Network
and MAN stands for Metropolitan Area Network. All the technologies are
mainly used for data communication.

LAN

LAN has smaller coverage range within the house or office premises or can
at least connect from one building to the nearby building.

LAN has been developed to allow sharing of common resource such as

printer, hard disk and modem to more than one PCs. As the days evolve
people started using LAN for e-mail system for corporate network, here one
system is configured as server storing mail boxes of all the users.
Latest advancement in the LAN technology supports data rates which
range from 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps till 1Gbps.

CAN

CAN stands for Campus Area Network. It is network composed of multiple

inter-connected LAN in limited coverage area.

WAN

WAN has coverage larger than LAN and used for data & cellular
applications, supporting both voice and data applications. Larger network
covering entire country or state is referred as WANs.

MAN

MAN occupies coverage in between LANs and WANs. MAN has distance
coverage and data rate higher than LAN, but less than WAN. This is the
major difference between LAN and MAN. MAN overlaps to some extent to
geographical coverage requirement of WAN. A typical example of MAN is
Local Cable TV system.

What is an IP Address?
It is a short form of Internet Protocol Address. This is very important
address which is used by any device (desktop, laptop, tablet, mobile, ipad)
to connect to the internet.
IP Address are of two types IPV4 and IPV6.
IPV4 is in use throughout the world and IPV6 is under trial. IP address is
the part of TCP/IP Protocol Suit and is very important to know.
IPV4 address is a 32 bit number. IP addresses are usually written in what is
called dotted decimal notation, with a decimal number representing each of
the octets of the 32-bit address. For example, the IP address 11000000
11100100 00010001 00111001 is written as 192.228.17.57.
There are four main classes. Class A, Class B, Class C and Class D.
Class A- 0, network(7 bits), host (24 bits)
Class B- 10, network(14 bits), host (16 bits)
Class C- 110, network(21 bits), host (8 bits)
Class D- 1110, rest of the bits are for multicast
Class E-11110,rest of the bits are for future us
For Class C, host id space is 8 bits long, 2 to the power 8 is 256 hence 256
hosts i.e. computers are supported in class C. Hence appropriate class is
selected based on need of networks and hosts. Remember initial decimal
digit i.e. first 8 bits to differentiate between these four classes i.e. network
ID.
For class A, network ID is from 0 to 127
For class B, network ID is from 128 to 191
For class C, network ID is from 192 to 223
For class D, network ID is from 224 to 239
For class E, network ID is from 240 to 255

For special purposes, some IP addresses are reserved similar to some

telephone numbers reserved for emergency and special purposes.
127.0.0.1 is the self-loop back IP address to check the system's Ethernet
card is working or not. This is useful when you do not know the IP address
configured for the card.
255.255.255.255 i.e. FF:FF:FF:FF is reserved for broadcast purposes.
What is MAC Address?
MAC address stands for Medium Access Control Address. MAC address is
also referred as physical address or hardware address or Ethernet
address.
MAC address is unique to network device wanting to utilize TCPIP network
or LAN or WLAN service. It is "burnt into" the device by manufacturer of the
device or Card.
MAC address is composed of 48 bit or six hexadecimal digits, separated by
colons or dashes.
Example - 00-14-2A-3F-47-D0
Remember Hexadecimal digits can be numbers from 0-9 and letters from
A-F.
MAC address represent manufacturer of the card and device number. The
first three pairs of digits represent manufacturer(called OUI-
Organizationally Unique Identifier) and last three pairs of digits represent
number specific to the device(called NIC-Network Interface Controller
Specific).

ARP, Address Resolution Protocol is used to convert IP address to the

MAC address. MAC address is very essential for the IP layer to work. MAC
is the foundation for IP address to communicate packet from one system to
the other. Similar to IP addresses, there are some MAC addresses defined
for special purposes, For example FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF is reserved for
broadcast purpose.

Commands to know what mac address system has

arp -a
Above command lists out all the IP addresses and their physical addresses
attached to the system where command is issued.
Similarly "rarp" command is used to convert physical address to the IP
address.
"ipconfig/all" command is used to know physical address of the device.

Ethernet Hub Types | Basics and types of Hubs

This page describes basics of Ethernet hub and mention hub types. The
page also covers various types of hubs viz. passive hub, active hub and
intelligent hub.

Introduction :
A hub is a networking device which connects multiple Ethernet devices
based on twisted pair or fiber optic technology. Hence hub makes these
devices represent as a single network segment in a broad sense or in a
internet. Hubs works at layer 1 i.e. physical layer of OSI protocol stack. It is
basically form of multiport repeater.
In Hub based Ethernet network only one device can transmit at a time.
Here each host is responsible for collision detection/retransmission of
packet.
Passive Hub: This type of hub does not amplify or boost the signal. It does
not manipulate or view the traffic that crosses it. Passive hub does not
require electrical power to work.
Active Hub: It amplifies the incoming signal before passing it to the other
ports. It requires AC power to do the task.
Intelligent Hub: They are also called as smart hubs. It functions as active
hub and also include diagnostic capabilities. Intelligent hubs include
microprocessor chip and are very useful in troubleshooting conditions of
the network.

Hub is also called as concentrator because hubs serve as a central

connection point for an Ethernet Local Area Network.

The port can connection Ethernet cables of various speed types viz. 10
Mbps, 100 Mbps depending upon support in the hubs.

Switch
Network switches are identical to network hubs, but a switch is more
intelligent than hub. Network switch inspects the packet, determine source
and destination address and route the packet accordingly. By way of
forwarding the packet to the appropriate device switches conserve
bandwidth significantly. Now-a-days network switches are available with
10/100/1000 Mbit/sec as well as 10/100 Gbit/s ports. It operates at layer 2
of OSI Stack. It is often recognized as multiport bridge.
There are 4 methods layer 2 switch uses as mentioned below to forward
the packet.
1. Store and Forward- In this method, it buffers and performs checksum on
each frame before forwarding.
2. Cut through- In this method, no error check is performed. Switch reads
up the frame's hardware address and forwards it.
3. Fragment Free- This method is combination of above two methods i.e.
Store and Forward and Cut through. This method checks first 64 bytes in
the frame which gives addressing information. This tells switch which is the
destination of the frame. Error checking is performed by layer 3 and 4
typically router of the end device.
4. Adaptive switching- A method to automate switching between the other 3
modes.
Network Bridge
The network bridge works at layer 2 i.e. data link layer of OSI model. It
connects multiple network segments at this layer. Bridge does not simply
broadcast traffic from one network segment to the other unlike hub/repeater
but also manages the traffic as mentioned below.
Bridges use bridge table to send frames across network segments. The
bridge table is initially empty. It is filled by bridge as it starts receiving
frames from nodes (computers) attached in the network segments. Bridge
table is also called forwarding database.

What is router?
This page describes what is router in networking, function of router with
ATM to LAN routing example.
A device used to link two or more networks. Router operates at OSI layer 3.
Internetworking among dissimilar sub networks is achieved by using
routers to interconnect the sub networks. It is essential that the router must
perform following functions.

1. Provide a link between networks

2. does routing of data between processes running on two end systems

which are on two different networks and hence delivery of data happens.

3. Hence networking architecture of sub-networks need not have to be

changed to interoperate both.
Let us understands router's main task of internetworking with following
example. Following figure depicts how router does internetworking between
ATM connected server and 802 LAN connected work station.

As mentioned in above figure this router will have protocols up to Layer3 for
both ATM as well as LAN networks. This router takes care of both server
and work station communication with each other.

1. When TCP/IP packet comes from server to router, router will remove
ATM protocol headers and insert LAN compatible headers from Layer 1 to
Layer 3 and pass packet to LAN networks.

2. Similarly when TCP/IP packet comes from work station to router, router
will remove LAN protocol headers and insert ATM compatible headers from
Layer 1 to Layer 3 and pass packet to ATM networks.

Following figure describes protocols at ATM based server, LAN based work
station and protocols at router. This figure is taken from book by william
stallings as mentioned below to describe routing concept.
Today there are routers available for latest broadband technologies viz.
LTE, WiMAX and so on which takes care of interworking as explained to
make to different networks talk to each other.

Networking Gateway
From networking point of view Gateway is a device which provides
connectivity between two heterogeneous networks/systems to
communicate. This is done using protocol translation. Gateway embeds
both protocols of different systems in order to provide interoperability
functions. Gateway can provide interconnectivity between more than two
different systems also.

There are various gateway designed as per the need of different

systems/technologies. These include GSM/CDMA gateway for VOIP, T1
(1.544Mbps)/E1 (2.048Mbps) gateway, access gateway, GMSC and more.
Following figure explains Gateway in GSM network.

As shown GSM gateway provides connectivity with PSTN, ISDN through

EPABX/PBX and also to other wireless networks such as CDMA, HSPA
etc.
As mentioned all the landline phones both with and without VOIP
functionalities are connected with EPABX/PBX. Gateway functionalities are
also designed to interface GSM and CDMA networks and other wireless
standards viz. wlan, WiMAX etc.

Firewall
Firewall is a hardware and/or software which checks all the inbound and
outbound packets from any system/LAN connected with internet mainly.
This helps prevent any unauthenticated connection being established or
prevent any spam/virus affecting the system/LAN. Different types of firewall
exist which can have any one of the following type or it may include more
than one combinations out of mentioned below.
Firewall types

Packet filter- This kind of firewall looks at each inbound and outbound
packets and is called IP spoofing.
Application gateway- This kind of firewall operates at application layer
and hence is applied to specific applications viz. FTP and Telnet based
client-server applications.
Circuit level gateway- This kind of firewall is active during a TCP or UDP
connection is being established. No check has been performed on packets
passed between systems, once TCP/IP or UDP/IP based connection is
established.
Proxy server- this kind of firewall basically checks all the
packets/messages into and out of the LAN/network. This type of firewall
works efficiently as it hides original/actual IP based network addresses.
Many of the firewalls use two or more of the above mentioned techniques.
Firewall Software

Following are the firewall software available which help prevent our system
from any unauthenticated attack.

1. COMODO Firewall
2. PC Tools Firewall Plus
3. ZoneAlarm Firewall
4. Ashampoo FireWall
5. Online Armor
6. Agnitum Outpost Firewall
7. Filseclab Personal Firewall Professional Edition
8. Sygate® Personal Firewall PRO
9. Symantec Norton Personal Firewall 2004
10. McAfee Personal Firewall Plus
Firewall Hardware manufacturers

Following are popular firewall hardware device manufacturers.

1. Cisco
2. ZyXEL
3. NETGEAR
4. DELL
5. WatchGuard

ARP-RARP protocol
ARP is Address Resolution Protocol mainly used to determine Ethernet
address if IP address is known for a node in the network. RARP does
reverse of the ARP protocol, it determines IP address if Ethernet address is
known. Following table mentions ARP protocol fields for ARP request and
ARP response. ARP request is the broadcast packet sent to all the PCs.
PC whose IP address matches with the one sent in the broadcast packet
will respond back to the source PC of the packet with its Ethernet address
as needed.

Question -3: Explain the difference between Hub and Switch.

Answer -3: Hub works at layer-1 while Switch works at layer-2 or layer-3.
Hub vs Switch | difference between hub and switch
Hub

A Network Hub also called repeater is fairly un-sophisticated broadcast

device. The Hub devices do not manage traffic passing through them. They
simply broadcast the packet out to all the ports except the port of entry. As
mentioned, since every packet is broadcasted to all the other ports, packet
collisions occur which significantly reduces the network performance and
impedes the flow of traffic smoothly.
Switch

A network switch checks the packet coming in and forwards it to the

appropriate destination port. They do not broadcast to all the ports/nodes
as done by hub. Hence chances of packet collision is avoided and hence
network performance can be improved.

Question -4: What is the difference between wired LAN and Wireless
LAN?

Answer -4:

WLAN Ethernet LAN

The WLAN devices are based on The Ethernet LAN devices are
IEEE 802.11 family of standards. based on IEEE 802.3 standards.

WLAN devices use high energy radio

frequency waves to transmit the Ethernet LAN devices use electric
data. signals to transmit the data.

Electric signals flow over the

Radio frequency waves travel in the cables. Hence wired connection is
space. Hence a physical connection needed between devices which
is not needed between the devices are connected to the Ethernet
which are connected to the WLANs. LANs.

Ethernet supports full duplex

mechanism for communication
WLAN uses half duplex mechanism when a switch connects using a
for communication. single device rather than hub.
 WLANs suffer from interference of
various types during travel from LANs suffer less interference as
source to the destination. electric signals travel using cables.

WLANs use CSMA/CA to avoid Ethernet LANs use CSMA/CD to

collisions in the network. detect collisions in the network.

Refer IEEE 802.3 Ethernet

Refer WLAN tutorial standards

Question -5: What is the difference between router and gateway?

Answer -5: Both router and gateway works at layer-3 i.e. networking layer
of OSI stack. Gateway interfaces two different set of protocols while router
interfaces same set of protocols.

Question -6: What is the function of TCP and UDP in the IP packets?

Answer -6: As mentioned above TCP is the short form of Transmission

Control Protocol and is connection oriented protocol. UDP is the short form
of User Datagram Protocol and is connectionless protocol. Protocol field in
IP header is set to 6 for TCP and 17(decimal) for UDP.

Question -7: Explain the difference between RIP and OSPF routing
protocols.
Answer -7: Both of these are routing protocols,

Both are protocols or algorithms involved in building routing table. Router is

a device which filters traffic based on logical address or IP address and
routes the IP packets accordingly.
Router operates at OSI layer-3(network layer). Router is essential in a
internet, without this internet will not exist. Routing table entries will be filled
in statically by network administrator or will be filled in dynamically with the
help of routing protocols.

Router table will have destination IP address, next hop and router port
interface. There are different types of routers viz. core routers, exterior
routers and interior routers. These routers use different protocols and
algorithms to build the routing table.

Interior routers use Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP). Both RIP and OSPF
are examples of interior routing protocols. RIP stands for Routing
Information Protocol and OSPF stands for Open Shortest Path First
(OSPF). We will see difference between RIP and OSPF protocols below.

RIP is a distance vector protocol and OSPF is a link state protocol. RIP
determines optimal route for the packet to reach destination by hop count.
Let us see how RIP works.

In RIP participant routers are classified as active and passive. Active router
sends its routing table to the others and listens for their updates. Passive
router listens for updates from other participants but does not propagate its
own routing entries.

RIP router broadcasts update message once in 30 seconds. RIP works

best when the network is in equilibrium condition and will have problem as
the network grows and will have to wait for long to build the table. To avoid
this problem, RIP sets limit on maximum number of router hops from
source PC to the destination PC. The hop count limit in RIP is 15. RIP is
gradually taken over by OSPF.

OSPF-Open Shortest Path First

Initially OSPF can in place with RFC 1131 in the year 1989, later the
update OSPF ver.2 is described in RFC 2328.

Each router is assigned with router ID, here link state routers build internal
map of the network topology. Each router prepares network into tree format
after keeping itself at the root. This network tree is known as shortest path
tree.

Following table mentions difference between RIP and OSPF. Also refer
difference between various networking terminologies on the left side panel.

RIP OSPF

It is a distance vector
protocol It is a link state protocol

The metrics used in RIP is The metrics used in OSPF are bandwidth
hop count and delay

RIP uses distance vector

algorithm to calculate the OSPF uses the SPF algorithm to calculate
best path the best path

In RIP protocol, networks In OSPF, routing is carried out in

 are not divided in areas or autonomous system, into areas, sub areas
tables as well as backbone areas

Maximum hop count is 15 No hop count

Question -8: What is IP address and Ethernet Address and what is the
size of them?

Answer -8: IP address is logical address and Ethernet address is MAC

address or physical address.
There will be only one Ethernet address which will be fixed. Any IP address
can be assigned to system as per IPV4 or IPV6. For IPV4, IP address is 32
bits in size while for IPV6 it is 128 bits in size. Ethernet address is 48 bits in
size and is manufacturer specific.

Question -9: What are the functions of ARP and RARP?

Answer -9: ARP Protocol➤ {does conversion of IP address to physical
address}
RARP Protocol➤ {does conversion of physical address to the IP address}

.
As we know that Source computer (i.e. host) must know Ethernet address
or physical address of the destination network adapter to send the IP data.
Hence ARP and RARP protocols are very important as they convert IP
address to the physical address and vice versa.

ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol and RARP stands for Reverse
Address Resolution Protocol. ARP convert IP address to physical address
(i.e. Ethernet address). RARP convert physical address to the IP address.
Though these protocols are existing it is invisible to the user as TCP/IP
internally uses these protocols to send the IP packet from one computer to
the other connected on the network.

Each host on the network maintains ARP table. This table has entries of
physical address with respect to IP addresses of the other hosts on the
network segments. Whenever a host computer wants to send the data first
it checks the ARP table to see whether the Ethernet address is available. If
it is available it will use and send the data. If it is not available than it
broadcasts the ARP request to all the hosts and obtain the ARP response
from the host whose IP address matches as contained in the ARP request
message. This newly available details of IP address to physical address
mapping is then added to the ARP table or ARP cache. This is called
dynamic addition of the entry in ARP table.

ARP commands

arp -a - This command is used to display ARP table

arp -s 157.55.85.212 00-aa-00-62-c6-09 - This command adds a static
entry to the table.

RARP

As mentioned above RARP is the opposite of the ARP. As mentioned

RARP is used when Ethernet address is known but IP address is not
known. RARP is often used in conjunction with BOOTP protocol to boot
diskless workstation.
Question -10: What is the difference between internet and intranet?

Answer -10: The interconnection of computers in the organization is known

as intranet. The interconnection of computers throughout the world is
known as internet.
Internet vs Intranet-Difference between Internet and Intranet
Internet

Internet stands for Interconnected Network. It is a huge network of

computers around the world (A network refers to a group of computers
connected together). These computers are connected to each other by
telephone wires, fiber optic cables, wireless technologies (GPRS, HSPA,
and LTE) or other means, enabling them to share information among each
other. The internet also referred as a network of networks, is popularly
called the net. In simple terms, it can be viewed as a huge storehouse of
information.
Following are some of the benefits of the internet:
• We can get lot of information’s on any topic on the internet. It serves as
an important source of information. Various popular search engines are
available to search for any topic. The search engines are google, bing,
yahoo, AltaVista, ASK and more. One need to go to the respective search
engine website to search.
• We can send messages, known as E-mails, to any part of the world within
a few seconds via the internet. For this one need to have email client
installed in the system such as outlook express or need to use popular web
sites providing free email account service such as yahoo mail, rediffmail,
gmail and more.
• We can chat with people on the internet using various chat software
google talk, yahoo messanger, skype and more.
• We can buy things on the internet using online shopping websites such as
amazon,ebay,flipkart,snapdeal,homeshop18,myntra and more. These
companies will take care of delivering the goods or items to respective
buyer as per their address details registered with them.This is known as E-
commerce.
Types of internet

There are different types of internet based on the way connection is

provided to the user with the internet service provider(ISP) based on data
speed requirement. Popular internet service providers in INDIA are
Airtel,BSNL,TATA DOCOMO, Reliance and more. The popular types are
dial up internet and broadband internet.
Dial-up: This type of internet uses existing telephone lines to provide
internet connection using dial up modem at the speed of 56kbps.
Broadband: This type of internet uses DSL lines and wireless
technologies(LTE,LTE Advanced) to provide data speed in Mbps with the
help of DSL modem or cable modem or wireless dongles(modem).
As mentioned broadband internet is categorized into 1.Wired broadband
internet  2.Wireless broadband internet and 3.Wireless mobile broadband
inetrnet.

Intranet

This term is intranet refers to network connection within an organization or

between organizations. One of the example of this is corporate network
which takes care of creation and maintenance of e-mail accounts of the
employees of the organization. This is used to send and receive e-mails
between them. It also refers to internal website within the organization to
have latest updates, news, job openings, cultural activities and more about
the company and business of the company to the employees.
This helps save lot of money and effort. It helps bring all together for one
common mission and interest of the business. It helps business to be more
productive and help deliver products on time.

An intranet can host multiple private websites. Both uses www, SSL
protocols for web applications and SMTP, POP3 and IMAP protocols for
email applications.

Question-11: What is networking?

Answer -11: Networking is very vast field. It is basically connection of

people or things using networks known as internet. All the devices should
have IP address to communicate with the peers in the network. People use
various social networking tools and applications to communicate with one
another over internet using smart IP devices.
Question-12: How to setup cisco router or any other router?

Answer -12: It is very easy to install any router. As installation vary based
on routers from different manufacturers, one has to follow manual provided
by the supplier or manufacturer in order to set up the router.
Question-13: What is the difference between NAT and PAT?

Answer -13:

NAT stands for Network Address Translation and PAT stands for Port
Address Translation.

A network address translation device obscures all details of the computers

connected to the local network. NAT device acts as gateway for all the
computers. Behind the NAT device, local network can use any network
address space. NAT device acts as proxy for the local network on the
internet.

NAT

A NAT device helps in increasing the security as it can prevent an outside

attacker even to find the local network. This is because of local addressing
scheme is not contiguous with the standard IP address space used
worldwide.

PAT

PAT helps in optimum utilization of IP address space by way of allocating

one dedicated IP address for the organization and internally uses IP
addresses as per the need. PAT is the extension of the NAT

Say for example there are two computers trying for access to the internet.
As per PAT say computer 'A' tries to connect, this time computer-A will be
assigned with one port number and IP address. At this time another
computer B tries for the connection will be given the same local IP address
but the different port number. This way one can conserve the IP address
space by way of identifying the received packet with the use of port number
and local IP address. .

Question-14: What is the difference between FTP and HTTP?

Answer -14: FTP is used as file transfer protocol. With this file can be send
or receive. HTTP is used for internet browsing. They have unique port
number assigned.

Also refer FTP vs SMTP which mentions difference between FTP and

SMTP. Both are application level protocols supported by transport layer.
FTP PROTOCOL

FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. It is used to send/receive file from

the remote computer. Files can also be attached to the email messages.
This protocol helps download and upload files having huge size. It is
defined in RFC959.
FTP establishes two connections between client system and server
system, one for control information and the other for data to be transferred.
Control information carry commands/response. Authentication need to be
done initially by way of validating username and password. Once it is done
files can be transferred between two systems.

FTP handles both binary and text format files. URL syntax of FTP
protocol is described in RFC1738. The link starts with ftp as mentioned
below.
FTP EXAMPLE:
ftp://ftp.microsoft.com/Products/

HTTP PROTOCOL

HTTP stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol. It is the protocol used to

access World Wide Web document from the server.
As we know that to locate any site on the web, we use a special address
referred as a uniform resource locator (URL). For example a typical URL is:
HTTP EXAMPLE:
https://www.rfwireless-world.com/Tutorials/gsm-tutorial.html
The first part of the URL specifies the communication protocol to be used
between the two systems, here it is http (hypertext transfer protocol).
HTTP EXAMPLE Description:
The www designates World Wide Web. 'rfwireless-world.com' part is
referred as the domain or website. The item after slash (/) indicates a
directory within the website software, here 'Tutorials' is a directory. The
item 'gsm-tutorial.html' is the webpage within the 'Tutorials' directory. Most
websites have multiple directories which houses webpages.
Other useful difference between FTP and HTTP protocols are mentioned in
the following table:

Feature FTP HTTP

TCP Port
Number 20 and 21 80 and 8080

RFC
reference RFC959, RFC765, RFC2616, RFC7230 and
documents RFC1738 RFC7231

Used to transfer web pages

Used to transfer files from from remote server after
Function of remote computer after internet connection is
protocol connection is established. established.

Question-15: How many hosts are accommodated in IPV4? What is

the difference between IPV4 and IPV6?

Answer -15: In class-C IPV4, there are 8 bits reserved for hosts and hence
there will be 28 = 256 -2 =254 hosts can be assigned unique IP addresses.
We have subtracted 2 as one is reserved for broadcast address (all 1's)
and the other one (all 0's) for loop back testing.
IPV4 vs IPV6 | difference between IPV4 and IPV6
This page compares IPV4 vs IPV6 and describes difference between IPV4
and IPV6. The major difference between them is IPv4 uses 32 bit address
where as IPv6 uses 128 bit address.

Introduction:
IP is a layer-3 protocol in OSI stack. Packets are routed with the help of
destination address. The functions of IP are as follows:
• Connectionless best effort data delivery based on destination ip address.
• Fragmentation and re-assembly of datagrams to support links with
different MTUs (Maximum Transmission Units).

IPV4 is defined in RFC 791. Table-1 below mentions all the fields of IPV4
header with functional description.

IPV4 header
field Description

Version It signifies version of IPV4 or IPV6 in use

IHL(Header
length) datagram length in 32 bit words

Type of Specify how upper layers would like datagram to be

Service handled.
Total Length (data + header) size in bytes before fragmentation

helps in reassembly of fragments of datagram. Same ID

Identification has been assigned to all the fragments of a datagram

2 lower bits are used, lowest one signify whether the

packet can be fragmented or not, middle one specify
whether the packet is the last one in the series of
Flags(3bits) fragments of the packet

Fragment indicates offset position of data fragment from starting

offset position of datagram

counter which decrements to zero at the point of

discarded datagram. This helps to prevent any misrouted
Time to Live packet.

Indicates whether higher layer is TCP (value 6) or

Protocol UDP(value 17)

Header
hecksum Requires for error detection at the destination host

Source
address Address of sending node

Destination
address Address of receiving node
 Options Support various other options such as security etc.

Data Contains upper layer data information

Related link TCPIP packet format

IPV6

IPV6 has 128 bit IP address, which helps support one billion networks,
hence extends the drawbacks of IPV4 system. The figure depicts IPV6
header fields used in the IP protocol. IPv6 is defined in RFC 2460. Table-2
below mentions all the fields of IPV6 header with functional description.

IPV6 header
field Description

Version(4bit) contains 0110

Traffic Class(8 equivalent to Type of Service field of IPV4,

bit) used to classify IPv6 priorities

Flow label(20 Used by source node to label sequence of packets for

 which it requests a special type of handling by IPv6
bit) routers.

Payload
length(16 bit) Length of payload in bytes

Next Header(8 indicates type of header IPv6 follows such as TCP,

bit) UDP, ICMPv4 or ICMPv6

Decrements 1 by 1 after forwarding the packets by

each nodes. When zero packets are discarded and
error message is being returned This is equivalent to
Hop Limit(8 bit) Time to Live field of IPv4 protocol header.

Source
address(128 bit) Origin of IPv6 packet

Destination
address(128 bit) destination of IPv6 packet

Both IPV4 and IPV6 coexist in a multiprotocol configuration. To do this task

network access layer should support multiplexing of IPV4 and IPV6
packets. There are three methods of transition strategies from IPV4 to IPV6
protocol format. They are dual stack, tunneling and header translation. It is
recommended to have both IPV4 and IPV6 protocol stacks in the device
before migrating to the IPV6.
Tabular difference between IPV4 and IPV6

Following table mentions difference between IPv4 and IPv6.

IPv4 IPv6

In IPv4, there are

only 232 possible
ways to represent
address, which is
about 4 billion. In IPv6, there are 2128 possible ways.

IPv6 address is written in hexadecimal notation

IPv4 address is consisting of 8 groups with 4 hexadecimal digits or 8
written by dotted groups of 16 bits each.
decimal notation Example:
Example: 121.2.8.12 FABC:AC77:7834:2222:FACB:AB98:5432:4567

IPv4 header consists

of 20 (minimum) to
60 bytes (maximum). IPv6 header consists of 40 bytes in length and
It houses 13 fields. houses only 8 fields.

IPv4 header has

checksum which
must be computed by
each router. IPv6 header does not use any checksum.

IPv4 header contains IPv6 header contains 8-bit field called traffic class
8-bit field called field.
service type.

IPv4 node has only

stateful auto IPv6 node has both stateful and stateless address
configuration. auto configuration mechanism.

Security in IPv4
networks is limited to
tunneling between IPv6 has been designed to satisfy growing and
two networks. expanded need for network security.

Source and
destination
addresses are 32 bits Source and destination addresses are 128 bits in
in length. length.

IPsec support is
optional. IPsec support is required.

No identification of
packet flow for QoS
handled by routers is Packet flow identification for QoS handled by
present within IPv4 routers is included in IPv6 header using "flow label
header. field".

ARP (Address ARP request frames are replaced with multicast

Resolution Protocol) neighbour solicitation messages.
uses broadcast ARP
request frames to
 resolve an IPv4
address to a link
layer address.

Must be configured
either manually or
through DHCP. Does not require manual configuration or DHCP.

Header includes All optional data is moved to IPv6 extension

options. headers.

"ICMP router
discovery" is used to
determine IPv4
address of the best "ICMP router discovery" is replaced with "ICMPv6
default gateway and router solicitation and router advertisement"
it is optional. message and it is required.

Transmission Modes in Computer

Networks
Transmission mode refers to the mechanism of transferring of data between two
devices connected over a network. It is also called Communication Mode. These
modes direct the direction of flow of information. There are three types of transmission
modes. They are:

1. Simplex Mode
 2. Half duplex Mode
3. Full duplex Mode

SIMPLEX Mode
In this type of transmission mode, data can be sent only in one direction i.e.
communication is unidirectional. We cannot send a message back to the sender.
Unidirectional communication is done in Simplex Systems where we just need to send a
command/signal, and do not expect any response back.
Examples of simplex Mode are loudspeakers, television broadcasting, television and
remote, keyboard and monitor etc.

HALF DUPLEX Mode

Half-duplex data transmission means that data can be transmitted in both directions on
a signal carrier, but not at the same time.
For example, on a local area network using a technology that has half-duplex
transmission, one workstation can send data on the line and then immediately receive
data on the line from the same direction in which data was just transmitted. Hence half-
duplex transmission implies a bidirectional line (one that can carry data in both
directions) but data can be sent in only one direction at a time.
Example of half duplex is a walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a time but
messages are sent in both the directions.
FULL DUPLEX Mode
In full duplex system we can send data in both the directions as it is bidirectional at the
same time in other words, data can be sent in both directions simultaneously.
Example of Full Duplex is a Telephone Network in which there is communication
between two persons by a telephone line, using which both can talk and listen at the
same time.

In full duplex system there can be two lines one for sending the data and the other for
receiving data.