Chapter Four

Highway Alignment

Sight distance
Lecturer: Dr. Abbas Al-Hdabi
Sight distances

A driver ability to see a head which is of the most

important in the safe and efficient operation of a
vehicle on the highway. There are two major aspects of
sight distance:
1. Sight distance needed for stopping;
2. Sight distance needed for passing of overtaken
vehicles applicable only on two-lane highway
I. Stopping sight distance
The available sight distance on a roadway should be sufficiently long to enable a
vehicle traveling at or near the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary
object on the path.
Stopping sight distance is the sum of two distances: the distance traversed by the
vehicle from the instance the driver sights an object necessitating a stop to the
instant the brakes are applied; and The distance needed to stop the vehicle from the
instant of brake application begins.

Perception - reaction Time:

The reaction time of 2.5 seconds is considered adequate for conditions that are more
complex than the simple condition used in laboratory and road tests. The brake
reaction time can be calculated by:

d1  0.278V  t
Where: d1: the perception reaction distance, m;
V: design speed, km/h;
t: the brake reaction time, sec.
Brake Distance
The barking distance of a vehicle on a level roadway traveling at the
design speed of the roadway determined by:
𝑉2
𝑑2 = 0.039
𝑎
Where: d2: the braking distance, m; V: design speed, km/h; and a:
deceleration rate, m/s2 using a=3.4 m/s2 comfortable for drivers.
Therefore the stopping sight distance is:
SSD=d1+d2 in other words:
𝑉2
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 0.278 𝑉 × 𝑡 + 0.039
𝑎

Effect of Grade on Stopping Sight Distance

When a highway is on a grade, the equation for braking distance should be

modified as follow:

𝑉2
𝑑2 =
𝑎
254 ±𝐺
9.81

Where: G is the percent of grade divided by 100 (0.01 to 0.06)

The stopping sight distance needed on upgrades is shorter than on level

roadways; those on downgrade are longer.
II. Passing Sight Distance for Two-Lane Highway

Passing sight distance for use in design should be determined on the basis of
the length needed to complete normal passing maneuvers in which the passing
driver can determine that there are no potentially conflicting vehicles ahead
before beginning the maneuver.
PSD= d1+d2+d3+d4

d1: distance traversed during perception and reaction time and during
the initial acceleration to the point of encroachment on the left lane. d1
called initial maneuver distance, can be calculated by:
𝑎𝑡𝑖
𝑑1 = 0.278 × 𝑡𝑖 𝑉 − 𝑚 +
2
Where: ti: time of initial maneuver (3.6-4.5sec),
a: average acceleration rate, (2.5 – 3.5 km/h/sec),
v: average speed of passing vehicle, km/h;
m: difference in speed of passed and passing vehicle, 15 km/h.
• d2: distance traveled while the passing vehicle at the end of its maneuver
and the opposing vehicle, in other words is the distance while passing
vehicle occupying left lane. Can be calculated by:
𝑑2 = 0.278 𝑉 × 𝑡2
Where: t2: time passing vehicle occupies the left lane, (9.3 to 11.3seconds);
v: average speed of passing vehicle, km/h;

• d3 distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its maneuver and
the opposing vehicle, called clearance length. The clearance distance
length between the opposing and passing vehicle at the end of the passing
maneuver found vary from 30-90m.

• 4- d4 distance traversed by an opposing vehicle for two-thirds of the time

the passing vehicle occupies the left lane, d4=2/3d2.
 III. Sight Distance in Horizontal Alignment

The relationship between the radius of curvature R, the setback distance m

(HSO, Horizontal Sightline Offset), and the sight distance S is given by:

28.65𝑆
𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝑆𝑂 = 𝑅[1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑅

𝑅 𝑅−𝑚
𝑆= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1
28.65 𝑅
Ex. Horizontal curve having a radius of 300m forms part of two-lane highway
that has a posted speed limit of 70km/h. if the highway is flat at this section,
determine the minimum distance a large billboard can be placed from the
center line of the inside lane of the curve, without reducing the required SSD.
Assume perception- reaction time of 2.5 sec.

Solution:
𝑉2 702
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 0.278 𝑉 × 𝑡 + 0.039 = 0.278 × 70 × 2.5 + 0.039 = 105𝑚
𝑎 3.4

28.65𝑆 28.65 105

𝑚 = 𝑅 [1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 300[1 − cos = 4.58 𝑚
𝑅 300
 Horizontal Alignments

Horizontal alignment for linear transportation facilities such as highways and

railways consists of horizontal tangents, circular curves, and possibly transition
curves. Horizontal alignment consists of: 1-Horizontal Tangents, 2- Circular Curves.

The simple horizontal curves variables are:

- PC point of curvature
- PI point of intersection
- PT point of tangency
- T tangent length
- R radius of arc
- Δ angle of deflection, external angle
- LC length of long chord LC
- E the external distance
- M the middle ordinate
- MC the station of mid arc
- L is the length of simple horizontal arc;
- D is the degree of curvature for the simple
horizontal arc (Δ/L)
Circular curve may be one of the following types:
1. Simple circular curves: which usually found in highway

and railway,
2. Compound curves: when two consecutive circular
curves which concave in the same direction are jointed
together at point of tangency called P.C.C (point of
compound curvature) they constitute a compound
curves,
3. Reverse Curves: this type of curves is compound of two
curves that deflect in opposite direction from a junction
point on a common tangent called P.R.C (point of reverse
curvature),
4. Broken-Back Curve: when the distance between PT of
one curve and PC of the following curve is less than
300m, the two carves consist a broken-back curves
Specific design control for horizontal alignment:
1. The alignment must be as directional as possible;
2. Avoid using reverse curves;
3. Avoid using broken-back curves;
4. For each degree reduction in ∆ increase L by 30m (100ft);
5. When using compound curve R2 most be not more than 1.5R1.

Safety elements in horizontal alignments:

1. Speed- curvature relationships or super elevation;
2. Widening of roadway width in circular curve;
3. Sight distance regulation.
 The equation of simple circular curve:
Degree of curvature which subtends a 100m arc length of the curve so,

Sta. PI = Sta. PC + T
Sta. PT = Sta. PC + L
EX. 1: Calculate the station of PI and PC, R, L, LC, M and E for horizontal curve
with: D=1.35º , ∆=21º 45′, Sta. of PT=100+39?

Sol.

5729.58 5729.58
R   4244m
 1.35
D
 21.75
T  R tan  4244 tan  815m
2 2

L = 100 Δ/D = 100 * 21.75/1.35 = 1611.11 m

Sta. PC = Sta. PT – L = 10039 – 1611.11 = 8427.89 = 84+27.89
Sta. PI = Sta. PC + T = 8427.89 + 815 = 9242.89 = 92+42.89

LC  2 R sin  1601.4m
2

M  R (1  cos )  76.22m
2

E  R(sec  1)  77.61m
2
 Spiral (Transition) curves
The spiral transition curve is a curve
with radius equal ∞ in PT (TS) and
change to radius of R at point of
curvature (SC), normally used to
reduce the effect of curvature on
the speed of vehicle and to attend
the superelevation.
Critical points in moving through the
curve are the tangent to spiral point
(TS), the spiral to curve point (SC),
the curve to spiral point (CS), and the
spiral to tangent point (ST).
Since the spiral is defined as the curve such that the reciprocal of the radius
varies linearly from zero at the TS to 1/Rc at the SC,
1  1  L 
 Or: RL=Rc.Ls=A2
R  R c  Ls 

The spiral angle θ is given by:

L
 In particular: s  Ls
2R 2R c
L5 L9
X L  
40 A 4 3,456A 8
L3 L7 L11
Y 2
 6
 10
 
6A 336A 42,240A
Other measurements of interest are:
P=Ys - Rc(1-cosθs)
K=Xs- Rc sinθs
T′= (Rc + P) tan Δ/2

And: Lc = Rc(∆rad -2θs) = Rc.∆rad -Ls.

The factor C is an empirical value representing the comfort and safety levels
provided by the spiral curve. The value of C=0.3 m/s3 is generally accepted
for railroads operation, but value ranging from 0.3 to 0.9 m/s3 have been
used for highways.
 Example
A two-lane highway (3.6 m lanes) with a design speed of 100 km/h has a 400 m
radius horizontal curve connecting tangents with deflection angle of 27º. Determine
length of spiral and the stations of the TS, SC, CS, and ST points, given that the
temporary station of the P.I. is 150+00. Assume that C=0.90 m/sec3?

Solution
Ls =0.0214 *(100)3 / 400*0.9 = 60m
Determination of spiral angle and coordinates of SC point:
Ls 60
s    0.075
rad. 2 Rc 2(400)

A Ls R c  (60)( 400)  154.9

Ls 5 Ls 9 605 609
X s  Ls    60  
4 8 4
40A 3.456A 40(154.9) 3.456(154.9)8
=60-0.034+0.000=59.966m
Ls 3 Ls 7 Ls11 603 607 6011
Ys      
6A 2 336A 6 42.240A10 6(154.9) 2 336(154.9) 6 42.24(154.9)10
=1.5-0.001+0.00 = 1.499m
Chapter Five: Pavement Widening of Circular Curves
The amount of widening of traveled way on a horizontal curve is determined from:
W =Wc –Wn
Where :
W= Widening of traveled way on curve , m ;
Wc= Width of traveled way on curve , m ;
Wn= Width of traveled way on tangent , m ;

The width Wc is calculated by the equation :

Wc = N(U+C) + (N-1) FA +Z
Where :
N= Number of lanes ;
U=Track width of design vehicle (out- to-out tires ), m;
C=Lateral clearance ,m;
FA= Width of front overhang of inner –lane vehicle ,m;
Z=Extra width allowance ,m;
The track width on a curve (U) is calculated using the equation :

U = u +R- 𝑅2 − σ 𝐿2

Where :

u=Track width on tangent (out-to-out of tires) 2.44 or 2.59 m, m;

R=Radius of curve, m ; and

L=Wheelbase of design vehicle between consecutive axles (or sets of tandem axles).

The lateral clearance allowable, C, provides for the clearance between the edge of the
traveled way and nearest wheel path and for the body clearance between vehicles
passing or meeting. lateral clearance per vehicle is assumed to be 0.60 , 0.75 and 0.90
m for tangent lane width ,Wn, equal to 6 , 6.6 and 7.2, respectively .
The width of the front overhang (FA) is the radial distance between the outer edge of the
tire of the outer front wheel and the path of the outer front of the vehicle body. FA
determined from:

FA= 𝑅2 + 𝐴(2𝐿 + 𝐴) − 𝑅

Where:
A= Front overhang of inner lane vehicle, m;
L=Wheelbase of single unit or tractor, m
The extra width allowable (Z) is an additional radial width of pavement to allow for the
difficulty of maneuvering on a curve and the variation in driver operation .

𝑍 = 0.1(𝑉/ 𝑅 )
Where :
V=Design speed of the highway, km/h.
 Example:

What is the required widening amount on a section of two-lane highway has design speed of 80km/h, lane
width is 3.25 m on tangent and the radius of circle curve is 250m. The design vehicle is adopted on this
section of highway has front overhang of 1.2 m and wheelbase of 6.10 m . The lateral clearance allowable ,
C, per vehicle is 0.60 m and truck width is assumed to be 2.44 m ?

Solution:

U = u +R- 𝑅2 − σ 𝐿2 = 2.44+250 - 2502 − 6.12 = 2.514m

FA= 𝑅2 + 𝐴(2𝐿 + 𝐴) − 𝑅 = 2502 + 1.2(2 × 6.1 + 1.2) − 250 =0.032 m

80
𝑍 = 0.1(𝑉/ 𝑅 ) =0.1( ) = 0.506 m
250

Wc = N(U+C) + (N-1) FA +Z = 2(2.514 +0.60)+ 0.032+0.506= 6.766 m

W =Wc –Wn = 6.766- 6.5 =0.266 m

It is better to use 0.30 m for pavement widening at circular curve.

 Chapter Six: Superelevation

It is raising the outside edge of the pavement in the relative to the inside edge of the pavement in
curvature. The purposes of superelevation are to contract the centripetal acceleration produced
as a vehicle rounds a curve.
If the vehicle is traveling round a curve with a radius R at a constant speed V, there will be a
radial acceleration toward the center of curve of (V2/R), which will opposed by a force of:
𝑊 𝑉2
.𝑅
𝑔
Other forces acting on the car are its weight W and force exerted against the wheel by the
roadway surface. These forces are:-
The normal force N on inclined pavement surface , and lateral force F (friction forces) so:
F where: f: coefficient of friction between the tires and the roadway surface.
f
N
Summing forces parallel to the roadway gives:

W v2
cos ( . )  F  W sin 
g R
W V2
N  W cos  sin  ( . ) But, superelevation rate is the tanα=e
g R

F=f.N=f.w cosα

v2
 e f Alternatively: R
V2

0.278V 2

gR g (e  f ) 9.81(e  f )

V2
Finally: R 
127 (e  f )

Where: V: is speed in km/hr

R: is radius in m
The following table gives the values of side friction recommended by AASHTO:

Design speed
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
km/hr
Max. f 0.28 0.23 0.19 0.17 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.09

Maximum rate of super elevation (e) is:

0.12 for rural highway;

0.08 for rural highway with snow or ice effect;

0.04 to 0.06 for urban street.

Ex.1 Find R for a curve of design speed 100km/hr , f =0.12 and e=0.05?

Sol.
V2 100 2
R   463m
127 (e  f ) 127(0.05  0.12)
Superelevation Runoff:
In case of un-using transition curves, it should be use the superelevation runoff.
That is the length of highway section required to achieve a full-superelevated
section from a section with adverse crown removed, or vice versa. The length of
superelevation runoff (Lr) is obtained from the following:

Maximum Relative Gradient

Design speed Maximum relative gradient Equivalent maximum relative slope

(km/h) (%)
50 0.65 1:154
80 0.50 1:200
120 0.38 1:263
In case of using transition curves, it is common practice for the fully superelevated
section to be achieved over the whole length of the spiral. In case of the length of spiral is
less than the runoff length, it is appropriate to use the superelevation runoff for the length
of spiral curve.
Minimum length of tangent runout (Lt) is determined by the amount of adverse cross
slope to be removed and the following equation is used to compute the minimum tangent
runout length :
Attainment of Superelevation:

It is essential that, the change from a crowned cross-section to a

superelevated one to be achieved without causing any discomfort to
motorists or creating unsafe condition.
One from four methods can be used to achieve this change on undivided
highway:
1. A crowned pavement is rotated about the profile centerline;
2. A crowned pavement is rotated about the profile inside edge;
3. A crowned pavement is rotated about the profile outside edge;
4. A straight cross-slope pavement is rotated about the profile outside edge.

Selection of the method is depending on:

1. which one will provide pleasant appearance;
2. which one will provide drainage requirements;
3. Cost of cut and fill and paving material.