Batteries

&
Fuel cells
Al-Azhar University
Faculty of Science
2010

A.TA77AN
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Main Definitions

Oxidation: Losing of electrons.

Reduction: Accepting of electrons.

Electrical current: The current of electrons that pass throw a conductive or semi
conductive material.

Galvanic cells: Chemical energy  Electrical energy

Electrolytic cells: Electrical energy  Chemical energy

Battery: A device which store chemical energy and convert it into electrical energy.

Primary batteries (cells): The batteries that used only for one period and can not be
recharged.

Secondary batteries (cells): The batteries that can be used for many periods with
charging discharging ability.

Passivation: The formation of an inert layer on the surface of metals leading to decrease
its activity by isolating it from the environment (Immunity).

Over voltage: Is the deference between the theoretical and the experimental voltage
needed to begin the decomposition in the electrolytic cells.

Decomposition voltage: The point at which the decomposition begin in the electrolytic
cells.

Fuel cell: It is a type of batteries but differ from it only in that the reactants are fed from
outside the cell and the nature of the electrode reactions require totally different
technology.

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Battery characteristics
The various battery characteristics are dependent on each other and commonly a change
of design to improve one will have an adverse effect on another.

1- Voltage
It is depend on the free energy change in the over all cell reaction.
V  E  IR  E   E  IR
For the batteries system:
V  E   E  |η |  |η |  IR
Where: ηC / ηA are the voltages required to remove the passive layer on the surface of
cathode (or anode).

(ηA /ηC /IR) increase with increasing the current density thus the voltage will decrease.

 …………………… [Fig 1]

By the study of the decrease in the battery voltage with the time [Fig 2] we shall note a
dip on the discharge curve plotted as a and b and this is due to the losing in voltage to
overcome the nucleation and passivation over potentials.

The drop (a) for the simple cells where only passivation over potentials occurs.

The drop (b) for the cells where electrode reaction has a nucleation over potential.

The nucleation over potential occurs when the electrode reaction requires the formation
of a new phase as in Zn/HgO cells.

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Finally the formation of a cell with high potential is favored by:
1- The selection of electrode reactions which lead to an overall cell reaction with a high
negative free energy change.
2- Decrease the drop in the discharge curve by using fast electrode reaction.
3- Decrease the resistance (R) of the cell by using a high conductivity electrolyte, low-
resistance separator and small electrode gap.

2- Current
The current which can be withdrawn from the cell depends on:
1. The state of charge.
2. The rate at which the current has been discharged.

3- Capacity
It is the charge that may be obtained from the battery.
The capacity (C) can be calculated from Faraday’s law:
 !
  # Where: W = Wt. of the active material & M = M.Wt. of it.
"

The capacity depends on:

How much the active materials can actually be consumed during discharge i.e. the
discharging conditions.

The experimentally capacity measuring:

By plotting voltage (V) against time (t) …………………… [Fig 2]

The capacity is then equal to [  $ % & ]
Where t’ = the time at which the battery is no longer useful.

4- Electricity storage density

The measure of charge per unit weight stored in the battery i.e. the capacity per unit
weight C/W. Where: W is the total weight of the battery components.

The High electricity storage density depends on:

1- Decrease the weight of all subsidiary elements (W).
2- Correct Selection of electrode reaction with decreasing M.Wt. of the active martial

to increase the capacity, where:  '
"

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5- Energy density
It is the energy obtained per unit weight of battery.
It & V CV E
E() *   
W W W

6- Power density
It is the capability required for batteries to deliver power.

The capability requirement may be:

1. Continuous for continuous power density.
2. Pulse capability for short period.
The power density decreased during discharging.

7- Discharge rate
It is the rate of withdrawing the charge from the cell. R = C/t

8- Cycle life
- It is the number of charge/discharge cycles that are possible before batteries failure
occurs. And it depends on the deeps of each discharge.
- The total discharge of the battery may lead to damaging the electrode mainly by the
corrosion of the current collectors or shedding the active material from the plates.
Note: The primary batteries have no cycle life because it does not have the ability to
recharge.

9- Energy Efficiency
Energy released on discharging
Energy Ef4iciency 
Energy required for charging

It is a characteristic property for the secondary batteries.

Energy efficiency is depends on:

1. The current efficiency of the electrode process.
2. The over potential in charging or discharging.

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10- Behavior on Overcharge
When the secondary batteries over charged, a new electrode reaction must occur
e.g. electrolysis of water.

11- Shelf life

It is the life for a battery to be stored without self-discharge of corrosion causing a loss of
performance.

12- Tolerance to Service Conditions

It is the ability of a battery to perform its duty.
Or
The ability to be stored under a range of conditions such as:

The change in temperature range.

Standing over vibration and shocks … etc.

13- Reliability
It is the failure rate within a given period.

14- Economic Factors

1- The cost of manufacture.
2- The cost of servicing during the working life of the battery.

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Evaluation of Battery Performance

It is importance to evaluate the performance of a battery i.e. to determine the battery
characteristics described above in conditions which relate closely to those where it will
be used.

1. Traditional Methods
We would include measurement of capacity, energy density and power density and for
secondary batteries the determination of cycle life and energy efficiency during:

a) Discharge into fixed resistances:

It is necessary to monitor both voltage and current as a function of time.
b) Discharge (and charge) at constant currents:
This permits simple and direct measurement of capacity, cycle life, etc.
c) Discharge (and charge) at constant voltages:
This method gives the maximum power output directly and allows the
determination of the capacity at fixed voltage.
d) Discharge at constant wattages:
This most closely imitates the duty of many batteries to power instrumentation
but it is the most difficult test to carry out.

2. A Complete Test Program

We must consider many other factors including:
a) The effect of ambient conditions:
Like temperature and pressure both during duty performing and storage.
b) The effect of mechanical shock & acceleration.
c) The dangers arising from various types of misuse
Include overcharge, spillage of the electrolyte and damage by fire.
d) The final recycle or disposal of cell components in the battery.

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Battery Components
1. The Container:
It is the case that holds the inner battery component.

It should be resistant to corrosion from both inside and outside.

It should be stable to chemical attack by the inner battery component and the
environment at the operating temperature.

It should have required mechanical strength and being light.

2. The Separators:
It is the membrane that partially separates the two electrodes and it act as the salt
bridge.

It should be chemically stable to the inner battery component.

It should have correct qualities of wettability, selectivity, resistivity and flexibility for
the particular battery system.

The separators manufactured using a wide range of materials for different discharge
rate (plastic, nylon … etc).

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3. Current Collectors:
It is the conducting path at which the electrons transfer from or to the two electrodes
through the porous active material.

The current collectors are usually a metal grid or sheet.

It also acts as physical support for the active mass.

It should be stable to the chemical attack by the inner battery components.

4. Electrolyte:
It is the second component of the electrode (with the metal) which completes the
electrode reactions.

The concentration of the electrolyte is very important where it plays a huge part in
the concentration cells by controlling the plate potential.

Also controlling the electrolyte resistance, viscosity and weight are very important.

5. Active Materials:
It is a type of reactant (electro active material) which makes the electro active species
readily available at the sites of electron transfer.

It is applied in a form of a paste on the electrode current collector. Such structures are
known as porous electrode with many random and tortuous electrolyte channels
between them.

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The behavior of the active materials:

We have seen that the active materials are a good electron conducting with a porous
that filled with the electrolyte. The active material are thus in contact with the
electrolyte and the current collector .In the face that connected to the electrolyte the
half cell reaction take place and the active material converted from the good
electronic conductor form (e.g. metal or metal dioxide) to poor electronic conductor
one (e.g. metal sulphate). Then the active materials become less conducting than the
electrolyte and the reaction zone will move out through the active material towards
the electrolyte converting the bad conducting form to good conducting one leaving
the electrons in the surface of the current collectors.

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The most widely used battery systems

The most widely used three types of batteries systems are
1- Lead/Acid Batteries 2- Nickel/Cadmium Batteries
3- Zinc/Carbon Batteries

1- Lead/Acid Batteries
Cell Chemistry
Cathode reaction : PbO2 + 4H+ + SO4 2- + 2e-  2H2O + PbSO4
Anode reaction : Pb + SO42-  PbSO4 + 2e-
Overall reaction : PbO2 + Pb + 4H+ + 2SO42-  2PbSO4 + 2H2O

Electrolyte: aq. H2SO4

Current collectors: both Pb
Reversible cell potential = 2.05 V
Applications:
Cars, standby supplies, industrial, traction.

Cell uses
a- Car batteries
b- Traction and industrial power supplies.
c- Stationary and standby power supplier.
d- Sealed cells without free electrolyte.

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a- Car batteries
As a Starting, Lightning and Ignition (SLI) battery.(6V or 12V)

The current collectors are die cast grids made from an alloy of Lead.

The battery should have the following characteristics:

1- High capacity (100 A h).
2- High pulse capability to permit engine starting.
3- The ability to provide a lower current for an extended period (e.g. 25 A for 3 h
without the voltage dropping below 10.5 V).
4- Multiple charge/discharge cycles although not necessary to deep discharge.

Preparation of the electro active pastes (active material):

)? @) )
1- Pure lead  Powder mix of lead & lead oxide (∼ 50:50)

The paste to be used for the negative electrode are added various additives:
 Carbon powder (∼ 0.25%)
Improve the conductivity of the final plate.
 Lignin sulphonates (∼ 0.2%)  Barium sulphate (∼ 0.35%)
Prevent the reduction in the surface area of lead and other changes in
morphology of the plate (i.e. they are expanders).

Usually no additives are used in the positive electrode paste.
2- The positive and negative pastes are then made by addition of aq sulphuric acid
3- Then spread uniformly on the grids.
4- Then allowed to dry and stand for several days in air.

The major changes in recent years on the design of the battery have been to:
1- Reduce the weight of the grids.
2- Change the container (case) from hard rubber to polypropylene.
3- Improve lightly the use of active material, reducing its necessary in the battery.

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b- Traction and Industrial Power Supplies
These batteries differ from the SLI type in that they often have:
1. Larger voltage (48 – 96 V).
2. Higher capacity which obtained by using larger and thicker electrodes.
3. The grids must be more robust.

Batteries shape may design as:

1. Flat plate.
2. Tubular positive plate design.

The former are very similar to the SLI design except that they may be larger and more
robustly constructed, the major addition is a second separator (thick matted glass wool
felt) is placed against the positive plate to support the active material.

The design of a tubular positive plate is take place as following

1. Each plate made of 15 – 23 tubes.
Which originally made from perforated rubber but now it is made from woven glass
wool or a plastic.
2. Tubular mandrels are placed in each (tube) and the cloth is then impregnated with a
thermosetting resin to give it rigidity.
3. The current collector Pb/Sb rod placed at the centre of each tube and the tubes are
filled with positive paste.
4. The negative plate is pasted as the SLI battery and the conventional separator is also
present.

The advantage of the tubular positive plate cells:

The shedding of the positive active material is not possible and hence the cycle life is
likely to be improved.

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c- Stationary and Standby Power Supplier
Lead/acid batteries are used for many diverse remote and standby duties and hence
are manufactured with a wide range of voltage and current capabilities and capacities.
Flat plate and tubular positive plate cells are produced for stationary duty, but where
reliability is a prime consideration, Planté Cell is used.

Planté Cell
The positive electrodes are manufactured by a quite different process as following:
1. The oxide is formed by electrochemical oxidation of a lead base plate or grid.
(which often shaped to increase its surface area).
2. The oxide then dipped in an electrolyte which contains sulphuric acid and an anion
(perchlorate or nitrate) which forms a soluble Pb2⁺ salt. This leads to a layer of thick
porous oxide.
(the nitrate or perchlorate is present to prevent total passivation of the lead surface).
3. The resulting plate, thickness (6-12 mm). is then reduced to form a spongy lead metal,
is washed thoroughly, and is recharged when in a fabricated cell.
(The active material formed in this way adheres to the base lead better than pasted
materials and therefore cycles more reliably).

d- Sealed Cells Without Free Electrolyte:

It is an advantage to manufacture a cell without free electrolyte to avoid the hazards of
explosion and acid spillage by the vibrations uses.

Such cells are made use electrolyte gelled by the addition sodium silicate or sulphuric
acid adsorbed onto a felted glass fiber mat or thick paper.

Now cylindrical Lead/acid cells are made without free electrolyte with spirally wound
shape (as Swiss Role) with electrodes of thin pure lead sheet and glass fiber paper
separator packed into a metal cans.

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2- Nickel/Cadmium Batteries

Cell chemistry
Cathode reaction : NiO(OH) + H2O + e-  Ni(OH )2 + OH-
Anode reaction : Cd + 2OH-  Cd(OH)2 + 2e-
Overall reaction : 2NiO(OH) + Cd + 2H2O  2Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH)2

Electrolyte: aq. KOH Current collectors: Ni and Cd

Reversible cell potential = 1.48 V
Applications:
 Standby supplies.  Plane engine starting.
 Industrial.  Railway lighting.

Cell uses
Nickel/Cadmium batteries are manufactured in two basic forms:
1. Pocket plate cells.
2. Sintered plate cells.

1. Pocket Plate Batteries:

The positive electrode active material contains typically:

Compound Percentage
Nickel hydroxide 80 %
Graphite 18 %
Cobalt hydroxide 2%
Barium May be a trace

The graphite is present in two forms, powder and flake, to improve conductivity.
The cobalt and barium compounds increase the percentage usage of the active material
during discharge and also increases the cycle life.

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The negative electrode active material contains typically:
Compound Percentage
Cadmium hydroxide 78%
Iron 18%
Nickel 1%
Graphite 1%

The iron, nickel and graphite are present to reduce ball up.
The active materials are made in the form of long briquettes.
The battery design illustrated in the figure below.

Pocket plate batteries advantages:
 Long life.
 The ability to deliver their capacity and maintain their voltage over a wide
range of discharge rates and temperatures.
 Retain charge over many months.
 The energy density = (15 – 25) Wh Kg⁻1
 Very long shelf life ( > 20 years ).

Uses:
 For emergency power supplies.  Switchgear.
 Train lighting.  Engine starting.

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2. Sintered Plate Batteries:
In these cells, the electrodes are manufactured from sintered metal.

The active material impregnate in the sintered metal in a series of steps:

1. The sintered metal is first dipped into a solution of the Ni/Cd ions (usually present
as nitrates) and a vacuum is used to draw the solution into all the pores.
2. The sintered metal containing the solution is treated chemically, thermally or
electrochemically to precipitate the ions, nickel as the hydroxide and cadmium as a
mixture of metal, oxide and/or hydroxide.
3. The cycle is completed by washing and drying and then the complete procedure is
repeated 3 – 10 times to obtain a high loading of active material. The solution for
the positive electrode sometimes contains cobalt (< 10 %) to help maintain
capacity when the battery is cycled. The electrodes are generally charged after the
cell is assembled.
4. In vented cells the sintered metal is cut to the final plate size and, after conduction
tabs are welded, the cell is put together in a similar way to the pocket plate cells
except that the separator is a thin sheet of low-resistance, small-pore plastic often
with a second layer to prevent oxygen transport. These membranes may be
cellophane and a non-woven polyamide respectively.

Sealed cells are made in three different designs:

1. Rectangular plates: where the sintered electrodes are vertical.
2. Button cells: where the sintered electrodes are horizontal discs.
3. Cylindrical cells: where the sintered electrodes are spirally wound.

The energy density of sintered plate cells is considerably better than their pocket plate
counterparts because:
1. The electrodes in the sintered plate cells are closer together.
2. The electrodes in the sintered plate cells with higher porosity.
3. There is also more active material per unit volume in the sintered plate cells.

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3- Zinc/Carbon Batteries [Leclanche cell]
Cell chemistry
Cathode reaction : 2MnO2 + H2O + 2e⁻  Mn2O3 + 2OH⁻
Anode reaction : Zn  Zn2+ + 2e⁻
Overall reaction : 2MnO2 + Zn + H2O  Mn2O3 + Zn++ + 2OH⁻

Electrolyte: moist NH4Cl / ZnCl2 / MnO2 / C powder.

Current collectors: graphite and Zn.
Reversible cell potential = 1.55V
Applications: Small (but not miniature) portable power sources (torches, radios, toys).

Cell uses
Zinc/Carbon Batteries are primary cells.
Zinc/Carbon Batteries are being the workhorse among the other batteries because its
comparative cheapness.

The Leclanche cells are design in two main forms:

1- Traditional cylindrical design:

The negative zinc electrode is a zinc lining to the metal can amalgamated with
mercury to minimize hydrogen gas formation by reaction of the metal with water.

The separator is a paper stiffened with cellulose or starch placed adjacent to the
zinc can.

The positive current collector is a carbon rod at the centre of the can.
The positive paste fills most of the volume. This is a mixture of powdered MnO2 ,
NH4Cl and acetylene black (carbon) to increase the conductivity where the pores are
filled with an aq. electrolyte ( NH4Cl + ZnCl2 ) gelled by addition of starch.
Figure 16
2- The second battery design (Flat cell):

It is a series of six cells with bipolar (or duplex) electrodes. Each cell has the same
components as the first cell.

This cell not contains carbon rod but the bottom face of the duplex electrode.
Where the whole set of cells is sealed in wax. Figure 17

On drawing current the cell voltage always drops with time and although it recovers
on standing at open circuit as shown below the absence of a stable voltage is a
disadvantage.

It may also be note that the energy density, 70 WH Kg⁻1 is high compared with that
for the secondary cells.

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Other battery systems

A number of batteries are based on modifications of the technology or the substitution
of electrode reactions into either the Ni/Cd or Leclanche cells the changes usually
improve one characteristic of importance to a particular duty but usually only at an
increased cost following are some example:

1. Alkaline Manganese Battery:

The cathode is MnO2 and graphite in the form of compressed tablets.

The electrolyte is strongly alkaline.

The cell reaction is:
2MnO2 + H2O + Zn  2MnO(OH) + ZnO

It is also normal to use the highest grade of MnO2 which is more expensive but in
all respects the performance of such batteries is superior to the Leclanche cell. In
the small (0.02 - 0.2 Ah) button cells.

The cathode active material:
More commonly mercuric oxide + graphite or silver oxide + graphite pressed into
pellets.

The electrolyte is aq. KOH.

The cell reactions are:
HgO + Zn  Hg + ZnO
Ag2 O + Zn  2Ag + ZnO

And these cells have the advantage that their voltage is constant during most of
the discharge and their performance on continuous discharge is good.

They are therefore suitable for watches and hearing aid supplies.

2. Silver Oxide/Zn Battery:

The electrolyte is KOH and pasted rectangular electrodes.

Such cells are expensive but have a good energy density compared with Lead/Acid
or Ni/Cd (70 WH Kg⁻1) and are also capable of high discharge rates for short
periods.

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3. Metal/Air Battery: Figure 19

This type of batteries has received considerable attention because one of the active
materials (air) does not contribute to the mass of the battery and this gives the
possibility of a very high energy density.

The systems have not yet been totally successful even as primary cells because of
polarization of the air cathode causing a huge loss of cell voltage.

Moreover, attempts to recharge such cells have met problems at the negative metal
electrode, e.g. with a zinc electrode the distribution of metal over the current collector
changes with time.

Commercially the most successful primary batteries have been based on Zn/air with a
neutral or alkaline electrolyte.

Al/Air, Fe/Air and Li/Air with an aq. electrolyte now have supporters as traction batteries.

There are many types of ambient-temperature lithium cells that are in (or near to)
commercial production, while these cells have in common the dissolution of lithium as
the negative electrode, there is a great variation in the other features of the cells.

Three types of electrolytes have been used:

a) An aprotic organic solvent containing a lithium salt. The organic solvents which have
been investigated in detail include acetonitrile, propylene carbonate, dioxolane,
methyl formate, tetrahydro furan and mixtures of solvents, while the most popular
electrolytes are lithium perchlorate, hexa fluoro phosphate, hexa fluoro arsenate
and thiocyanate.
b) Thionyl chloride or sulphur dioxide, where the solvent is also the active species at
the positive electrode. In thionyl chloride cells the electrolyte is lithium tetra chloro
aluminates.
c) A lithium (ion) conducting electrolyte such a lithium iodide or lithium iodide +
alumina (33 mol %). These cells are only able to discharge slowly, i.e. less than
100 A cm⁻2, but in applications where they are required to provide only a low power,
e.g. a heart pacemaker battery, the service life may be many years and such
batteries also have a good shelf life. Lithium (ion) conducting polymers are another
interesting possibility.

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A great variety of positive electrode reactions have also been described and/or used
in commercial cells. These include the following:
1. The reduction of an oxide, sulphide, or metal salt, or an oxidizing agent,
e.g. MnO2 , CuO, CuS, PbS, PbI2, CuCl2, I2 absorbed into a polymer.
2. The reduction of poly (carbon mono fluoride) (CF)n
3. The reduction of the solvent, thionyl chloride or sulphur dioxide, at a carbon
current collector.
4. The use of an intercalation compound, e.g. TiS2 or V6O13. In these materials the
lithium passes into the lattice so that the cell reaction is:
Li + V6O13  LiV6O13

Effectively the formation of a solid solution of lithium; the driving force for such
reactions can be sufficient for an open-circuit potential of around 3 V.

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BATTERIES UNDER DEVELOMENT

In this section will briefly describe the principles and problems of some new systems
under development:

1- Sodium/Sulphur Battery: Figure 20

The overall cell reaction is usually written as:
2Na + 3S  Na2S3

This leads to cell potential of 2.1 V and a theoretical energy density of 756 Wh Kg⁻1.

The cell is operated with a sodium-conducting solid electrolyte.

The temperature of operation is 300 – 375 oC so that the active materials are liquid
and to increase the conductivity of the solid electrolyte.

The major problems with the cell:
1. The safety, since if in any circumstances the sodium and the sulphur come into
contact a very exothermic reaction ensues.
2. The low conductivity and high corrosiveness of the sodium polysulphides.

These problems should considered in the cell design:
A typical design based on sodium β-alumina tube the outer tubular case is made of
mild steel and the β-alumina tube fits inside with a small gap between.

The positive electrode is molten sulphur.

The current collector is graphite felt which takes up all the volume inside the tube
and there is also a central graphite rod which connects to the cell terminal.

The negative current collectors are the case.

The molten sodium is stored below the cell and is only wicked up into the gap
between the tube and the case as the sodium film to reduce problems from the
sodium/sulphur reaction.

The cell has a capacity of about 150 A/h.

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2- Lithium/Iron Sulphide Battery:
B

During discharge the negative electrode reaction is the dissolution
dissolution of lithium from a
Li/Al alloy, while the positive electrode reaction is the reduction of iron disulphide
which occurs in stages as following:
3FeS2 + 4e⁻  Fe2S54⁻ + FeS
Fe2S54⁻ + FeS + 2e⁻  3FeS22⁻
FeS22⁻ + 2e⁻  Fe + 2S2⁻

Or the reduction of iron sulphide:
sulphide
FeS + 2e⁻  Fe + S 2⁻

The problem with this cell is the corrosion of the current collector by iron disulphide
always occurs unless if made of molybdenum which an unacceptably expensive metal
Hence most practical cells have used iron sulphide as the active material and these
batteries have now reached the stage of detailed engineering and testing in a
laboratory scale.

The electrolyte
olyte for the battery is a LiCl/KCl
LiCl mixture with a temp. 430 – 490 oC.

Batteries are constructed on the parallel-plate

parallel plate principle with alternate anodes and
cathodes, and in each inter-electrode
inter electrode space there is a boron nitride cloth or felt
separator. Commonly there is one extra negative plate because some som lithium is lost
during cycling.

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3- Zinc/Halogen Batteries: (Metal Air Battery)

It is seemed to be attractive for the following factors:

1. They are based on low-cost chemicals.
2. They are based on aq. electrochemistry at almost ambient temp. and pressure.
3. They are capable of a high cell voltage and a good energy density.

The problem for this cells: been to store the halogens and this must almost certainly
be done external to the cell so that the battery systems require good storage and
pumping which makes their success dependent on the engineering.

In the zinc/chlorine cell the chlorine is stored as chlorine hydrate, Cl2.xH2O which
precipitates as a solid below 9.6 oC.

During charge the electrolyte aq. ZnCl2 is cooled in a reservoir.

The electrodes are graphite and can operate without catalyst and the cell can be
constructed from PVC without a separator. There remain some problems with the
morphology of zinc deposits.

In the zinc/bromine cell, the halogen is stored in the electrolyte as a polybromide

(mainly Br3⁻) and hence a separator is essential Nafion cation exchange membrane
has again been used.

The electrolyte is aq. ZnBr2 with tetra alkyl-ammonium bromide to aid the bromine
complex formation.

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Fuel cells
The idea of the fuel cell based on that the primary fuel can be react with the oxygen in an
electrochemical cell as following:
CH4 + 2H2O  CO2 + 8H⁺ + 8e⁻
O2 + 4H⁺ + 4e⁻  2H2O
And the full free energy of the oxidation of the fuel can be converted to an electrical
energy.
The fuel cells require oxygen catalyst to increase the reaction ratio and thus increase the
current density.
The primary fuel has to converted to hydrogen or carbon monoxide before it feed in the
fuel cell because in the reaction condition the fuel may found to suffer complete
oxidation which lead to decrease the catalyst activity and the current density.

Uses of the fuel cells:

There are probable no commercial application for the fuel cells but the technique has
several applications as following:
1. It used with a battery as hybrid car traction unite. The fuel cell would be used as
power source for cruising while the battery provides peaks during starting and
acceleration.
2. As large scale power generation for the giant projects.
3. As small scale power generation in the remote sides.
4. As energy recovery in the chemical industry.
The main advantage of the fuel cells is that the reactant feed from out side the cell thus
the fuel cells can act as progressing power source as the reactant feeding is running.
Examples for fuel cell:

1. Phosphoric acid fuel cell: [H2, O2 Cell]

Anode fuel: Hydrogen. Cathode: Oxygen.
Anode catalyst: Platinum partials dispersed on carbon.
Cathode catalyst: Platinum partials dispersed on carbon.
Electrolyte: Phosphoric acid.
Operating temp: 200 oC Cell voltage: 0.67V

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2. Molten carbonate fuel cell: [H2 or CO, O2 Cell]

Anode fuel: Hydrogen or CO. Cathode: Oxygen.

Anode catalyst: Nickel. Cathode catalyst: Nickel oxide.
Electrolyte: (LiAlO2 40%, K2CO3 28%, and Li2CO3 32%)
Operating temp: 650oC Cell voltage: 0.9V.

Anode reaction: H2 + CO32⁻  CO2 + H2O + 2e⁻

Or
CO + CO32⁻  2CO2 + 2e⁻

Cathode reaction: O2 + 2CO2 + 4e⁻  2CO32⁻

The main problem of this cell is the low tolerance of the electrode reactions to sulfur
and chlorine.

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Important Terms
adverse effect 
 immunity   /  
ambient ()  instrumentation ‫اة‬
attempts ‫ و!ت‬ intercalation %& / ‫ م‬$‫ا‬
avoid ‫  دي‬/ '( light +,
ball ‫ر‬./ lighting ‫ ءة‬1‫إ‬
briquettes '3‫ا‬.$ lining  45
cans ' 63‫ا‬ membrane ‫ ء‬78
capacity 6
miniature :: / ‫ة‬9
channels ‫ات‬.$ misuse ‫ ل‬:6<
‫ء ا‬.

characteristics => , operating ?97<3‫ا‬

charge @A over voltage B>‫ زا‬B
circumstances ‫وف‬E3‫ا‬ overcharge B>‫@ زا‬A
conductivity  .:3‫ا‬ particular @6 / ‫ ص‬,
contribute ‫ رك‬7H paste (
counterparts ‫اء‬E3‫ا‬ performance ‫أداء‬
cycle life ‫ ة‬3‫دورة ا‬ plate .3
cylindrical ‫ا‬.4
‫أ‬ pocket '(3‫ا‬
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determine ‫د‬BH random >‫ا‬.7
discharge LH readily 3.K5
disposal = M<3‫ا‬ rectangular  4<K
distribution NH‫ز‬. reliability ‫ ل‬9<AO‫  ا‬/‫إ‬
duties ‫اض‬8‫أ‬ reservoir ‫ان‬,
duty ‫ض‬8 resistance ‫& و‬
efficiency ‫آ ءة‬ resistant ‫& وم‬
emergency ‫ارئ‬.T resistivity ‫& و‬:3‫ا‬
ensues U6<<K retain W< / ‫ا!< ظ‬
evaluation %& rod ‫د‬. / 'X$
failure ?7Y / ‫ر‬.$ sealed ‫م‬.<M / ‫ود‬BK
felted ZB  selectivity > &<!‫ا‬
filled [ <: servicing  3‫ا‬
fixed \5  sheet ‫ح‬.3 / &$‫ر‬
flexibility ‫و‬:3‫ا‬ shelf life N3‫? ا‬$ W3‫<ة ا‬Y
gelled ‫ر‬. < shelf life N3‫? ا‬$ W3‫<ة ا‬Y
grid /A shock B
hazards T M:3‫ا‬ sintered ^ /<
imitate ‫ آ‬H spillage ‫ ب‬/K‫ا‬

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spirally ً‫ و‬
standing over … ... ?:
/ ‫د‬B7H ، BHB7
stiffened
' H ، ' 
superior ‫ق‬.<
supplier ‫رد‬.:3‫ ا‬/ ‫ود‬:3‫ا‬
supplies ‫ازم‬.3
Switchgear d 
tolerance ?:<3‫ ا‬/ ‫ ل‬:<!‫ا‬
tolerance ?:<3‫ ا‬/ ‫ ل‬:<!‫ا‬
tortuous ‫ج‬6<
traction '
/ 
traditional ‫ي‬B &
Train ‫ ر‬4$
various .<
vented ^
vibration ‫اه<از‬
wattage 5/3‫ة ا‬.&3‫ا‬
workhorse ‫&ي‬3‫د ا‬.:63‫ا‬
Zone &4
over voltage B>‫ زا‬B

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