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ARSENIC

SOURCES

The Earth’s crust is an abundant natural source of arsenic. It is present in more than 200 different minerals, the most common
of which is called arsenopyrite.

About one-third of the arsenic in the Earth’s atmosphere is of natural origin. Volcanic action is the most important natural
source. The next most important source is arsenic-containing vapor that is generated from solid or liquid forms of arsenic salts
at low temperatures.

Inorganic arsenic of geological origin is found in groundwater used as drinking water in several parts of the world, for example
Bangladesh, India and Taiwan.

Organic arsenic compounds, that is, those containing carbon, are mainly found in sea-living organisms, although some of these
compounds have also been found in species living on land.

USES

There are many different uses of Arsenic, but caution must be taken in every case. Whether using Arsenic for wood
preservation of as a conductor, it is a toxic element and must be handled with caution.Arsenic has been known since ancient
times, though probably in compound form rather than in its pure state.
It is used in combination with other materials in pigments, poison gases and insecticides (such as Paris Green, calcium arsenate
and lead arsenate) and is well known from former use as a rat poison.
Arsenic has a long history of medical applications; before penicillin was developed an arsenic compound was used to treat
syphilis and yaws.Arsenic is used in ammunition manufacturing because it helps to create harder and rounder bullets.Arsenic is
used in small quantities in semi-conductor manufacturing.
It is used as a preservative in tanning and taxidermy, as well as on the exterior of wood such as deck and playground
materials.In short, though arsenic is an extremely poisonous substance it has numerous industrial applications and has been
used widely for many years.Another potential source of arsenic in our environment is as a byproduct of copper smelting -
arsenic occurs naturally in copper ores.
During copper processing, arsenic passes from the solid state into the gaseous state and leaves the smelter through the
smokestacks in the form of toxic dusts.If you believe that you or a love one has been affected by Arsenic or Arsenic poisoning,
then fill out the form below for a free case evaluation.

ADVANTAGES

 Copper acetoarsenite was used as a green pigment known under many names, including 'Paris Green' and 'Emerald
Green'. It caused numerous arsenic poisonings. Scheele's Green, a copper arsenate, was used in the 19th century as a
colouring agent in sweets.[36]
 Also used in bronzing and pyrotechnics.
 Up to 2% of arsenic is used in lead alloys for lead shots and bullets.[37]
 Arsenic is added in small quantities to alpha-brass to make it dezincification resistant. This grade of brass is used to
make plumbing fittings or other items which are in constant contact with water. [38]
 Arsenic is also used for taxonomic sample preservation.
 Until recently arsenic was used in optical glass. Modern glass manufacturers, under pressure from environmentalists,
have removed it, along with lead.[39]

DISADVANTAGES

Widespread arsenic contamination of groundwater has led[when?] to a massive epidemic of arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh[51] and
neighbouring countries. Presently 42 major incidents around the world have been reported on groundwater arsenic
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contamination. It is estimated that approximately 57 million people are drinking groundwater with arsenic concentrations
elevated above the World Health Organization's standard of 10 parts per billion. However, a study of cancer rates in Taiwan[52]
suggested that significant increases in cancer mortality appear only at levels above 150 parts per billion. The arsenic in the
groundwater is of natural origin, and is released from the sediment into the groundwater owing to the anoxic conditions of the
subsurface. This groundwater began to be used after local and western NGOs and the Bangladeshi government undertook a
massive shallow tube well drinking-water program in the late twentieth century. This program was designed to prevent drinking
of bacterially contaminated surface waters, but failed to test for arsenic in the groundwater. Many other countries and districts
in South East Asia, such as Vietnam, Cambodia and China have geological environments conducive to generation of high-arsenic
groundwaters. Arsenicosis was reported in Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand in 1987, and the dissolved arsenic in the Chao
Phraya River is suspected of containing high levels of naturally occurring arsenic, but has not been a public health problem
owing to the use of bottled water.

TOXICITY

Arsenic and many of its compounds are especially potent poisons. Many water supplies close to mines are contaminated by
these poisons. Arsenic disrupts ATP production through several mechanisms. At the level of the citric acid cycle, arsenic inhibits
lipoic acid which is a cofactor for pyruvate dehydrogenase; and by competing with phosphate it uncouples oxidative
phosphorylation, thus inhibiting energy-linked reduction of NAD+, mitochondrial respiration and ATP synthesis. Hydrogen
peroxide production is also increased, which might form reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress. These metabolic
interferences lead to death from multi-system organ failure, probably from necrotic cell death, not apoptosis. A post mortem
reveals brick red coloured mucosa, owing to severe haemorrhage. Although arsenic causes toxicity, it can also play a protective
role.[69]

Elemental arsenic and arsenic compounds are classified as "toxic" and "dangerous for the environment" in the European Union
under directive 67/548/EEC. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) recognizes arsenic and arsenic compounds
as group 1 carcinogens, and the EU lists arsenic trioxide, arsenic pentoxide and arsenate salts as category 1 carcinogens.

TREATMENT

There are many ways to treat arsenic but most rely on converting all of the arsenic to a valence of +5 (some will be +3) which is
easier to remove. The technologies for removal include adsorption on alumina, reverse osmosis membrane separation, ion
exchange, or lime softening. Alumina may have a problem with progressive loss of capacity and may be suitable for only a few
cycles. Standard treatments oxidize any trivalent arsenic with peroxide, permanganate, ultraviolet light, or other oxidizer
followed by precipitation, filtration, etc. as above. UV light and titanium oxide have improved oxidization efficiencies for other
compounds but I haven't seen any data on arsenic yet.The following links will take you to sites that review the basic treatment
technologies. Each source (your water) should be analyzed and specific treatments tested before you invest in a system.

NICKEL

SOURCES

Although today it is not profitable to mine nickel in the U.S., small amounts of by-product nickel are being recovered from
copper and palladium-platinum ores in the Western United States.Approximately 87,000 tons of nickel is recovered annually by
recycling stainless steel and other nickel-iron alloys. This represents about 39% of the nickel used each year.It is estimated that
there is about 140 million tons of nickel available in identified deposits. Eighty-four million tons, or 60 percent of the total
available nickel is in laterite deposits. A deposit in which rain and surface water leached nickel-rich rock and concentrated the
nickel at or near the surface of the Earth is a laterite deposit. Nickel sulfide deposits contain the remaining forty percent (56
million tons).Demand for nickel in the United States is much higher than what recycled nickel can provide, so nickel is imported
into the country. Most of the imported nickel comes from Canada (40%), while the rest is imported from Norway (13%), Russia
(12%), Australia (10%), and various other nations (25).

USES
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In the United States, large amounts of nickel (42% of consumption in 2001) are used in the specialty steel industry for stainless
steel and related alloys. In 1913, Harry Brearly, an English scientist, was the first to produced stainless steel, when he
accidentally discovered that the addition of chromium to steel makes the steel resistant to staining. Today, stainless steel also
contains some molybdenum, titanium and nickel, to increase its resistance to corrosion.

Thirty-eight percent of annual nickel use is in nonferrous alloys (or mixed with metals other than steel) and superalloys (metal
mixtures designed to withstand extremely high temperatures and/or pressures, or to have high electrical conductivity). Nickel is
used as a coating on other metals to slow down corrosion. Nickel coatings accounts for 14% of nickel use.

The remaining 6% of the annual nickel use is for a variety of purposes including the production of coins, nickel-cadmium and
nickel-metal hydride batteries; as a catalyst for certain chemical reactions; and, as a colorant, nickel is added to glass to give it a
green color. The U.S. 5-cent piece is called a "nickel" because it only contains 25% nickel. The other 75% is copper.

Rechargeable nickel-hydride batteries are widely used for cellular phones, video cameras, and other electronic devices. Nickel-
cadmium batteries are used primarily to power cordless tools and appliances.

ADVANTAGES

The Nickel Advantage isn’t limited to the attributes it brings to different materials
and processes.
There are the environmental and socio-economic dimensions that go beyond the technical
reasons why you are using or considering the use of a nickel or nickel-containing material.

Nickel is an investment that makes possible many new and emerging products and processes important to increased

environmental efficiency. Nickel makes many other existing products and processes more energy efficient , durable and

tough.
The value of nickel ensures that it is used efficiently and highly recycled.
The attributes of nickel-containing materials are wholly supportive ofe c o - e f f i c i e n c y.
The production, use and recycling of nickel is a value-added economic activitythat
supports communities and governments.
Nickel is produced by an industry that embraces its responsibilities to workers,
communities, shareholders and the environment.

Nickel makes significant contributions to sustainability and is responsibly managed through its life cycle by the nickel value

chain, starting with the primary nickel industry itself.

DISADVANTAGES

Nickel is SAFE for most adults in amounts up to 1 mg/day. More than 1 mg/day might not be safe. Taking amounts slightly
above the 1 mg/day level increases the chances of unwanted side effects. High doses are poisonous.

Workers who have been exposed to nickel on the job over an extended period of time can develop allergies, lung disorders, and
cancer.

TOXICITY

Exposure to nickel metal and soluble compounds should not exceed 0.05 mg/cm³ in nickel equivalents per 40-hour work week.
Nickel sulfide fume and dust is believed to be carcinogenic, and various other nickel compounds may be as well. [39][40] Nickel
carbonyl, [Ni(CO)4], is an extremely toxic gas. The toxicity of metal carbonyls is a function of both the toxicity of the metal as
well as the carbonyl's ability to give off highly toxic carbon monoxide gas, and this one is no exception. It is explosive in air. [41][42]
Sensitized individuals may show an allergy to nickel affecting their skin, also known as dermatitis. Sensitivity to nickel may also
be present in patients with pompholyx. Nickel is an important cause of contact allergy, partly due to its use in jewellery
intended for pierced ears.[43] Nickel allergies affecting pierced ears are often marked by itchy, red skin. Many earrings are now
made nickel-free due to this problem. The amount of nickel which is allowed in products which come into contact with human
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skin is regulated by the European Union. In 2002 researchers found amounts of nickel being emitted by 1 and 2 Euro coins far in
excess of those standards. This is believed to be due to a galvanic reaction.[44]

TREATMENT

Clinical studies summarized in an Auckland Allergy Clinic fact sheet show that an estimated 15 percent of all people throughout
the world have some allergy to the metallic element nickel. This allergy usually develops through repeated or prolonged
exposure to nickel, an allergic person exposed to nickel breaks out in a painful, itching rash with dry patches of skin and blisters
that can drain pus. The rash heals by itself within a month of removal of the nickel-containing product that caused the allergic
reaction. While nickel allergies cannot be cured, several over-the-counter and prescription medications can relieve the
symptoms people experience when they have an allergic reaction to nickel

CHROMIUM

SOURCES

 Catnip
 Horsetail
 Licorice
 Nettle
 Oat straw
 Red clover
 Sarsaparilla
 Wild yam
 Yarrow

USES

Chromium has found a wide range of applications, mainly due to its hardness and resistance to corrosion. It is also known for its
remarkable magnetic property. It is mainly used in the manufacture of stainless steel, along with nickel, as it prevents corrosion
and discoloration of steel. Today, chromium is a very important alloying material for steel.

Acidic chromate or dichromate solutions are also used for surface coating. This is usually done with the help of electroplating
technique, in which a thin layer of chromium is usually deposited on the surface of metals. However, for imparting wear
resistance quality, a thick layer is required to be deposited. Another method of doing this is the chromate conversion coating
process, through which chromates are used to deposit a protective layer on certain metals like aluminum (Al), cadmium (Cd),
zinc (Zn), silver, magnesium (Mg), etc.

Chromium is also used as a pigment. Chrome yellow, made of lead chromate was widely used as a pigment in the past, but due
to environmental issues, its use has significantly declined as it contains lead, which is a toxic material. Other pigments of
chromium include chrome red, chrome oxide green and chrome green, which is a mixture of chrome yellow and Prussian blue.
Chromium oxide is used for imparting greenish color to glass. Besides, emeralds also owe their green tint to the effect of
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chromium. Chromium oxide is also used in manufacturing synthetic rubies.

Chromium (III) or trivalent chromium is required in the human body, but in very small amounts. It is mainly required for carrying
out lipid and sugar metabolism. Nowadays, chromium is used in many dietary supplements claiming to have several health
benefits. But, some compounds of chromium can be harmful to health and should be avoided. For example, hexavalent
chromium or Chromium (VI) is known as a toxic and mutagenic (causing mutation) substance, while chromium (IV) is known for
its carcinogenic or cancer causing properties. Chromate salts have also been found to induce allergic reactions in some
individuals. Due to these health and environmental issues, restrictions have been imposed on the use of certain chromium
compounds in many countries.

ADVANTAGES

Several chromium compounds are used as catalysts. For example the Phillips catalysts for the production of polyethylene are
mixtures of chromium and silicon dioxide or mixtures of chromium and titanium and aluminium oxide.[41] Chromium(IV) oxide
(CrO2) is a magnetic compound. Its ideal shape anisotropy, which imparts high coercivity and remanent magnetization, made it
a compound superior to the γ-Fe2O3. Chromium(IV) oxide is used to manufacture magnetic tape used in high-performance
audio tape and standard audio cassettes.[42] Chromates can prevent corrosion of steel under wet conditions, and therefore
chromates are added to drilling muds.[43] Chromium has been suggested to be connected to sugar metabolism, although no
biological role for chromium has ever been demonstrated biochemically. The dietary supplements for chromium include
chromium(III) picolinate, chromium(III) polynicotinate, and related materials. The benefit of those supplements is still under
investigation and is questioned by some studies. [44][45]

 Chromium(III) oxide is a metal polish known as green rouge.

DISADVANTAGES

One functional disadvantage of hexavalent chromium plating is low cathode efficiency, which results in bad throwing power.
This means it leaves a non-uniform coating, with more on edges and less in inside corners and holes. To overcome this problem
the part may be over-plated and ground to size, or auxiliary anodes are used around the hard-to-plate areas. [2]

From a health standpoint, hexavalent chromium is the most toxic form of chromium. In the U.S. it is heavily regulated by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA); the EPA lists it as a hazardous air pollutant because it is a human carcinogen, a "priority
pollutant" under the Clean Water Act, and a "hazardous constituent" under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. Due
to the low cathodic efficiency and high solution viscosity a mist of water and hexavalent chromium is released from the bath,
which is toxic. To control these emissions wet scrubbers are used. The discharge from the wet scrubbers is then treated to
precipitate the chromium from the solution, because it cannot be discarded in the waste water. [2]

Maintaining a bath surface tension less than 35 dynes/cm requires frequent cycle of treating the bath by a wetting agent and
confirming the effect on surface tension. [3] Traditionally surface tension is measured by a stalagmometer. This method is,
however, tedious and suffers from inaccuracy (errors up 22 dynes/cm has been reported), and is dependent on user's
experience and capabilities.[4]

Additional toxic waste that is created from hexavalent chromium baths include lead chromates which form in the bath because
lead anodes are used. Barium is also used to control the sulfate concentration, which leads to the formation of barium sulfate, a
hazardous waste.

TREATMENT
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Chromium primarily exists in nature in the trivalent and hexavalent states. Due to its widespread industrial use, it has
been found in at least 120 of the 1,591 current or former NPL sites and is often found in contaminated groundwater
along with complex mixtures of pollutants, which can make its remediation more difficult. Many Cr(VI) compounds are
highly soluble and exist in solution as hydrochromate, chromate, and dichromate ions. The goal of remediation schemes
is to reduce the carcinogenic, soluble, and mobile Cr(VI) to the less toxic and less mobile Cr(III), which forms minimally
soluble precipitates. Successful removal of Cr(VI) hinges upon the formation and stability of Cr(III) precipitates.

Ex situ treatment technologies for water use commonly use chemical reduction of the Cr(VI) to Cr(III) followed by
precipitation. The treated water is filtered and the chromium rich precipitates are properly disposed of.

Available in situ technologies or treatment approaches for chromate contamination use chemical reduction and fixation
for remediation (e.g., geochemical fixation, permeable reactive barriers (PRBs), and reactive zones). Other types of in situ
approaches under development include enhanced extraction, electrokinetics, biological processes that can be used within
PRBs and reactive zones, phytoremediation, and natural attenuation

TOXICITY

Chromium enters the air, water, and soil mostly in the chromium (III) and chromium (VI) forms. In air, chromium compounds
are present mostly as fine dust particles which eventually settle over land and water. Chromium can strongly attach to soil and
only a small amount can dissolve in water and move deeper in the soil to underground water. Fish do not accumulate much
chromium in their bodies from water.

Chromium (III)

Chromium (III) is an essential nutrient that helps the body use sugar, protein, and fat. Cr (III) is a very stable oxidation state for
chromium. In this state, the chrome is labile and kinetically very slow to react or form complexes. It is not a strong oxidiser and
the human's natural body acidity is enough for the chrome to keep to this Cr (III) state. (reference)

Chromium (VI)

Breathing high levels of chromium (VI) can cause irritation to the nose, such as runny nose, nosebleeds, and ulcers and holes in
the nasal septum. Ingesting large amounts of chromium (VI) can cause stomach upsets and ulcers, convulsions, kidney and liver
damage, and even death.

Skin contact with certain chromium (VI) compounds can cause skin ulcers. Some people are extremely sensitive to chromium
(VI) or chromium (III). Allergic reactions consisting of severe redness and swelling of the skin have been noted.

Cr (VI) is not a very stable state when compared to Cr(III). The Cr (VI) is a very strong oxidizing agent (therefore very fast in
reacting, unlike Cr (III) and likely to form complexes).

The main reason why Cr (VI) is so toxic is that one of the reduction products of Cr (VI) is Cr (V). Chrome (V) is a known
carcinogen and will lodge in any tissue to form cancerous growths. There are reports that chromium (V) is also a factor leading
to premature senility in parts of Russia.

In the body, the acidity and action of enzymes on Cr (VI) will promote the formation in small quantities of Cr (V). However, as
the size of this is normally too large to be adopted by a tissue, the Cr (V) will pass out. The only place where the Cr (V) is likely to
lodge is in some of the fine capillaries in either the kidneys, intestines or lungs.

During the passage out, Cr (VI) will continue to oxidize anything it can, leaving deposits of the relatively safe Cr (III) and
completely unsafe Cr (V) behind.
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