Elements of Culture

Assignment No 2

Submitted By: Nabeel Riasat

Submitted T: M.Riaz

Roll No: S2F18BSEN0029

Subject: Intro To Anthropology

Topic: Elements Of Culture

University Of Central Punjab Sheikhupura.

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 Elements of Culture
Contents
What Is Culture?...........................................................................................................................3

Characteristics Of Culture:..........................................................................................................4

 Culture is learned..............................................................................................................4

 Culture is based on symbols..............................................................................................4

 Culture is integrated..........................................................................................................4

 Culture is dynamic............................................................................................................4

Multiple Cultural Worlds:............................................................................................................4

 Class..................................................................................................................................4

 Race (in a cultural sense)..................................................................................................4

 Ethnic Group Refers To People........................................................................................5

 Indigenous Peoples,..........................................................................................................5

 Gender...............................................................................................................................5

 Age....................................................................................................................................5

The Elements Of Culture:.............................................................................................................5

1. Symbols:...............................................................................................................................5

Examples:................................................................................................................................6

2. Language:.............................................................................................................................6

Examples:................................................................................................................................7

3. Norms:..................................................................................................................................8

Examples:................................................................................................................................8

4. Rituals:..................................................................................................................................9

Examples:..............................................................................................................................10

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 Elements of Culture
Changing Norms and Beliefs:................................................................................................10

5. Values;................................................................................................................................10

Examples:..............................................................................................................................11

6. Work Ethic:.........................................................................................................................11

7. Artifacts:.............................................................................................................................12

Conclusion:...................................................................................................................................12

Refferences:..................................................................................................................................12

What Is Culture?
When someone says the word culture, what is the first thing that comes to mind? Some of us
may think about certain beliefs, such as religious or moral beliefs. Others may think about the
way people dress or decorate themselves, like wearing turbans or having facial tattoos.
Additionally, some of us may think of the artifacts from ancient cultures, like the well-known
statues from Greek or Egyptian archaeology. All of these things are tied to culture in one way or
another. But what does culture mean to the anthropologists who study it? Well, the truth is that
anthropologists often disagree about the precise definition of culture. However, for the purposes
of this lesson, culture can be defined as sets of human behavior that are passed down from one
generation to the next. This transmission of culture isn't always purposeful, and may take place
anywhere that young people can interact with older people.

In everyday conversation, people rarely distinguish between the terms culture and society, but

the terms have slightly different meanings, and the distinction is important to a sociologist.
A society describes a group of people who share a community and a culture. By “community,”
sociologists refer to a definable region—as small as a neighborhood (Brooklyn, or “the east side
of town”), as large as a country (Ethiopia, the United States, or Nepal), or somewhere in between
(in the United States, this might include someone who identifies with Southern or Midwestern
society). To clarify, a culture represents the beliefs and practices of a group, while society
represents the people who share those beliefs and practices. Neither society nor culture could
exist without the other. In this chapter, we examine the relationship between culture and society
in greater detail and pay special attention to the elements and forces that shape culture, including
diversity and cultural changes. A final discussion touches on the different theoretical
perspectives from which sociologists research culture.

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 Elements of Culture
Characteristics Of Culture:
Culture has five basic characteristics: It is learned, shared, based on symbols, integrated, and
dynamic. All cultures share these basic features.

 Culture is learned. It is not biological; we do not inherit it. Much of learning culture

is unconscious. We learn culture from families, peers, institutions, and media. The
process of learning culture is known as enculturation. While all humans have basic
biological needs such as food, sleep, and sex, the way we fulfill those needs varies cross-
culturally.
 Culture is shared. Because we share culture with other members of our group, we are
able to act in socially appropriate ways as well as predict how others will act. Despite the
shared nature of culture, that doesn’t mean that culture is homogenous (the same). The
multiple cultural worlds that exist in any society are discussed in detail below.
 Culture is based on symbols. A symbol is something that stands for something else.
Symbols vary cross-culturally and are arbitrary. They only have meaning when people in
a culture agree on their use. Language, money and art are all symbols. Language is the
most important symbolic component of culture.
 Culture is integrated. This is known as holism, or the various parts of a culture being
interconnected. All aspects of a culture are related to one another and to truly understand
a culture, one must learn about all of its parts, not only a few.
 Culture is dynamic. This simply means that cultures interact and change. Because
most cultures are in contact with other cultures, they exchange ideas and symbols. All
cultures change, otherwise, they would have problems adapting to changing
environments. And because cultures are integrated, if one component in the system
changes, it is likely that the entire system must adjust.

Multiple Cultural Worlds:

Most individuals are members of multiple cultural worlds. Culture exists at several levels. We
typically refer to smaller cultures within a larger culture as  subcultures. People have some type
of connection to that subculture but must also be able to operate effectively within the larger
culture. Some of the diversity we see across subcultures is based on class, race, ethnicity, age,
and gender. Social stratification is often the result of our recognition of these worlds as different
and a belief that they are somehow inferior to our own or to the larger culture.

 Class.is a social category based on people’s economic position in society. Not all
societies exhibit class differences; ones who do not are called egalitarian. Class societies
are hierarchical, with one class having more access to resources than others. Class is a
recent feature of culture, as all early humans lived in egalitarian bands or tribes.
 Race (in a cultural sense). is the socially constructed meanings assigned to the
perceived differences between people based on physical traits (skin color, facial features,

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hair types). What differences we recognize and the meanings we assign those differences
are all culturally determined and not biologically created. These physical features do not
determine a person’s actions or explain their behavior.
 Ethnic Group Refers To People. who identify themselves as a distinct group based
on cultural features such as common origins, language, customs and beliefs. Ethnic
groups can be historically constituted (a group of people who shared a territory, language
or religion) or they can be more recently claimed (African Americans). Just because
people choose to see themselves as members of a specific ethnic group doesn’t mean that
all members of that group are the same or share beliefs and values. Ethnicity, because it is
a marker of group membership, can be used to discriminate.
 Indigenous Peoples, “are groups who have a long-standing connection with some
territory that predates colonial or outside societies prevailing in the territory.” Indigenous
peoples are groups that were in a territory before Europeans or colonists arrived, thus
Native Americans are an indigenous group. They are frequently called First Peoples, and
often suffer from discrimination.
 Gender. refers to the cultural meanings assigned to the biological differences between
the sexes. Most societies only have masculine or feminine cultural roles, but some have a
third, or even a blended, gender. Gender roles vary widely cross-culturally. Closely tied
to gender roles are issues relating to homosexuality. In many cultures around the world,
there is discrimination based on gender and sexual orientation.
 Age.is both a biological fact as well as being culturally constructed. While we can
reckon how many years old an individual is (biological age), what that means in terms of
rights and responsibilities is culturally constructed. Most societies have obligations and
responsibilities that are assigned based on individuals reaching specific ages. Think of
driving, drinking, and voting.

The Elements Of Culture:

Culture was defined earlier as the symbols, language, beliefs, values, and artifacts that are part of
any society. As this definition suggests, there are two basic components of culture: ideas and
symbols on the one hand and artifacts (material objects) on the other. The first type,
called nonmaterial culture, includes the values, beliefs, symbols, and language that define a
society. The second type, calledmaterial culture, includes all the society’s physical objects, such
as its tools and technology, clothing, eating utensils, and means of transportation. These elements
of culture are discussed next.

1. Symbols:
Every culture is filled with symbols, or things that stand for something else and that often evoke
various reactions and emotions. Some symbols are actually types of nonverbal communication,
while other symbols are in fact material objects.

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 Elements of Culture
Let’s look at nonverbal symbols first. A common one is shaking hands, which is done in some
societies but not in others. It commonly conveys friendship and is used as a sign of both greeting
and departure. Probably all societies have nonverbal symbols we call  gestures, movements of the
hand, arm, or other parts of the body that are meant to convey certain ideas or emotions.
However, the same gesture can mean one thing in one society and something quite different in
another society (Axtell, 1998).Axtell, R. E. (1998). Gestures: The do’s and taboos of body language
around the world. New York, NY: Wiley. In the United States, for example, if we nod our head up
and down, we mean yes, and if we shake it back and forth, we mean no. In Bulgaria, however,
nodding means no, while shaking our head back and forth means yes! In the United States, if we
make an “O” by putting our thumb and forefinger together, we mean “OK,” but the same gesture
in certain parts of Europe signifies an obscenity. “Thumbs up” in the United States means
“great” or “wonderful,” but in Australia it means the same thing as extending the middle finger
in the United States. Certain parts of the Middle East and Asia would be offended if they saw
you using your left hand to eat, because they use their left hand for bathroom hygiene.

Examples:

 Some of our most important symbols are objects. Here the U.S. flag is a prime example.
For most Americans, the flag is not just a piece of cloth with red and white stripes and
white stars against a field of blue. Instead, it is a symbol of freedom, democracy, and
other American values and, accordingly, inspires pride and patriotism. During the
Vietnam War, however, the flag became to many Americans a symbol of war and
imperialism. Some burned the flag in protest, prompting angry attacks by bystanders and
negative coverage by the news media.
 Other objects have symbolic value for religious reasons. Three of the most familiar
religious symbols in many nations are the cross, the Star of David, and the crescent
moon, which stand for Christianity, Judaism, and Islam, respectively. Whereas many
cultures attach no religious significance to these shapes, for many people across the world
they evoke very strong feelings of religious faith. Recognizing this, hate groups have
often desecrated these symbols.

As these examples indicate, shared symbols, both nonverbal communication and tangible
objects, are an important part of any culture but also can lead to misunderstandings and even
hostility. These problems underscore the significance of symbols for social interaction and
meaning.

2. Language:
Perhaps our most important set of symbols is language. In English, the word  chair means
something we sit on. In French, the word chaise means the same thing. As long as we agree how
to interpret these words, a shared language and thus society are possible. By the same token,
differences in languages can make it quite difficult to communicate. For example, imagine you
are in a foreign country where you do not know their language and they do not know yours.

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Worse yet, you forgot to bring your dictionary that translates their language into yours, and vice
versa, and your iPhone battery has died. You become lost. How will you get help? What will you
do? Is there any way to communicate your plight?

As this scenario suggests, language is crucial to communication and thus to any society’s culture.
Children learn language from their culture just as they learn about shaking hands, about gestures,
and about the significance of the flag and other symbols. Humans have a capacity for language
that no other animal species possesses. Our capacity for language in turn helps make our
complex culture possible.

Examples:

 In the United States, some people consider a common language so important that they
advocate making English the official language of certain cities or states or even the whole
country and banning bilingual education in the public schools (Ray, 2007).Ray, S.
(2007). Politics over official language in the United States. International Studies,
44, 235–252. Critics acknowledge the importance of English but allege that this
movement smacks of anti-immigrant prejudice and would help destroy ethnic
subcultures. In 2009, voters in Nashville, Tennessee, rejected a proposal that would have
made English the city’s official language and required all city workers to speak in
English rather than their native language (Brown, 2009).Brown, R. (2009, January 24).
Nashville voters reject a proposal for English-only.

To what extent does language influence how we think and how we perceive the social and
physical worlds? The famous but controversial  Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, named after two
linguistic anthropologists, Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, argues that people cannot
easily understand concepts and objects unless their language contains words for these items
(Whorf, 1956).Whorf, B. (1956). Language, thought and reality. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press. Language thus influences how we understand the world around us. For example, people in
a country such as the United States that has many terms for different types of kisses (e.g. buss,
peck, smack, smooch, and soul) are better able to appreciate these different types than people in
a country such as Japan, which, as we saw earlier, only fairly recently developed the
word kissu for kiss.

Another illustration of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is seen in sexist language, in which the use of
male nouns and pronouns shapes how we think about the world (Miles, 2008).Miles, S.
(2008). Language and sexism. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. In older children’s
books, words like firemanand mailman are common, along with pictures of men in these jobs,
and critics say they send a message to children that these are male jobs, not female jobs. If a
teacher tells a second-grade class, “Every student should put his books under his desk,” the
teacher obviously means students of both sexes but may be sending a subtle message that boys
matter more than girls. For these reasons, several guidebooks promote the use of nonsexist
language (Maggio, 1998).Maggio, R. (1998). The dictionary of bias-free usage: A guide to

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nondiscriminatory language. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press. Table 2.1 "Examples of Sexist Terms and
Nonsexist Alternatives" provides examples of sexist language and nonsexist alternatives.

3. Norms:
Cultures differ widely in their  norms, or standards and expectations for behaving. We already
saw that how people behave when drunk stems from society’s expectations of how they should
behave when drunk. Norms of drunken behavior influence how we behave when we drink too
much.

Norms are often divided into two types,  formal norms and informal norms. Formal norms, also
called mores (MOOR-ays) and laws, refer to the standards of behavior considered the most
important in any society. Examples in the United States include traffic laws, criminal codes, and,
in a college context, student behavior codes addressing such things as cheating and hate speech.
Informal norms, also called folkways and customs, refer to standards of behavior that are
considered less important but still influence how we behave. Table manners are a common
example of informal norms, as are such everyday behaviors as how we interact with a cashier
and how we ride in an elevator.

Many norms differ dramatically from one culture to the next. Some of the best evidence for
cultural variation in norms comes from the study of sexual behavior (Edgerton, 1976).Edgerton,
R. (1976).Deviance: A cross-cultural perspective. Menlo Park, CA: Cummings. Among the
Pokot of East Africa, for example, women are expected to enjoy sex, while among the Gusii a
few hundred miles away, women who enjoy sex are considered deviant. In Inis Beag, a small
island off the coast of Ireland, sex is considered embarrassing and even disgusting; men feel that
intercourse drains their strength, while women consider it a burden. Even nudity is considered
terrible, and people on Inis Beag keep their clothes on while they bathe. The situation is quite
different in Mangaia, a small island in the South Pacific. Here sex is considered very enjoyable,
and it is the major subject of songs and stories.

Examples:

 Many societies frown on homosexuality, others accept it. Among the Azande of East
Africa, for example, young warriors live with each other and are not allowed to marry.
During this time, they often have sex with younger boys, and this homosexuality is
approved by their culture. Among the Sambia of New Guinea, young males live
separately from females and engage in homosexual behavior for at least a decade. It is
felt that the boys would be less masculine if they continued to live with their mothers and
that the semen of older males helps young boys become strong and fierce (Edgerton,
1976).Edgerton, R. (1976). Deviance: A cross-cultural perspective. Menlo Park, CA:
Cummings.
 Other evidence for cultural variation in norms comes from the study of how men and
women are expected to behave in various societies. For example, many preindustrial

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societies are simple hunting and gathering societies. In most of these, men tend to hunt
and women tend to gather. Many observers attribute this gender difference to at least two
biological differences between the sexes. First, men tend to be bigger and stronger than
women and are thus better suited for hunting. Second, women become pregnant and bear
children and are less able to hunt. Yet a different pattern emerges in some hunting and
gathering societies. Among a group of Australian aborigines called the Tiwi and a tribal
society in the Philippines called the Agta, both sexes hunt. After becoming pregnant,
Agta women continue to hunt for most of their pregnancy and resume hunting after their
child is born (Brettell & Sargent, 2009).Brettell, C. B., & Sargent, C. F. (Eds.).
(2009). Gender in cross-cultural perspective. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Some of the most interesting norms that differ by culture govern how people stand apart when
they talk with each other (Hall & Hall, 2007).Hall, E. T., & Hall, M. R. (2007). The sounds of
silence. In J. M. Henslin (Ed.),Down to earth sociology: Introductory readings (pp. 109–117).
New York, NY: Free Press. In the United States, people who are not intimates usually stand
about three to four feet apart when they talk. If someone stands more closely to us, especially if
we are of northern European heritage, we feel uncomfortable. Yet people in other countries—
especially Italy, France, Spain, and many of the nations of Latin America and the Middle East—
would feel uncomfortable if they were standing three to four feet apart. To them, this distance is
too great and indicates that the people talking dislike each other. If a U.S. native of British or
Scandinavian heritage were talking with a member of one of these societies, they might well
have trouble interacting, because at least one of them will be uncomfortable with the physical
distance separating them.

4. Rituals:
Different cultures also have different rituals, or established procedures and ceremonies that often
mark transitions in the life course. As such, rituals both reflect and transmit a culture’s norms
and other elements from one generation to the next. Initiation and commencement ceremonies in
colleges and universities are familiar examples of time-honored rituals. In many societies, rituals
help signify one’s gender identity. For example, girls around the world undergo various types of
initiation ceremonies to mark their transition to adulthood. Among the Bemba of Zambia, girls
undergo a month-long initiation ceremony called the chisungu, in which girls learn songs,
dances, and secret terms that only women know (Maybury-Lewis, 1998).Maybury-Lewis, D.
(1998). Tribal wisdom. In K. Finsterbusch (Ed.), Sociology 98/99 (pp. 8–12). Guilford, CT:
Dushkin/McGraw-Hill. In some cultures, special ceremonies also mark a girl’s first menstrual
period. Such ceremonies are largely absent in the United States, where a girl’s first period is a
private matter. But in other cultures the first period is a cause for celebration involving gifts,
music, and food (Hathaway, 1997).Hathaway, N. (1997). Menstruation and menopause: Blood
rites. In L. M. Salinger (Ed.), Deviant behavior 97/98 (pp. 12–15). Guilford, CT: Dushkin.

Boys have their own initiation ceremonies, some of them involving circumcision. That said, the
ways in which circumcisions are done and the ceremonies accompanying them differ widely. In

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the United States, boys who are circumcised usually undergo a quick procedure in the hospital. If
their parents are observant Jews, circumcision will be part of a religious ceremony, and a
religious figure called a moyelwill perform the circumcision. In contrast, circumcision among the
Maasai of East Africa is used as a test of manhood. If a boy being circumcised shows signs of
fear, he might well be ridiculed (Maybury-Lewis, 1998).Maybury-Lewis, D. (1998). Tribal
wisdom. In K. Finsterbusch (Ed.), Sociology 98/99 (pp. 8–12). Guilford, CT: Dushkin/McGraw-
Hill.

Examples:

Spell Nacirema backward and you will see that Miner was describing American culture. As his
satire suggests, rituals are not limited to preindustrial societies. Instead, they function in many
kinds of societies to mark transitions in the life course and to transmit the norms of the culture
from one generation to the next.

Changing Norms and Beliefs:

Our examples show that different cultures have different norms, even if they share other types of
practices and beliefs. It is also true that norms change over time within a given culture. Two
obvious examples here are hairstyles and clothing styles. When the Beatles first became popular
in the early 1960s, their hair barely covered their ears, but parents of teenagers back then were
aghast at how they looked. If anything, clothing styles change even more often than hairstyles.
Hemlines go up, hemlines go down. Lapels become wider, lapels become narrower. This color is
in, that color is out. Hold on to your out-of-style clothes long enough, and eventually they may
well end up back in style.

Contraception was also practiced in ancient times, only to be opposed by early Christianity. Over
the centuries, scientific discoveries of the nature of the reproductive process led to more effective
means of contraception and to greater calls for its use, despite legal bans on the distribution of
information about contraception. In the early 1900s, Margaret Sanger, an American nurse,
spearheaded the growing birth-control movement and helped open a birth-control clinic in
Brooklyn in 1916. She and two other women were arrested within 10 days, and Sanger and one
other defendant were sentenced to 30 days in jail. Efforts by Sanger and other activists helped to
change views on contraception over time, and finally, in 1965, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled
in Griswold v. Connecticutthat contraception information could not be banned. As this brief
summary illustrates, norms about contraception changed dramatically during the last century.

5. Values;
Values are another important element of culture and involve judgments of what is good or bad
and desirable or undesirable. A culture’s values shape its norms. In Japan, for example, a central
value is group harmony. The Japanese place great emphasis on harmonious social relationships
and dislike interpersonal conflict. Individuals are fairly unassertive by American standards, lest

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they be perceived as trying to force their will upon others (Schneider & Silverman,
2010).Schneider, L., & Silverman, A. (2010).Global sociology: Introducing five contemporary
societies. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. When interpersonal disputes do arise, Japanese do their
best to minimize conflict by trying to resolve the disputes amicably. Lawsuits are thus
uncommon; in one case involving disease and death from a mercury-polluted river, some
Japanese who dared to sue the company responsible for the mercury poisoning were considered
bad citizens (Upham, 1976).Upham, F. K. (1976). Litigation and moral consciousness in Japan:
An interpretive analysis of four Japanese pollution suits. Law and Society Review, 10, 579–619.

Examples:

1. Individualism in the United States :In the United States, of course, the situation is
quite different. The American culture extols the rights of the individual and promotes
competition in the business and sports worlds and in other areas of life. Lawsuits over the
most frivolous of issues are quite common and even expected. Phrases like “Look out for
number one!” abound. If the Japanese value harmony and group feeling, Americans value
competition and individualism. Because the Japanese value harmony, their norms frown
on self-assertion in interpersonal relationships and on lawsuits to correct perceived
wrongs. Because Americans value and even thrive on competition, our norms promote
assertion in relationships and certainly promote the use of the law to address all kinds of
problems.

2. The Japanese Value System is a bit of an anomaly, because Japan is a modern nation
with very traditional influences. Its emphasis on group harmony and community is more
usually thought of as a value found in preindustrial societies, while the U.S. emphasis on
individuality is more usually thought of as a value found in modern cultures.
Anthropologist David Maybury-Lewis (1998, p. 8)Maybury-Lewis, D. (1998). Tribal
wisdom. In K. Finsterbusch (Ed.), Sociology 98/99 (pp. 8–12). Guilford, CT:
Dushkin/McGraw-Hill. describes this difference as follows: “The heart of the difference
between the modern world and the traditional one is that in traditional societies people
are a valuable resource and the interrelations between them are carefully tended; in
modern society things are the valuables and people are all too often treated as
disposable.” In modern societies, continues Maybury-Lewis, individualism and the rights
of the individual are celebrated and any one person’s obligations to the larger community
are weakened. Individual achievement becomes more important than values such as
kindness, compassion, and generosity.

6. Work Ethic:
Another important value in the American culture is the work ethic. By the 19th century,
Americans had come to view hard work not just as something that had to be done but as
something that was morally good to do (Gini, 2000).Gini, A. (2000). My job, my self: Work and

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the creation of the modern individual. New York, NY: Routledge.  The commitment to the work
ethic remains strong today: in the 2010 General Social Survey, 68.7% of respondents said they
would continue to work even if they got enough money to live as comfortably as they would like
for the rest of their lives.

7. Artifacts:
The last element of culture is the artifacts, or material objects, that constitute a society’s material
culture. In the most simple societies, artifacts are largely limited to a few tools, the huts people
live in, and the clothing they wear. One of the most important inventions in the evolution of
society was the wheel. 

Although the wheel was a great invention, artifacts are obviously much more numerous and
complex in modern industrial societies. Because of technological advances during the past two
decades, many such societies may be said to have a wireless culture, as smartphones, netbooks
and laptops, and GPS devices now dominate so much of modern life. The artifacts associated
with this culture were unknown a generation ago. Technological development created these
artifacts and also new language to describe them and the functions they perform. Today’s
wireless artifacts in turn help reinforce our own commitment to wireless technology as a way of
life, if only because children are now growing up with them, often even before they can read and
write.

Conclusion:
Culture was defined earlier as the symbols, language, beliefs, values, and artifacts that are part of
any society. As this definition suggests, there are two basic components of culture: ideas and
symbols on the one hand and artifacts (material objects) on the other. The first type,
called nonmaterial culture, includes the values, beliefs, symbols, and language that define a
society. The second type, called material culture, includes all the society’s physical objects, such
as its tools and technology, clothing, eating utensils, and means of transportation.

When someone says the word culture, what is the first thing that comes to mind? Some of us
may think about certain beliefs, such as religious or moral beliefs. Others may think about the
way people dress or decorate themselves, like wearing turbans or having facial tattoos.
Additionally, some of us may think of the artifacts from ancient cultures, like the well-known
statues from Greek or Egyptian archaeology. All of these things are tied to culture in one way or
another. But what does culture mean to the anthropologists who study it? Well, the truth is that
anthropologists often disagree about the precise definition of culture. However, for the purposes
of this lesson, culture can be defined as sets of human behavior that are passed down from one
generation to the next. This transmission of culture isn't always purposeful, and may take place
anywhere that young people can interact with older people.

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 Elements of Culture
Refferences:
http://www.wikipedia.com
http://www.slideshare.com
http://www.scribd.com
http://www.study.com

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