Chapter 1 Chemical Foundations

Chapter 1 Chemical Foundations
1. What is Chemistry?
Chemistry can be defined as the science that deals with the materials of the
universe and the changes that these materials undergo [Zumdahl]. Chemistry is
the science of atoms, molecules, and the chemical bonds that connect atoms
[Miller]. Science is a process for understanding nature and its changes.
Substances (Liquids, solids, gases) ------ Molecules ------Atoms -------?
2. Why should Engineers know about chemistry?
Chemistry is the central science. Most of the phenomena that occur in the world
around us involve chemical changes, changes where one or more substances
become different substances. For example, what is made of tree? Wood burns in
air, forming water, carbon dioxide and other substances
Engineers are the people who build something (car, ship, plane, house, etc.) with
materials. Consequently, engineers should know the properties (such as density,
strength, chemical composition and concentration, etc.) of the materials they use.
The properties of the materials arise from their chemical make-up (composition
and concentration). Therefore, engineers need to understand chemistry.
3. Scientific Methods and Models
Scientific method is a systematic approach to research and gaining and

organizing knowledge. The process for observation, recording, processing and
understanding information is called scientific methods.
Steps in Scientific Methods:
1). Observation, 2.) Formulating hypotheses, 3.) Performing

experiments to verify the hypothesis
Scientific model is the theory that correctly describes the observations and is a
set of tested hypotheses that give an overall explanation of some nature
phenomena.
Differences between Observations and Theories:

Observation is something that is witnessed and can be recorded, while a theory
is an interpretation- a possible explanation of why nature behaves in a particular
way.
Natural Law summarizes what happens, a theory (model) is an attempt to

explain why it happens. For example, the law of conservation of mass.
Show overhead (Figure 1.5)

4. Measurements and Calculations
4.1Unit of measurements
The record of quantitative observation is always composed of two parts: a

number and a scale (called a unit).
International System (SI) (metric system) (used in the world) and English System
(used in USA)
Table 1.1 Fundamental SI Units

Physical Quantity Name of Unit Abbreviation
Mass kilogram kg
Length meter m
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Electric current ampere A
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd
Some commonly used units
Mass: 1ton =1000kg= 1000,000 g, 1kg=2.2lb
Length: 1km = 1000m =100,000 cm=1000,000 mm
Volume: 1 m3 = 1000 dm3 = 1000 L = 1000,000 cm3 = 1000, 000 mL, 1dm 3 =
1L,
1 mL = 1 cm3
(Overhead Figure 1.7 to show the common types of laboratory equipment used to
measure liquid volume)
4.2Uncertainty in Measurement
The number associated with a measurement is obtained using some measuring

device, such as ruler, graduated cylinder, pipet, buret etc. The last decimal place
reading is always a guessing and different people will get different numbers. For
example, reading the volume in a buret.
(show the overhead Figure 1.9).
Person Results of measurement

1 20.15 mL
2 20.14 mL
3 20.16 mL
4 20.17 mL
5 20.16 mL
The first 3 numbers (20.1) remain the same for all readers- certain digits
The last digit must be estimated and therefore varies-uncertain digit
Record of measurement = all certain digits + the first uncertain digit = The
significant figures of a measurement.
Example 1.1 (Page 11) Uncertainty in measurement
What is the difference between 25.00 mL (measured using Pipet) and 25 mL

(measured using graduated cylinder)?
Solution: There are quite different. 25.00mL means the actual volume is between
24.99 mL and 25.01 mL; while 25 mL means the actual volume is between 24 mL
and 26 mL. The pipet measures volume with much greater precision than dose the
graduated cylinder.
(Do Question 1.8)
When making measurement, it is important to record the results to the

appropriate number of significant figures.
4.3Precision and Accuracy
Precision and accuracy are used to describe the reliability of measurements.
Accuracy refers to the agreement of a particular value with the true value.
Precision refers to the degree of agreement among several measurements of the

same quantity.
Two types of errors in measurements: random error and systematic error.
A random error means that a measurement has an equal probability of being

high or low.
A systematic error means that this type of error occurs in the same direction each
time: always high or always low
In quantitative work, precision is often used as an indication of accuracy. We

assume the average of a series of precise measurements is accurate, or close to
the “true” value. However, this assumption is valid only when the systematic
error is absent.
Example 1.2 Precision and Accuracy (Pages 12-13)

(Do Question 1.11)
4.4Significant Figures and Calculations
The significant figure = certain digits + the first uncertain digit
Calculating the final results involves adding, subtracting, multiplying or dividing

the results of various types of measurements.
Rules for Counting Significant figures:

1.) Nonzero integers--- always count as significant figures
2.) Zero—three classes of zeros
a.) leading zero- does not count as significant figures, for example 0.0025
=2 s. f.
b.) captive zeros- always count as significant figures, for example, 1.008=
4 s. f.
c.) Trailing zeros – they are significant only if the number contains a
decimal point, for example 100= 1 s. f., but 1.00 x102= 3 s. f. and 100. =
3 s. f.
3.) Exact numbers- assume have infinite number of significant figures
Example 1.3 Significant figures (Page 14)
(See exercise 1.25 through 1.28)
Rules for Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations:
1.) For multiplication or division—Take the least significant number in the

calculation
For example, 4.56 x 1.4 = 6.38 -> corrected to =6.4
2.) For addition or subtraction --- the result should have the same number of
decimal places as the least precise measurement used in the calculation.
For example, 12.11 +18.0 + 1.013 = 31.123-> corrected to = 31.1
Rules of Rounding:
1.) In series of calculations, carry the extra digits through to the final result, then
round.
2.) If the digit to be removed
a.) is less than 5, the proceeding digit stays the same. For example, 1.33
rounds to 1.3.
b.) is equal to or greater than 5, the preceding digit is increased by 1. For
example, 1.36 rounds to 1.4
Example 1.4 Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations (Pages 15-16)
(See Exercises 1.31 through 1.34)
5. Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional analysis (or unit factor method) is a process that converts a given
results from one system of units to another.
Unit factor: 1 in =2.54 cm 1= 1 in/2.54 cm or 1= 2.54cm/1 in 

Unit factor
Convert 2.85 cm into in: 2.85 cm x 1in/2.54cm = 1.12 in
Examples 1.5-1.9 Unit Conversion
[Show Overheads (3) of the examples]
6. Temperature
Temperature is a measurement of “hotness” of an object. Temperature is

commonly measured with liquid-in-glass thermometers, wherein the liquid expands
when heated.
There are 4 temperature scales: Celsius scale, Kelvin scale, Fahrenheit scale and
Rankine scale
Celsius scale (toC) : Define 0oC at the freezing point of water and 100oC at the
boiling point (at 1 atm) of water.
Kelvin scale (T K): T (K) = t (oC) +273.15, 1 (oC) = 1 (K)
Fahrenheit scale (oF) T (oF) = t (oC) x 1.8 +32 oF, 1oC =1.8 oF
Rankine scale (R) T ( R) =1.8 T (K)
Example 1.10 (page 21)
1.8 Density
Density = mass /volume = g/cm3, g/mL, kg/m3, …….
Example 1.13 (P24) Determination of density
Density of water = 1.0 g/mL. at room temperature and 1 atm
1.9 Classification of Matter
Matter: is the material of the universe- can be defined as anything occupying space
and having mass.
Matter can exist in 3 states:
1.) Solid: having a fixed volume and shape

2.) Liquid: having a definite volume but not shape
3.) Gas: having no fixed volume or shape—highly compressible
Mixture vs. Pure substance
Mixture: having variable composition, such as salt water (NaCl + H 2O), wood,
gasoline, wine
Pure substance: one with constant composition, such as H2O.
Mixture can be classified as homogeneous or heterogeneous
Homogeneous: having visibly indistinguishable parts – is called Solution, such as

air
Heterogeneous: having visibly distinguishable parts- such as

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Chapter 1 Chemical Foundations

Substances (Liquids, solids, gases) ------ Molecules ------Atoms -------?

2. Why should Engineers know about chemistry?

3. Scientific Methods and Models

Scientific method is a systematic approach to research and gaining and

Steps in Scientific Methods:

1). Observation, 2.) Formulating hypotheses, 3.) Performing

Differences between Observations and Theories:

Natural Law summarizes what happens, a theory (model) is an attempt to

Show overhead (Figure 1.5)

The record of quantitative observation is always composed of two parts: a

Table 1.1 Fundamental SI Units

Some commonly used units

Mass: 1ton =1000kg= 1000,000 g, 1kg=2.2lb

Length: 1km = 1000m =100,000 cm=1000,000 mm

The number associated with a measurement is obtained using some measuring

(show the overhead Figure 1.9).

Person Results of measurement

The last digit must be estimated and therefore varies-uncertain digit

Example 1.1 (Page 11) Uncertainty in measurement

What is the difference between 25.00 mL (measured using Pipet) and 25 mL

When making measurement, it is important to record the results to the

4.3Precision and Accuracy

Precision and accuracy are used to describe the reliability of measurements.

Precision refers to the degree of agreement among several measurements of the

Two types of errors in measurements: random error and systematic error.

A random error means that a measurement has an equal probability of being

In quantitative work, precision is often used as an indication of accuracy. We

Example 1.2 Precision and Accuracy (Pages 12-13)

4.4Significant Figures and Calculations

The significant figure = certain digits + the first uncertain digit

Calculating the final results involves adding, subtracting, multiplying or dividing

Rules for Counting Significant figures:

Example 1.3 Significant figures (Page 14)

(See exercise 1.25 through 1.28)

Rules for Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations:

1.) For multiplication or division—Take the least significant number in the

For example, 4.56 x 1.4 = 6.38 -> corrected to =6.4

Example 1.4 Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations (Pages 15-16)

(See Exercises 1.31 through 1.34)

Unit factor: 1 in =2.54 cm 1= 1 in/2.54 cm or 1= 2.54cm/1 in 

Convert 2.85 cm into in: 2.85 cm x 1in/2.54cm = 1.12 in

Examples 1.5-1.9 Unit Conversion

[Show Overheads (3) of the examples]

Temperature is a measurement of “hotness” of an object. Temperature is

Kelvin scale (T K): T (K) = t (oC) +273.15, 1 (oC) = 1 (K)

Density = mass /volume = g/cm3, g/mL, kg/m3, …….

Example 1.13 (P24) Determination of density

Density of water = 1.0 g/mL. at room temperature and 1 atm

1.9 Classification of Matter

Matter can exist in 3 states:

1.) Solid: having a fixed volume and shape

Mixture vs. Pure substance

Mixture can be classified as homogeneous or heterogeneous

Homogeneous: having visibly indistinguishable parts – is called Solution, such as

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