1.

What is child psychology, why it is important to study child

development?

Child psychology is one of the many branches of psychology and one of the most frequently
studied specialty areas. This particular branch focuses on the mind and behavior of children from
prenatal development through adolescence. Child psychology deals not only with how children
grow physically, but with their mental, emotional, and social development as well.

Historically, children were often viewed simply as smaller versions of adults. When Jean
Piaget suggested that children actually think differently than adults, Albert Einstein proclaimed
that the discovery was "so simple that only a genius could have thought of it."

Today, psychologists recognize that child psychology is unique and complex, but many differ
in terms of the unique perspective they take when approaching development. Experts also differ
in their responses to some of the bigger questions in child psychology, such as whether early
experiences matter more than later ones or whether nature or nurture plays a greater role in
certain aspects of development. Because childhood plays such an important role in the course of
the rest of life, it is little wonder why this topic has become such an important one within
psychology, sociology, and education. Experts focus only on the many influences that contribute
to normal child development, but also to various factors that might lead to psychological
problems during childhood. Self-esteem, school, parenting, social pressures, and other subjects
are all of tremendous interest to child psychologists who strive to help kids develop and grow in
ways that are healthy and appropriate.

What Is Child Psychology?

Child psychology is the study of subconscious and conscious childhood development. Child
psychologists observe how a child interacts with their parents, themselves, and the world, to
understand their mental development.

Why Is It Important?

Everyone wants their child to have healthy development, but it’s not always clear if a child’s
behavior is a symptom of a normal stage in development or a sign of an abnormality. Child
psychologists can help you understand the difference. Understanding the normal and abnormal
psychological patterns of a child can help parents understand how to best communicate and
connect with their child, teach their child coping mechanisms for managing emotions, and help
their child progress and thrive in each new developmental stage.

Child psychologists can also identify abnormal behaviors early, help detect the root of
common behavioral issues such as learning issues, hyperactivity, or anxiety, and help children
work through early childhood trauma. They can also help to prevent, evaluate, and diagnose
developmental delays or abnormalities such as autism.
 2. What are developmental milestones? What does mean by delay
milestones? At which age you achieved following milestones: neck
holding, crawling, running, 1 word speech, full sentence, puzzle making,
friends making, and decision taking.

Developmental Milestones: milestones are an important way for psychologists to measure a

child’s progress in several important developmental areas. Essentially, they act as checkpoints in
a child’s development to determine what the average child is able to do at a particular age.
Knowing the milestones for different ages helps the psychologist understand normal child
development and also aids in identifying potential problems with delayed development. For
example, a child who is 12 months old can typically stand and support his or her weight by
holding onto something. Some children at this age can even walk. If a child reaches 18 months of
age but still cannot walk, it might indicate a problem that needs further investigation. Child
psychologists look at four main categories of milestones, which loosely follow the main
developmental areas discussed above. First, there are physical milestones, which pertain to the
development of both the gross and fine motor skills. Second, there are cognitive or mental
milestones, which refer to the child’s developmental aptitude for thinking, learning, and solving
problems. Third, there are social and emotional milestones, which pertain to the child’s ability to
express emotion and respond to social interaction. And, finally, there are communication and
language milestones, which involve the child’s developing verbal and non-verbal communication
skills.

What is developmental delay?

Doctors look for visible signs of brain injury when they evaluate children for Cerebral Palsy.
Development delay, which occurs when an infant does not reach a milestone at the expected
time, is often the first sign in most children. Doctors will also look for anatomic signs, such as
evidence of excessively stiff or loose limbs. Radiological signs of Cerebral Palsy are visible in
the brain through neuroimaging techniques like MRIs, CT scans, and cranial ultrasound.

Certain milestones are reached at predictable times. Reaching these milestones later than
expected does not necessarily indicate cause for concern; many infants develop at their own
pace. However, delay does suggest the possibility of a problem, especially when combined with
other risk factors and anatomic or radiological signs.

Examples of milestones important for motor development include:

 Reaching for toys at three to four months

 Rolling onto back at around four months

 Sitting without assistance at six to seven months

 Smiling at around six weeks

 Walking at 10 to 14 months

If developmental delay is suspected, the ensuing evaluation is broken into two parts:

 Developmental evaluation is performed by a specialist, such as a developmental

psychologist, developmental pediatrician, or pediatric neurologist. It is a very
thorough exam used to determine whether the child is lagging behind. Tests may be
performed at this stage to rule out conditions, or to diagnose.

 Developmental screening is used to detect whether possible impairment of the

child’s development exists. Doctors ask parents questions and interact with the child
to gauge capabilities, reflexes and responses. If delay is detected, the process moves
onto the second part.

Failure to thrive is a condition diagnosed when the child does not meet age and weight
appropriate standards. Failure to thrive often describes children who fall below the third to fifth
percentile in weight, or a child who experiences an extreme decrease in his or her growth rate.
The child could have a digestive or dietary concern, or an orthopedic condition which makes it
difficult to swallow or consume foods properly.

Anatomical signs

Cerebral Palsy often affects limbs. Signs, although not always present early in an infant’s life,
may appear as the child develops. Doctors look for impairment of a child’s limbs, usually in the
form of hypertonia or hypotonia. Other signs include impaired torso support and control,
difficulty in balancing, and infant reflexes that either do not develop, or persist after they should
have disappeared.

Radiological signs

Cerebral Palsy is caused by an injury to the brain. The injury or malformation is detected through
modern neuroimaging techniques. Cranial ultrasounds can be used on extremely young infants
but are not as reliable as CT scans and MRIs (although the latter requires infants to lie still,
which can be problematic). As many as 83% of children with Cerebral Palsy will present with a
detectable injury to the brain. Radiological exams can be an important step in diagnosing
Cerebral Palsy.

Developmental milestones

Developmental milestones are the points in time when a child learns to accomplish a specific
task. A significant delay in reaching developmental milestones is often the first indicator a child
may have Cerebral Palsy.

Although children grow and develop at their own pace, these milestones are established to mark
the average age moments most children learn the specific task. Reaching these milestones late is
a sign that a child may have Cerebral Palsy or another development disability, especially if other
signs are present. These should be discussed with a child’s doctor.

Developmental Milestone Charts

Infant -- birth to 1 year

 Able to drink from a cup

 Able to sit alone, without support

 Babbles

 Displays social smile

 Gets first tooth

 Plays peek-a-boo
  Pulls self to standing position

 Rolls over by self

 Says mama and dada, using terms appropriately

 Understands "NO" and will stop activity in response

 Walks while holding on to furniture or other support

Toddler -- 1 to 3 years

 Able to feed self neatly, with minimal spilling

 Able to draw a line (when shown one)

 Able to run, pivot, and walk backwards

 Able to say first and last name

 Able to walk up and down stairs

 Begins pedaling tricycle

 Can name pictures of common objects and point to body parts

 Dresses self with only a little bit of help

 Imitates speech of others, "echoes" word back

 Learns to share toys (without adult direction)

 Learns to take turns (if directed) while playing with other children

 Masters walking

 Recognizes and labels colors appropriately

 Recognizes differences between males and females

 Uses more words and understands simple commands

 Uses spoon to feed self

Preschooler -- 3 to 6 years

 Able to draw a circle and square

 Able to draw stick figures with two to three features for people

 Able to skip

 Balances better, may begin to ride a bicycle

 Begins to recognize written words, reading skills start

 Catches a bounced ball

 Enjoys doing most things independently, without help

 Enjoys rhymes and word play

 Hops on one foot

 Rides tricycle well

 Starts school

 Understands size concepts

 Understands time concepts

School-age child -- 6 to 12 years

 Begins gaining skills for team sports such as soccer, T-ball, or other team sports

 Begins to lose "baby" teeth and get permanent teeth

 Girls begin to show growth of armpit and pubic hair, breast development

 Menarche (first menstrual period) may occur in girls

 Peer recognition begins to become important

 Reading skills develop further

 Routines important for daytime activities

  Understands and is able to follow several directions in a row

Adolescent -- 12 to 18 years

 Adult height, weight, sexual maturity

 Boys show growth of armpit, chest, and pubic hair; voice changes; and testicles/penis
enlarge

 Girls show growth of armpit and pubic hair; breasts develop; menstrual periods start

 Peer acceptance and recognition is of vital importance

 Understands abstract concepts

 3. What are the common treatment that can be given to a child with
mental health issues?

What is a mental illness?

Mental health is the overall wellness of how you think, regulate your feelings and behave.
A mental illness, or mental health disorder, is defined as patterns or changes in thinking, feeling
or behaving that cause distress or disrupt a person's ability to function.

Mental health disorders in children are generally defined as delays or disruptions in

developing age-appropriate thinking, behaviors, social skills or regulation of emotions. These
problems are distressing to children and disrupt their ability to function well at home, in school
or in other social situations.

What is the treatment for mental illness in children?

There are varieties of treatments available for managing mental illnesses in children,
including educational or occupational interventions, specific forms of psychotherapy, and several
effective medications. In terms of medications, medications from specific drug classes treat
childhood mental illness. Examples include stimulant and non-stimulant classes of medications
for treating ADHD, serotonergic medications for treating depression and anxiety, and neuroleptic
medications for management of severe mood swings, anxiety, aggression, or in the treatment of
childhood schizophrenia.

For individuals who may be wondering how to manage the symptoms of a childhood
mental illness using treatment without prescribed medications, psychotherapies are often used.
While interventions like limiting exposure to food additives, preservatives, and processed sugars
have been found to be helpful for some people with an illness like ADHD, the research evidence
is still considered to be too limited for many physicians to recommend nutritional interventions.
Also, placing such restrictions on the eating habits of a child or teenager can prove to be difficult
and contentious at best, nearly impossible at worst.

Psychotherapy

Psychotherapy ("talk therapy") is a form of mental health counseling that involves

working with a trained therapist to figure out ways to solve problems and cope with
childhood emotional disorders. It can be a powerful intervention, even producing positive
biochemical changes in the brain. Two major approaches treat childhood mental illness,
interpersonal psychotherapy and cognitive behavioral therapy. In general, these therapies take
several weeks to months to complete. Each has a goal of alleviating symptoms. More intense
psychotherapy may be needed for longer periods when treating very severe mental illness.

The behavioral, educational/vocational, and psychotherapy components of treatment for

childhood mental illnesses are usually at least as important as the medication treatment. Dealing
with the specific challenges that mentally ill children present takes patience, understanding, and
a balance of structure and flexibility. One kind of psychotherapy used to treat children with
mental illness is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). This form of therapy seeks to help those
with many different kinds of psychiatric disorders identify and decrease the irrational thoughts
and behaviors that reinforce maladaptive behaviors. Health care professionals administer this
therapy either individually or in group therapy. CBT that seeks to help the sufferer of many
childhood mental illnesses may decrease the tendency of the depressed or anxious child to pay
excessive attention to potential threats, while helping the child with ADHD appropriately refocus
their attention.

Behavioral techniques that health care providers often use to decrease symptoms in
children with behavioral disorders like ADHD, oppositional defiant disorder, or conduct disorder
or to help children with anxiety disorders like separation anxiety disorder or obsessive
compulsive disorder involve the parents, teacher, and other adult caretakers understanding the
circumstances surrounding both positive and negative behaviors and how each kind of behavior
is encouraged and discouraged. Specifically, learning why, when, and where specific behaviors
occur can go a long way toward understanding how to encourage the behavior to happen again if
it's positive or extinguishing it if the behavior is negative. Being aware of how the reactions of
others contribute to a behavior's continuing or not continuing tend to help the child with a
behavior disorder shape their behaviors more positively. Also, developing a fair, meaningful,
timely, and effective repertoire of ways to encourage positive behaviors and provide
consequences for negative behaviors is a key component of any behavior-management plan and
therefore in parenting children with behavioral disorders.
 Often, a combination of medication and non-medication interventions produces good
results in helping the child with a mental illness. Depending on the illness, the length of time it
existed before treatment starts, as well as the course of treatment deemed most appropriate,
improvement may be noticed in a fairly short period of time, from two to three weeks to several
months. Thus, appropriate treatment for mental illness can relieve symptoms or at least
substantially reduce their severity and frequency, bringing significant relief to many children.
There are also things that families of children with a mental illness can do to help make
treatment more effective. Tips to manage symptoms of most childhood mental health problems
include getting adequate sleep, having a healthy diet and adequate exercise, as well as having the
support and encouragement of parents and teachers.

If symptoms indicate that your child is suffering from mental illness, the health care
professional will likely strongly recommend treatment. Treatment may include addressing any
medical conditions that cause or worsen the psychiatric symptoms. For example, an individual
who is depressed and found to have low levels of thyroid hormone might receive hormone
replacement with levothyroxine (Synthroid, Levoxyl). People may find that a hyperactive,
anxious, or psychotic child is having a reaction to a medication. Other components of treatment
may be supportive therapy, such as changes in lifestyle and behavior, psychotherapy, and may
include medication for moderate to severe mental illness. If symptoms are severe enough to
warrant treatment with medication, symptoms tend to improve faster and for longer with
medication treatment and psychotherapy.

Interpersonal therapy (IPT): This helps to alleviate symptoms of mood disorders like anxiety
and depression and helps the sufferer develop more effective skills for coping with relationships.
IPT employs two strategies to achieve these goals:

 The first is educating the child and family about the nature of their illness. The therapist
will emphasize that depression is a common illness and that most people can expect to
get better with treatment.

 The second is defining problems (such as abnormal grief, interpersonal conflicts, or

having significant anxiety when meeting new people). After the problems are defined, the
therapist is able to help set realistic goals for solving these problems and work with the
child and his or her family using various treatment techniques to reach these goals.
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT): This has been found to be effective as part of treatment
for childhood mental illness. This approach helps to alleviate depression, anxiety, and some
behavioral problems and reduce the likelihood that symptoms will come back by helping the
child change his or her way of thinking about or otherwise reacting to certain issues. In CBT, the
therapist uses three techniques to accomplish these goals:

 Didactic component: This phase helps to set up positive expectations for therapy and
promote the child's cooperation with the treatment process.

 Cognitive component: This helps to identify the thoughts and assumptions that influence
the child's behaviors, particularly those that may predispose the sufferer to having the
emotional or behavioral symptoms that they have.

 Behavioral component: This employs behavior-modification techniques to teach the

child more effective strategies for dealing with problems.

Most practitioners will continue treatment of a mental illness for at least six months. Treatment
for children with a mental illness can have a significantly positive effect on the child's
functioning with peers, family, and at school. Without treatment, symptoms tend to last much
longer and may never get better. In fact, they may get worse. With treatment, chances of
recovery are much improved.

Medications

The major type of antidepressant and anti-anxiety medication prescribed for children is the
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). SSRI medications affect levels of serotonin in
the brain. For many prescribing doctors, these medications are the first choice because of the
high level of effectiveness and general safety of this group of medicines. Examples of
medications in this class approved for use in children are listed here. The generic name is first,
with the brand name in parentheses.

 Fluoxetine (Prozac)

 Sertraline (Zoloft)
The medications available for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) can have slightly
different effects from individual to individual, and currently no way exists to tell which will
work best. Medications indicated for ADHD work by improving the imbalance of
neurochemicals that are thought to contribute to ADHD. Some commonly prescribed
medications include the following:

 Stimulants

o Methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta, Metadate, Daytrana patch)

o Dexmethylphenidate (Focalin)

o Amphetamine (Dyanavel liquid; Evekeo)

o Dextroamphetamine /pre-Dextroamphetamine
(Adderall, Dexedrine, Dextrostat, Vyvanse)

 Nonstimulants

o Atomoxetine (Strattera)

o Guanfacine (Tenex or Intuniv)

o Clonidine (Catapress or Kapvay)

Treatment of bipolar disorder with medications tends to address two aspects: relieving already
existing symptoms of mania or depression and preventing symptoms from returning.
Medications that are thought to be particularly effective in treating manic and mixed symptoms
and have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in children (in
children 10 years of age and older) include

 Risperidone (Risperdal)

 Aripiprazole (Abilify)

 Quetiapine (Seroquel)
For treatment of irritability in individuals with autism spectrum disorder, Risperdal has been
FDA approved in children 5 years of age and older, while Abilify has been approved in children
6 years of age and older.

4. What are the stakeholders in child development? What are their role in
development?

Stakeholders in child development: Child care center owners and directors, parents, child
caregivers, policy makers, and social service providers.

The director role is challenging in that directors must be accountable to each stakeholder group
and often serve as a link between two stakeholders. Directors are responsible for child safety and
for getting children’s needs met, and for facilitating the work of caregivers so that this happens.
Directors need to understand parent needs and interpret those needs to caregivers. They also
must show parents how the child care program meets their needs, helping them understand their
program in ways that parents might not even think about. Directors are the link between social
service professionals and caregivers (e.g., setting up training), and between social service
professionals and parents when families are referred for special services. Directors are
responsible for the image of child care in the community and must interact with community and
businesses to ensure positive relations. Finally, policy makers legislate policy, and directors must
act and interact with caregivers to see that the policy is followed. And directors are the policy
makers at their facilities. In summary, directors play multiple roles that serve as bridges between
the proximal and distal stakeholders. Below given Figures represents this bridging function
within our proposed proximity model.