SELECTED TOPIC: THE ROLE OF FINANCIAL

CHAPTER IV DERIVATIVES IN EMERGING MARKETS

T
he two previous issues of the Global in global derivatives markets. Local derivatives
Financial Stability Report contained markets in emerging market economies differ
chapters on local equity and fixed- greatly in their sizes, both in absolute terms and
income markets in emerging market relative to cash markets. Compared to mature
economies, with particular focus on the role of markets, the ratio of outstanding notionals in
local markets as a substitute for international bond and equity derivatives to market capitaliza-
markets for raising funds. This chapter presents tion of the underlying asset markets is fairly
original estimates of the scale of the derivatives small in most emerging economies (see Table
trading activity in the major emerging markets 4.1). The most common problems that constrain
and compares developments in these markets the development of local derivatives markets are
with global trends. In addition to providing a (1) relatively underdeveloped markets for
brief overview of the local derivatives markets, underlying instruments; (2) weak/inadequate
this chapter focuses on how derivatives facili- legal and market infrastructure; and (3) restric-
tated capital flows to emerging market tions on the use of derivatives by local and for-
economies and on the role of derivatives in past eign entities.
emerging market crises.
Financial derivatives allow investors to unbun-
Currency Derivatives
dle and redistribute various risks—foreign
exchange, interest rate, market, and default Most of the currency derivatives trading
risks—and thus, facilitate cross-border capital around the world takes place through the over-
flows and create more opportunities for portfo- the-counter (OTC) markets, with foreign
lio diversification. However, the same instru- exchange swaps accounting for more than two-
ments allow market participants to avoid thirds of the turnover. In emerging markets, the
prudential safeguards, manipulate accounting most liquid OTC currency derivative markets are
rules, and take on excessive leverage by shifting in Hong Kong SAR, Singapore, and South
exposures off balance sheets. The latter can Africa, where average daily turnover significantly
occur due to the weaknesses in the companies’ exceeds the spot market turnover. By contrast, a
internal risk management practices and also due significant share of the foreign exchange deriva-
to inadequate financial regulation. In a world of tive trading in Brazil takes place at the organized
constantly evolving derivatives markets, the exchange—Bolsa de Mercadorias & Futuros of
establishment of prudential regulations that cre- São Paulo, or BM&F (see Box 4.1). According to
ate incentives for market participants to use the Bank for International Settlements (BIS),
derivatives appropriately is one of the major the global market activity in currency derivatives
challenges for regulators in both mature and has been on a declining trend since 1998, with
emerging markets. the average daily turnover in the global OTC
currency derivatives markets falling to $853 bil-
lion in April 2001 from $959 billion in April
Derivatives in Emerging 1998, in parallel with the contraction of the
Market Economies global spot market activity. The latter is generally
Despite rapid growth over the past several attributed to the introduction of the euro,
years, emerging market derivatives account for expansion of E-broking, and banking sector con-
only 1 percent of the total outstanding notionals solidation. By contrast, the turnover in the

54
 DERIVATIVES IN EMERGING MARKET ECONOMIES

Table 4.1. Notional Amounts Outstanding of the Over-the-Counter and Exchange-Traded Derivatives
(In billions of U.S. dollars; end-June, 2001)

Equity
___________________________________ Fixed Income
___________________________________ Foreign Exchange
________________________
Total Total
Exchange- derivatives Exchange- derivatives Exchange-
traded OTC in percent traded OTC in percent traded OTC
Spot derivatives derivatives of the spot Spot derivatives derivatives of the spot Spot derivatives derivatives
Latin America
Brazil 194.07 1.00 0.81 0.9 284.80 151.15 12.52 57.5 ... 12.61 25.03
Mexico 154.91 0.01 ... — 82.30 4.58 ... 5.6 ... 0.10 ...
Chile 44.31 ... — — 34.00 ... 0.10 0.3 ... ... 5.86
Asia
Singapore 197.62 6.80 0.38 3.6 48.30 459.96 32.00 1018.5 ... ... 87.20
Hong Kong SAR 570.56 3.91 0.14 0.7 44.90 25.61 4.15 66.3 ... 0.03 21.72
Korea 217.73 12.68 — 5.8 279.00 1.96 19.26 7.6 ... 1.33 27.40
Taiwan Province of China 231.05 0.42 ... 0.2 ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Malaysia 104.08 0.03 — — 77.10 2.86 0.94 4.9 ... ... 4.32
Europe, Middle East,
and Africa
South Africa 194.93 15.62 8.73 12.5 56.10 0.16 144.79 258.4 ... ... 176.66
Hungary 9.34 0.05 — 0.6 17.20 0.06 0.09 0.9 ... 0.17 0.28
Poland 25.56 0.04 — 0.2 37.60 ... 0.85 2.3 ... 0.01 7.36
Total 1,944.16 40.56 10.07 2.6 961.30 646.33 214.69 89.6 ... 14.24 355.82
Memo item:
Global markets 29,843 1,905 2,039 13.2 29,710 17,493 75,813 314.1 ... 66 20,435
Sources: BIS; IFC; MSCI; FOW TRADEdata; Exchanges; Bloomberg; and IMF staff estimates.
Notes: The notional amounts outstanding of the OTC traded derivatives are based on the data collected as part of the BIS 2001 Triennial Survey. All posi-
tions were reported on a worldwide consolidated basis (i.e., are based on global books of the head offices and all branches and subsidiaries of a given insti-
tution), and only to the monetary authority of a country, where the parent institution had its head office. The notional amounts outstanding of the
exchange-traded derivatives are estimated using the data from the FOW TRADEdata, Bloomberg, and various local exchanges. Notional amount is calculated
as the number of contracts (open interest from FOW TRADEdata) multiplied by the face value of the contract in the U.S. dollar terms. In the case of index
derivatives, the face value is the product of the contract’s multiplier and the value of the underlying index. In the case of equity derivatives, individual stock
futures and options are not included. The breakdown of exchange-traded derivatives by asset class (equity, fixed-income, currency) is based on the FOW
TRADEdata classification, which, in some cases, differs from the BIS classification of the OTC derivatives. For example, the exchange-traded fixed income
derivatives include a broader range of instruments than the single-currency interest rate swaps. In particular, in the case of Brazil, all cross currency swaps
are included in the fixed-income derivatives category. For bond markets, the spot market capitalization is the total value of all outstanding domestic bonds
based on the data provided by the BIS. The overall market capitalization of the global bond markets is the total value of all outstanding domestic bonds in all
countries followed by the BIS. The overall market capitalization of the global equity markets is an estimated total market capitalization of all countries
included in the MSCI All Country World Free Index. The equity market capitalization estimates for individual markets are based on the IFC data.

emerging foreign exchange spot markets country. In Korea, the development of the
increased, with the share of emerging market onshore currency derivatives market was con-
currencies (including the Hong Kong SAR and strained by a legal requirement that any forward
Singapore dollars) in global foreign exchange transaction had to be certified as a hedge against
turnover rising from 5.5 percent in April 1998 to future current account flows (the so-called “real
8.6 percent in April 2001. Turnover of currency demand principle”), which also spurred the
derivatives in emerging markets remained development of a liquid offshore “nondeliver-
roughly stable (see Table 4.2). able” forward (NDF) market in the Korean won.
Among the emerging markets of Asia, In 1999, this restriction was lifted and a lot of
Singapore has the largest foreign exchange activity moved onshore, leading to the conver-
derivatives market. A notable pickup in cross- gence of the offshore and onshore prices.
currency swaps occurred after 1998, when the Generally, the NDF contracts are the principal
government allowed foreign entities to issue instruments in the offshore derivatives markets
Singapore dollar bonds and to swap the pro- for emerging market currencies and are often
ceeds into foreign currency for use outside the preferred by foreign investors who have restricted

55
 CHAPTER IV THE ROLE OF FINANCIAL DERIVATIVES IN EMERGING MARKETS

Box 4.1. The Bolsa de Mercadorias & Futuros of São Paulo

The Bolsa de Mercadorias & Futuros (BM&F) standardization. In practice, most of the OTC
of São Paulo, Brazil, which started operations in contracts are guaranteed by the BM&F.
January 1986, ranks among the largest The BM&F offers end-users of the exchange a
exchange-traded derivatives markets in the substantial number of contracts allowing them
world in terms of the number of contracts trans- to hedge risks or acquire market exposure.
acted annually. In 2001, almost 98 million con- Futures contracts are available on a number of
tracts were traded with a total open interest of commodities, including gold, on the São Paulo
74 million contracts. These figures would likely Exchange Stock Index (Ibovespa); on foreign
be surpassed in 2002: by the end of August 2002 currencies, including the U.S. dollar and the
the cumulative number of contracts traded was euro; and on interest rates, including short and
up to 74 million, with a total open interest of 58 long interbank deposit rates, and the local U.S.
million contracts. According to International dollar interest rate (Cupom Cambial). Option
Financial Services, London, the BM&F ranked contracts are available on gold, interbank
ninth in terms of the number of contracts deposit rates, the Ibovespa, and the U.S. dollar.
traded by the end of 2001, being surpassed However, liquidity in the BM&F is heavily con-
among emerging markets only by the Korean centrated in a few contracts, including the one-
Stock Exchange. day inter-bank deposit futures contracts or DI
Trading at the BM&F takes place through the Futures, U.S. Dollar Futures, especially for those
auction market system, which comprises both with maturities of one year or less, Ibovespa
the exchange floor and the electronic trading Index Futures, and Cupom Cambial Futures.
system. Most contracts are traded in the auction Some of these contracts are described next.
market system, which accounted for 94 percent DI Futures. This contract allows end users to
of all contracts traded and 97 percent of finan- hedge or take positions on local interest rate
cial volume in 2001, while the over-the-counter risk. The contract size is 1 million reais (the
(OTC) system accounted for the remaining Brazilian currency), and the underlying asset is
transactions. The performance of all contracts the capitalized daily interbank deposit rate, as
traded through the auction system is guaranteed measured by the Certificate of Deposit rate, veri-
by the BM&F Derivatives Clearinghouse, which fied on the period between the trading day and
uses a safeguard structure based on intraday risk the business day preceding the expiration date
limits, market concentration limits, and collat- of the contract, which is the first business day of
eral requirements imposed on clearing mem- the contract month. All contracts are settled on
bers, brokerage houses, and customers. The a cash basis. Contract months include the first
safeguard structure is complemented with three four months subsequent to the month during
clearinghouse funds that provide additional lev- which a trade is made, and months that initiate
els of protection against counterparty risk. a quarter (January, April, July, and October). DI
Currently, the BM&F is exploring the possibility Futures with maturities less than two years enjoy
of using international insurance policies as an good liquidity, with an average daily turnover in
additional line of defense. Other transactions in the range of $5–10 billion.
the OTC market system must be registered Foreign exchange derivatives. The two- and three-
either with the BM&F or the Central of Custody month U.S. Dollar Futures, with contract sizes of
and Financial Settlement (CETIP) if at least one $50,000, are the most traded and liquid con-
of the counterparties is a financial institution. tracts, with an average daily trading volume of
The settlement of OTC contracts registered with around $3 billion. Contract months include
the BM&F can be guaranteed by the exchange every month of the year and should be settled
upon request of the contractual parties provided on a cash basis the next business day following
the contract is written according to the BM&F the last business day of the previous month.
specifications, which ensures a certain level of Hedging and speculation in the foreign

56
 DERIVATIVES IN EMERGING MARKET ECONOMIES

exchange market can also be accomplished via rate on interbank deposits, and the exchange
U.S. Dollar European and American Options in rate variation during the life of the contract.
the auction and OTC market systems, respec- From this definition, it is clear that the Cupom
tively. The average daily trading volume in this Cambial is equivalent to the onshore U.S. dol-
market is only around $250 million, a fraction of lar interest rate and, hence, its level is affected
the volume traded in the futures market. In by corporate demand for foreign currency
terms of open interest, though, U.S. Dollar hedging. The Cupom Cambial Futures allow
Options accounted for 30 percent of total local market participants—mostly nonfinancial
exchange-traded foreign currency instruments companies, banks, and mutual funds—to posi-
by the end of July 2002. tion themselves in the local U.S. dollar interest
Ibovespa Index Futures. Local investors can rate market. Contract size is $50,000 and con-
engage in index arbitrage and hedge positions tract months and expiration dates are estab-
on the main Brazilian stock market index, lished by the BM&F. Contracts are settled in
Ibovespa, through Ibovespa Index Futures. The cash.
contract size in Brazilian reais is equal to three The BM&F follows state-of-the-art risk man-
times the level of the index. These contracts agement procedures to deal with market risk,
mature every two months and are settled on a liquidity risk, and counterparty risk. These pro-
cash basis on the next business day following the cedures have helped the BM&F to withstand sev-
Wednesday closest to the 15th calendar day, eral episodes of market turbulence, including
which is the last trading day. Trading in the the January 1999 crisis, the Argentina crisis at
Ibovespa index futures comprises 86 percent of the end of 2001, and the current volatility associ-
total trading in stock index instruments, as ated to the recent presidential elections. Despite
measured by number of traded contracts. this impressive track record, the BM&F remains
Cupom Cambial Futures. The Cupom Cambial highly exposed to sovereign risk, as close to 90
for a given maturity is the spread between the percent of the exchange’s collateral is composed
local interest rate, as measured by the interest of Federal Government Bonds.

access to the onshore market and want to avoid Mexico (see Table 4.2). The recent expansion of
potential costs of delivering local currencies or to currency derivatives in Brazil was stimulated by
reduce their counterparty credit risk exposure. In the flotation of the real in early 1999 and regula-
most cases, NDF markets trade at a premium to tory authorization for OTC derivatives on for-
local markets because offshore financial institu- eign exchange, interest rates, and price indexes.
tions have limited access to local funding. In The change in the exchange rate regime coin-
Taiwan Province of China, for example, the aver- cided with sharply higher volatility in both the
age implied one-year NDF yields were around 150 real–dollar rate and Brazilian interest rates, con-
basis points higher than onshore rates during tributing to the creation of a “hedge culture.” At
2001–02. In some cases, however, offshore mar- present, trading in currency derivatives is much
kets perform functions that are not performed by higher than that in the cash market: daily cur-
onshore markets. For example, while both rency derivatives turnover is more than $5 bil-
onshore and offshore forward markets in Korea lion compared with a little over $1 billion in the
are most liquid in maturities of up to one year, spot market. Most of the derivatives contracts are
the NDFs and swaps can be structured in tenors “nondeliverable” because, historically, the BM&F
of up to 10 years in the offshore market. did not want local derivatives markets to be lim-
In Latin America, the most active foreign ited either by less than free convertibility of the
exchange derivatives markets are in Brazil and real or by the size of the cash market, with the

57
 CHAPTER IV THE ROLE OF FINANCIAL DERIVATIVES IN EMERGING MARKETS

Table 4.2. Average Daily Turnover in the Over-the-Counter Derivatives Markets

(In billions of U.S. dollars)

Total
_______________________ Foreign Exchange
________________________ Interest Rate
_______________________
April 1998 April 2001 April 1998 April 2001 April 1998 April 2001
Brazil ... 2.1 ... 1.9 ... 0.3
Chile 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.6 — —
China ... — ... — ... —
Czech Republic 3 1.4 3 1.2 — 0.2
Hong Kong SAR 51.4 52.0 48.9 49.4 2.4 2.6
Hungary 0.5 0.2 0.5 0.2 — —
India 1.3 2 1.3 1.8 — 0.1
Indonesia 1 0.5 1 0.5 — —
Korea 1.1 4 1 3.9 — 0.1
Malaysia 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.9 — —
Mexico 2.6 4.6 2.4 4.2 0.2 0.4
Philippines 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.6 — —
Poland 0.5 3.8 0.5 3.3 ... 0.5
Russia 0.9 0.2 0.9 0.2 — —
Singapore 90.7 72.5 85.4 69.3 5.3 3.2
South Africa 6 8.4 5.2 7.9 0.8 0.6
Taiwan Province of China 1.6 1.8 1.5 1.7 0.1 0.1
Thailand 2.2 1.3 2.2 1.3 — —
Turkey ... 0.7 ... 0.7 ... —
Total 164.5 157.6 155.5 149.6 8.8 8.1
Source: Bank for International Settlements, Triennial Central Bank Survey 2001.
Note: Turnover is defined as the absolute gross value of all new deals entered into during the month of April. No distinction is made between
sales and purchases. The basis for reporting is the location of the office where any given deal was struck, so transactions concluded abroad
were not reported by the country of location of the head office.

latter also being susceptible to short squeezes. In Poland, liquidity is still low (see Tables 4.1 and
contrast with many other derivatives markets, a 4.2). The relatively limited development of
significant part of the trading in currency deriva- onshore derivatives in the Central and Eastern
tives in Brazil takes place at the BM&F. Besides European (CEE) countries is due to some extent
certain features of the country’s legal framework to restrictions on derivatives trading, including
that had hampered the development of the OTC regulatory constraints on the use of hedging
market, the BM&F itself was actively trying to instruments by local corporates and pension
absorb part of the OTC business (see Box 4.1). funds. Many of the derivatives linked to the
In contrast to the rapid growth of derivatives Central European currencies are reportedly
markets in Brazil, the development of exchanges traded offshore, mainly out of London.
in Mexico has been slower, primarily because the
exchanges in Chicago (which are in the same
time zone) have launched numerous derivative Fixed-Income Derivatives
products based on Mexican underlying assets. In contrast to recent trends in markets for
In emerging Europe, Middle East, and Africa currency derivatives, global fixed-income deriva-
(EMEA), the most liquid OTC forward foreign tives activity surged over the past few years, with
exchange market is in South Africa, where daily daily average turnover in the global OTC inter-
turnover significantly exceeds turnover in the est rate derivatives market rising from $265 bil-
spot market (see Table 4.2). By contrast, the liq- lion in April 1998 to $489 billion in April 2001,
uidity of the Central European derivatives mar- according to the BIS. Interest rate swaps consti-
kets remains limited. Hungary has seen a strong tute the largest (around 70 percent of total
pickup in currency derivatives trading since the turnover) and the fastest growing segment of
move to greater exchange rate flexibility and the market. The rapid expansion of the interest
removal of capital controls, but, compared to rate swaps was triggered by the liquidity crunch

58
 DERIVATIVES IN EMERGING MARKET ECONOMIES

Table 4.3. Exchange-Traded Options and Futures Contract Trading Volume, 2001
Stock Equity Index Government Debt Interest Rate Foreign Exchange
Latin America
Brazil 69,065,436 6,713,344 3,012 88,626,322 24,869,397
Mexico ... 34,478 958,908 16,813,830 205,068
Asia
Singapore 6,575 9,349,788 624,435 21,008,786 ...
Hong Kong SAR 4,010,411 5,889,934 1,175 643,806 4,226
Korea ... 855,257,564 9,323,430 1,410 1,681,677
Taiwan Province of China ... 4,351,390 ... ... ...
Malaysia ... 288,092 ... 54,914 ...
Europe, Middle East, and Africa
South Africa 6,517,235 28,798,060 14,072 ... ...
Hungary 879,049 1,245,481 1,800 7,585 2,750,373
Poland 60,557 ... ... ... 14,325
Sources: International Federation of Stock Exchanges (FIBV); and FOW TRADEdata.

in the cash and exchange-traded derivatives swaps market, which significantly outpaced the
markets during the Russia/Long-Term Capital growth in cross-currency swaps.1 The onshore
Management crisis and the reduction in the derivatives markets in Singapore and Korea,
U.S. government bond market liquidity due to which were deregulated more extensively than
the planned debt repayments, which forced other regional markets, experienced the fastest
market participants to look for alternative hedg- growth. As equity prices remained volatile and
ing and benchmark instruments and encour- interest rates continued to decline throughout
aged the shift into the OTC swaps market (see Asia, many investors shifted from stocks to
Schinasi and others, 2001). As in the case of bonds, turning to the bond futures and interest
currency derivatives, the OTC segment of the rate swaps markets either in search of yield or to
global fixed-income derivatives market is signifi- hedge their bond exposures. For example, in
cantly larger (when measured in terms of the Korea, the increase in the fixed-income deriva-
outstanding notionals) than the exchange- tives trading volume clearly mirrored the per-
traded derivatives segment, although the aver- formance of the underlying cash market (see
age daily turnover in the latter is higher, Figure 4.1).
possibly due to the shorter maturity of the Abundant local liquidity and an increasingly
exchange-traded instruments. sophisticated institutional investor base also con-
In emerging markets, the most deep and liq- tributed to the rapid pickup of the fixed-income
uid fixed-income derivatives markets are in derivatives activity in Asia. One of the key drivers
Singapore, Brazil, and South Africa (see Tables behind the growth of the interest rate swaps
4.1, 4.2, and 4.3). In terms of the outstanding market in Korea was the entry of the investment
notional of the exchange-traded fixed income trust companies that were allowed to hedge up
derivatives, the Singapore Exchange (SGX) is far to 5 percent of total assets using local derivatives.
ahead of all other emerging markets, with most In Singapore, insurance companies, which form
traded contracts including Euroyen LIBOR, the core of the local institutional investor base,
Euroyen TIBOR, and Eurodollar futures and increased their participation in the longer-dated
options. bond futures market as well. Similarly, in Taiwan
Over the past two years, falling interest rates Province of China, pension and insurance com-
and increased local bond issuance in emerging panies have become more active users of debt-
Asia spurred the expansion of the interest rate related derivatives, following their shift toward

1See Chapter IV, “Emerging Local Bond Markets,” in the September 2002 issue of the Global Financial Stability Report.

59
 CHAPTER IV THE ROLE OF FINANCIAL DERIVATIVES IN EMERGING MARKETS

fixed-income investments and away from equity

and real estate.
The recent efforts by several Asian govern-
ments to extend the government bond yield
curve played an important role in lengthening
maturities of the interest rate swap contracts.
However, the improvement in liquidity of longer-
tenor bond futures has been uneven. For exam-
ple, the daily volume on the three-year
government bond future contract traded on the
Korean Futures Exchange (Kofex) grew from
27,000 contracts in July 2001 to 66,000 contracts
in July 2002. By contrast, the liquidity of the
future contract on the five-year Singapore gov-
ernment bond launched in July 2001 declined
markedly, with the average daily volume falling
from 878 contracts in July 2001 to 351 contracts
in July 2002, partly due to weak activity in the
underlying cash market.
In some emerging market economies, most
notably in Brazil and Hong Kong SAR, the inter-
est rate swap market is more liquid than the
underlying cash market and as a result performs
functions that are typically provided by cash mar-
kets, such as price discovery and provision of
benchmarks. For example, in Brazil, the local
swap curve is the benchmark yield curve for
maturities beyond one year. In Hong Kong SAR,
because the small size of Exchange Fund bonds
limits the liquidity of the secondary market, the
swap market is more liquid and, therefore,
drives the pricing of local bonds.

Equity-Linked Derivatives
Compared with global currency and fixed-
income derivatives, the equity-based derivative
products represent a much smaller part of the
global market, with most of the activity concen-
trated at the organized exchanges. This reflects
in part the diminishing role of local equity mar-
kets as a source of funding for local entities. As
of June 2001, the outstanding notional of equity-
based options and futures was only 3 percent of
the global outstanding notional of all types of
derivatives (see Table 4.1). While the increased
volatility in global equity markets over the past

60
 DERIVATIVES IN EMERGING MARKET ECONOMIES

years led more participants to use equity deriva- Table 4.1). By contrast with index options and
tives, the volume of exchange-traded equity futures, the activity in derivatives based on indi-
futures and options in most mature markets vidual emerging market stocks is much lower.
nonetheless rose fairly modestly.
In contrast, the Korean Stock Exchange experi-
enced exceptionally strong growth in equity Credit Derivatives
options and futures trading on the back of Although the global credit derivatives market
increased participation by individual investors is still a very small part of the global derivatives
(see Figure 4.2), with the average daily volume of markets, it remains one of its fastest-growing seg-
Kospi200 options and futures reaching 3.5 mil- ments despite several major credit events that
lion contracts in June 2002 compared to only shook the market over the past few years (for
about 400,000 contracts in June 2000. As a result, example, defaults by Russia and Argentina, and
the Korean equity index derivatives market has the collapse of Enron). The data collected as
become the second most active in the world after part of the BIS Triennial Survey showed that
that of the United States. The Hong Kong positions in the global credit derivatives market
Exchanges and Clearing Company (HKE) has rose to $693 billion at the end of June 2001
also been very active in introducing new equity- from $118 billion at the end of June 1998.3
linked derivative products, such as equity-linked The market for credit derivatives in emerging
notes and small-sized equity index option con- markets mainly consists of credit protection
tracts, aimed at attracting retail investors. The instruments on external sovereign bonds that
Taiwan Futures Exchange (Taifex) launched simi- are traded offshore. Size estimates of this market
lar instruments to increase retail investor partici- range from $40 billion for the outstanding
pation. The average daily volume of index futures notional as of mid-2001, according to Risk sur-
and options traded at Taifex rose from 2,000 con- vey, to $200–300 billion suggested by Deutsche
tracts in July 2000 to almost 6,000 in July 2002, Bank.4 The most commonly used credit deriva-
with around 90 percent of futures markets report- tives in emerging markets are credit default
edly being represented by retail investors.2 swaps (CDSs), credit-linked notes (CLNs), and
In Latin America, the trading volume of stock collateralized debt obligations (CDOs).5 The sov-
options at the Brazilian Bovespa is the highest in ereign CDSs are the most liquid instruments in
the region. In EMEA, South Africa has a fairly emerging market credit derivatives, accounting
well developed equity index futures and options for around 85 percent of the total outstanding
market, with the outstanding notional exceeding notional. The most actively traded contracts ref-
that of the Korean market in June 2001 (see erence the external sovereign bonds issued by

2The contract volumes are based on the information provided by the FOW TRADEdata.
3There is currently no single aggregate data source for credit derivatives markets and there are substantial differences in
coverage and methodology between various data providers. For example, Risk surveys large dealers that make two-way mar-
ket in OTC credit derivatives and does not eliminate double-counting, while the BIS surveys banks and dealers in around
50 countries and eliminates double-counting at the holding company level. A more detailed comparison of various data
sources on credit derivatives can be found in the BIS Quarterly Review (2002).
4Both estimates exclude emerging markets in Asia. Deutsche Bank is believed to be the largest broker-dealer in emerg-

ing market credit derivatives, with an estimated market share of 50 percent (see Ranciere, 2002).
5A credit default swap is a financial contract under which the protection buyer pays a periodic fee (expressed in basis

points per notional) in return for a payment by the protection seller contingent on the occurrence of a credit event. A
credit linked note is a security with principal and/or coupon payments linked to the occurrence of a credit event with
respect to reference entity (i.e., it is a structured note with an embedded default swap). In a synthetic collateralized debt obli-
gation (CDO), the issuer of notes (protection buyer) is typically either a special purpose vehicle or a bank and the pay-
ments are usually linked to a portfolio (which may be actively managed) of default swaps referencing a variety of credit
risks. The proceeds from issuance of CDOs are reinvested in a collateral consisting of highly rated government securities,
which is used to pay interest and principal on the notes.

61
 CHAPTER IV THE ROLE OF FINANCIAL DERIVATIVES IN EMERGING MARKETS

Box 4.2. Credit Default Swap Spreads in Emerging Markets

The credit default swap curve, a plot of credit

default swap spreads for different maturities,
conveys useful information about market views
on a sovereign’s ability to honor its external
debt, as well as the recovery value bond
investors can obtain in case of debt default. The
credit default swap curve is normally upward
sloping because credit deterioration is more
likely in the medium and long term than in the
short term. If the sovereign is able to meet its
debt repayments in the short term, changes in
market perception about debt sustainability
would likely result into parallel or steepening
movements of the credit default swap curve. In
contrast, problems associated to short-term
financing needs would lead to a flattening of the
credit default swap curve, as short-term spreads
widen to compensate protection sellers for the and that the government would refrain from
increase in short-term risk. During periods of implementing significant fiscal measures,
market stress, the credit default swap curve can default probabilities increased significantly at
become inverted, as in the case of Argentina the end of the third quarter of 2001. By mid-
during the second half of 2001, and more December 2001, trading on Argentina default
recently, of Brazil since June 2002. swaps stopped completely as no participant was
Further information on default probabilities willing to take a long position on Argentina
for a sovereign for different time horizons can credit risk, a position validated by Argentina’s
be extracted using standard credit default swap default in December 2001.
valuation models. The figure shows the evolu- Credit default swaps are not the only financial
tion of one-year and two-year default probabili- instruments that contain useful information
ties for Argentina between January 1990 and about sovereign risk, as sovereign bond spreads
December 2001.1 The approval of an IMF pack- are also useful indicators of sovereign debt sol-
age for Argentina at the end of 2000 con- vency. Indeed, the figure shows the high correla-
tributed to soothe investors’ sentiment and tion between the default probabilities implied
reversed a sharp spike in default probabilities by credit default swaps and the EMBI+ spread
experienced in November 2000. However, for Argentina.2 However, liquidity in the cash
increased concerns about the ability of market is more likely to dry out during periods
Argentina to meet its debt payments amid con- of stress than in the credit default swap markets.
tinued deterioration of the country’s fiscal posi- In fact, there is anecdotal evidence that follow-
tion, together with an uncertain political ing the serious disruptions in the cash market
climate, caused default probabilities to creep clearing mechanisms in the aftermath of the
upwards during 2001. By the end of the second events of September 11, 2001, price discovery
half of 2001, default probabilities reached levels migrated from the cash market to the credit
not observed ever before. As it became clear derivatives market.
that no further external aid was forthcoming

2A detailed analysis of different sovereign risk meas-

1Default probabilities were estimated using the ures for emerging markets, including implied default
credit derivatives pricing model described in Duffie probabilities from credit default swaps and sovereign
(1999) and assuming a 25 percent recovery rate in bond yields, is provided in Chan-Lau and Sy (forth-
case of default. coming).

62
 LOCAL DERIVATIVES MARKETS AND CAPITAL FLOWS TO EMERGING MARKET ECONOMIES

Brazil, Russia, Mexico, Turkey, and Venezuela. A on Korean bonds on the back of increased new
relatively few top tier corporate credits (in Latin issuance.
America, these include mainly Mexican names, Some emerging markets, most notably Brazil
such as Telmex and Cemex) are also traded in and South Africa, have recently experienced a
the CDS market, but these instruments are con- pickup in local credit derivatives activity. In
siderably less liquid and account for less than 5 Brazil, the government has made the first steps
percent of the emerging CDS market, excluding toward developing the onshore credit derivatives
Asia.Market participants use credit default swaps markets by allowing local banks to trade credit
as a tool for hedging against (or gaining expo- risk. In South Africa, trading in credit derivatives
sure to) changes in credit spreads and default grew rapidly in 2001 on the back of a strong
risk. Compared with cash instruments, the CDSs local demand for higher-yielding paper, amid a
have several advantages: (1) they allow positions general shortage of government bonds and with
in maturities for which the cash instruments are bond yields hovering at all-time lows. However,
illiquid or unavailable; (2) they require no col- in both countries, the local bond markets are
lateral or upfront cash payment, subject to the fairly small and illiquid, limiting the CDS
counterparty’s decision; and (3) they provide growth.7 As a result, local banks tend to struc-
investors with an opportunity to take a short ture CLNs, which reference corporate bonds
position vis-à-vis a particular credit for a longer and promissory notes that are unlisted but
term than in the repo market, in which positions traded over-the-counter. Nevertheless, many mar-
typically have to be rolled over every one-to- ket analysts are optimistic and foresee the local
three months.6 Thus, emerging market credit credit derivatives market providing price discov-
default swaps are often used to take exposure to ery for the cash market and, thus, encouraging
sovereigns for maturities shorter than those cor- securitization in the medium term.
responding to outstanding bonds and to express
views on sovereign default risk and on cross-
country relative values (see Box 4.2). Local Derivatives Markets and Capital
Compared with other regions, credit default Flows to Emerging Market Economies
swaps activity in emerging Asia has been limited There is a broad consensus that the rapid
by the relatively small size of external sovereign expansion of derivatives products during the
bond market. However, the CDSs are rapidly past 10 to 15 years was an important factor that
gaining popularity, as they often provide higher facilitated the growth of global cross-border capi-
market liquidity, higher returns, and longer yield tal flows (see, for example, Garber, 1998; and
curves than the U.S. dollar-denominated sover- Dodd, 2001). Various traditional cross-border
eign bonds. In some cases, the CDS market is investment vehicles, such as loans, bonds, equi-
more liquid than the underlying bond market. ties, and foreign direct investment (FDI) can
According to market sources, the average daily potentially expose both lenders and borrowers
trading volume in the Asian CDS market rose to to foreign exchange, interest rate, market,
$200 million in 2002 from $100–150 million in credit, and refinancing (liquidity) risks. By allow-
2001. In Korea, the onshore investors with ing investors to unbundle and redistribute these
excess cash reserves have reportedly been very risks to those who are in a better position to
active in the CDS market this year, buying credit manage them, derivatives make cross-border
protection in anticipation of widening spreads investments more attractive, thereby increasing

6Of course, an obvious disadvantage is that like in any insurance contract, no payout occurs if protection expires before

the credit event.

7The type of reference obligations most commonly included in a CDS contract is “bonds,” and less often “bonds and

loans” or “specified obligations.” In addition, the CDS counterparties use the underlying bond market to hedge their swap
positions.

63
 CHAPTER IV THE ROLE OF FINANCIAL DERIVATIVES IN EMERGING MARKETS

net flows and creating more opportunities for lar client without physically removing assets from
portfolio diversification. There are many ways in its balance sheet and thus, effectively separate
which the use of derivatives by local and foreign relationship management from risk manage-
market participants can facilitate cross-border ment. Some market analysts argue that if inter-
capital flows. Here are a few examples. national banks could use onshore credit
Currency derivatives can be used to change derivatives in emerging markets, they would be
the currency of denomination of asset holdings more willing to maintain or increase their expo-
and, therefore, to hedge investments against sure to local corporate clients.
unexpected changes in exchange rates by both
foreign and local investors. Foreign investors typ- Local Participation
ically use currency derivatives to hedge their long Local entities with foreign exchange expo-
local currency exposure in emerging markets, sures are among the most active participants in
while local entities often use the same instru- the local derivatives markets. The relative impor-
ments to manage foreign exchange risk associ- tance of derivatives for local entities’ fundraising
ated with external financing, typically in the in international markets varies across emerging
three major currencies (U.S. dollar, euro, and market economies, depending on their net
yen). Thus, the level of external fundraising by external borrowing needs as well as on the rela-
local entities may, in part, be determined by the tive maturity of the local derivatives markets. In
availability of the currency hedging instruments. the emerging markets in Europe and Asia, the
Another example is the basic single-currency link between fundraising in international mar-
interest-rate swap, which can allow the borrower kets and derivatives activity is not as strong as in
with a floating interest rate loan/bond to hedge Latin America. Following the Asian crisis, many
the interest rate risk by swapping floating rate emerging market countries in Asia began to rely
payments for fixed-rate payments. Because inter- more on local currency financing. In addition,
est rate swaps give borrowers an opportunity to many of these countries are running significant
exploit their comparative advantages for borrow- current account surpluses, and thus do not have
ing at fixed versus floating rates in different mar- positive net external financing requirements. In
kets, they may encourage corporates or banks to emerging Europe, local entities have gained
seek external financing at more favorable terms access to the international capital markets only a
instead of borrowing locally. Thus, the use of sin- few years ago and are still facing regulatory
gle-currency swaps can generate gross cross-bor- restrictions on the use of derivatives.
der flows. In some emerging markets, most By contrast, in Brazil, the link between
notably in Brazil, where local corporate treasur- fundraising in international markets and deriva-
ers use a floating local currency interest rate as a tives activity has been particularly strong (see
benchmark, interest-rate swaps have become Figure 4.3). Virtually all local companies that
central to the ability of local entities to manage have access to international financial markets
the risks associated with foreign borrowing, raise U.S. dollar-denominated funds and then
given that funds raised internationally are typi- turn to the local derivatives market to swap the
cally at a fixed U.S. dollar rate. external financing obligations into reais with an
Finally, credit derivatives add to the list of interest rate indexed to the overnight (CDI)
instruments that can potentially increase net rate. Historically, the cost of U.S. dollar hedges
flows into emerging markets. An attractive fea- in Brazil was fairly high due to the shortage of
ture of credit derivatives is that they allow hedge provision, as most domestic institutional
investors/lenders to manage the default/bank- investors did not have foreign currency positions
ruptcy risks without having to buy or sell the (in sharp contrast to the Chilean pension funds)
underlying securities. For example, a foreign and many exporters with U.S. dollar receivables
bank can reduce its credit exposure to a particu- nonetheless typically had overall net short U.S.

64
 LOCAL DERIVATIVES MARKETS AND CAPITAL FLOWS TO EMERGING MARKET ECONOMIES

dollar positions. As a result, Brazilian corporates

tended to invest part of their cash reserves in
U.S. dollar-denominated securities in order to
provide at least partial protection against an
adverse exchange rate move. In 1999, the
Brazilian central bank stepped in as the main
provider of the currency hedge to the market
through the issuance of U.S. dollar-linked securi-
ties. Furthermore, in March 2002, the Brazilian
central bank decided to split the exchange rate
linked instruments into real-denominated bonds
and foreign-exchange swaps in order to lower its
debt rollover costs and also to reduce the cost of
currency hedging for local entities.8
Local market participants can also play a key
role in the development of a local credit deriva-
tives market, which can facilitate a more accu-
rate pricing of corporate credit risk and help
attract capital flows going forward. Many analysts
believe that since local players are more familiar
with local credit risk and less concerned about
market liquidity than foreign investors, they are
natural sellers of credit protection on emerging
market corporate risk. On the other hand, local
financial institutions that have exposure to local
corporate credit risk (in the form of bonds,
loans, receivables) are in a good position to
structure products that match local investors’
preferences for credit risk exposure. Currently,
the market for corporate credit risk protection
remains very illiquid in most emerging market
economies, mainly due to the lack of a well
developed local corporate bond market.
However, local institutional investors, particu-
larly pension funds and insurance companies in
Latin America, have become more active users
of credit derivatives over the past year. In emerg-
ing Asia, banks and insurance companies were

8This move was intended to result in a more efficient

pricing of both instruments and a reduction of the trans-

action costs for end users of these instruments, with
mutual funds being the main users of the real-denomi-
nated bonds, and with local corporates being the main
users of currency hedges. Before March 2002, Brazilian
corporates had to pay a premium to the financial inter-
mediaries for transferring the U.S. dollar hedge compo-
nent of the U.S. dollar-linked bond to them through
currency swap arrangements.

65
 CHAPTER IV THE ROLE OF FINANCIAL DERIVATIVES IN EMERGING MARKETS

also reported to have been actively buying CDSs and only 27 percent of respondents had open
and CLNs to boost yields in a low interest rate derivative positions at the time of the survey.
environment. Because many emerging market countries main-
tain various restrictions on foreign participation
in local derivatives markets, one would expect
Foreign Participation that the percentage of the dedicated emerging
Foreign investors in emerging markets gener- market funds using local derivatives to hedge var-
ally include banks, corporates, “real money” ious risk exposures is even lower. Separately, our
accounts (both dedicated and crossover invest- analysis of foreign institutional investors’ pur-
ment funds), and speculative money accounts chases of stocks in Brazil, Korea, Taiwan Province
(hedge funds and proprietary trading desks of of China, and South Africa and the trading vol-
investment and commercial banks). Compared umes in these economies’ currency and equity
with local entities, foreign investors’ participa- derivatives markets suggests that there is no sta-
tion in the local derivatives exchanges is fairly tistically significant relationship between foreign
limited. Mexico, Hungary, Poland, and the purchases of cash instruments and the level of
Czech Republic have recently seen a consider- activity in local derivatives markets.10 It should
able demand by international investors for long- be noted, however, that in some emerging mar-
term interest rate and local currency exposures kets, local equities are a “natural hedge” against
that has been driven in part by the so-called the foreign exchange risk (e.g., in South Africa,
“convergence trades,” with exposures established the share prices of companies with significant
both in cash and derivatives markets.9 As far as dollar receivables are often referred to as “rand
the OTC markets are concerned, the extent of hedges”). Also, in some emerging markets, for-
foreign investor participation (both as final users eign investors prefer to hedge their local bond
of the derivative products as well as intermedi- market exposure via the repo market rather than
aries) varies. In some countries, such as by using currency derivatives.
Singapore, Hong Kong SAR, and South Africa, In contrast with the “real money” accounts,
foreign dealers account for the bulk of the speculative investors can use derivatives freely
turnover in the OTC markets, while in other either for hedging risks associated with their
countries, most of the trading goes through cash market positions or for gaining leveraged
domestic dealers. returns or for exploiting relative value opportu-
Both anecdotal evidence and industry surveys nities between the cash and derivatives markets.
suggest that “real money” funds hedge relatively However, according to the Credit Suisse First
little of their risk exposures in emerging mar- Boston/Tremont, the leading provider of the
kets, either because of internal restrictions on hedge fund indices, emerging market hedge
leveraged positions or because these risk expo- funds often employ a long-only strategy because
sures are desirable. A survey of derivatives usage “many emerging markets do not allow short sell-
by U.S. institutional investors conducted in 1998 ing, nor offer viable futures or other derivative
by the Stern School of Business at New York products with which to hedge.”11
University (Hayt and Levich, 1999) showed that Both leveraged investors and dedicated
only 46 percent of respondents were permitted emerging market debt funds are active partici-
to use derivatives by their investment mandate, pants in the credit derivatives markets for emerg-

9The term “convergence trade” refers to a bet that local inflation rate (and thus long-term interest rates) in an emerg-

ing market will converge to a particular developed market rate (in the United States or in the European Union) within a
certain period of time or as economic integration progresses.
10This exercise uses monthly time series data of foreign purchases of local shares (from Bloomberg) and trading vol-

umes in local equity and foreign exchange derivatives markets (from the FOW TRADEdata).
11See the notes on the index methodology on http://www.tremont.com.

66
 THE ROLE OF DERIVATIVES IN EMERGING MARKET CRISES

ing market U.S. dollar-denominated bonds. The market participants to take on excessive leverage,
main protection sellers in credit derivatives mar- avoid prudential regulations, and manipulate
kets are the major internationally active banks. accounting rules when financial supervision and
Hedge funds have been the most active users of internal risk management systems are weak or
emerging market credit derivatives over the past inadequate. In particular, the use (or rather mis-
year, mainly focusing on trading the basis use) of derivatives can potentially allow financial
between default swaps and bonds amid institutions to move certain exposures off bal-
increased volatility in emerging debt markets.12 ance sheets, thereby magnifying their balance
The “convertible arbitrage” funds have also been sheet mismatches in ways that may not be easily
among the active buyers of credit protection, detected by prudential supervisors and, as a
using the CDSs to strip the credit component result, may lead to a gradual buildup of financial
from the equity option of convertible bonds. system fragilities. Also, due to their very nature
The main features of credit derivatives that (i.e., the fact that they allow market participants
make them particularly attractive for hedge to establish leveraged positions), derivative
funds are: they provide an efficient way to short instruments tend to amplify volatility in asset
a credit with a relatively low risk of a short markets. Thus, a negative shock to a country with
squeeze, and they are better instruments for already weak economic fundamentals, which typi-
structuring any relative value trading strategies cally triggers a sell-off in local asset markets, can
than cash bonds because they allow better align- also lead to an unpredictable and rapid unwind-
ment between maturities of different credit ing of derivatives positions that can in turn accel-
exposures. However, for “real money” accounts, erate capital outflows and deepen the crisis.
CLNs represent a more viable investment alter- This section will discuss the role of derivatives
native than CDSs, since these funds are typically in several emerging market crises, focusing
allowed to invest only in cash instruments.13 mainly on two issues: (1) the types of financial
Since the ability of foreign investors to manage derivatives used by market participants before
the emerging market corporate default risk the onset of a crisis and how the use of these
remains limited (due to the relatively underde- instruments affected the stability of the domestic
veloped state of the corporate credit default financial system; and (2) the impact of the
market), many emerging market borrowers are unwinding of derivatives positions on the crisis
forced to issue bonds with various credit dynamics after the onset of a crisis. While the
enhancements, particularly when the perceived Mexican and Asian crises highlighted the role of
credit risk rises (see Chapter V, in the March structured notes and swaps in magnifying bal-
issue of the Global Financial Stability Report; IMF, ance sheet mismatches and the associated volatil-
2002a). ity in foreign exchange markets, the Russian and
Argentine crises demonstrated the importance
of counterparty risk and spillovers through
The Role of Derivatives in Emerging credit markets. It should be pointed out that
Market Crises deteriorating fundamentals—mostly fiscal, but
While derivatives do play a positive role by also financial in the case of Asia—were the main
reallocating risks and facilitating growth of capi- causes of the recent emerging market crises, but
tal flows to emerging markets, they can also allow derivatives amplified the impact of these crises

12“Basis” is the difference between bond spread (over LIBOR) and the CDS premium for the same credit/same maturity.
13An important feature of CLNs is that they can be issued in Euroclearable form and listed on international exchanges.
In contrast to CDSs, which do not pay the protection buyer until a credit event occurs, the credit-linked notes allow the
protection buyer to receive cash payment at the time of the issuance of the notes, and thus eliminate the counterparty
credit risk inherent in the CDSs.

67
 CHAPTER IV THE ROLE OF FINANCIAL DERIVATIVES IN EMERGING MARKETS

on financial systems of emerging market positions financed by short-term U.S. dollar

economies. It should also be noted that the loans from their offshore counterparties; other
analysis of the role of derivatives in emerging instruments included various structured notes
market crises is seriously hampered by data avail- and equity swaps.14
ability, since the OTC derivatives transactions are At the onset of the crisis and in the face of ris-
not reported systematically. Thus, in many cases, ing political uncertainty and weakening funda-
anecdotal evidence and reported (ex post) losses mentals that ultimately forced the authorities to
on derivatives positions by major investment float the peso, the tesobono yields jumped from
banks of the industrial countries are the main 8 percent to 24 percent. As a result, the U.S. dol-
sources of information. lar value of the collateral fell, triggering margin
calls on Mexican banks. Quoting market sources,
Garber (1998) suggested that the total of margin
The Mexican Crisis, 1994 calls on tesobono and total return swaps was
In the early 1990s, the recently privatized about $4 billion, adding to the pressure on the
Mexican banks engaged in an aggressive build- Mexican peso foreign exchange market.15
ing up of their on- and off-balance sheet posi-
tions, which led to an increase of their credit
and market risk exposures well beyond pruden- The Asian Crises, 1997–98
tial limits. In particular, they used various deriva- As in the Mexican crisis, unhedged currency
tives in order to achieve leveraged returns. One and interest rate exposures were key determi-
of the popular instruments that allowed local nants of the severity and scope of the Asian
banks to leverage their holdings of the exchange crises (see IMF, 1998). Banks and nonfinancial
rate linked treasury bills (the Tesobonos) was a corporations in Asia left their exposures
tesobono swap (Garber, 1998). In a tesobono unhedged because (1) domestic interest rates
swap, a Mexican bank received the tesobono were higher than foreign interest rates, (2) the
yield and paid U.S. dollar LIBOR plus X basis pegged exchange rates were generally perceived
points to an offshore counterparty, which in turn as stable, and (3) domestic hedging products
hedged its swap position by purchasing were underdeveloped, while offshore hedges
tesobonos in the spot market. The only transac- were expensive. Foreign banks were eager to
tions that were recorded in the balance of pay- lend to East Asian banks that tried to capture
ments were: (1) an outflow of bank deposits carry profits on the interest rate differentials.
related to the payment of collateral by the However, local prudential regulations, such as
Mexican bank, and (2) a U.S. dollar inflow restrictions on the net open foreign exchange
related to the purchase of tesobonos by the for- exposures and risk-to-capital ratios, limited the
eign investor. Thus, traditional balance of pay- amount of profitable arbitrage trade.
ments accounting provided a misguided Therefore, Asian financial institutions turned to
representation of capital flows and associated derivatives “to avoid prudential regulations by
risks—-that is, although it appeared that the for- taking their carry positions off balance sheet”
eign investor had a long position in government (Dodd, 2001, p. 10).
bonds, it was in fact the local bank that bore the According to market sources, the majority of
tesobono risk, while the foreign investor was losses reported by both U.S. and European
effectively providing a short-term dollar loan. banks on their Asian lending were listed as due
Tesobono swaps were not the only instruments to swaps contracts, with the latter presumably
that allowed local banks to establish leveraged including both total return swaps and currency

14Equity swaps are a subset of the total return swaps that are discussed later.
15At the end of 1994, foreign exchange reserves of the Banco de Mexico were at $6.1 billion.

68
 THE ROLE OF DERIVATIVES IN EMERGING MARKET CRISES

swaps (Kregel, 1998). In a total return swap, one emerging markets were hedged, and raised the
counterparty paid the other the cash flows (both issue of the NDF valuation when an official rate
capital appreciation and interest payments com- was not available. In addition, Russia’s default
puted on a mark-to-market basis ) generated by sent shock-waves through the credit-derivatives
some underlying asset (equity, bond, or loan) in markets, with the cost of protection increasing
exchange for dollar LIBOR plus X basis points. in all sectors, including the investment grade
Thus, the flows between Asian financial institu- segment. Ambiguous and often misleading defi-
tions and foreign counterparties were similar to nitions of reference obligations, credit events,
those in the tesobono swap described above. As and settlement mechanics made it very difficult
in the case of tesobono swaps, offshore counter- for protection buyers to enforce the contracts.
parties were buying the underlying assets to According to dealers, many CDS contracts were
hedge their swaps positions, while local banks initially triggered under “failure to pay” clauses,
were left with short U.S. dollar positions. After but the attempts to enforce the contracts under
weakening fundamentals led to a collapse of the such clauses were often frustrated by other
exchange rate peg and domestic interest rates credit events that appeared more significant
rose, both counterparties had incentives to and, therefore, had to carry more weight under
either unwind the swaps or hedge their foreign contractual law. In order to address the legal
exchange exposures, which exacerbated the sell- issues highlighted during the Russian crisis, the
off in Asian assets and currencies.16 International Swaps and Derivatives Association
(ISDA) issued new credit derivative documenta-
tion guidelines in 1999.17
Russia’s Default and Devaluation, 1998
Although the poor state of Russia’s fiscal
accounts was well-known by mid-1998, the Argentina’s Default and Devaluation, 2001–02
announcement of a 90-day moratorium on exter- In contrast with the Russian crisis, the
nal debt payments on August 17, 1998 caught Argentine default and devaluation in December
most market participants by surprise. At the time 2001 were widely anticipated and occurred at a
of the default and devaluation, the estimates of time when the credit derivatives market was rela-
the outstanding notionals of the U.S. dollar- tively more mature. The protracted recession and
ruble NDF contracts ranged from $10 billion to gradual deterioration of the sovereign’s credit
$100 billion, and the total foreign exposure to quality gave market participants sufficient time to
the domestic bond market (GKO/OFZs) was exit the bond and credit protection markets and
around $20 billion. According to market also allowed the main sellers of credit protection
sources, the U.S. dollar-ruble foreign exchange on Argentine sovereign bonds (broker-dealers) to
forwards with Russian firms as counterparties hedge their books in the repo market. According
were the largest source of credit losses by major to market sources, liquidity in the Argentine CDS
swap dealers during 1997–98, exceeding the market dried up in August–September 2001, fol-
losses made on their Asian lending. The events lowing a bout of volatility in July. The announce-
in Russia highlighted the presence of convert- ment of the moratorium on all debt payments on
ibility risk even when local currency positions in December 23, 2001 was unanimously accepted as

16Other structured instruments were also used in the run-up to the Asian crisis. For example, one of the well-known

instruments was called a PERL—principal exchange rate linked note. A PERL was a dollar-denominated instrument that
generated cash flows linked to a long position in an emerging market currency. If the exchange rate remained stable, the
return on the PERL was significantly higher than the return on the similarly rated dollar paper, but in the event of major
depreciation, the return could become negative (Dodd, 2001).
17The most recent (1999) ISDA guidelines include the following types of credit events: “failure to pay,” “obligation accel-

eration,” “obligation default,” “repudiation/moratorium,” and “restructuring.”

69
 CHAPTER IV THE ROLE OF FINANCIAL DERIVATIVES IN EMERGING MARKETS

a “repudiation/moratorium” credit event consis- ______, 2002, Quarterly Review, June.

tent with the ISDA definitions. There were, Chan-Lau, Jorge, and Amadou Sy, forthcoming, “A
reportedly, some disputes as to which bonds Comparative Study of Sovereign Risk Measures, IMF
could be considered as “deliverable,” but they Working Paper.
Credit Suisse First Boston/Tremont website:
have been resolved fairly quickly. According to
http://www.tremont.com
market sources, 95 percent of all CDSs were set-
Deutsche Bank, 2001, “Emerging Market Credit
tled by mid-February 2002 and there were no
Derivatives,” Global Markets Research.
reported failures to deliver, with the total sum of Dodd, Randall, 2001, “The Role of Derivatives in the
contingent payments from the protection sellers East Asian Financial Crisis,” Economic Strategy
to the protection buyers estimated at $7 billion Institute, The Derivatives Study Center; see
(Ranciere, 2002). http://www.econstrat.org.
Duffie, Darrell, 1999, “Credit Swap Valuation,”
Financial Analyst Journal, Vol. 55
Concluding Remarks (January/February), pp. 73–87.
Local derivatives markets in emerging Garber, Peter, 1998, “Derivatives in International
economies have grown rapidly over the past few Capital Flows,” NBER Working Paper No. 6623,
(Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic
years, especially in countries that have removed
Research).
capital controls and have developed their under-
Hayt, Gregory, and Richard Levich, 1999, “Who Uses
lying securities markets. The growing use of
Derivatives?,” Risk (August).
derivative products by emerging market partici- International Monetary Fund, 1998, International
pants has also supported capital inflows, and has Capital Markets Developments, Prospects, and Key Policy
helped investors to price and manage the risks Issues, World Economic and Financial Surveys
associated with investing in emerging markets. (Washington).
However, the use of derivatives has also made ______, 2000, International Capital Markets:
crises dynamics in some recent episodes more Developments, Prospects, and Key Policy Issues, World
unpredictable by accelerating capital outflows, Economic and Financial Surveys (Washington).
amplifying volatility, and, in some cases, increas- ______, 2001, International Capital Markets:
ing the correlation between asset and currency Developments, Prospects, and Key Policy Issues, World
Economic and Financial Surveys (Washington).
markets. In many of these episodes, the negative
______, 2002a, Global Financial Stability Report, World
impact of derivatives on crisis dynamics was
Economic and Financial Surveys (Washington,
either due to the immaturity of local derivatives
March).
markets or to weak prudential supervision, ______, 2002b, Global Financial Stability Report, World
which allowed some financial institutions to Economic and Financial Surveys (Washington,
build up leveraged positions before the onset of September).
a crisis. The policy implications of the trends Kregel, J.A, 1998, “Derivatives and Global Capital
described in this chapter will be discussed in the Flows: Applications to Asia,” Cambridge Journal of
next issue of the Global Financial Stability Report, Economics, Vol. 22 (November), 677–692.
in a broader context of the development of local Patel, Navroz, 2002, “The Vanilla Explosion,” Risk
securities markets and of the role of these mar- (February).
kets in providing an alternative source of fund- Ranciere, Romain, 2002, “Credit Derivatives in
Emerging Markets,” (unpublished; New York: New
ing, a vehicle for managing risks, and an
York University, Stern School of Business).
attractive destination for foreign investments.
Schinasi, Garry J., R. Sean Craig, Burkhard Drees, and
Charles Kramer, 2001, Modern Banking and OTC
References Derivatives Markets: The Transformation of Global
Bank for International Settlements, 2002, Triennial Finance and Its Implications for Systemic Risk, IMF
Central Bank Survey: Foreign Exchange and Derivatives Occasional Paper No. 203 (Washington:
Market Activity in 2001, March. International Monetary Fund).

70
 World Economic and Financial Surveys
This series (ISSN 0258-7440) contains biannual, annual, and periodic studies covering monetary and financial issues of impor-
tance to the global economy. The core elements of the series are the World Economic Outlook report, usually published in May and
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cial financing for developing countries, exchange and payments systems, export credit policies, and issues discussed in the World
Economic Outlook. Please consult the IMF Publications Catalog for a complete listing of currently available World Economic and
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World Economic Outlook: A Survey by the Staff of the Global Financial Stability Report: Market
International Monetary Fund Developments and Issues
The World Economic Outlook, published twice a year in English, The Global Financial Stability Report, published four times a
French, Spanish, and Arabic, presents IMF staff economists’ year, examines trends and issues that influence world finan-
analyses of global economic developments during the near cial markets. It replaces two IMF publications—the annual
and medium term. Chapters give an overview of the world International Capital Markets report and the electronic quar-
economy; consider issues affecting industrial countries, devel- terly Emerging Market Financing report. The report is
oping countries, and economies in transition to the market; designed to deepen understanding of international capital
and address topics of pressing current interest. flows and explores developments that could pose a risk to
ISSN 0256-6877. international financial market stability.
$49.00 (academic rate: $46.00); paper. $49.00 (academic rate: $46.00); paper.
2002. (Sep.). ISBN 1-58906-179-9. Stock #WEO EA 0022002. December 2002 ISBN-1-58906-192-6. Stock #GFSR EA0042002.
2002. (April). ISBN 1-58906-107-1. Stock #WEO EA 0012002. September 2002 ISBN 1-58906-157-8. Stock #GFSR EA0032002.
June 2002 ISBN 1-58906-131-4. Stock #GFSR EA0022002.
2001. (Dec.). ISBN 1-58906-087-3. Stock #WEO EA 0172001.
March 2002 ISBN 1-58906-105-5. Stock #GFSR EA0012002.
2001. (Oct.). ISBN 1-58906-073-3. Stock #WEO EA 0022001.
2001. (May). ISBN 1-58906-032-6. Stock #WEO EA 0012001. International Capital Markets: Developments,
2000. (Oct.). ISBN 1-55775-975-8. Stock #WEO EA 0022000. Prospects, and Key Policy Issues (back issues)
2000. (May). ISBN 1-55775-936-7. Stock #WEO EA 012000.
$42.00 (academic rate: $35.00); paper.
2001. ISBN 1-58906-056-3. Stock #WEO EA 0062001.
Official Financing for Developing Countries
by a staff team in the IMF’s Policy Development and Review Toward a Framework for Financial Stability
Department led by Anthony R. Boote and Doris C. Ross by a staff team led by David Folkerts-Landau and Carl-Johan Lindgren
This study provides information on official financing for devel- This study outlines the broad principles and characteristics of sta-
oping countries, with the focus on low-income countries. It ble and sound financial systems, to facilitate IMF surveillance
updates the 1995 edition and reviews developments in direct over banking sector issues of macroeconomic significance and to
financing by official and multilateral sources. contribute to the general international effort to reduce the like-
$25.00 (academic rate: $20.00); paper. lihood and diminish the intensity of future financial sector crises.
2001. ISBN 1-58906-038-5. Stock #WEO EA 0132001. $25.00 (academic rate: $20.00); paper.
1998. ISBN 1-55775-702-X. Stock #WEO-1397. 1998. ISBN 1-55775-706-2. Stock #WEO-016.
1995. ISBN 1-55775-527-2. Stock #WEO-1395.
Trade Liberalization in IMF-Supported Programs
Exchange Rate Arrangements and Currency by a staff team led by Robert Sharer
Convertibility: Developments and Issues This study assesses trade liberalization in programs supported
by a staff team led by R. Barry Johnston by the IMF by reviewing multiyear arrangements in the 1990s
and six detailed case studies. It also discusses the main eco-
A principal force driving the growth in international trade and
nomic factors affecting trade policy targets.
investment has been the liberalization of financial transactions,
$25.00 (academic rate: $20.00); paper.
including the liberalization of trade and exchange controls.
1998. ISBN 1-55775-707-0. Stock #WEO-1897.
This study reviews the developments and issues in the exchange
arrangements and currency convertibility of IMF members. Private Market Financing for Developing Countries
$20.00 (academic rate: $12.00); paper. by a staff team from the IMF’s Policy Development and
1999. ISBN 1-55775-795-X. Stock #WEO EA 0191999. Review Department led by Steven Dunaway
This study surveys recent trends in flows to developing coun-
World Economic Outlook Supporting Studies tries through banking and securities markets. It also analyzes
by the IMF’s Research Department the institutional and regulatory framework for developing
These studies, supporting analyses and scenarios of the World country finance; institutional investor behavior and pricing of
Economic Outlook, provide a detailed examination of theory and developing country stocks; and progress in commercial bank
evidence on major issues currently affecting the global economy. debt restructuring in low-income countries.
$25.00 (academic rate: $20.00); paper. $20.00 (academic rate: $12.00); paper.
2000. ISBN 1-55775-893-X. Stock #WEO EA 0032000. 1995. ISBN 1-55775-526-4. Stock #WEO-1595.

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