Chapter 1.

Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving

Student Objectives

1.1 Atoms and Molecules

 Define atoms, molecules, and the science of chemistry.

 Represent simple molecules (carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, water, hydrogen peroxide)
using spheres as atoms.

1.2 The Scientific Approach to Knowledge

 Define and distinguish between a hypothesis, a scientific law, and a theory.

 Understand the role of experiments in testing hypotheses.
 State and understand the law of mass conservation as an example of scientific law.
 Understand that scientific theories are built from strong experimental evidence and that the
term “theory” in science is used much differently than in pop culture.

1.3 The Classification of Matter

 Define matter and distinguish between the three main states of matter: solid, liquid, gas.
 Define and understand the difference between crystalline and amorphous solids.
 Define mixture, pure substance, element, compound, heterogeneous, and
homogeneous.
 Differentiate between mixtures and pure substances; elements and compounds; and
heterogeneous and homogeneous mixtures.
 Use the scheme on page 7 to classify matter.
 Define and understand the methods of separating mixtures: decantation, distillation, and
filtration.

1.4 Physical and Chemical Changes and Physical and Chemical Properties

 Define, recognize, and understand the difference between physical and chemical changes.

1.5 Energy: A Fundamental Part of Physical and Chemical Change

 Define energy, work, kinetic energy, potential energy, and thermal energy.
 State and understand the law of conservation of energy.

1.6 The Units of Measurement

 Understand the importance of reporting correct units with measurements.

 Know the differences between the three most common sets of units: English system, metric
system, and International System (SI).
 Know the SI base units for length, mass, time, and temperature.
 Know the three most common temperature scales (Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin), the
freezing and boiling points of water on each scale, and the relationships between the scales.
 Calculate temperature conversions between each scale.
 Know and use the SI prefix multipliers for powers of ten.
 Know and calculate using the derived units of volume and density.
 Chapter 1. Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving

1.7 The Reliability of a Measurement

 Understand that all measurements have some degree of uncertainty and that the last digit in
a measurement is estimated.
 Know how to determine the number of significant figures in a measurement using a set of
rules.
 Know how to determine the number of significant figures after calculations.
 Distinguish between accuracy and precision.

1.8 Solving Chemical Problems

 Understand dimensional analysis and know how to use conversion factors.

 Understand the problem-solving strategy: sort, strategize, solve, and check.
 Convert from one unit to another.
 Make order-of-magnitude estimations without using a calculator.
 Rearrange algebraic equations to solve for unknown variables.

Section Summaries

Lecture Outline

 Terms, Concepts, Relationships, Skills

 Figures, Tables, and Solved Examples

Teaching Tips

 Suggestions and Examples

 Misconceptions and Pitfalls
Chapter 1. Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving

Lecture Outline

Terms, Concepts, Relationships, Skills Figures, Tables, and Solved Examples

1.1 Atoms and Molecules  Intro figure: crystal structure of

 Definitions of atoms, molecules hemoglobin surrounded by CO
 Interactions of CO and CO2 with molecules
hemoglobin  Figure 1.1 Binding of Oxygen and
 Composition of water and hydrogen Carbon Monoxide to Hemoglobin
peroxide  unnumbered figures: models of CO2,
 Definition of chemistry H2O, H2O2

1.2 The Scientific Approach to Knowledge  unnumbered figure: painting of

 Definitions of hypothesis, falsifiable, Antoine Lavoisier
experiments, scientific law, theory  Figure 1.2 The Scientific Method
 Scientific method:  The Nature of Science: Thomas S.
o Observations and experiments lead Kuhn and Scientific Revolutions
to hypotheses.
o More experiments may lead to a
law and a theory.
o A theory explains observations and
laws.
 Chapter 1. Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving

Teaching Tips

Suggestions and Examples Misconceptions and Pitfalls

1.1 Atoms and Molecules

 Chemistry involves a great deal of what can't be seen
directly, requiring representations and models.
o The intro figure shows hemoglobin, but the
actual molecule is not a green and blue ribbon.
o Chemists look at microscopic, macroscopic, and
symbolic representations of atoms and molecules
interchangeably. If you say “water”, you might
mean the formula H2O or a molecular model or a
large collection of molecules (e.g., a glass of
water). Students need help recognizing which
representation to think about when a chemical
name is used.

1.2 The Scientific Approach to Knowledge  Theories are not as

 Experiments test ideas. They are designed to support a easily dismissible as pop
hypothesis or to disprove it. Good scientific hypotheses culture suggests.
must be testable or falsifiable.  Scientific knowledge
 Theories are developed only through considerable constantly evolves as
evidence and understanding, even though theories often new information and
are cited in popular culture as unproven or untested. evidence are gathered.
 Figure 1.2 shows how the scientific method is cyclic and
allows for the refining of ideas.
 Conceptual Connection 1.1 Laws and Theories
 The box about Thomas Kuhn can help to clear
misconceptions of science being completely objective
and immutable.
Chapter 1. Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving

Lecture Outline

Terms, Concepts, Relationships, Skills Figures, Tables, and Solved Examples

1.3 The Classification of Matter  Figure 1.3 Crystalline Solid

 States of matter: their definitions and  unnumbered figure: illustrations of
some of their characteristics solid, liquid, and gas phases
o gas  Figure 1.4 The Compressibility of
o liquid Gases
o solid  unnumbered figure: classification of
 crystalline matter
 amorphous  Figure 1.5 Separating Substances by
 Classification of Matter Distillation
o pure substance  Figure 1.6 Separating Substances by
 element Filtration
 compound
o mixture
 heterogeneous
 homogeneous
 Separating mixtures
o decantation
o distillation
o filtration

1.4 Physical and Chemical Changes and Physical  Figure 1.7 Boiling, a Physical Change
and Chemical Properties  Figure 1.8 Rusting, a Chemical Change
 Differences between physical and  Figure 1.9 Physical and Chemical
chemical changes Changes
 Examples and classifying changes  Example 1.1 Physical and Chemical
Changes and Properties

1.5 Energy: A Fundamental Part of Physical and  unnumbered figure: illustration of

Chemical Change work (physical definition)
 Definitions of work and energy  Figure 1.10 Energy Conversions
 Classification and types of energy  Figure 1.11 Using Chemical Energy to
o kinetic Do Work
 thermal
o potential
 Chapter 1. Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving

 Definition and examples of the law of

conservation of energy
Chapter 1. Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving

Teaching Tips

Suggestions and Examples Misconceptions and Pitfalls

1.3 The Classification of Matter  The differences between

 Properties of matter define its state: gas, liquid, or solid. the space-filling models
Temperature is one example, and everyone recognizes from Section 1.1 and the
steam, water, and ice. Ask for additional examples such ball-and-stick model of
as dry ice or liquid nitrogen. diamond may be missed
 Compressibility is a property that differentiates by some students.
especially gases from liquids and solids.  Students may not have
 The thickened glass at the bottoms of old windows helps experience with
students appreciate the amorphous nature of glass. elemental forms other
 Classifying additional examples of matter, e.g. than diamond and
mayonnaise, Jell-O, and milk, according to the scheme charcoal.
demonstrates some of the challenges.
 Students are likely to have varying personal experience
with distillation and filtration. Kitchen analogies may be
useful: steam condenses on the inside of a pot lid;
macaroni and water are poured into a colander; wine is
often decanted.

1.4 Physical and Chemical Changes and Physical and  Boiling (especially) does not
Chemical Properties change a substance’s chemical
 Conceptual Connection 1.3 Chemical and Physical identity.
Changes  Confront the confusion that
can occur when a physical
change accompanies a
chemical one: burning liquid
gasoline produces gases.
(physical or chemical or
both?)

1.5 Energy: A Fundamental Part of Physical and Chemical  Work is a form of energy and
Change thus has the same units as
 The examples of work being done by a person energy.
moving a box and chemical energy ultimately
moving the car are consistent and simple.
Additional examples using gravitation (very
familiar) are straightforward.
 Several examples are cited for the law of
conservation of energy; ask students to name and
describe other forms of energy (solar, mechanical,
chemical, electrical) and devices that convert
between these forms.
 Chapter 1. Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving

Lecture Outline

Terms, Concepts, Relationships, Skills Figures, Tables, and Solved Examples

1.6 The Units of Measurement  unnumbered figure: Mars Climate Orbiter

 Loss of Mars Climate Orbiter because  unnumbered figures: heights in meters of
of inconsistent units Empire State Building and basketball player
 Systems of measurement and units  Table 1.1 SI Base Units
o English system  unnumbered figure: electronic balance
o metric system  Figure 1.12 Comparison of the Fahrenheit,
o International System (SI) Celsius, and Kelvin Temperature Scales
 SI base units  unnumbered figure: The Celsius
o length: meter Temperature Scale
o mass: kilogram  Example 1.2 Converting between
o time: second Temperature Scales
o temperature: Kelvin  Table 1.2 SI Prefix Multipliers
 Temperature scales and conversions  Figure 1.13 The Relationship between
o Fahrenheit to Celsius and Length and Volume
vice versa  Table 1.3 Some Common Units and Their
o Celsius to Kelvin and vice Equivalents
versa  Table 1.4 The Density of Some Common
 Derived units Substances at 20 oC
o volume (cubic meter, cubic  Example 1.3 Calculating Density
centimeter, liter, milliliter)  Chemistry and Medicine: Bone Density
o density, mass per unit
volume (g/mL, g/cm3)

1.7 The Reliability of a Measurement  unnumbered figures: CO concentration in

 Significance and reporting of L.A. county; two tables with different
numerical values significant figures for the data
o estimating measurements  Figure 1.14 Estimation in Weighing
 Counting significant figures or digits  Example 1.4 Reporting the Correct Number
o nonzero digits of Digits
o interior zeroes  Example 1.5 Determining the Number of
o leading zeroes Significant Figures in a Number
o trailing zeroes  Example 1.6 Significant Figures in
o exact numbers Calculations
 Significant figures in calculations  unnumbered figure: accuracy and precision
o multiplication and division  Chemistry in Your Day: Integrity in Data
(fewest significant figures) Gathering
o addition and subtraction
(fewest decimal places)
o rounding (best only after the
final step)
 Precision vs. accuracy
Chapter 1. Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving

 Scientific integrity and data

reporting
 Chapter 1. Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving

Teaching Tips

Suggestions and Examples Misconceptions and Pitfalls

1.6 The Units of Measurement  A common

 Students are amazed and horrified that NASA could lose misconception is that
an expensive spacecraft because of inconsistent units. 100 cm3 is equal to 1
 Metric and SI units are unfamiliar to most Americans. m3.
That a nickel has a mass of 5 g and that a yard is nearly as  Some students initially
long as a meter gives a good frame of reference. are confused that
 Conceptual Connection 1.4 The Mass of a Gas density can be used as
 The practical examples of different temperatures on the a conversion factor
Celsius scale (unnumbered figure) provide practical even when the units
reference points. are inverted.
 Several of the large SI unit prefixes (mega, giga, tera) are
already familiar from memory capacity in computers.
 Conceptual Connection 1.6 Density
 The Chemistry and Medicine box on bone density
provides an open-ended conceptual question about
designing an experiment to measure bone density; this
may be good for a brief in-class discussion.

1.7 The Reliability of a Measurement  Students presume that

 Use a 400-mL beaker and a 100-mL graduated cylinder to calculators are flawless
measure quantities of water. Make the point about the but forget that
importance of estimating measurements. Add the calculators do only
quantities of water together and ask the students to what the user dictates.
calculate the final volume...to the correct precision.
 Two tables present air quality data (with different
precision) that might appear in a newspaper or other
publication. Initiate a discussion of the certainty of digits
in reported data.
 Water-quality standards have evolved substantially since
the advent of instrumental methods for quantitative
analysis. Ask the question: Does zero mean that a
particular analyte is not present?
 The number on a calculator display requires
interpretation; only the user knows the certainty of the
values entered.
 A discussion about why integrity in data reporting is
particularly important in science is appropriate. It should
point out that scientists report how they did the
experiments so others can try to repeat and verify the
Chapter 1. Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving

work. Use recent examples from the media.

Lecture Outline

Terms, Concepts, Relationships, Skills Figures, Tables, and Solved Examples

1.8 Solving Chemical Problems  Example 1.7 Unit Conversion

 Converting from one unit to another  Example 1.8 Unit Conversion
o dimensional analysis  Example 1.9 Unit Conversions
o multiple approaches to any Involving Units Raised to a Power
problem  Example 1.10 Density as a Conversion
 General problem-solving strategy Factor
o sort  Example 1.11 Problems with
o strategize Equations
o solve  Example 1.12 Problems with
o check Equations
 Calculations using units raised to a power
 Order-of-magnitude estimations
 Using equations
 Chapter 1. Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving

Teaching Tips

Suggestions and Examples Misconceptions and Pitfalls

1.8 Solving Chemical Problems  Students often want to follow

 General chemistry classes at most schools have one particular “recipe” to
students with a wide range of math skills. A quick solve one particular kind of
review of algebra may be useful. problem.
 Emphasize that watching an instructor work
problems is not nearly as effective as working those
same problems on one’s own. Give students time to
work a problem or two in class; allow them to work
in small groups.
 Emphasize the good practice of writing units and
keeping track of units in every calculation. Simple
dimensional analysis prevents many headaches
throughout the year of general chemistry.
 Promote estimation as part of the problem solving
model. Tell the students to ask themselves, “Does
this answer make sense?” Reduce the reliance on
blindly entering numbers into a calculator and
transcribing whatever answer comes up.
 Cognitive load theory says that a person can
remember 7–9 items in short-term memory. A
problem loaded with unit conversions, spurious
facts, and many steps does not test a person’s
understanding of an underlying idea or concept. It
becomes a measure of cognitive ability outside the
realm of chemistry.
Chapter 1. Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving

Procedure for Solving Unit Conversion Additional Problem (Example 1.7 Unit
Problems Conversion)

Convert 1.76 miles to meters.

Sort Given 1.76 mi

Begin by sorting the information in the problem into
Given and Find. Find m

Strategize Conceptual Plan

Devise a conceptual plan for the problem. Begin mi  km  m
with the given quantity and symbolize each 1 km 1000 m
conversion step with an arrow. Below each arrow, 0.6214 mi 1 km
write the appropriate conversion factor for that step.
Focus on the units. The conceptual plan should Relationships Used
end at the find quantity and its units. In these 1 km = 0.6214 mi
examples, the other information needed consists of 1 km = 1000 m
relationships between the various units as shown. (These conversion factors are from Tables 1.2 and
1.3.)

Solve Solution
Follow the conceptual plan. Begin with the given
quantity and its units. Multiply by the appropriate 1 km 1000 m
1.76 mi   = 2832.31 m
conversion factor(s), cancelling units, to arrive at 0.6214 mi 1 km
the find quantity.
2832.31 m = 2830 m
Round the answer to the correct number of
significant figures by following the rules in Section
1.7. Remember that exact conversion factors do
not limit significant figures.

Check The units (m) are correct. The magnitude of the

Check your answer. Are the units correct? Does answer (2830) makes physical sense since a meter
the answer make physical sense? is a much smaller unit than a mile.
 Chapter 1. Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving

Additional Problem for Unit Conversion Calculate the number of cubic meters of concrete
Involving Units Raised to a Power (Example 1.9) necessary to support a deck if each of 14 concrete
piers require 4750 cubic inches.

Sort Given 14 piers, 4750 in3

Begin by sorting the information in the problem into
Given and Find. Find m3

Strategize Conceptual Plan

Write a conceptual plan for the problem. Begin with piers  in3  m3
the given information and devise a path to the  1m 
3

14 piers  39.37 in 
information that you are asked to find. Notice that  
for cubic units, the conversion factors must be
cubed. Relationships Used
1 m = 39.37 in (Conversion factor from Table
1.3)
1 pier = 4750 in3 (Given)

Solve Solution
Follow the conceptual plan to solve the problem.
Round the answer to three significant figures to  1 m
3
4750 in3
reflect the three significant figures in the least 14 piers   = 1.0897 m3
 39.37 in 
3
1 pier
precisely known quantity (4750). These conversion
factors are all exact and therefore do not limit the
number of significant figures. 1.0897 m3 = 1.09 m3

Check The units of the answer are correct and the

magnitude makes sense. The unit meters is larger
than inches, so cubic meters are much larger than
cubic inches.

Additional Problem for Density as a Conversion An experimental automobile has a 100.0 liter fuel
Factor (Example 1.10) tank filled with ethanol. How many pounds does the
fuel add to the mass of the car?

Sort Given 100.0 L

Begin by sorting the information in the problem into
Given and Find. Find lb

Strategize Conceptual Plan

Devise a conceptual plan by beginning with the L  mL  cm3  g 
given quantity, in this case the volume in liters (L). lb
The overall goal of this problem is to find the mass.
Chapter 1. Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving

You can convert between volume and mass using 1000 mL 1 cm3 0.789 g 1 lb
density (g/cm3). However, you must first convert 1L 1 mL 1 cm3 453.59 g
the volume to cm3. Once you have converted the Relationships Used
volume to cm3, use the density to convert to g. 1000 mL = 1 L
Finally, convert g to lb. 1 mL = 1 cm3
d (ethanol) = 0.789 g/cm3
1 lb = 453.59 g
(These conversion factors are from Tables 1.2, 1.3
& 1.4.)

Solve Solution
Follow the conceptual plan to solve the problem.
Round the answer to three significant figures to 1000 mL 1 cm3 0.789 g 1 lb
reflect the three significant figures in the density. 100 L    
1 L 1 mL 1 cm 3
453.59 g

= 173.94 lb

173.94 lb = 174 lb

Check The units of the answer (lb) are correct. The

magnitude of the answer (174) makes physical
sense since a liter of water has a mass of
1 kilogram or about 2.2 pounds; 100 liters of water
is about 220 lbs. Ethanol has a lower density than
water (about 80% or 8/10).

Additional Problem for Solving Problems What is the mass in grams of an ice cube that is
Involving Equations (Example 1.12) 1.1 inches per side?

Sort Given l = 1.1 in

Begin by sorting the information in the problem into
Given and Find. Find g

Strategize Conceptual Plan

Write a conceptual plan for the problem. Focus on l  V
the equation(s). The conceptual plan shows how V = l3
the equation takes you from the given quantity (or
quantities) to the find quantity. The conceptual plan in3  cm3  g
may have several parts, involving other equations  2.54 cm 
3
0.917 g
 1 in 
or required conversions. In these problems, you   1 cm3
must use the geometrical relationships given in the Relationships Used
problem as well as the definition of density. V = l 3 [volume of a cube with a length of l]
2.54 cm = 1 in
d (ice) = 0.917 g/cm3
(These conversion factors are from Tables 1.3 and
1.4.)

Solve Solution
Follow the conceptual plan. Solve the equation(s)
 Chapter 1. Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving

for the find quantity. Gather each of the quantities

that must go into the equation in the correct units.  1.1 in 
3
V = = 1.331 in3
(Convert to the correct units if necessary.) 3
 2.54 cm  0.917 g
Substitute the numerical values and their units into 1.331 in3     = 20.0008 g
the equation(s) and compute the answer.  1 in  1 cm3

Round the answer to the correct number of 20.0008 g = 20. g

significant figures.

Check The units (g) are correct. The magnitude of the

answer (20.) seems to make physical sense.