POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES FOR WOMEN

Role of Government in the Empowerment of Women

Since the attainment of independence, India enjoyed the freedom to

continuously experiment with a number of form and modes of organizations and

structures to achieve women’s equality. Let us now have a close review at the plans

and policies of the government towards the development of women. The concept of

women’s empowerment has come to be associated with women’s struggle for social

justice and equality. As a result, women’s development policies have undergone

tremendous changes and even the state policy has become more pro-women.

Women and Development Policies

In the following years after independence, India witnessed an increase in

concerns for equity and poverty alleviation. All the development plans generally have

been addressed to men. This high illiteracy restricted the scope for employment,

utilization of health facilities and use of constitutional and legal rights. This bias is

now, being increasingly acknowledged and corrective policies and programmes are

being formulated.1 The concern for women’s development began with India’s

independence and the adoption of the Constitution. The Constitution of India

guarantees equality of opportunity and status for women and men. As women form

about half of the Indian population and represent an important sector of human

resources that cause national development, this paper discusses in detail the

 
1
Op.cit., V. S. Ganesamurthy, p.219.

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programmes launched in Five Year Plans, for the development of women. Soon after

independence, the Government of India planned to create a democratic, just and

prosperous society through constitutional and legal reforms, planned development

based on a mixed economy and state support to welfare activities.

These steps have had their impact on the economic and social development of

women too. It gives free and compulsory education for all children up to the age of

fourteen, right to an adequate means of livelihood, equal pay for equal work and

maternity relief. The process of planned economic development in India began with

the launching of the First Five Year Plan in 1951. The Five Year Plans was

introduced by Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India. It is a detailed programme of

development of agriculture, industry, transport, trade and social services.

First Five Year Plan (1951-1956)

The First Five Year Plan (1951-1956) formulated welfare measures for

women. The first symbolic approach to Women’s Welfare began with the

establishment of the Central Welfare Board in 1953, under the Department of Social

and Women’s Welfare. It recognized the need for organizing women into Mahila

Mandals or Women’s Clubs.2

The First Five Year Plan mentions about the need for the development of

women as “Efforts to secure and economic progress will not secure substantial results

if women are not placed in a position to make their due contribution to the life of the

family and community.”3 The Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB) was set up in

August, 1953 during the First Five Year Plan. This Board undertook number of
 
2
Nancy David and V. Loganathan, Women And The Economy, Madras, 1993, p.444.
3
Report of the First Five Year Plan-A Draft Outline, Planning Commission, Government of
India, Delhi, 1951, p.232.

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welfare measures through the voluntary sectors. In the First Five Year Plan, the major

responsibility of developing women’s welfare services was placed on voluntary

organizations and it launched programme for health, nutrition and primary education

of children. Pre-primary education, however, continued to be the responsibility of

voluntary organizations.4 The plan was clubbed with the welfare of the disadvantaged

groups like destitute, disabled, aged, etc.

The First Five Year Plan focused its attention on the problem of high infant

and maternal mortality. It then undertook steps to develop school feeding schemes for

children and creation of nutrition sections in the public health departments, maternity

and child health centres.5 The CSWB undertook a number of welfare measures

through the voluntary sector. It was mainly welfare oriented as far as women’s issues

were concerned. The programmes for women were implemented through the National

Extension Service Programmes through Community Development Blocks.6

Second Five Year Plan (1956-1961)

The Issues for concern during the Second Five Year Plan were social, moral

and post care services. It focused on the problems of women workers. Policies were

initiated for equal pay for equal work. Provision of facilities for training to enable

women to compete for higher jobs and expansion of opportunities for part time

employment. The Plan stated that women should be protected against injurious work,

should receive maternity benefits and crèches to be established for children. This plan

continued the emphasis on overall expansion of educational facilities. Besides Mahila

 
4
Ashok Kumar, Women in Contemporary Indian Society, (Vol. I), New Delhi, 1993, p.280.
5
Op.cit., Jaspreet Kaur Soni, p.213.
6
Factsheet on Women in India, (DCWC)-Documentation centre on women and children, National
Institute of Public Cooperation and Child Development, New Delhi, 2005, p.1.

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Mandals were organized by them to act focal points at the grass-root level for the

development of women.7

Third Five Year Plan (1961-1966)

The Third Five Year Plan accorded high priority to women’s education. It

launched important schemes like condensed school courses for adult women. The

third plan pinpointed female education as a major welfare strategy. In social welfare,

the largest share was provided for expanding rural welfare schemes and condensed

courses of education. The basic strategies for health care in terms of expansion of

physical infrastructure continued. The health programmes concentrated mainly on the

provision of services for maternal and child welfare, health education, nutrition and

family planning.

Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-1974)

The Fourth Five Year Plan provided for some more developmental

programmes to augment women’s welfare. But these measures were meant to benefit

both men and women. The Drought Prone Area Programme was started in 1973

aiming at an integrated area development for optimum utilization of land, water and

human resources through a water shed management approach to mitigate the effects

of drought. Similarly Desert Development Programme was also launched to control

desertification and to maintain the ecological balance. These programmes were

expected to trickle down the benefits of growth to the rural poor, both men and

women.

 
7
Op.cit., V. S. Ganesamurthy, p.220.

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The Balwadi Nutrition Programme is another programme being implemented

since 1970-1971 to cater to the social and emotional development of children in the

age group of 3-5 years, apart from providing supplementary nutrition to them. A

central scheme of assistance for construction of hostel buildings for working women

was initiated in 1972. Financial assistance was given to voluntary organizations for

construction or expansion of hostel buildings for working women. The Fourth Plan

continued the emphasis on women’s education and it provided incentives such as free

text books and scholarships for girls.8

Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-1979)

The Fifth Five Year Plan which aimed at an integration of welfare with

developmental services focused on socio-economic condition of women and gave

priority for training of women in need of care and protection and for working women.

The Fifth Five Year Plan initiated programmes for functional literacy of women to

equip them with skills and knowledge and for the first time it formulated schemes for

the provision of resources to women to facilitate development.9

A major thrust in the Fifth Plan was to offer equality of opportunities as part

of the overall plan of ensuring social justice and improving the quality of education

imparted. It is only during the Fifth Plan a separate Bureau of Women’s Welfare and

Development (WWD) was set up in 1976 as part of the erstwhile Department of

Social Welfare in order to intensity the country-wide efforts launched during the

International Year of the Women. International Women’s Year (1975) and the

International Women’s Decade (1975-1985) were celebrated for the empowerment of

 
8
Op.cit., Nancy David and V. Loganathan, pp.447-448.
9
D. Janaki, Women’s Issues (Perspectives from Social History), Chennai, 2001, p.5.

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women. It established Women’s Welfare and Development Bureau in 1976 under the

ministry of social welfare to promote the women’s programmes and plans.

At the State level, the department of social welfare with the separate section of

women and child welfare looked after the development activities for women and

children. The Bureau was entrusted with the major responsibility of implementing the

National Plan of Action for Women besides coordinating the activities relating to

women’s welfare and development.10

Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-1985)

For the first time in the history of planning, the Sixth Five Year Plan

introduced a chapter on Women and Development. This Plan was a landmark in the

history of women’s development as it received recognition, as one of the

developmental sectors and was included in the sixth plan as a separate chapter for the

first time in the history of developmental planning. The Sixth Plan, adopted a

multi-disciplinary approach with a three pronged thrust on health, education and

employment. Hence varieties of programmes were taken up under different sectors of

development to ameliorate the socio-economic status of women.

A new scheme, namely Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas

(DWCRA), was started in 1982-1983 in the blocks of the country. The Central and

State Governments, are the funding partners of this scheme. This programme brings

together 15 to 20 women in a group under an organizer, with a view to taking up

 
10
Op.cit., Jaspreet Kaur Soni, p.213.

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economically viable activities. Many Voluntary Organizations were requested to avail

funds from the Government for the schemes and to benefit women.11

Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-1990)

In the Seventh Five Year Plan, the developmental programmes for women

continued with the major objectives of raising their economic and social status and to

bring them into the mainstream of national development. A significant step in this

direction was to identify or promote the ‘beneficiary-oriented programmes’ for

women in different developmental sectors which extend direct benefits to women.12

The Establishment of Women Development Corporation during this plan period, is a

new approach to provide better employment awareness for women. After that they

become economically independent and self-reliant.

As a result, various State Governments began setting up Women’s

Corporation under the aegis of Central Government. Like that, Tamil Nadu

Corporation for Development of Women was established in 1983. Moreover, women

studies centre’s were initiated in the universities. Thus, the Seventh Plan asked for the

empowerment of women which received prominence in the Eighth Plan.13

Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-1997)

The Eighth Five Year Plan promises to ensure that the benefits of

development from different sectors do not bypass women and special programmes

will be implemented to complement the general development programmes. The flow

of benefits to women in the three core sectors of education, health and employment
 
11
A. M. Shah, B. S. Baviskar, E. A. Ramaswamy, Social Structure And Change (Vol. II): Women in
Indian Society, New Delhi, 1996, p.89.
12
Op.cit., V. S. Ganeshamurthy, pp.12-13.
ϭϯ
Ibid., pp.221-222. 

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were monitored vigilantly. Women were enabled to function as equal partners and

participants in the developmental process. This approach to the Eighth Plan marks a

definite shift from ‘development’ to ‘empowerment’ of women.

Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002)

The Ninth Five Year Plan adopted ‘Women Component Plan’ as one of the

major strategies and directed both the Central and State Governments to ensure not

less than 30 percent of the funds are earmarked in all the women’s related sectors.14

The Ninth Plan represents a major take-off outlining “Empowerment of Women” as

an objective of the overall plan. For the first time, in the history of planned

development, women will have a sub-plan to accompany the main plan. Therefore

based on the plans and policies of women, various programmes have been formulated

by the Government both at the Union and State levels during different time-periods.

In September, 1985 a Department of Women and Child Development under

the Ministry of Human Resources Development was established in India. Further,

National Commission for Women was set up in 1992 and Tamil Nadu Commission in

1993. The members of the Commission meet to study the various problems faced by

women and listen to public grievances. The Women Cells were set up in the Central

Ministries or Development of Labour and Industry. Recently the National Resources

Centre for Women was set up under the national machinery for the purpose of

training and policy research.

The Ninth Plan approved retrospectively in 1999, has important objectives for

Women’s Development. For the first time, it states categorically that for empowering

 
14
Ibid., p.13.

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women as the agents of social change and development, a ‘National Policy for

Empowerment of Women’ would be formulated. The Ninth Five Year Plan

envisaged: a) Empowerment of women and socially disadvantaged groups such as

Scheduled Castes, Scheduled tribes and Other Backward Classes and Minorities as

agents of socio-economic change and development. In the field of development, the

Plan discusses, for the first time, the need for reservation of seats for women in

Parliament and the State Legislative Assemblies.

The Ninth Plan also proposes to ensure 30 percent representation of women in

the public sector and provides a larger entry for women, in the premier Civil Services.

In the field of health, the emphasis would, as usual, be on reproductive health. In

education, besides ensuring gender equality, it would initiate plans for free education

of girls up to the college level and greater vocational training for them.

To increase women’s participation in the industrial development of the

country, the Plan proposes to set up a ‘Development Bank for Women Entrepreneurs’

for assisting them in the small and tiny sector. In agriculture, greater assistance and

share would be ensured through the rural development employment schemes.15

The most important resolve of the Plan is to have a special women’s

component in the plan to ensure 30 percent flow of funds to women development

sectors,16 b) Promoting and developing people’s participatory institutions like

Panchayat Raj institutions, cooperatives and self-help groups, c) Strengthening efforts

to build self-reliance, d) The convergence of services from different sectors and e) A

 
ϭϱ
Mira Seth, Women and Development, The Indian Experience, New Delhi, 2001, p.65. 
16
Ibid., p.65.

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Women’s Component Plan at the Central and State levels. The Ninth Plan made

significant changes in the conceptual strategy of planning for Women Development.

Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007)

The Tenth Five Year Plan was formulated to ensure requisite access of women

to information, resources and services and advance gender equality goals.17 The

Tenth Plan, reinforced commitment to gender budgeting to establish its

gender-differential impact and to translate gender commitments into budgetary

commitments.18 This Plan continues with the strategy of “Empowering Women” as an

agent of social change and development through Social Empowerment, Economic

Empowerment and Gender Justice.19

In the Social Empowerment, this Plan creates an enabling environment

through various affirmative developmental policies and programmes for development

of women, besides providing them easy and equal access to all the basic minimum

services so as to enable them to realize their full potentials.

In the Economic Empowerment, this Plan ensure provision of training,

employment and income-generation activities with both ‘forward’ and ‘backward’

linkages with the ultimate objective of making all potential women economically

independent and self-reliant. In Gender Justice, this plan eliminate all forms of gender

discrimination and thus, allow women to enjoy not only de-jure but also the de-facto

rights and fundamental freedom on par with men in all spheres, namely political,

economic, social, civil, cultural, etc. The Plan has also focused on the welfare and

development of women, scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward

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classes. The ultimate idea of planning is to bring all sections of society to the

mainstream of socio-economic development. The success of democracy in India

depends upon the successful working of these development plans.20

Women in Panchayat Raj Institutions

Women are changing governance in India. They are being elected to local

councils in unprecedented numbers as a result of amendments to the Constitution that

mandate the reservation of seats for women in local government.21 Tamil Nadu was

the first to implement 33% reservation in the Panchayat Raj for women.22 In India, we

call this new system as the PRIs. The women whom PRIs has brought into politics are

now governing.23 The goal of this PRIs is to bring about the advancement,

development and empowerment of women. The Constitution of India has provided

reservation of seats for women in Panchayats and Municipalities. It lays a strong

foundation for their participation in decision-making at the local levels.24 The highest

national priority must be the unleashing of women power in governance. That is the

single most important source of societal energy that we have kept corked for half a

century.

Through the experience of the Indian Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRI) one

million women have actively entered political life in India. The local elected bodies

reserve one-third of their seats for women, have spearheaded an unprecedented social

experiment which is playing itself out in more than 5,00,000 villages that are home to

more than 600 million people. Since the creation of the quota system, local
 
20
W. Anlet Sobithabai, Contemporary History of India (1947-2004 A.D.), Marthandam, 2005,
p.99.
21
Op.cit., D. Sundar Ram, p.139. 
22
The Hindu, Tamil Nadu Edition, Madurai, 28.10.2009, p.7.
23
Op.cit., D. Sundar Ram, p.139.
24
Ibid., p.142.

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women-the vast majority of them illiterate and poor-have come to occupy as much as

43% of the seats, spurring the election of increasing numbers of women at the district,

provincial and national levels.

The positive discrimination of PRI has initiated a momentum of change.

Women’s entry into local government in such large numbers, often more than the

required 33.3%, and their success in campaigning, including the defeat of male

candidates, has shattered the myth that women are not interested in politics, and have

no time to go to meetings or to undertake all the other work that is required in

political party processes.25

Women leaders in the Panchayat Raj are transforming local governance by

sensitizing the State to issues of poverty, inequality and gender justice. Through the

PRI, they are tackling issues that had previously gone virtually unacknowledged,

including water, alcohol abuse, education, health and domestic violence. Women are

seeing this power as a chance for a real change for them and for their children and are

using it to demand basic facilities like primary schools and health care centres.

Transforming the prevailing social discrimination against women must

become the top priority, and must happen concurrently with increased direct action to

rapidly improve the social and economic status of women. In this way, a synergy of

progress can be achieved. The PRIs will play a central role in the process of

enhancing women’s participation in public life. The PRI has also brought about

significant transformations in the lives of women themselves, who have become

 
Ϯϱ
Op.cit., Lalit Upadhayay, pp.220-221.

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empowered, and have gained self-confidence, political awareness and affirmation of

their own identity.26

Policies and Programmes for Women’s Welfare and Development

Development in its wider perspective covers all aspects of community life.

The accepted goals of national development such as maximum production, full

employment and attainment of economic equality and social justice apply equally to

men and women. Our Constitution therefore stresses the urgent need for promoting

the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people; and as

women are handicapped by social customs and traditions, they need special attention

to help them to play their full and proper role in national life.

Plan and Women’s Development

Women’s Development has been one of the major targets of the development

programmes introduced by the Government. The Planning Commission has defined

three major areas for Women’s Development. They are: Education, Health and

Welfare. There has been a continued emphasis on women’s education in all the

plans.27 The other programmes for women mainly concentrated on maternal and child

welfare services, health, nutrition and family planning. As regards social welfare, the

voluntary sector operated the bulk of the programmes, the efforts of the Government

being confined to provide institutional services.

There is a three-tier structure for planning and administering women’s welfare

and development programmes with agencies at the Central, State and Local level.

 
26
Ibid., pp.221-222.
27
C. M. Agarwal, Dimensions of Indian Womanhood,(Vol. II), India, 1993, p.297.

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However, the major responsibility for implementing these programmes lies on

various departments and other agencies of Government. All round development of

women and children constitutes an important component of human resource

development.

In order to revitalize the existing development programmes for women and

children, a separate Department of Women and Child Development was set up under

the newly created Ministry of Human Resource Development in September 1985. The

National Plan of Action for Women was introduced in 1976 which provides

guidelines in formulating policies and programmes for the welfare and development

of women in the country. The Women’s Bureau in the Department is the national

machinery for coordinating the implementation of policies and programmes.28

At the Centre, the main agencies for planning and implementation are the

Planning Commission, Ministry of Education and Social Welfare Board and National

Council of Women’s Education, Ministry of Health and Family Planning, Ministry of

Home Affairs and Ministry of Labour and Employment. At the State level, there is no

uniform pattern and the programmes for women are administered by a large number

of departments.29

The Department of Women and Child Development

The Department of Women and Child Development was set up in 1985 by the

Ministry of Human Resource Development. It plans and executes programmes for

women besides monitoring the programmes meant for women in other ministries and

 
28
Op.cit., Sahab Deen Maurya, pp.8-9.
29
Status of Women in India, Synopsis of the Report of the National Committee on the Status
of Women (1971-1974), The Indian Council of Social Science Research, New Delhi, 1975,
pp.116-118.

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departments. The activities of the Department are carried out through four bureau,

namely Child Development, Child Welfare, Women’s Development and Women’s

Welfare.

The Department has four autonomous organizations like, National Institute of

Public Cooperation and Child Development, Central Social Welfare Board and

National Commission for Women. These organizations are fully funded by the

Government of India. In 1987, the STEP (Support to Training-cum-Employment for

Women) system was launched with the aim of developing entrepreneurial skills, with

a view to empowering poor women and promoting sustainable livelihoods for them in

traditional sectors of economy. The scheme is being implemented through public

sector organizations, state corporations, district rural development agencies,

cooperatives and voluntary organizations. It gives job opportunities for women who

belong to the lower rank of the society.30

Welfare Programmes

The status of women is one of the important measures for nation’s

development. A welfare state like India has the responsibility to render special

services to the weaker sections like handicapped, women and children to improve

their economic and social condition. After Independence all round efforts have been

made to promote the welfare of women. Promotion of the welfare of women is one of

the most important social welfare programme under implementation. The

programmes to promote women’s welfare and development have been evolved

separately for rural and urban areas. Apart from certain general programmes there are

others meant for specific groups of women.

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(A) Programmes in Rural Areas: It aims to train and mobilize women in villages

for their development and are modeled on Gandhian ideas for women’s progress.

Education, health services and socio-economic programmes (in the form of khadi and

village industries) to relieve economic distress formed the three prongs of this

composite programme. The Board was set up to provide various services for women,

children and handicapped. The Central Social Welfare Board was the first

organization in post-independence era established to achieve people’s participation

for implementation of welfare and development programmes for women and children

by NGO’s.

Tamil Nadu has been a pioneer in implementing programmes for the

development of women and children. Various welfare schemes have been introduced

to improve the living conditions of women and to increase their access to basic

essential services like health, nutrition, child care, maternal care etc.31

The Board organized family welfare projects in urban areas to women of

lower income group families in order to help them. In 1954, when the CSWB decided

to launch the Welfare Extension Projects (WEP), this three-fold approach was

adopted as the basic framework and their activities included Balwadis, maternity

services and general medical aid, social education and craft training for women.

In 1966, 1,629 centres of WEP were handed over to Mahila Mandals run by

voluntary agencies. On the recommendation of the CSWB and an Evaluation

Committee of the WEP, it was decided to develop a countrywide programme of

integrated welfare services for children and thus the scheme of Family and Child

 
31
Policy Note (1998-1999), Social Welfare and Nutritious Meal Programme Department,
Government of Tamil Nadu, Chennai, 1998, p.4.

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Welfare Projects (F & CWP) was initiated in 1967 and funded by the Central and

State Governments. The services provided by F & CWP are: integrated services to the

pre-school child, training to young mothers including home management, health

education, nutrition education and child care, assistance to women through Mahila

Mandals and existing well the agencies and cultural education and recreational

activities.

In the First Plan, Maternity and Child Welfare Services were taken up by the

Ministry of Health as part of the overall development programme in health. Mahila

Mandals were organized in villages and blocks for promoting women’s programmes.

Various villages’ functionaries needed for these development schemes were trained

by Government agencies and Non-Governmental Organizations such as the

Kasthuriba Memorial Trust, Visva Bharati and Jamia Millia with assistance from the

CSWB.32

B) Programmes in Urban Areas: Apart from some Welfare Extension Projects,

most programmes in urban areas have been left to voluntary organizations receiving

grants from the Central Social Welfare Board. The best known is the scheme for

Working Women’s Hostels.

C) Other Programmes include, condensed courses of education for adult women

and socio-economic programmes (e.g. training-cum-production centre’s in simple

crafts), which were initially started for the rehabilitation of refugee women and were

later on taken up by the CSWB to provide an extra source of income to needy

women. The CSWB also provides financial assistance to voluntary welfare

 
ϯϮ
Ibid., Status of Women in India, Synopsis of the Report of the National Committee on the Status of
Women (1971-1974), p.129. 

125



institutions and cooperative societies for small production units. A number of

Ministries such as Railways, Labour, Agriculture and Community Development have

schemes for providing craft training for women.

Governmental Administration of Welfare Programmes

The State Governments give still lower priority to social welfare programmes.

The policy for Women’s Welfare and Development is limited to education or welfare

of special groups such as handicapped or destitute women. Local administrations

show even more apathy to women’s welfare programmes.33 The welfare services for

women in the State have been in operation for over two decades. The Women’s

Welfare Department in the State came into being in 1947. The Community

Development Blocks followed by National Extension Services were started in

1952-1954.

The State Social Welfare Board was established in 1954. The three agencies,

namely, Women’s Welfare Department, State Social Welfare Board and the Women

Staff of the Community Development Programme were integrated into a single

Directorate for Women’s Welfare in 1961 because all the three agencies were

undertaking development activities for women and children mostly in rural areas. The

Government has recently issued orders to continue the merged State Social Welfare

Board as an Advisory Board.

At the State level, the Director of Women’s Welfare is the Head of the

Department and is assisted by two Deputy Directors, one for programmes and the

other for Child Welfare. During 1971-1972, the Government also appointed a Special

 
33
Ibid., p.130.

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Nutrition Officer for implementation of the Special Nutrition Programme of the

Government of India. At the District Level, one District Women’s Welfare Officer is

in charge of the Departmental Programmes in the District.34

The Department of Social Welfare issued certain activities together and

classifies the programmes into four categories as follows. The Training Programmes,

includes Secondary Grade Teacher’s Training Course, Secretarial Course, Tailoring

etc., The Welfare Programmes, includes minimum programmes which cover Mahalir

Mandrams in Panchayat Unions and Mahalir Mandrams in Police Lines and

composite programmes for women and pre-school children; The other items, includes

service homes for the socially handicapped women, hostels for working women,

women’s welfare branches and work centres and production units; and The Child

care, includes Pre-schools, Family and Child Welfare projects and the Special

Nutrition Programmes.35

Government Measures

In the area of legal measures, the Government has taken two or three measures

in the direction of providing justice to women. Similarly the Central Government for

the first time has appointed a women minister with cabinet rank to deal with women’s

issues. Another useful step taken by the Government is a National Plan of Legal

Literacy. It is very necessary that the mass of women are aware of their legal status

and also procedures to be followed in times of trouble. Liberal policies have some

role to play for the welfare of women. The national machinery set up in India to

 
34
G.O.No.183, Extract from the Report of Welfare Programme for Women and Children,
Issued by the Department of Social Welfare, Government of Tamil Nadu, 1972, pp.1-2.
35
Welfare Programmes for Women and Children for 1972-1973, Social Welfare Department,
Government of Tamil Nadu, Chennai, March 1972, pp.20-21.

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develop policies and programmes for women.36 The Government sponsored

Employment Guarantee scheme, food for work programme and health. Many

Women’s Organizations have schemes for employment generation through activities

like making pickles, snacks, papads, stitching of garments etc.37

Women employed in various income generating activities like running

crèches, sewing garments etc. They also run working women’s hostels in various

cities. They get a huge amount of grant from the Government.38 Many Women’s

Organizations that take up social problems like dowry, wife-beating, prostitution,

rape are faced with acute problems regarding rehabilitation of women victims of

violence. Hence, even though their main activity is to fight for women’s rights, they

have to start developmental projects in the fields of health, education and

employment that would make the women self-dependent.39

Role of Women’s Organizations

One of the striking developments in recent times is the revitalization of

Women’s Organizations. Women’s Indian Association (WIA) is the mother of all

other Women’s Organizations in the State.40 The Women Indian Association was one

of the prominent and the pioneer of the social reform oriented voluntary organizations

in Tamil Nadu which was founded on 8th May 1917 at Madras by Annie Besant and

Margaret Cousins an Irish feminist who came to India in 1915 and Dorothy

Jinarajadasa’s wife of Srilanka theosophist.41 But it was started on 1923. In 1927 it

 
36
Neera Desai, Vibhuti Patel, Indian Women Change and Challenge in the International Decade
1975-1985, Bombay, 1985, pp.48-49.
37
Ibid., p.50.
38
Ibid., p.51.
39
Ibid., p.54.
40
V. Rajalakshmi, The Political Behaviour of Women in Tamil Nadu, New Delhi, 1985, p.133.
41
P. Jagadeesan, Marriage and Social Legislations in Tamil Nadu, Madras, 1990, p.99.

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had 43 branches and 2,300 members and increated to 80 branches and 4,000 members

by 1937. It was mainly concerned with influencing the Government policy on

women’s suffrage, education and social reform issues.

The Women’s Indian Association has rendered valuable services to the cause

of the upliftment of women. The main objectives of WIA are: To secure women the

right of education, to secure the abolition of child marriages and other social evils like

dowry, sati, female infanticide etc., to secure adequate representation of women in

municipalities. It creates awareness among women as daughters in India, highlighting

the role of wives and mothers in training, guiding and forming the character of the

future rulers of India and to establish equality of rights and opportunities for

women.42 Throughout Tamil Nadu nearly 97 Women’s Organizations are working for

the welfare of women and children and they are working for raising the status of

women. The history of Women’s Indian Association shows that hundreds of women

received social and political training only through it.43

Role of Voluntary Organizations

In serving the cause of poor and women, Voluntary Organizations are

considered to be superior to the government for certain obvious reasons. The

members of Voluntary Organizations are willing to spend time energy and even

money for an activity which they think is good. This motivation and commitment

make them work more sincerely for the cause when compared to government

officials.44


    
42
Op.cit., W. Anlet Sobithabai, History of India (1761-1965 A.D.), pp.384-385.
43
Op.cit., V. Rajalakshmi, p.133.
44
Op.cit., Jaspreet Kaur Soni, p.220.

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The Voluntary Organizations are of many kinds but this is focused on the

activities of the organizations which are working for the promotion of women in

Tamil Nadu. The Voluntary Organizations which are dealing with the issues of

women can be classified as social reform oriented and social work oriented

organizations. The former take up the work of creating awareness among women

especially with the problems concerning women’s degradation in different walks of

life such as political, social, economic and cultural.45

Whereas the latter which propagate for betterment of women, working over

wider areas where women are given a chance to be actively involved in the

programme of action. These organizations are about 150 in number in Tamil Nadu.

There are nearly 90 social work Voluntary Organizations in Tamil Nadu. Among

them important are Pennurimai Iyakkam and Women’s Voluntary Service of

Tamil Nadu in Madras, Khajamalai Ladies Association in Trichy, Tamil Nadu

Samoogha Seva Sangam at Madurai, Sarada Widow Home at Salem and Women’s

Welfare Society at Coimbatore.

Pennurimai Iyakkam (PI) is one of the renowned Voluntary Organization in

Madras which was established in 14th April 1979. The main aim of this organization

involved in mobilizing women; organizing campaigns, meetings as well as working

for the betterment of the life of poor women; developing self-help in health and legal

issues; providing support and shelter to women who have been harassed or victims of

social oppression. Besides this means of rising consciousness, the PI uses techniques

like street play, skits on burning issues, feminists’ sons, posters, exhibitions, etc. It is

 
45
K. Vijaya, “Women In Transition And Voluntary Organisations In Tamil Nadu”, South Indian
History Congress, XV Annual Session, Berhampur, 1996, p.116.

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running a journal called “Pennurimai Kural” (Voice of Women’s Right) to implement

the ideologies.

There are very few organizations in Tamil Nadu which concentrate both on

social reform and social work activities, some of which are the Young Women’s

Christian Association and Joint Action Council for Women in Madras, Tamil Nadu

Pengal Nala Sangam (Tamil Nadu Women’s Welfare Association) at Trichy, Institute

for Youth and Development at Madurai and Women’s Development Association at

Coimbatore. These organizations aim at reforming the society by involving

themselves in social activities for the rehabilitation of women in building awareness

of their rights and responsibilities as citizens of this country. Voluntary welfare

programmes co-exist with governmental programmes and provide a supportive base

to them since it is not possible for Government to look after all the welfare needs of

the people.46

Voluntary Organizations, whose basic assets are flexibility, and greater

capacity for experimentation, nearness to the people and sensitivity to new problems

could be of great assistance. Few organizations have worked among rural women. In

some cases, the grant was given for administration and maintenance while, in other

cases, for programmes only. Apart from the CSWB’s grants-in-aid programme, there

is no machinery to co-ordinate the efforts of these agencies and ensure even

distribution. The resources of majority of these organizations are inadequate to

maintain trained staff. The relative importance of the role of the state and the role of

 
ϰϲ
Op.cit., Status of Women in India, Synopsis of the Report of the National Committee on the
Status of Women (1971-1974), p.131. 

131



voluntary agencies has been engaging attention of the planners, policy-makers,

administrators and social workers.47

The Role of NGO’s in Women’s Development in Tamil Nadu

The Non-Governmental Organizations are playing a significant role in the

empowerment of disadvantaged women. In Tamil Nadu, “Stree Seva Mantir” and

Punjab Association is doing remarkable services for the empowerment of women.

This paper deals with activities of these two NGO’s in Tamil Nadu. The main

objectives of these organizations are the institutional care, education, vocational

training, production-cum-training community welfare and rural development. And it

has been implementing multifarious programmes touching the social, educational,

cultural, health and economical aspects of the poorest section of the population

particularly on the economically weaker sections of the women community.48

Stree Seva Mantir

Stree Seva Mantir was established on October 2, 1949. This organization

functions as a network of the institutions in the city of Chennai in Sali gramam,

Virugampakkam, Ashok Nagar, Sai Nagar and Melathur village near Kancheepuram.

The pioneer activity and objective of this organization is the economic empowerment

of women and create employment opportunity to them. This organization gets its

monetary support from the government aided organization, banks etc. The first

activity of this organization is the selection of women, training the women and makes

them the beneficiaries of the loan within a short period.

 
47
Ibid., p.131.
ϰϴ
Op.cit., V. S. Ganesamurthy, p.231.

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The important areas of training are tailoring, weaving, mat making, coir

making, etc. The women who are below 22 years are eligible for this training. The

training period ranges from three months to 12 months. After the completion of the

training, those who are in need of employment were provided the same in the

particular organization itself.

The small scale production scheme was started in the year 1958. They receive

the grant-in-aid from the State Social Welfare Board and submit the reports to the

government. There are 10 production units in it. They are soft toys, electronics,

bakery, precision works, printing press, weaving, tailoring and a showroom of

manufactured products of the weaving unit. The scheme actually helps the women to

develop the skill of self confidence and to achieve economic independence with

social status.49

Punjab Association

The Punjab Association was established in the 1950s. It is a service based

organization beneficing few people from particular section of the community i.e., the

people who live in slum areas of the city of Chennai. This association was successful

in implementing various programmes for the development and empowerment of

women like establishing programmes through the formal educational and non formal

educational units, vocational training centre’s for women in and around Chennai.50

The positive aspects of the NGO’s can be listed follows: a) Generating

self-confidence among the women, b) Women get recognition as economic entity,

c) Women get to know about the outside world, d) They get platform to expose

 
49
Ibid., pp.231-232.
50
Ibid., pp.232-233.

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themselves. Immediately after independence the Union Government set up the

Central Social Welfare Board, an apex body of the voluntary sector that aids more

than 10,000 NGOs, which are promoting the programmes of socio-economic

development of women.

The Department of Women and Child Development has been implementing

special programmes for empowerment of women with major focus to improve their

socio-economic status.51 The post-independence era witnessed a phenomenon

increase in the number of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). There are many

organizations functioning with different objectives, size and command over

resources. They are classified into Governmental Organizations and

Non-Governmental Organizations.

The major Government Organizations are the development departments of

Government, Special development agencies, Corporations and Institutions like

NABARD (National Bank for Agricultural and Rural Development). Among

Non-Governmental Organizations, major constituents are individual development

entrepreneurs, trusts, co-operatives, voluntary organizations and Mahila Samajans.52

One of its main functions was to provide financial assistance to Voluntary

Organizations in order to develop them. As a result of this, in a short span of time,

thousands of NGOs came into existence. Thus the NGOs have played a vital role in

empowering women along with the efforts of Governmental Organizations.53

 
51
G. John Gilbert, Contemporary History of India, New Delhi, 2006, p.261.
52
Op.cit., Nirmala Jeyaraj, p.108.
53
Anju Bhatia, Women’s Development and NGOs, New Delhi, 2000, p.30.

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Women Empowerment Programs

The empowerment of women is one of the central issues in the process of

development of countries all over the world. The term empowerment is related to the

poor, backward class people and women particularly the women of disadvantaged

group of people. In short, empowerment is all about social transformation and all

about the disadvantaged people. Empowerment is related to the development of a

group of people or the section of people in matters of education, health, nutrition and

employment. Empowerment is also related to the participation of marginalized group

of people including women in political bodies. Tamil Nadu has a glorious tradition of

recognizing the importance of empowering women over several centuries.

“Empowering women is a prerequisite for creating a good nation, when

women are empowered, society with stability is assured. Empowerment of women is

essential as their value systems lead to the development of a good family, good

society and ultimately good nation”. – Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam.54

Women Empowerment refers to strengthening women’s position in social,

economic and political power structure of the society. Empowerment of women is

gaining added significance in the Indian context owing to their greater participation in

developmental activities. Empowerment is influenced by a host of socio-economic,

political and cultural factors. In the words of Bharadwaj, Empowerment of women is

basically determined by their socio-economic status. Socio-economic status would

there-fore be a ranking of an individual by the society he or she lives in terms of his

 
54
S. Shiny, Women Empowerment Programs, Department of Management Studies and
Research, Child Development Programs, Coimbatore, 2011, p.1.

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or her material belongings and cultural possessions along with the degree of respect,

power and influence he or she wields.55

Economic Empowerment of Women

The status of any section of population in society depends upon its economic

position. Paul Hoffman has said, “There is a close relationship between the status of

women and the state of economic development in any country”. The economic status

of women is considered as the indication of a society’s development. The real

indicators to measure the economic status of women are the level of economic

independence and equality in a society. In a society of high strategies, the status and

position of women naturally differs from region to region. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru

said, “When women moves forward, the family moves, the village moves and the

nation moves”.56 The increasing role of women in economic activities has a great

potential for the development of the economy.

However, the tendency to offer a marginalized status of women in the

patriarchal milieu warrants an increased exposure to women’s economic activities in

the changing tempo of development. The economic contribution of women has

become a source of wealth to any economy and one cannot afford to think of an

economy devoid of women as human capital, and their contribution towards the

aggregate production.

The character and pace of economic and social development depends

considerably on the nature and the quantum of human resources available in a

country. Economists would agree that human resources constitute the ultimate basis
 
55
Op.cit., A. Ranga Reddy, p.3.
56
Plans and Prospects of Social Welfare in India (1951-1961), Report of the Planning
Commission, Government of India, Delhi, 1963, p.28.

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for the wealth of nations; capital and natural resources are passive factors of

production.

Developing countries like India are endowed with abundant human resources

but to what extent they could be utilized effectively depends on the quality resulting

from investment in education. Human resources undoubtedly include women who

constitute about half the population of each country in the world and their

contribution to economic development need to be underscored.57

Economy promotes (a) Women’s rights and independence, including access to

employment, appropriate working conditions and control over economic resources,

(b) It facilitate women’s equal access to resources, employment, markets and trade,

(c) Provide business services, training and access to markets, information and

technology, particularly to low income women, (d) It strengthen women’s economic

capacity and commercial networks, (e) It eliminate occupational segregation and all

forms of employment discrimination, (f) Promote harmonization of work and family

responsibilities for women.58 The following measures will generate additional income

leading to economic independence of women. It encourages changes in personal laws

such as those related to marriage, divorce, maintenance and guardianship so as to

eliminate discrimination against women.59

Almost most women in India work and contribute to the economy in one

form. Women plough fields and harvest crops while working on farms; they weave

and make handicrafts while working in household industries; they sell food and

gather wood while working in the informal sector. Additionally, women are

 
57
Op.cit., Nancy David and V. Loganathan, pp.3-4.
58
Op.cit., Factsheet on Women in India, 2005, p.10.
59
Op.cit., V. S. Ganesamurthy, p.170.

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traditionally responsible for the daily household chores. Since the Indian culture

hinders women’s access to jobs in stores, factories and the public sector, the informal

sector is particularly important for women. There are estimates that over 90 percent of

working women are involved in the informal sector.60

The modern economic sector provided women with new opportunities for

employment. The industries which have special benefits to the women are khadi,

hand pounding of rice, toy-making, handloom weaving, printing, dyeing, silk

weaving, coir making, wool spinning, beedi making, leather work, bamboo work etc.

The Central Social Welfare Board introduced Dairy Scheme in 1973 to assist rural

women. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research initiated a scheme in 1975-1976

to train women in simple technologies.61

With the object of training destitute women in the age group of 18-50 years in

marketable skills, a scheme for setting up rehabilitation centre’s was started in 1977.

The employment and income generating production units were started in 1982-1983

for setting up projects aimed at income generation and employment on a sustained

basis to needy women. A new scheme for setting up of Women’s Development

Corporations in all the states has been formulated during 1986-1987. The objective of

the scheme is to provide better employment avenues for women so that they can

become economically independent and self-reliant.62

 
60
Op.cit., Jaspreet Kaur Soni, pp.195-196.
61
Sushma Singhal, Development of Education, Occupation and Employment of Women in India,
Delhi, 1995, p.131.
62
“India 1987”, Report of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, New
Delhi, 1987, p.223.

138



Women in the Economy of Tamil Nadu

Women play an important role in the economy of Tamil Nadu. The female

population in Tamil Nadu has a lower work participation level when compared to

male. In the field of agriculture, the participation of women labour force is very

predominant. They also work as labourers in industries. Some of the women also are

self-employed.

Female work participation had increased both in rural and urban areas in the

recent years.63 The Tamil Nadu Government has taken several measures to improve

the social and economic status of women. These measures have played a significant

role in the economic and social progress for women.64

Women and Agriculture

Women carry out the bulk of work in agricultural production. Women are

principally engaged in agriculture or in the unorganized sector as construction

workers, petty hawkers and vendors and in traditional home based occupations such

as basket and mat weaving, making bidi, lace and agarbathis, etc. Women are also

involved in marketing in certain traditional areas. Men, however, traditionally

undertake marketing of agricultural products. Women are involved in fish trading,

vegetable and flower vending and other areas of petty market trading. Similarly

women involved in handicraft occupations such as basket making, etc., and frequently

market their products in the local shandies (bazaars).

 
63
Tamil Nadu – An Economic Appraisal(1997-1998), Government of Tamil Nadu, Kuralagam,
Chennai, 1999, p.161.
64
Women in Tamil Nadu–A Profile, The Tamil Nadu Corporation for Development of Women,
Madras, 1986, p.68.

139



In view of the critical role of women in the agriculture and allied sectors, as

producers, concentrated efforts will be made to ensure that benefits of training,

extension and various programmes will reach them in proportion to their numbers.

The programmes for training women in soil conservation, social forestry, dairy

development and other occupations allied to agriculture like horticulture, livestock

including small animal husbandry, poultry, fisheries etc. will be expanded to benefit

women workers in the agriculture sector.65

Women and Industry

The important role played by women in electronics, information technology

and food processing and agro industry and textiles has been crucial to the

development of these sectors. They would be given comprehensive support in terms

of labour legislation, social security and other support services to participate in

various industrial sectors.66

Support Services

The provision of support services for women, like child care facilities,

including crèche, at work places and educational institutions, homes for the aged and

the disabled will be expanded and improved to create an enabling environment and to

ensure their full cooperation in social, political and economic life. Women-friendly

personnel policies will also be drawn up to encourage women to participate

effectively in the developmental process.67

 
65
Op.cit., S. Shiny, pp.3-4.
66
Op.cit., V. S. Ganesamurthy, p.138.
67
Op.cit., S. Shiny, p.4.

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Social Empowerment of Women

Economic progress in any country, whether developed or underdeveloped, can

be achieved and empowering women also contributes through social development.

Hence, women’s empowerment cannot be ignored, while devising various policies for

rural and socio economic development.

The low status of women is the outcome of a variety of causes in which

patriarchal values reinforced by tradition, media and other socio-political institution

play a major role. Thus, the institutional bases of women’s oppression have to be

sensitized to accept the gender equality and moreover, women’s perception of

themselves would also need to be changed.

Cultural traditions and economic necessity have always meant a significant

role for women in agriculture. In India it is not uncommon that women do not have

control over the land. Even where women constitute a larger share of agricultural

producers, there are cultural constraints to easy communication between men and

women, because almost all extension workers are men.

Health and Nutrition

Health and nutrition are two very important basic needs for empowerment of

rural women.68 A holistic approach to women’s health which includes both nutrition

and health services will be adopted and special attention will be given to the needs of

women and the girl at all stages of the life cycle. Women’s traditional knowledge

about health care and nutrition will be recognized through proper documentation and

its use will be encouraged. The use of Indian and alternative systems of medicine will
 
68
Op.cit., Jaspreet Kaur Soni, pp.51-52.

141



be enhanced within the framework of overall health infrastructure available for

women.69

Education

Education is the key which opens the door to life, develop humanity and

promotes national development. Education can be an effective tool for women’s

empowerment. It enables rural women to acquire new knowledge and technology

required for improving and developing their tasks in all fields.70 Equal access to

education for women and girls will be ensured. Special measures will be taken to

eliminate discrimination, universalize education, eradicate illiteracy, create a

gender-sensitive educational system, increase enrollment and retention rates of girls

and improve the quality of education to facilitate life-long learning as well as

development of occupation or vocation or technical skills by women.71

Education is the basic tool for empowering a women and it change women’s

position. Once she is educated and empowered, she is in a better position to take care

of herself and she becomes aware of her surroundings.72 Education can play a vital

role in bringing about the desirable behavioural changes among the women and make

them well equipped in terms of knowledge, competence and capacity to deal with

different political problems.73

 
69
Op.cit., V. S. Ganesamurthy, p.139.
70
Op.cit., Jaspreet Kaur Soni, p.51.
71
Op,cit., V. S. Ganesamurthy, p.139.
72
Alaka (M) Malwade Basu, Culture, the Status of Women and Demographic Behaviour: Illustrated
with the Case of India, London, 1992, p.66.
73
Op.cit., Jaspreet Kaur Soni, pp.207-208.

142



Housing and Shelter

Women’s perspectives will be included in housing policies, planning of

housing colonies and provision of shelter both in rural and urban areas. Special

attention will be given for providing adequate and safe housing and accommodation

for women including single women, heads of households, working women, students,

apprentices and trainees.

Environment

Women will be involved and their perspectives reflected in the policies and

programmes for environment, conservation and restoration. Considering the impact of

environmental factors on their livelihoods, women’s participation will be ensured in

the conservation of the environment and control of environmental degradation. The

vast majority of rural women still depends on the locally available non-commercial

sources of energy such as animal dung, crop waste and fuel wood. In order to ensure

the efficient use of these energy resources in an environmental friendly manner, the

policy will aim at promoting the programmes of non-conventional energy resources.74

Political Empowerment of Women

Condition of women will improve only when they share political power along

with men at every level. India’s development in the social, economic and political

fields is intrinsically linked with political empowerment of women. Ensuring gender

equality by removing gender discrimination is the key to real political empowerment

of women. Developing countries that have made remarkable social progress have

done so, primarily through political empowerment and promoting literacy, health and
 
74
Op.cit., S. Shiny, p.5.

143



economic wellbeing of women. A large number of women should be voted to

political power to participate in the decision making process.75

Women’s Reservation Bill

The then Honourable Prime Minister, Deve Gowda, introduced the Women’s

Reservation Bill on 12 September 1996. Tamil Nadu is the first state in India to have

introduced 33 percent reservation for women in Local Body Elections. The salient

features of the bill were: 33% of seats to be reserved for women in the Lok Sabha and

State Assemblies, 1/3rd of the seats to be reserved for SC, ST women and applicable

after the dissolution of the House or Assembly existent at the time that it was passed.

The pros and cons of the Bill were discussed in Parliament. All conceivable

stalling stumbling-blocks were raised to strangle the bill. Particularly, parties like

Samajwadi Party, Bahujan Samajwadi Party demanded quotas for OBCs and

minorities within the 33% reservation quota within the quota. With the result, the

Women’s Reservation Bill was stalled. After discussion, the Bill was referred to the

Joint Select Committee of the Parliament.76

Tamil Nadu: Women’s Rights and Empowerment

Tamil Nadu is one of the states, which have played a leading role in the

empowerment and development of women. ‘Empowerment of Women’ has become a

fashionable term nowadays. But long before the term became vogue, and feminine

movement came into existence. Periyar E.V.Ramaswamy, a great social revolutionary

of the 20th century worked for the improvement of the status of women and their

 
75
Op.cit., P. Venugopal, p.92.
76
G. Venkatesan, History of Contemporary India 1947-2007, Rajapalayam, 1991, p.351.

144



rights. He gave equal priority for raising the status of women, abolition of

untouchability and discrimination based on caste. He regretted that nearly 50 percent

of the man power of the country was wasted because of the slavery of women

(Pen Adimai).

Periyar advocated Self-Respect Marriage system not only to boycott Brahmin

priests and Brahministic rituals, but also to give a new idea of freedom and equality to

wedding couples. According to the concept of self-respect marriage, marriage is a

contract between men and women and it relates to the two persons concerned and it

has no divine bondage or anything of that sort. It approves ‘love marriage’ as against

‘arrange marriage’. It allows divorce at the instance of either partners and does not

consider marriage as a sacred agreement. Under the system, women have property

rights equal to men. It may be interesting to note here that Arignar Anna listed

legalization of self-respect marriages, as one of his main achievements, during his

short tenure as the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu.77

Periyar made some suggestions to bring about equality between men and

women. He also further preached about the equal education and employment

opportunities for girl children and women. E.V.R. under whose Presidentship the

South Indian Social Reformers’ Conference was held in Madras in 1928, spoke in his

Presidential address that, the education of women was essential to establish an

enlightened society.78 He felt that by reserving 50 percent of jobs to women, the

desire for having a male child would be checked and this would also help in family

planning (which in turn would control population growth). And women’s

 
77
Op.cit., A. Ranga Reddy, pp.334-335.
78
B. S. Chandra Babu, Social Protest In Tamil Nadu, Madras, 1993, p.107.

145



employment itself would directly lead to birth control and this could become an

excellent method of family planning.

Periyar condemned child marriages and emphasized the need for educating all

girl children and giving rights to young widows to get remarriage. He firmly believed

that the right to divorce of women was more essential safeguard for them. He was

against the practice of devadasi system. He viewed that, “The devadasi system was

introduced only in temples to please God”. Among the ills in the society, the practice

of keeping some women attached to temples as devadasis was a notable one.

In this regard, Muthulakshmi Reddy proposed a resolution at the Madras

Legislature that the devadasi system should be abolished. Periyar viewed that, the

devadasi system was a disgrace to Hindu religion. Thus Periyar suggested many

things for the empowerment of women. The Dravidian parties which have been in

power in Tamil Nadu since 1967 have implemented a number of schemes and

programmes for the welfare and empowerment of women.79

Tamil Nadu Corporation for Development of Women (TNCDW)

The original idea of the State Government was to provide more employment

opportunities to women. With this objective, the Tamil Nadu Corporation for

Development of Women Limited was incorporated in December 1983 with an

authorized share capital of 1.00 crore. This scheme is intended to promote economic

development and social empowerment of the poorest women through a network of

Self Help Groups formed with the active support of NGOs. The immediate goal of

Tamil Nadu Corporation for Development of Women is to ensure that all poor

 
79
Op.cit., A. Ranga Reddy, pp.334-335.

146



women particularly widows and destitute. The State and the Central Government

have contributed a sum of 10 lakhs each towards equity. The primary objective of this

Corporation is to promote employment opportunities for women.

The empowerment of women would ultimately lead to their economic

independence. The activities of the Corporation during the year 1986-1987 are as

follows: Sixty-four units at a total cost of 1.63 crores employing 1,424 women were

set up. During the same year the preliminary steps were taken for setting up of more

village industry units at a total cost of 7.24 lakhs. These units provided employment

to women. Proposals were also finalized for setting up 50 Cotton Spinning and Cotton

Weaving Units through the certified Sarvodaya institutions in different parts of

Tamil Nadu.80

The objectives of Tamil Nadu Corporation for Development of Women are

promoting socio-economic development and empowerment of women. The

Corporation for Development of Women has now been brought under the control of

Rural Development and Panchayat Raj Department in order to bring about greater

synergy and better coordination in implementing various socio-economic

development schemes for women.81

Women Entrepreneurs

We need more opportunities for the development of women entrepreneurship

in the socio-economic, industrial and commercial spheres so that women can play a

definite role in the economic development of the country and contribute significantly

 
ϴϬ
Op.cit., S. Shiny, pp.9-10.
ϴϭ
Ibid., p.10.

147



in the task of nation building.82 More and more educated women are become self

employed rather than seeking jobs.

The women entrepreneurs are active in the areas of garment making, coir

making, knitting, painting, fashion making, interior decoration, beauty parlour, pickle

making, soft drinks making, gems cutting, agarbathi making etc. A self employed

woman is more honoured than the job seekers. They give importance to justice, duty,

integrity and unity in the family and the society. The society in turn has to provide all

facilities to women entrepreneurs in the form of finance, training, partnership etc., in

order to utilize their managerial qualities.83

SEWA: An Organization, a Movement

The Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) was introduced in 1972 as

a trade union. It grew out of the Textile Labour Association (TLA), India’s oldest and

largest union of textile workers founded in 1920 by a women, Anasuya Sarabhai.

SEWA is an organization of poor, self-employed women workers. SEWA’s main

goal is to organize women workers for full employment which means employment

whereby workers obtain work security, income security, food security and social

security like health care, child care and shelter.

Gandhian thinking is the guiding force for SEWA’s poor, self-employed

members in organizing for social change. SEWA is both an organization and a

movement. It’s being a sangam or confluence of three movements enhances the

SEWA movement i.e. the labour movement, the cooperative movement and the

women’s movement. In particular, the growth of many new cooperatives, a more

148



militant trade union and many supportive services has given SEWA a new shape and

direction.84

Swashakti Project

The Swashakti Project known as Rural Women’s Development and

Empowerment Project was sanctioned on 16th October, 1998. It is a

centrally-sponsored project. The project aimed at enhancing women’s access to

resources for better quality of life through health, literacy, confidence enhancement

and increasing their control over income through their involvement in skill

development and income generating activities.85

Women Self-Help Groups

The formation, grading and training of Women’s Self Help Groups is being

done by Tamil Nadu Corporation for Development of Women which is under the

administrative control of Social Welfare and Nutritious Meal Programme

Department.86 Women SHGs is a voluntary union for women for their social and

economic welfare. It’s only aim is the empowerment of women. A small homogenous

group of poor women consisting of 12 to 20 members voluntarily formed to promote

savings and mutually agreeing to contribute a common fund to be lent to its members

as per the group’s decision is called as “Self Help Group” (SHG).

Muhanad Yunaz, a social worker started women self help group movement in

West Bengal in 1980’s. Initially he collected 20 women who were disabled, widows

and poor and inculcated in them the habit of savings. It proved to be a grand success

 
84
Op.cit., G. John Gilbert, pp.261-262.
85
Op.cit., Jaspreet Kaur Soni, p.31.
86
G.O.Ms.No.81, Social Welfare and Nutritious Meal Programme Department, 20.07.2006.

149



inspiring social thinkers and workers all over the country. In the year 1982-1983,

Prime Minister Indira Gandhi started Women SHGs in the name of Development of

Women and Children Rural Areas as a joint scheme of Central Government rural

development scheme.

The unique feature of the SHG is its ability to inculcate among its members

sound habits of thrift, savings and banking. Due to this quality SHGs have been

recognized as useful vehicles to help the poor in accessing financial resources, which

were hitherto not available to them and has helped them break away from the clutches

of exploitative moneylenders. The members have to be in the age group of 18-60

years. Regular savings, periodic meetings, compulsory attendance and systematic

training are the salient features of the SHG concept. Under this scheme the SHGs

have got loans only for women in the rural areas.

SHG is a group of rural poor who have volunteered to organize themselves

into a group for eradication of poverty of the members. They agree to save regularly

and convert their savings into a Common Fund known as the Group Corpus. The

members of the group agree to use this common fund and such other funds that they

may receive as a group through a common management. The aim of the self-help

group is to provide an organization to the small and marginal women farmers and to

create awareness among them about the production conditions, marketing situations,

exploitation by middlemen, indebtedness among them etc.87

 
87
Op.cit., A. Ranga Reddy, p.128.

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Assistance to Self-Help Groups for Youths

By providing relevant skill training, unemployed youth could be productively

engaged benefiting the society as well as the individual. Tamil Nadu Corporation for

Development of Women has imparted skill training to number of youths through

reputed industrial houses and institutions.

Manimegalai Awards

In order to encourage well-functioning SHGs and Panchayat Level

Federations (PLFs), the Government has announced Manimegalai Awards at State

and District levels. Awards are presented to 5 best PLFs and 10 best SHGs at the

State level. One PLF and 3 SHGs have been selected as best at the district level are

given Manimegalai Awards and the best SHGs at the block level is given a certificate.

Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA)

It is a sub-scheme of Integrated Rural Development Projects (IRDP) focusing

attention on the women members of rural families below the poverty line with a view

to providing them avenues for income generation and self-employment on a

sustainable basis.88 It is not merely dependent upon the economic programmes but

has positive relationship with social inputs or services i.e. nutritional status of family,

education, status of women etc. It has drawn the attention on the needs of rural

women and has helped them to take up income generating activities and thereby look

after their children better. Besides organizing economic programme, emphasis in

training will be given on organization and management of child welfare services.

 
88
S. Ganesan, Status of Women Entrepreneurs in India, New Delhi, 2003, p.65.

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Under this scheme, if the child care services are not available in the area under

any other on-going programmes, it will be necessary to provide some facilities so that

the children are not neglected while the mothers are at work. The programme

envisaged under community development had a strong component for women and

child development, social education etc.89

As far as DWCRA programme is concerned, some provision may be made

out of its fund for the purchase of portable cradles, toys, pictorial books etc. for the

pre-school children. These services can be organized with the help of the community

organizer and the gram sevikas. The community organizer while being trained will

also be familiarized with various other ongoing programmes supportive to the

development of rural women and children so that they can help in coordinating these

activities.90

Role of Ministry of Women and Child Development (MWCD)

The history of the present Ministry of Women and Child Development, the

nodal agency for welfare, development and empowerment of women, is also the

history of how women as a specific group were viewed by the successive

governments. The subject of women, prior to 1986, was dealt by the Ministry of

Social Welfare. In the year 1986 a separate Department for Women and Children was

constituted under the aegis of Ministry of Human Resource Development.91

The role of MWCD includes policy formulation, conception of innovative

programmes and their implementation, coordination with other sectors and state

 
89
Op.cit., Ashok Kumar, pp.288-289.
90
Ibid., pp.290-291.
ϵϭ
Op.cit., Jaspreet Kaur Soni, p.217. 

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governments, gender budgeting, training and capacity building, monitoring the status

of women and their rights. The schemes or programmes of the MWCD can broadly

be categorized into those that contribute to the economic empowerment of women,

those that provide rescue and shelter to women in need of care and protection and

those that provide gender justice and safeguard the rights of women.92

Women have always been an important part of economy, work and

employment and their role has been growing continuously with development,

industrialization and economic restructuring. There are many schemes, programmes

and women welfare measures to improve the condition of women. The Government

of Tamil Nadu has taken several initiatives to empower women economically. In the

next chapter we are going to discuss about the women social upliftment programmes

and schemes in Tamil Nadu.93

 
92
Ibid., p.218.
93
Op.cit., G. Divya, p.34.

153