June 2017

data insights

Automation
Across the Nation:
Understanding the potential impacts
of technological trends across Canada
Au t hor s
CREIG LAMB M AT T LO
Policy Advisor Policy Advisor

Creig is a Policy Advisor at Matthew Lo is a Policy

the Brookfield Institute for Advisor at the Brookfield
Innovation + Entrepreneurship Institute for Innovation +
(BII+E). Prior to joining BII+E, Entrepreneurship (BII+E), with
Creig held research roles with a background in economics,
Toronto Artscape and Economic Development and sustainable development and empirical analysis.
Culture at the City of Toronto. Creig also worked His current research interests include fiscal
for Public Works and Government Services Canada policy, social welfare and the economic impacts
for several years, designing and implementing of entrepreneurship. In his past roles, he has
communications strategies and materials. Creig conducted research on the economic impacts of
holds a Master of Public Policy from the University taxation, and the relationship between resource
of Toronto and a Bachelor of Communications development and economic growth. Matthew
from the University of Ottawa. holds a Master’s degree in Economics from UBC
and a Joint Honours degree in Economics and
creig.lamb@ryerson.ca Environmental Studies from the University of
Waterloo.

matthew.lo@ryerson.ca

CONTRIBUTOR For more information, visit

brookfieldinstitute.ca
SARAH DOYLE
Director of Policy + Research /BrookfieldIIE

@BrookfieldIIE
The Brookfield Institute for Innovation +
Entrepreneurship (BII+E) is a new, independent The Brookfield Institute for
and nonpartisan institute, housed within Ryerson Innovation + Entrepreneurship
University, that is dedicated to making Canada the
best country in the world to be an innovator or
an entrepreneur.    20 Dundas St. W, Suite 921
Toronto, ON
M5G 2C2
BII+E supports this mission in three ways:
insightful research and analysis; testing, piloting
and prototyping projects; which informs BII+E’s
leadership and advocacy on behalf of innovation
and entrepreneurship across the country.

ISBN 978-1-926769-66-0
Ta bl e of Con t en ts

Introduction 2 Appendix A:
Most and Least Susceptible CMAs
Data 3 Across Canada 14

McKinsey Data 3 Appendix B:

A Closer Look at Automation in
Statistics Canada Data 3 Different Regions in Canada 16

Methodology 4 British Columbia (BC) 16

Insights 4 Prairie Provinces 19

Potential for Automation Across Ontario 22

Canadian Industries 4
Quebec 25
Industry Diversity 5
Maritimes 28
Canadian CMAs and CAs with the
Highest and Lowest Endnotes 31
Potential for Automation 6
Works Cited 32
Industrial Drivers of the Most
Susceptible CMAs and CAs 10

Industrial Drivers of the Least

Susceptible CMAs and CAs 11

Conclusion 12

automation across the nation 1

I n t roduct ion A recent study from the United States (US)

T
demonstrates that between 1990 and 2007, the
he advent and rapid adoption of new introduction of one robot per 1,000 workers
technologies, such as machine learning reduced employment by nearly six individuals,
and advanced robotics, have resurfaced resulting in upwards of 670,000 jobs lost.9 While
concerns over technology eliminating these technologies have been fundamental in
jobs. Many now worry that more jobs are improving the productivity of manufacturing across
at risk than ever before.1 However, this debate all the industrial world, the brunt of this change
too often ignores the complexity of technology’s has been felt by workers in routine jobs in the
relationship to labour. Technological advancements manufacturing sector.
throughout Canada’s history have helped to drive
innovation and raise productivity, improve wealth Modern breakthroughs, such as natural language
and increase consumption, and give rise to entirely processing and autonomous vehicle technology,
new industries and economic opportunities.2 3 4 mean that machines are now performing a whole
As a result, in the long run, technology has often new set of tasks, potentially more efficiently and
helped to produce more jobs than it destroyed.5 effectively than humans. Current predictions
suggest that these technologies are likely to
Whether or not this trend continues, technology disproportionately affect lower paying, lower
will continue to change the kinds of jobs available skilled jobs.10
and the skills they require. This can take a toll on
workers filling roles that can largely be substituted The impact of technological trends will not be
by technology.56 Canada has already witnessed consistent across the country. To help identify
drastic shifts in the composition of its labour which cities and towns in Canada are most
market, partially driven by technological change. susceptible to modern advances in technology,
In the 1980s and 1990s, advances in information the Brookfield Institute for Innovation and
communications technology (ICT) reduced the Entrepreneurship (BII+E) translated findings from
need for many routine tasks across the economy, a recent McKinsey Global Institute report to the
such as the calculations performed by many Canadian context—mapping automation impact
bookkeepers. At the same time, these technologies data against Canadian cities and towns, and
helped improve the productivity of jobs demanding examining trends to extract relevant insights.
creativity, complex-problem solving and The goal of this data insights report is to begin to
interpersonal interaction, such as those filled by map the uneven distribution of risks and benefits
lawyers, managers and scientists. These changes associated with automation, and to uncover
contributed to larger employment shares for both some of the regional tensions that exist between
high and low-skilled workers in Canada, at the innovation driven growth and inclusive growth
expense of the middle-skilled.7 in Canada. While the data highlights that certain
cities and towns in Canada are more susceptible to
The regional implications of these changes can be automation than others, it also suggests that, as a
striking. Take for example the impact of industrial result of the increasing capacity of technology and
robotics on employment in highly concentrated fairly similar regional economies, technology has
manufacturing towns and cities. In Canada, it took the potential to automate a large number of work
20 jobs to generate $1 million in manufacturing activities across the country.
output in 1980. By 2013, this number had been cut
in half.8

2
Data found across the spectrum of skills and wages.15 In
contrast, activities such as managing others and
applying expertise remain relatively resistant to
M C K I N S E Y D ATA automation.16

McKinsey’s recent report, A Future That Works: However, McKinsey also recognized that just
Automation, Employment and Productivity, because work can technically be automated, it
identified the proportion of work with the potential does not necessarily mean that it will be. McKinsey
to be automated using current technology. identified five sets of factors that will impact the
McKinsey examined labour force data across 54 adoption of technology: technical feasibility; cost
countries covering 78 percent of the global labour of developing and deploying solutions; labour
market.11 market dynamics such as the supply, demand and
cost of human labour; economic benefits such as
McKinsey’s report departed from earlier studies by productivity gains, quality and profit; as well as
examining the potential for automation of specific regulatory and social acceptance.17
work activities, rather than entire occupations.
Within each occupation, an individual performs a
variety of tasks, some of which are susceptible to S TAT I S T I C S C A N A D A D ATA
automation, some of which are not. As a result, an
examination of automation risk at the occupational To apply McKinsey findings to Canadian labour
level can overstate potential impacts.12 force data, we used Statistics Canada’s National
Household Survey (NHS), 2011. The NHS provides
To assess the technical potential for automation, the latest data currently available on employment
McKinsey disaggregated occupations into 18 figures at the necessary geographic level. It was
capabilities, which were categorized into five a voluntary survey for which approximately 4.5
groups: sensory perception, cognitive capabilities, million households received a questionnaire
natural language processing, social and emotional and includes social, economic and geographic
capabilities, and physical capabilities. The level of information.
performance required to successfully carry out each
work activity in each occupation (i.e. the median The NHS provides data for all of Canada’s
human level, or top 25th percentile) was then Census Metropolitan Areas (CMAs) and Census
estimated and compared to the performance of Agglomerations (CAs). These include one or more
existing technologies. This enabled analysis of the adjacent municipalities, with a population centre.
potential for automation across more than 2,000 A CMA must have a total population of at least
work activities for more than 800 US occupations. 100,000 with a minimum of 50,000 living in the
McKinsey then applied this framework across the core. A CA must have a core population of at least
global economy.13 10,000. While large parts of Canada’s geography
are not captured by CMAs and CAs, the vast
McKinsey estimated that 50 percent of work majority of Canada’s population is. In 2011, workers
activities around the globe can be automated in Canada’s CMAs and CAs constituted roughly
by adapting existing technology, representing 83 percent of the country’s total labour force.
$14.6 trillion (USD) in wages. However, less However, due to low population density, data for
than five percent of occupations can be fully Canada’s North is particularly limited.
automated.14
The NHS has a number of limitations. First and
Routine work activities were found to be most at foremost, the data is six years old and therefore
risk, including predictable physical work, prevalent does not reflect recent shifts in Canada’s labour
in manufacturing and retail trades, as well as market. Second, the survey was not mandatory
work involving processing and collecting data, and therefore departed from the methodologies of

automation across the nation 3

previous censuses. As a result, the non-response manufacturing presence, this region may require a
rate was significantly higher. At the national level, higher proportion of highly skilled workers, which
the Global Non-Response Rate (GNR) was 26.1 could make it less susceptible to automation.
percent, compared to the 6.5 percent in the 2006 The data used for this report will not reflect these
long form census. Non-response rates can be differences.
much higher for smaller geographic regions. There
are also non-response biases present in the survey, We also investigated the industrial diversity of
as certain groups such as low-income individuals CMAs and CAs using a “diversity index”. This index
are less likely to respond to the survey.18 enabled us to rank a CMA or CA as either diverse,if
the distribution of employment in 2011 across
As a result, these findings are designed to help all two-digit industry codes is similar to Canada
to set the context and begin to identify areas as a whole, or less diverse,if the distribution of
that are most and least likely to be impacted by employment is more concentrated.19 The diversity
automation. To mitigate data limitations and index is calculated as follows:
provide a more up-to-date labour market picture,
BII+E plans to update this analysis with 2016
Census data upon its public release.

M et hodology
In this formula, Diversity j is the index unique to a
For each country studied, McKinsey identified the CMA or CA, comparable to all other CMAs and CAs
proportion of work activities in each industry with across Canada. The CMA or CA is denoted by j, and
the potential to be automated. To conduct our industry by i. A higher value in the index indicates
analysis, we applied these figures to the number that employment in the particular CMA or CA is
of individuals employed in each industry in every less diverse compared to Canada as a whole.
Canadian CMA and CA. This enabled us to identify
the proportion of work activities with the potential
to be automated across all Canadian CMAs and CAs. I nsigh ts
We compared these proportions against the
national average to create a location quotient. P OT E N T I A L F O R A U TO M AT I O N
A location quotient greater than one signals ACROSS CANADIAN INDUSTRIES
that the region’s concentration of work activities
with the potential to be automated is greater The potential for automation varies greatly
than the national average. In contrast, a location between industries in Canada—ranging from 30
quotient less than one signals that the region’s percent of work activities in educational services to
concentration of work activities with the potential 69 percent in accommodation and food services.
to be automated is less than the national average. Overall, 46 percent of work activities in Canada
have the potential to be automated, across all
However, there are limitations with this approach. industries; this is equivalent to 7.7 million jobs.i
In particular, using McKinsey’s industry data at a
subnational level assumes that the occupational i. The equivalent number of jobs with the potential to
composition of each industry, in each CMA or be automated is calculated by multiplying the number
of employees in an industry by the proportion of
CA, reflects the national average, which may work activities in that industry with the potential for
not always be true. For example, in certain automation. This figure does not indicate that this
regions such as Kitchener-Waterloo, Ont., there number of jobs have the potential to be automated,
since the proportion of work activities in each industry
is a thriving advanced manufacturing industry.
is spread across many occupations. Instead, it is
Compared to other regions with a significant designed to give an indication of the potential extent of
automation impacts in each sector.

4
Figure 1:
Percent of Work Activities with the Potential for Automation, by Industry

Accommodation and food services 69%

Manufacturing 61%
Transportation and warehousing 61%
Agriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting 52%
Mining, quarrying, and oil and gas extraction 52%
Construction 51%
Retail trade 49%
Wholesale trade 46%
Other services (except public administration) 45%
Utilities 44%
Arts, entertainment and recreation 42%
Finance and insurance 42%
Management of companies and enterprises 42%
Administrative and support, waste management
and remediation services
41%
Public administration 41%
Real estate and rental and leasing 41%
Information and cultural industries 38%
Health care and social assistance 37%
Professional, scientific and technical services 35%
Educational services 30%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%

Source: McKinsey Global Institute (2017), BII+E analysis

The industries with the highest proportion of work percent of total employment. However, automation
activities that are technically automatable (top can still impact the equivalent of over 1.6 million
quartile) were classified as highly susceptible to jobs in these relatively insulated industries.21
automation. These industries are: accommodation
and food services; transportation and warehousing;
manufacturing; mining, quarrying, and oil and gas INDUSTRY DIVERSITY
extraction; and agriculture, forestry, fishing and
hunting. Across Canada, the proportion of work In addition to examining which industries are
activities in these industries with the potential to more susceptible to automation, we are also
be automated is equivalent to 2.5 million jobs.20 interested in how other factors—such as industrial
diversity—could exacerbate or inhibit any negative
The industries least susceptible to automation implications of automation on the labour force.
(bottom quartile) are: educational services;
professional, scientific and technical services; It is likely that smaller cities and towns, heavily
health care and social assistance; and information reliant on one industry or employer, will experience
and cultural industries. Collectively, more automation differently from either larger or more
Canadians are employed in these industries, diversified economies, regardless of the proportion
accounting for 28 percent of Canada’s total of work activities with the potential to be
employment, compared to the industries most automated. These areas may have a lesser ability
susceptible to automation, accounting for 24 to reabsorb displaced labour. Their local economies

automation across the nation 5

are also more exposed to automation risk, as a The CMAs and CAs ranking highest in the diversity
decision to adopt technology on the part of one index are largely found in the Prairie Provinces,
large employer, or several employers in a dominant specializing in oil and gas extraction. They include:
industry, would have a much larger impact than Wood Buffalo, Alta., with a diversity index of 26.6,
it would in a city or town with greater industry Estevan, Sask., with a diversity index of 26.5, and
diversity.22 Cold Lake, Alta., with a diversity index of 22.9. The
average diversity index score across all Canadian
CMAs and CAs is 8.6.

CANADIAN CMAS AND CAS WITH THE HIGHEST AND LOWEST

P OT E N T I A L F O R A U TO M AT I O N

Figure 2:
Susceptibility of Canada’s CMAs and CAs to Automation, 2011

Concentration of work
activities with the
potential for automation
(location quotient)

0.920 – 0.936

0.936 – 0.952

0.952 – 0.968

0.968 – 0.984

0.984 – 1.000

1.000 – 1.016

1.016 – 1.032

1.032 – 1.048

1.048 – 1.064

1.064 – 1.080

Note: A location quotient above one indicates a higher concentration of work activities with the potential to be automated, compared
to the Canadian average. For an interactive version of this map, please visit brookfieldinstitute.ca.

6
Figure 2 helps to visualize the uneven distribution of risks associated with automation across Canada
based on the concentration of work activities that could be automated. A number of smaller towns and
cities specializing in manufacturing, mining, quarrying, or oil and gas extraction appear most at risk. These
towns are found primarily in Alberta and Saskatchewan, as well as southern Ontario and Quebec.

Figure 3:
Susceptibility of Prairie Province CMAs and CAs to Automation, 2011

Concentration of work
activities with the
potential for automation
(location quotient)

0.920 – 0.936

0.936 – 0.952

0.952 – 0.968

0.968 – 0.984

0.984 – 1.000

1.000 – 1.016

1.016 – 1.032

1.032 – 1.048

1.048 – 1.064

1.064 – 1.080

Note: A location quotient above one indicates a higher concentration of work activities with the potential to be automated, compared
to the Canadian average.

automation across the nation 7

Figure 4:
Susceptibility of Southern Ontario CMAs and CAs to Automation, 2011

Concentration of work
activities with the
potential for automation
(location quotient)

0.920 – 0.936

0.936 – 0.952

0.952 – 0.968

0.968 – 0.984

0.984 – 1.000

1.000 – 1.016

1.016 – 1.032

1.032 – 1.048

1.048 – 1.064

1.064 – 1.080

Note: A location quotient above one indicates a higher concentration of work activities with the potential to be automated, compared
to the Canadian average.

8
Figure 5:
Susceptibility of Quebec’s CMAs and CAs to Automation, 2011

Concentration of work
activities with the
potential for automation
(location quotient)

0.920 – 0.936

0.936 – 0.952

0.952 – 0.968

0.968 – 0.984

0.984 – 1.000

1.000 – 1.016

1.016 – 1.032

1.032 – 1.048

1.048 – 1.064

1.064 – 1.080

Note: A location quotient above one indicates a higher concentration of work activities with the potential to be automated, compared
to the Canadian average.

Manufacturing employment has already felt the economies, could enable increased robot
impacts of industrial robotics around the world. adoption.25
However, automation is projected to continue to
impact the sector.23 A recent study showed that Even though manufacturing has traditionally been
Canada ranks relatively low when it comes to the the focus of the automation discourse, cities and
density of robots (robots per 10,000 workers) in the towns specializing in oil, gas and other extractive
manufacturing sector, compared to international industries may also be highly susceptible to these
peers such as South Korea, Germany or Sweden.24 trends. Recent employment declines in these
This may indicate that Canada’s manufacturing industries, particularly in Alberta, have largely
industry has room to expand when it comes to been the result of exogenous shocks to oil prices,
adopting this productivity enhancing technology. not automation.26 However, advances in labour
For many of Canada’s small and medium-sized saving technologies, such as autonomous vehicles,
manufacturing firms, the decline in the price of are predicted to inhibit a return to pre-shock
industrial robotics, which from 1990-2005 fell by employment levels in Alberta’s oil industry, even as
approximately one half across six major developed it recovers from the downturn.27

automation across the nation 9

INDUSTRIAL DRIVERS OF THE MOST SUSCEPTIBLE CMAS AND CAS

Figure 6:
Difference in Industry Proportions, CMAs and CAs Most Susceptible to Automation (Top 20)
Compared to National Average, 2011
10%

8%
High susceptibility

Medium susceptibility
6%

Low susceptibility

Lowest susceptibility
4%

2%

0%

administration)
Other services (except public

Utilities

Accommodation and food services

Retail trade

and hunting
Agriculture, forestry, fishing

gas extraction
Mining, quarrying, and oil and

Manufacturing
Health care and social assistance

and enterprises
Management of companies
Construction
Transportation and warehousing
Wholesale trade

Arts, entertainment and recreation

Real estate and rental and leasing
management and remediation services
Administrative and support, waste
Educational services
industries
Information and cultural

-2%
Finance and insurance
Public administration
and technical services
Professional, scientific

-4%

Note: Industries were separated into quartiles based on the Source: McKinsey Global Institute (2017), BII+E analysis
proportion of work that can be automated. High susceptibility
is the top quartile, whereas low susceptibility is the bottom See Appendix A for all CMA and CAs.
quartile.

The most susceptible CMAs and CAs in Canada percent across Canada. Mining, quarrying, and oil
are primarily small in population size. The average and gas extraction, also with a high potential for
population of the 20 most susceptible CMAs automation, represents on average four percent
and CAs is about 29,000. While these towns are of the total labour force, compared to one percent
geographically diverse, a disproportionate number across Canada.
are found in southwestern Ontario and southern
Quebec. These highly susceptible CMAs and CAs also have a
lower proportion of relatively insulated industries,
Amongst the 20 most susceptible CMAs and CAs, such as professional, scientific and technical
manufacturing employment, which has a high services, public administration, as well as finance
potential for automation, captures on average 18 and insurance, compared to the Canadian average.
percent of the total labour force, compared to nine

10
However, these highly susceptible CMAs and the other hand, CMAs and CAs such as Granby or
CAs vary greatly in terms of industrial diversity. Victoriaville, Que., have relatively diverse industrial
CMAs and CAs such as Leamington, Ont., Brooks mixes and may be better positioned to weather
and Wood Buffalo, Alta., and Estevan, Sask., the negative labour market implications posed by
rank relatively high on the diversity index, automation.
meaning they are highly specialized. This lack of
industrial diversity could inhibit their resilience
to potential shocks as a result of automation. On

INDUSTRIAL DRIVERS OF THE LEAST SUSCEPTIBLE CMAS AND CAS

Figure 7:
Difference in Industry Proportions, CMAs and CAs Least Susceptible to Automation (Bottom 20)
Compared to National Average, 2011
4%

High susceptibility
3%

Medium susceptibility

Low susceptibility
2%

Lowest susceptibility

1%

0%

Educational services
Accommodation and food services
Utilities

Public administration

Retail trade

Health care and social assistance

management and remediation services
Administrative and support, waste

and enterprises
Management of companies
Arts, entertainment and recreation

industries
Information and cultural

gas extraction
Mining, quarrying, and oil and

administration)
Other services (except public
Real estate and rental and leasing

-1%
Construction
and hunting
Agriculture, forestry, fishing

Transportation and warehousing

and technical services
Professional, scientific

Finance and insurance

-2%
Wholesale trade

-3%

-4%

-5%
Manufacturing

-6%

Note: industries were separated into quartiles based on the Source: McKinsey Global Institute (2017), BII+E analysis
proportion of work that can be automated. High susceptibility
is the top quartile, whereas low susceptibility is the bottom See Appendix A for all CMAs and CAs.
quartile.

automation across the nation 11

Canada is also home to a large number of cities percent of work activities in this industry still have
and towns that are relatively resistant to the effects the potential to be automated. This town may
of automation. The CMAs and CAs least susceptible also have a large proportion of employment in
to automation include many smaller cities and industries more susceptible to automation, such
towns with a large healthcare presence, such as as accommodation and food services. Second, the
Corner Brook, Nfld., or Campbellton, N.B., where proportion of employment across industries in
more than 20 percent of the total labour force is Canada’s cities and towns is fairly consistent, with
employed in healthcare and social assistance. some exceptions.

They also include cities and towns with a large However, the potential for automation will not
post-secondary presence, such as Kingston, always be realized, as other factors (described
Ont., where 15 percent of total employment is in the section on data sources) will influence
in educational services, as well as those with employer decisions. In addition, a city’s or town’s
a high proportion of employment in public resilience to the effects of these trends may be
administration, such as Ottawa-Gatineau, Ont., enhanced by a more diverse industry mix.
where about one quarter of the labour force is
employed in this sector.
Conclusion

T
Canada’s largest cities, Toronto, Montreal, and
Vancouver, were not amongst the 20 CMAs and hroughout history, technology has been
CAs with the lowest susceptibility to automation. a major driving force behind significant
Each of these cities has above average changes in our society —everything
employment in highly specialized industries, with a from how long we live, to what people
low potential for automation, such as professional, do for work. The most recent wave
scientific and technical services. However, they of technological advancements, dubbed by the
also have diverse economies with a large World Economic Forum as the Fourth Industrial
proportion of employment in industries that are Revolution, will continue to produce much more
more susceptible to automation, such as sophisticated technology at a much quicker pace.
manufacturing. As a result, technology is projected to have wide-
ranging impacts on the Canadian labour force.
While different towns and cities will likely feel
the impacts of automation differently, even in the However, these impacts are likely to be felt
least susceptible towns and cities there is a sizable differently across the country. By mapping
proportion of the labour force with the potential McKinsey automation data against labour force
for automation. Across all CMAs and CAs, the data for Canada’s CMAs and CAs, this report
proportion of work activities with the potential to suggests that, in the coming years, smaller cities
be automated ranges from 43 percent in and towns specializing in either manufacturing or
Petawawa, Ont., to over 50 percent in Ingersoll, resource extraction, particularly in the Canadian
Ont. Prairies, southern Ontario and Quebec, will face
the highest potential for job disruption as a result
The relatively limited variation in potential of automation.
automation impacts across Canada’s CMAs and
CAs is the result of two factors. First, as technology In contrast, the areas least susceptible to
becomes increasingly capable of performing automation in Canada range from smaller towns
complex tasks, it has the potential to impact and cities with a large hospital, government or
workers across industries.28 CMAs and CAs may post-secondary presence, to some larger cities with
therefore feel the effects of these trends regardless diversified economies and a highly skilled labour
of their industrial composition. For example, even force.
a town with a significant number of employees
in health care, which is relatively resistant to
the impacts of automation, is not immune. 37
12
Overall, automation holds huge promise, as
well significant risks for individual Canadians
and communities. While the rate and extent of
adoption of different technologies across industries
is unknown, the benefits as well as the job
displacement risks resulting from automation are
likely to be more concentrated in certain industries,
and in certain cities and towns. This suggests a
need to more deeply understand the areas and
people that are most at risk and to design policy
and program responses—including in the areas of
training, upskilling, education, and social safety
nets—that take this uneven distribution of risk into
account.

+++++

In the coming months, BII+E will continue to

examine the differentiated impacts of automation
on disparate regions and individuals across the
country. Our goal is to interrogate and analyze
the industrial, socioeconomic, and demographic
characteristics associated with a higher
susceptibility to automation. We aim to create a
profile of the regions and people that are most
likely to be impacted by automation, recognizing
the complex array of factors that will influence the
future of work.

We will build on this initial data insights report to

inform the Canadian discourse on what technology
and innovation mean for inclusive economic
growth in Canada. By mapping these trends and
relationships at a more micro level, we will help to
build a robust evidence base to inform the design
of policies related to skills training, employment
and social safety nets.

automation across the nation 13

A ppen di x A :

Most a n d L e a st Suscep t i bl e C M A s
Ac r o s s C a na da

Figure 8:
Top 20 CMAs and CAs with the Highest Susceptibility to Automation, 2011

Concentration of work
with the potential to Proportion of work
be automated (loca- with the potential to
CMA or CA tion quotient) be automated Population Diversity index

Ingersoll, Ont. 1.082 50% 9,700 8.253

Tillsonburg, Ont. 1.076 50% 12,770 8.054

Quesnel, B.C. 1.073 50% 18,160 9.715

Leamington, Ont. 1.072 50% 37,540 11.008

Woodstock, Ont. 1.070 50% 30,470 7.536

Drummondville, Que. 1.065 49% 71,195 7.820

Granby, Que. 1.064 49% 62,650 6.996

Brooks, Alta. 1.063 49% 17,530 18.919

Lachute, Que. 1.059 49% 10,435 8.247

Cowansville, Que. 1.058 49% 10,070 8.112

Norfolk County, Ont. 1.054 49% 51,705 8.920

Saint-Georges, Que. 1.051 49% 28,130 9.922

Wood Buffalo, Alta. 1.051 49% 54,230 26.579

Stratford, Ont. 1.046 48% 25,175 8.720

Steinbach, Man. 1.046 48% 10,320 8.377

Sorel-Tracy, Que. 1.046 48% 40,685 7.593

Estevan, Sask. 1.045 48% 10,135 26.496

Victoriaville, Que. 1.044 48% 37,255 7.081

Hawkesbury, Ont. 1.043 48% 10,010 8.822

Thetford Mines, Que. 1.043 48% 23,265 8.929

14
Figure 9:
Top 20 Canadian CMAs and CAs with the Lowest Susceptibility to Automation, 2011

Concentration of
work with the poten- Proportion of work
tial to be automated with the potential to
CMA or CA (location quotient) be automated Population Diversity index

North Battleford, Sask. 0.979 45% 14,770 9.053

Quebec City, Que. 0.978 45% 634,200 5.461

Campbellton, N.B. 0.977 45% 14,770 7.844

Grand Falls-Windsor, Nfld. 0.977 45% 11,360 10.486

North Bay, Ont. 0.976 45% 53,210 6.840

Whitehorse, Yukon 0.976 45% 20,915 10.286

Prince Albert, Sask. 0.975 45% 31,925 7.698

Yellowknife, NWT 0.974 45% 15,030 10.173

Cape Breton Island, N.S. 0.972 45% 84,950 7.320

Charlottetown, PEI 0.970 45% 52,505 6.769

Corner Brook, Nfld. 0.970 45% 22,715 7.746

St. John’s , Nfld. 0.969 45% 162,995 5.117

Halifax, N.S. 0.968 45% 325,050 4.792

Victoria, B.C. 0.966 45% 290,655 6.550

Pembroke, Ont. 0.961 44% 19,570 8.224

Rimouski, Que. 0.957 44% 41,945 8.397

Kingston, Ont. 0.954 44% 129,865 7.196

Fredericton, N.B. 0.952 44% 77,585 7.579

Ottawa - Gatineau, Ont. 0.947 44% 1,005,005 7.903

Petawawa, Ont. 0.919 43% 12,180 16.953

automation across the nation 15

A ppen di x B:

A Closer Look at Au tom at ion i n

Di f f er en t R egions i n C a na da

BRITISH COLUMBIA (BC)

Figure 10:
Susceptibility of BC CMAs and CAs to Automation, 2011

Concentration of work
activities with the
potential for automation
(location quotient)

0.920 – 0.936

0.936 – 0.952

0.952 – 0.968

0.968 – 0.984

0.984 – 1.000

1.000 – 1.016

1.016 – 1.032

1.032 – 1.048

1.048 – 1.064

1.064 – 1.080

Note: A location quotient above one indicates a higher concentration of work activities with the potential to be automated, compared
to Canadian average.

16
The five CMAs and CAs in B.C. most susceptible to employment in mining, quarrying, and oil and gas
automation have particularly high employment extraction, at five percent of total employment
in two highly susceptible industries: agriculture, on average, compared to the national average
forestry, fishing and hunting, which represents on of two percent. This includes Fort St. John, a city
average 6 percent of total employment,ii as well in northeastern B.C., which is the home of the
as manufacturing, which represents on average 11 provincial Oil and Gas Commission and where 14
percent of total employment.iii percent of total employment is in the oil and gas
industry.
Take for example Quesnel, a small city in the heart
of the province. This city is amongst the most Compared to the least susceptible CMAs and
susceptible CMAs and CAs in B.C., largely driven CAs in the province, these cities and towns are
by its predominant forestry iv and wood product also more concentrated in terms of industry mix,
manufacturing v industries. most notably Williams Lake, B.C. This could limit
their resilience to any potential labour market
The CMAs and CAs most susceptible to automation dislocations associated with automation.
in B.C. also have a larger proportion of total

Figure 11:
British Columbia CMAs and CAs with the Highest Susceptibility to Automation, 2011vi

Concen- Proportion of
tration of employment in:
work with Proportion
the poten- of work Mining,
tial to be with the Agriculture, quarrying,
British automated potential to forestry, and oil
Columbia CMAs (location be auto- Diversity fishing and and gas Manufac- Construc-
and CAs quotient) mated Population index hunting extraction turing tion

Quesnel 1.073 50% 18,160 9.715 8% 1% 21% 6%

Williams Lake 1.042 48% 15,040 11.010 6% 7% 11% 5%

Port Alberni 1.037 48% 21,145 8.556 8% 1% 9% 8%

Fort St. John 1.036 48% 20,645 15.243 3% 14% 4% 11%

Abbots­ford-
1.030 48% 134,385 6.312 6% 0% 9% 10%
Mission

The CMAs and CAs in B.C. with the lowest Courtenay, in professional, scientific and technical
susceptibility to automation appear to specialize services, as is the case in Vancouver, or in
in healthcare, social assistance and public educational services, as is the case in Terrace.
administration, as is the case in Victoria and

ii. compared to the national average of two percent vi. The industries displayed were selected because: a)
they are at high or medium-risk of being affected by
iii. compared to the national average of nine percent automation, and b) the proportions of employment in
iv. roughly eight percent of total employment these industries for the CAs and CMAs listed have the
largest positive deviations from the national average.
v. roughly 21 percent of total employment

automation across the nation 17

 Figure 12:
BC CMAs and CAs with the Lowest Susceptibility to Automation, 2011vii

Concentra- Proportion of employment in:

tion of work Proportion
with the of work Admin. and
British potential to with the support, waste
Columbia be automat- potential to Healthcare mgmt. and
CMAs and ed (location be auto- Diversity and social remediation Public ad- Educational
CAs quotient) mated Population Index assistance services ministration services

Terrace 0.998 46% 12,325 6.263 13% 3% 9% 10%

Kelowna 0.996 46% 150,320 5.140 13% 5% 5% 6%

Vancouver 0.991 46% 1,926,225 5.262 10% 4% 5% 8%

Courtenay 0.979 45% 46,330 7.281 14% 5% 11% 8%

Victoria 0.966 45% 290,655 6.550 14% 4% 15% 8%

vii. Ibid.

18 18
PRAIRIE PROVINCES

Figure 13:
Susceptibility of Prairie Province CMAs and CAs to Automation, 2011

Concentration of work
activities with the
potential for automation
(location quotient)

0.920 – 0.936

0.936 – 0.952

0.952 – 0.968

0.968 – 0.984

0.984 – 1.000

1.000 – 1.016

1.016 – 1.032

1.032 – 1.048

1.048 – 1.064

1.064 – 1.080

Note: A location quotient above one indicates a higher concentration of work activities with the potential to be automated, compared
to the Canadian average.

In the Canadian Prairies, the CMAs and CAs most the Canadian Prairies. This is driven primarily by
susceptible to automation have workforces heavily the high proportion of employment in energy (oil
concentrated in resource extraction. On average, and gas) and manufacturing (metals). The Prairie
amongst the most susceptible cities and towns, Provinces are also home to other highly susceptible
the proportion of total employment in mining, industries, including agriculture, forestry, fishing
quarrying, and oil and gas extraction exceeds and hunting, construction and utilities.
the Canadian average by 16 percentage points.
For example, the Regional Municipality of Wood Compared to other regions, the CMAs and CAs
Buffalo, Alta., which is home to Fort McMurray and most susceptible to automation in the Canadian
the Athabasca Oil Sands, has 30 percent of total Prairies rank the highest on the diversity index—
employment in mining, quarrying, and oil and indicating highly specialized local economies.
gas extraction, compared to one percent of total This suggests that these cities and towns may be
employment across Canada. more vulnerable than the rest of the country to the
potential negative impacts of automation.
Brooks, a city in southeast Alberta, has the highest
concentration of high susceptibility industries in

automation across the nation 19

Figure 14:
Prairie Province CMAs and CAs with the Highest Susceptibility to Automation, 2011viii

Concentra- Propor- Proportion of employment in:

tion of work tion of
with the work Mining,
potential to with the quarrying, Agriculture,
be automat- potential and oil forestry,
ed (location to be au- Popula- Diversity and gas Con- Other fishing and
quotient) tomated tion index extraction struction Utilities services hunting
Brooks,
1.063 49% 17,530 18.919 15% 6% 2% 5% 8%
Alta.
Wood Buf-
1.051 49% 54,230 26.579 30% 11% 1% 4% 0%
falo, Alta.
Steinbach,
1.046 48% 10,320 8.377 0% 9% 1% 6% 4%
Man.
Estevan,
1.045 48% 10,135 26.496 21% 8% 6% 6% 2%
Sask.
Lloydmin-
1.030 48% 23,450 17.143 17% 9% 1% 6% 2%
ster, Alta.

The cities and towns least susceptible to the province’s Prairie North Health Region and is
automation in the Canadian Prairies have on home to two large hospitals, believed to be the
average much higher proportions of employment region’s largest employers. As a result, 20 percent
in public administration—13 percent of the local of total employment in North Battleford is in the
labour force compared to the seven percent healthcare industry, compared to the national
national average—as well as health care and social average of 11 percent.
assistance and educational services.
However, many of these CMAs and CAs, such as
For example, the city of Cold Lake, Alta., has close Cold Lake, Alta., are still home to large extractive
ties to the Canadian Forces Base (CFB) Cold Lake. industries at 17 percent of the total labour force,
As a result, 27 percent of total employment is in which have a higher potential to be impacted by
public administration, compared to the national automation.
average of seven percent. Another example is
North Battleford, Sask. This small city falls within

viii. The industries displayed were selected because: a)

they are at high or medium-risk of being affected by
automation, and b) the proportions of employment in
these industries for the CAs and CMAs listed have the
largest positive deviations from the national average.

20
Figure 15:
Prairie Province CMAs and CAs with the Lowest Susceptibility to Automation, 2011ix

Proportion of employment in:

Concentration Proportion
of work with the of work with Arts enter-
potential to be the potential Healthcare tainment
automated (lo- to be auto- Popula- Diversity Public ad- and social Educational and recre-
cation quotient) mated tion index ministration assistance services ation

Cold
0.988 46% 10,625 22.913 27% 6% 8% 1%
Lake, AB

Regina,
0.982 45% 170,070 4.969 11% 12% 5% 2%
SK

Lacombe,
0.982 45% 9,055 8.995 7% 11% 8% 1%
AB

North
Battle- 0.979 45% 14,770 9.053 5% 20% 5% 0%
ford, SK

Prince
Albert, 0.975 45% 31,925 7.698 15% 15% 7% 1%
SK

ix. The industries displayed were selected because: a) they

are at relatively low risk of being affected by automation,
and b) the proportions of employment in these industries
for the CAs and CMAs listed have the largest positive
deviations from the national average.

automation across the nation 21

O N TA R I O

Figure 16:
Susceptibility of Ontario CMAs and CAs to Automation, 2011

Concentration of work
activities with the
potential for automation
(location quotient)

0.920 – 0.936

0.936 – 0.952

0.952 – 0.968

0.968 – 0.984

0.984 – 1.000

1.000 – 1.016

1.016 – 1.032

1.032 – 1.048

1.048 – 1.064

1.064 – 1.080

Note: A location quotient above one indicates a higher concentration of work activities with the potential to be automated, compared
to the Canadian average.

The CMAs and CAs in Ontario most susceptible Among the most susceptible CMAs and CAs,
to automation are primarily small manufacturing manufacturing employment represents 21 percent
cities and towns in the southwest—a region once of the total labour force on average, compared to
considered Canada’s industrial heartland. However, the national average of nine percent. This includes
due to a number of factors including the rising Ingersoll, Woodstock and Tillsonburg, Ont., whose
dollar, manufacturing employment in this region proportion of total employment in manufacturing
has already experienced significant decline over exceeds 20 percent.
the past decade or so.29 Employment may continue
to decline in the area if existing manufacturers
continue to invest in labour saving technologies
to improve productivity and maintain cost
competitiveness.

22
The most susceptible cities and towns also have Ontario do not differ drastically from the national
higher proportions of employment in agriculture, average. The major exception is Leamington,
forestry, fishing and hunting,x accommodation Ont., whose diversity index score of 11.0 indicates
and food services,xi and transportation and a notably greater industry uniformity compared
warehousing.xii to the national average. This could indicate that
Leamington, Ont., may be less resilient to the
When considering overall industrial diversity, on potential impacts of automation compared to the
average these highly susceptible CMAs and CAs in other highly susceptible CMAs and CAs in Ontario.

Figure 18:
Ontario CMAs and CAs with the Highest Susceptibility to Automation, 2011xiii

Concentration Proportion of employment in:

of work with Proportion
the potential of work with Agriculture, Accom-
to be auto- the potential forestry, modation Transpor-
mated (loca- to be auto- Popula- Diversi- Manufactur- fishing and and food tation and
tion quotient) mated tion ty index ing hunting services warehousing

Ingersoll,
1.082 50% 9,700 8.253 24% 2% 9% 6%
Ont.

Tillson-
1.076 50% 12,770 8.054 23% 2% 8% 4%
burg, Ont.

Leaming-
1.072 50% 37,540 11.008 18% 12% 6% 6%
ton, Ont.

Wood-
1.070 50% 30,470 7.536 25% 1% 7% 5%
stock, Ont.

Norfolk,
1.054 49% 51,705 8.920 17% 9% 6% 4%
Ont.

The cities least susceptible to automation in of work with the potential to be automated.
Ontario include Ottawa-Gatineau, Ont., home As a large, economically diverse city, Toronto
of Canada’s federal public service, where about has a significant proportion of employment in
one-quarter of total employment is in public industries with both a low and high susceptibility
administration. It also includes smaller cities with to automation. For example, professional, scientific
a high proportion of emplopyment in health care and technical services make up 10 percent of
and educational services such as Kingston, Ont., Toronto’s total employment, compared to the
home of Queen’s University and a number of large national average of seven percent. However,
hospitals. Toronto is also home to many highly susceptible
industries such as manufactung, which makes up
Toronto, the country’s largest city, ranks 9th lowest 10 percent of the city’s total employment.
in Canada when it comes to the concentration

x. Five percent of total employment on average xiii. The industries displayed were selected because: a)
they are at high or medium-risk of being affected by
xi. Seven percent of total employment on average automation, and b) the proportions of employment in
xii. Five percent of total employment on average these industries for the CAs and CMAs listed have the
largest positive deviations from the national average.

automation across the nation 23

While on average, the least susceptible CMAs and Ont., where most workers are employed as either
CAs in Ontario have relatively diverse economies, civilians or military personnel at CFB Petawawa.
there are some exceptions, namely Petawawa,

Figure 19:
Ontario CMAs and CAs with the Lowest Susceptibility to Automation, 2011xiv

Concentration Proportion of employment in

of work with Proportion
the potential of work Profession-
to be auto- with the po- Health care al, scientific
mated (loca- tential to be Diversity Public ad- and social and techni- Educational
tion quotient) automated Population index ministration assistance cal services services

North Bay,
0.976 45% 53,210 6.8 10% 14% 5% 15%
Ont.

Pembroke,
0.961 44% 19,570 8.2 13% 20% 2% 10%
Ont.

Kingston,
0.954 44% 129,865 7.2 13% 16% 8% 8%
Ont.

Otta-
wa-Gatin- 0.947 44% 1,005,005 7.9 25% 17% 5% 10%
eau, Ont.

Petawawa,
0.919 43% 12,180 17.0 54% 16% 5% 9%
Ont.

xiv. The industries displayed were selected because: a) they

are at relatively low risk of being affected by automation,
and b) the proportions of employment in these industries
for the CAs and CMAs listed have the largest positive
deviations from the national average.

24
QUEBEC

Figure 20:
Susceptibility of Quebec CMAs and CAs to Automation, 2011

Concentration of work
activities with the
potential for automation
(location quotient)

0.920 – 0.936

0.936 – 0.952

0.952 – 0.968

0.968 – 0.984

0.984 – 1.000

1.000 – 1.016

1.016 – 1.032

1.032 – 1.048

1.048 – 1.064

1.064 – 1.080

Note: A location quotient above one indicates a higher concentration of work activities with the potential to be automated, compared
to the Canadian average.

Similar to Ontario, small manufacturing towns example, employment in the town of Cowansville,
and cities in southern Quebec have the highest Que., is particularly concentrated in manufacturing
potential for automation. Amongst the most and retail trade.
susceptible CMAs and CAs, the proportion of total
employment in manufacturing averaged 22 percent. However, these CMAs and CAs also have relatively
diverse industry mixes. This could help insulate
These CMAs and CAs also have above average their economies from some of the negative
employment, as a proportion of total, in retail repercussions associated with automation.
trade, accommodation and food services, as well
as agriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting. For

automation across the nation 25

Figure 21:
Quebec CMAs and CAs with the Highest Susceptibility to Automation, 2011xv

Concentration Proportion of employment in:

of work with Proportion
the potential of work with Agriculture,
to be auto- the poten- Diver- Accommoda- forestry,
mated (loca- tial to be Popula- sity Manufactur- tion and food fishing and
tion quotient) automated tion index ing Retail trade services hunting

Drum-
mondville, 1.065 49% 71,195 7.820 22% 13% 7% 4%
Que.

Granby,
1.064 49% 62,650 6.996 24% 12% 6% 3%
Que.

Lachute,
1.059 49% 10,435 8.247 19% 13% 7% 2%
Que.

Cowans-
1.058 49% 10,070 8.112 19% 17% 8% 3%
ville, Que.

Saint-
Georges, 1.051 49% 28,130 9.9922 23% 14% 6% 2%
Que.

The CMAs and CAs with the least potential for Music. As a result, this city has a high proportion
automation in Quebec range from cities with of total employment in educational services as
diversified economies and a highly skilled labour well as information and cultural industries, which
force, such as Montreal, where 9 percent of are some of the least susceptible industries to
total employment is in professional, scientific automation.
and technical services, to Quebec City, the
provincial capital, where nearly 14 percent of total These relatively insulated CMAs and CAs in Quebec
employment is in public administration in 2011. also have comparatively diverse economies, in
particular the larger metropolitan areas of Montréal
They also include smaller towns and cities such and Québec.
as Rimouski, which is home to the Université
du Québec à Rimouski and the Conservatory of

xv. The industries displayed were selected because: a)

they are at high or medium-risk of being affected by
automation, and b) the proportions of employment in
these industries for the CAs and CMAs listed have the
largest positive deviations from the national average.

26
Figure 22:
Quebec CMAs and CAs with the Lowest Susceptibility to Automation, 2011xvi

Concentration Proportion of employment in:

of work with Proportion
the potential of work with Informa-
to be auto- the potential Diver- Health care tional and
mated (loca- to be auto- Popula- sity and social Educational Public ad- cultural
tion quotient) mated tion index assistance services ministration industries

Sher-
brooke, 0.992 46% 165,090 6.060 16% 11% 5% 1%
Que.

Montréal,
0.991 46% 3,120,060 4.078 12% 8% 5% 4%
Que.

Amos,
0.991 46% 13,710 10.426 20% 8% 8% 1%
Que.

Québec,
0.978 45% 634,200 5.461 13% 7% 14% 2%
Que.

Rimouski,
0.957 44% 41,945 8.397 15% 10% 9% 6%
Que.

xvi. The industries displayed were selected because: a) they

are at relatively low risk of being affected by automation,
and b) the proportions of employment in these industries
for the CAs and CMAs listed have the largest positive
deviations from the national average.

automation across the nation 27

MARITIMES

Figure 23:
Susceptibility of Maritime Province CMAs and CAs to Automation, 2011

Concentration of work
activities with the
potential for automation
(location quotient)

0.920 – 0.936

0.936 – 0.952

0.952 – 0.968

0.968 – 0.984

0.984 – 1.000

1.000 – 1.016

1.016 – 1.032

1.032 – 1.048

1.048 – 1.064

1.064 – 1.080

Note: A location quotient above 1 indicates a higher concentration of work activities with the potential to be automated versus the
Canadian average.

The CMAs and CAs most susceptible to automation and nine percent of total employment is in public
in the Maritimes have, on average, much administration, compared to seven percent across
higher employment in retail trade, as well as Canada.
manufacturing; agriculture, forestry, fishing and
hunting; and accommodation and food services. Take for example, New Glasgow, N.S., a town
with a population of nearly 30,000. This town has
However, unlike in other parts of Canada, the a fairly diverse economy, with major employers
most susceptible Maritime cities and towns have in the area including a Michelin tire plant, the
fairly diverse economies and are home to large Northern Pulp Nova Scotia pulp mill, the Aberdeen
industries relatively insulated from automation. Hospital, as well as the headquarters of the
On average, 14 percent of total employment in national grocery chain Sobeys.
these CMAs and CAs is in health care and social
assistance, compared to 11 percent across Canada,

28
Figure 24:
Maritime CMAs and CAs with the Highest Susceptibility to Automation, 2011xvii

Concentra- Proportion of employment in

tion of work Proportion
with the of work with Diver- Agriculture,
Popula- Accommo-
potential to the potential sity Manufactur- forestry,
tion Retail trade dation and
be automat- to be auto- index ing fishing and
ed (location mated food services
hunting
quotient)

Truro, N.S. 1.033 48% 37,670 6.937 15% 13% 4% 6%

Summerside,
1.032 48% 13,335 9.188 12% 14% 3% 9%
PEI

New
Glasgow, 1.023 47% 29,625 8.826 19% 12% 3% 7%
N.S.

Bay Roberts,
1.006 47% 8,950 10.215 16% 6% 5% 6%
Nfld.

Edmund-
1.004 46% 18,205 8.425 14% 13% 2% 5%
ston, N.B.

The least susceptible CMAs and CAs in the Many of the major cities in the region, including
Maritimes have a high proportion of total Halifax, N.S., and St. John’s, Nfld., also have
employment in public administration, health relatively low concentrations of work activities
care and social assistance, as well as educational with the potential for automation. These cities
services. For example, Corner Brook, a small city have higher than average employment in public
in Newfoundland, is home to the largest regional administration, educational services, and health
hospital in the west of the province, as well as care and social assistance. They are also home to a
the Grenfell Campus of Memorial University. As relatively diverse industry mix, providing a further
a result, over 30 percent of total employment in buffer against negative automation impacts.
the city is either in health care, social assistance
or educational services, making this city
comparatively resistant to automation.

xvii. The industries displayed were selected because: a)

they are at high or medium-risk of being affected by
automation, and b) the proportions of employment in
these industries for the CAs and CMAs listed have the
largest positive deviations from the national average.

automation across the nation 29

Figure 25:
Maritime CMAs and CAs with the Lowest Susceptibility to Automation, 2011xviii

Proportion of employment in
Concentration
of work with Proportion Administrative
the potential of work with Health and support,
to be auto- the potential Diver- Public care and Educa- waste manage-
mated (loca- to be auto- sity adminis- social as- tional ment and reme-
tion quotient) mated Population index tration sistance services diation services

Charlotte-
0.972 45% 52,505 6.769 16% 12% 10% 4%
town, PEI

Corner
0.970 45% 22,715 7.746 9% 22% 10% 4%
Brook, Nfld.

St. John’s,
0.969 45% 162,995 5.117 12% 15% 8% 5%
Nfld.

Halifax,
0.968 45% 325,050 4.792 13% 12% 8% 4%
N.S.

Fredericton,
0.952 44% 77,585 7.579 18% 11% 10% 4%
N.B.

xviii. The industries displayed were selected because: a) they

are high and medium-risk industries, and b) employment
across the top five CMAs and CAs in these industries had
the largest positive deviations from the national average.

30
En dnot es
1. Frey & Osborne, 2013. 24. Oschinski & Wyonch, 2017.

2. Sharpe, 2006, p. 3. 25. Graetz & Michaels, 2015.

3. Graetz, G., & Michaels, G. (2015). Robots at work. 26. Johnson, 2016.
CEPR Discussion Paper No. DP10477, P. 4.
27. Bickis, 2017.
4. Wilkins, 2017.
28. Manyika, Chui, Miremadi, Bughin, George, Willmott,
5. Miller & Atkinson, 2013. & Dewhurst, 2017.

6. Autor, 2015. 29. The Economist, 2015.

7. Green & Sand, 2015..

8. Statistics Canada Cansim Table 282-0008, Table 379-

0031, Table 383-0032, BII+E analysis

9. Acemoglu & Restrepo, 2017.

10. Executive Office of the President, 2016.

11. McKinsey Global Institute, 2017.

12. Arntz, Gregory, & Zierahn, 2016.

13. Manyika, Chui, Miremadi, Bughin, George, Willmott,

& Dewhurst, 2017.

14. Ibid.

15. Ibid.

16. Ibid.

17. Ibid.

18. Community Development Halton, 2013.

19. Felix, 2012.

20. McKinsey Global Institute, 2017; Statistics Canada

National Household Survey, 2011; BII+E analysis

21. Ibid.

22. Cheremukhin, 2014.

23. Acemoglu & Restrepo, 2017.

automation across the nation 31

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