Steel 2 Combine PDF

Prof. Dr.
Zahid Ahmad Siddiqi
STIFFENERS
It is usually necessary to stiffen the thin webs of
plate girders to prevent loss of strength due to web
buckling.
For riveted or bolted girders, angles are connected
to the webs while for welded girders; plates may
be welded to the webs as shown in Figure 6.13.
Stiffeners are divided into two groups:
a) Bearing Stiffeners.
b) Intermediate Stiffeners.
Prof. Dr. Zahid Ahmad Siddiqi
Stiffeners Web
Bearing Stiffeners
Bearing stiffeners are provided just above the
reactions or just below the heavy concentrated
loads.
These transfer heavy reactions or concentrated
loads to the full depth of the web providing a
uniform shear transfer.
Bearing stiffeners are always provided in pairs,
i.e., on both sides of the web.
Intermediate Stiffeners
Intermediate stiffeners are also called non-bearing
or stability stiffeners.
These are placed at various intervals along the web
to counteract against the buckling due to diagonal
compression.
These may also provide post-buckling shear
strength by the development of a mechanism called
tension field action, which will be explained later.
Intermediate stiffeners are provided in pairs on both
sides of the web or as a single unit alternatively on
each side of the web.
Behaviour Of Thin Webs With Stiffeners
N.A.
Differential Element Close

Principal Stresses On
To N.A. Where Flexural
Element In Pure Shear
Stresses Are Zero
The produced diagonal compression causes the

buckling of slender web.
However, even after this buckling, the girder does
not fail due to shear.
The reason is that this buckled web can still carry
tension in a perpendicular direction and forms a
truss like arrangement consisting of flanges as
top and bottom chords, web acting as diagonal
tension members and stiffeners acting as vertical
compression members as shown in Figure 6.16.
Compression Zone or
Buckling Region Stiffeners
Tension Field
C C
C C
C C C
Figure 6.16. Tension Field Action In Plate Girder Web.

The shear strength present after buckling of the web

is called post-buckling shear strength.
The phenomenon during which this strength
develops by the presence of a truss-like
configuration in the plate girder with intermediate
stiffeners is called Tension Field Action (TFA).
This gives better economy and provides a more
realistic idea of the actual strength of a girder.
Tension field action is always developed when a
girder with stiffeners is loaded beyond its initial
buckling stage.
During tension field action, a diagonal strip of the web

acts similar to the diagonal of a parallel chord truss.
The stiffeners prevent the flanges from coming closer
together and the flanges prevent the stiffeners from
moving towards each other.
The intermediate stiffeners, which before initial
buckling were assumed to resist no load, will resist
compression loads after web buckling and will serve as
the compression verticals of a truss.
With tension field action a web may resist shear equal
to two or three times that present at initial buckling.
The estimated ultimate shear that a panel of web

between adjacent stiffeners can withstand is equal
to the shear initially causing web buckling plus the
shear, which can be resisted by tension field action.
The amount of tension field action is dependent on
the proportions of the panels.
The resulting deflections may increase to several
times the values estimated by the usual deflection
theory.
Design Of Intermediate Stiffeners

The design of intermediate stiffeners involves
finding the required spacing and size of these
stiffeners.
Cv = called shear coefficient without T.F.A.
and stiffeners. It is the ratio of critical
web stress to the shear yield stress of
web material.
= fraction of shear strength available due
to web alone with respect to shear yield
strength of the compact web.
Cν′ = additional Cv value for T.F.A. due to

stiffeners alone.
= fraction of shear strength available with
respect to shear yield strength of web
due to stiffeners producing T.F.A.
kv = web plate buckling coefficient.
Example 6.2: Design intermediate stiffeners for

the plate girder of Example 6.1.
Solution: Using the flow chart of intermediate

stiffeners design, one can proceed step by step as
under:
1. Provide bearing stiffeners under concentrated
loads and over reactions.
2. h/tw = 230 > 2.46 E / Fy = 69.6
∴ Intermediate stiffeners are required.

First Interior Stiffener In End Panels
No T.F.A.
Vu = 1519 kN
Vu ×1000
3. Required Cv =
φν (0.6 )Fy Aw
1519 × 1000
= = 0.489
0.9 × 0.6 × 250 × 2300 × 10
kv E
4. Assuming h/tw > 1.37
Fy
2
(C v )req ×  h t
 ×F

 w
y
kv,req =
1.51 E
0.489 × (230 ) × 250
2
= = 21.41
302,000
kv E
h/tw = 230 > 1.37 = 179.3 OK
Fy
a 5
5. Maximum = = 0.552
h k v ,req − 5
amax = 0.552×(2300/1000) = 1.27 m

2
 260 
Also, amax =   ×h = 2.94 m
 h / tw 
6. Let a = 1.2 m ( Position of first
intermediate stiffener )
5
7. a / h = 0.522 : kv = 5+
(0.522) 2
= 23.37
1.51 × 23.37 × 200,000
Cv = = 0.534
(230) 2 × 250
φv Vn = 0.9 × 23000 × 0.6 × 250 × 0.534 / 1000

= 1656.9 kN
Spacing Of Other Intermediate Stiffeners
Portion AB
8. Vu (x = 1.2m) = 1519 − 76.9 × 1.2
= 1426.72 kN
9. Considering unstiffened webs with kv equal

to 5.0, check which formula for Cv is
applicable for the selected panel.
1370
h/tw for this girder = 230 and = 86.6
Fyw
1370
∴ h/tw > ⇒
Fy
1,510,000 1,510,000
Cv = = = 0.114
h  F
2
(230) 2
× 250
 t  y
 w
10. φv Vn = φv Aw (0.6Fy) Cv/1000

= 0.9 × 2300 × 10 × 0.6
× 250 × 0.114 / 1000 = 354 kN
11. Check whether intermediate stiffeners are
required or not.
i) Vu > φv Vn NG
ii) h/tw < 260 OK
∴ Intermediate stiffeners are required.
2
  2
 260   260
12. amax ≤   h =   × 2300/1000
 ht   230
 w
= 2.94 m
amax ≤ 3.0 h / 1000 = 3.0 × 2.3

= 6.90 m (with TFA)
∴ amax = 2.94 m
2 Aw
= Aw / Af
A fc + A ft
2300 × 10
= = 1.37 ≤ 2.5 (OK)
600 × 28
h / bf = 2300 / 600 = 3.83 ≤ 6.0 (OK)
13. Total distance upto next bearing

stiffener = 7.00 − 1.20 = 5.80m
∴ a = 5.8 / 2 = 2.90m
14. a/h = 2900 / 2300 = 1.26 :
5
kv = 5 +
(a h )2 = 8.145
15. Check which formula for Cv is applicable here.

kv E
1.37 = 110.6
Fy
kv E
h/tw > 1.37
Fy
1.51 k v E 1.51 × 8.145 × 200,000

∴ Cv = =
(h t w ) 2
Fy (230 )2 × 250
= 0.186
16. Tension field action will be considered to get
economical design.
1 − Cv 1 − 0.186
17. Cv′ = =
1.15 1 + a ( h)
2
1.15 1 + (1.26 )
2
18. φv Vn = 0.9 × Aw (0.6 Fy) (Cv + Cv′ )/1000

= 0.9 × 2300 × 10 × 0.6
× 250 (0.186 + 0.440) / 1000
= 1943.7 kN
19. Vu = 1426.72 kN< φv Vn OK

Portion BC
Vu (x = 7.0m) = 230.7 kN
The shear capacity without tension field action is:
φAw (0.6 Fy) Cv / 1000 = 354 kN as before > Vu
and h / tw ≤ 260
∴ No intermediate stiffeners are required for

portion BC.
However if length of the portion is greater than

3.0 h, it is better to provide intermediate stiffeners
at spacing not exceeding 3.0 h.
20. Size Of Intermediate Stiffeners

Fy  Vr 2 
(Ast)min =  0.15Ds h t w (1 − C v ) − 18t w  ≥ 0
Fyst  Vc 
Vr = required shear strength and Vc = φvVn.
Using the minimum value of Cv, the area of
stiffener will be critical. However, Vu and φvVn
should be used for the same region (x = 1.2 to
4.1 m in this example).
1426.72
(Ast)min = 0.15 × 2300 × 10 (1 − 0.186)
1943.70
− 18 × 102 = 261.4 mm2
For first interior stiffener, just as a check:
1519
(Ast)min = 0.15 × 2300 × 10 (1 − 0.534)
1656.9
2
− 18 t w
= 0 (do not consider negative value)
∴ Not critical
21. bst ≈ 7.9( Ast )min

= 46 mm
tst = bst / 15.8 = 3 mm
This is to keep λr less than or equal to 0.56 E / Fyst

(15.8 for A36 steel).
2 .5
22. j = −2 ≥ 0.5
(a / h ) 2
For first space, a / h = 1.2/2.3 = 0.52, j = 7.25

For next spaces, a / h = 1.26, j = 0.5
23. (Ist)min = 7.25 × 1200 × 103

= 870 × 104 mm4
and 0.5 × 2900 × 103
= 145 × 104 mm4 ∴ Not critical
24. Stiffener Size For Minimum
Moment Of Inertia:
bst ≈ [(I ) ]× 2.21

st min .
1
4 = 120 mm
tst = bst / 15.8 = 8 mm

Ist≅8 × 2503 /12 = 1042 × 104 mm4
> 870× 104 mm4 OK
Use 8 × 125 mm PLs

on both sides
25. Design Of Weld

fnv = 0.0004 h kN/mm
= 0.0004 × 2300
= 0.92 kN/mm for four welds
= 0.23 kN/mm per weld
As before, let tw = 8 mm
w
l = 50 mm
Rw = 1.26 kN/mm
50 × 1.26
x =
0.23
= 274 mm > 16 × web thickness +
lw = 210 mm
Use 8 × 50 mm welds 200mm c/c
Notes, Formulas And Definitions

Regarding Design Of Stiffeners
Note 1
At the junction of intermediate stiffener and flange,
equilibrium requires an axial tension to develop in
the flange of the adjacent panel.
When no such flange is available, as in an end
panel, the tension-field cannot adequately develop.
AISC Specification, therefore, consider that only
buckling strength (no tension-field action) is
available in that end panel.
Vn = Cv (0.6 Fy) Aw/1000 (kN) Eq. 1
φv = 0.9 (LRFD) Eq. 2

Ωv = 1.67 (ASD)
h kv E
For ≤ 1.10 Cv = 1.0
tw Fy
kv E h kv E
For 1.10 ≤ ≤ 1.37
Fy tw Fy
1.10 k v E / Fy
Cv = inelastic buckling
h / tw
Eq. 3
h kv E 1.51 k v E
> 1.37 Cv =
(h / t w )
For 2
tw Fy Fy
elastic buckling Eq. 4
Definition 2 kv = web plate buckling coefficient

5
kv = 5 + Eq. 5
(a / h ) 2
Except k = 5.0, if, for unstiffened webs,

2
 260 
a/h > 3.0 or a/h >  
 h tw 
1 − Cv
Cv′ = Eq. 6
1.15 1+(a h )
2
Axis to determine Ist
bst
tst
Sectional Plan of Girder at Intermediate Stiffener Position

Definition 4
Ist = moment of inertia of the cross-
sectional area of a transverse stiffener taken
about the center of the web thickness when the
stiffener consists of a pair of plates
2.5
j = −2 ≥ 0.5 Eq. 7
(a h ) 2
Note 2: Stiffness Requirement For

Intermediate stiffeners must be sufficiently rigid to
keep the web at the stiffener from deflecting out-
of-plane when buckling of the web occurs.
Ist ≥ j a tw3 (AISC G 2.2) Eq. 8
Fy  Vr 2 
(Ast)min =  0.15Dht w (1 − C v ) − 18t w  ≥ 0
Fyst  Vc 
Eq. 9
Ds = factor to account for eccentric loading

on stiffeners
= 1.0 for stiffeners in pairs on each side of
web
= 1.8 for single angle stiffeners
= 2.4 for single plate stiffeners
Vr = required shear strength at the location

of the stiffener
Vs = available shear strength
= φv Vn (LRFD) or Vn / Ωv (ASD)
Flow Chart For Design Of

Provide bearing stiffeners under
concentrated loads and over reactions
which will also act as intermediate stiffeners
h/tw ≤ 2.46 E / Fy (69.6 for A36 steel) AISC G2.2

No Yes
Intermediate stiffeners are

First interior stiffener in not required
end panels (See Note 1):
If h/tw ≤ 2.24 E / F y
(63.4 for A36 steel) Cv = 1.0
Vu = ?
Vu × 1000
Required Cv =
φ v × 0.6 Fy Aw where φv = 0.9
kv E
Assuming h/tw > 1.37 , from Eq. 4,
Fy
(C v )req (h t w ) 2
required kv = Fy
1.51 E
kv E
Calculate 1.37
Fyw
kv E
If h/tw ≤ 1.37
Fy , from Eq. 3,
 (C v )req × h
2
tw 
required kv =   Fy
 1.10 E 
If kreq = 5 , select max. a / h smaller

2
 260 
out of 3.0 and  
 h tw 
5
Otherwise, From Eq. 5: max. a/h = k req − 5
2
 260 
Calculate amax amax =   ×h
 h tw 
Decide a ≤ amax Select a rounded value.
Calculate Vn = 0.6 Aw Fy Cv/1000

A
Other Intermediate Stiffeners

Calculate (Vu)max within the portion between
already designed intermediate/bearing stiffeners.
Check whether intermediate stiffeners are required

or not ?
For this, calculate Cv without stiffeners and then
check the given conditions.
1370 1100 Fy
If h/tw ≤ Cv =
Fy h tw
(For unstiffened webs with kv = 5.0)
1370 1,510,000
Cv =
If h/tw >
Fy (h t w ) 2
Fy
(For unstiffened webs with kv = 5.0)
Check two Conditions:

1) Vu ≤ 0.6 φv Aw Fy Cv/1000 (φv = 0.9)
2) h/tw ≤ 260
Not to any one Yes to both
Decide stiffener trial spacing such that: No intermediate stiffeners are required.
2
Goto A for other portions.
 260  815.4
1. a ≤   × h/1000 If Vu ≤ × ht w
 w
h t
(h t w ) 2
& a ≤ 3.0 × h/1000

2. The selected ‘a’ should equally for A36 steel considering k=5 and
divide the available distance. finding Cv from Eq.4, amax =3h/1000
but Cv′ = 0.
2 Aw h h
3. ≤ 2.5, ≤ 6.0, ≤ 6.0
A fc + A ft b fc b ft
Where,
Afc = area of the compression flange
Aft = area of the tension flange
bfc = width of the compression flange

bft = width of the tension flange
Calculate a/h ratio and then calculate kv using Eq. 5.
kv E
Calculate the factor 1.37
Fy
Evaluate Cv from Eq. 3 or Eq. 4,

whichever is applicable.
If T.F.A. is to be considered, calculate Cv′ using Eq. 6.

If T.F.A. is not present, Cv′ = 0
Vn = 0.6 Aw Fy (Cv + Cv′ )/1000 : φv Vn = ?
Vu ≤ φv Vn ?
Yes No
Spacing for all the Reduce ‘a’ and goto B

portions is decided.
Size of Intermediate Stiffeners:

Calculate (Ast)min from Eq. 9 for T.F.A.
For stiffener plates on both

sides of web (pair of
stiffeners)
E
(b / t)st ≤ 0.56 Fy
bst ≈ 7.9 ( A st ) min.

Figure
and tst = bst/15.8 Gap between flange-to-
Case I web weld and stiffener-to
web weld < 4 tw and > 6
tw, where tw = web
thickness
b st
Check ≤ 15.8, Otherwise revise.
t st
Calculate “j” using Eq. 7 and (Ist)min using Eq. 8
3
b
Ist ≈ 2 tst st
for plate stiffeners on both sides
3
bst = 2.21 [(I ) ]
st min .
14
and tst =
bst
15.8
Case II
Select bigger values of bst and tst for

(Ast)min [Case I] and (Ist)min [Case II]
If T.F.A. is considered, find total shear transfer

for intermediate stiffeners as follows:
0.045 F y3  kN 
fnv = h  
1000 E  mm 
 kN 
= 0.0004 h   for A36 steel
 mm 
Bolts connecting stiffeners to the girder web should

have a maximum spacing of 305 mm on centers.
The clear distance between intermittent fillet welds
should not be more than 16 times the web thickness
and 250 mm.
Design intermittent weld for this shear.
END
Flow Chart For Design

Of Bearing Stiffeners
Check Whether Bearing Stiffener Is Required Or
Not
Following four conditions are to be satisfied to avoid
the provision of bearing stiffeners.
If any one condition is not satisfied, design and
provide a bearing stiffener.
1. Local Web Yielding

Pu = factored concentrated load or
reaction, kN
N = length of bearing, not less than k for
end beam reactions, mm
k = distance from outer face of flange
to web toe of fillet, mm
Rn = nominal strength
φ = 1.0
Pu
k
2.5k N 2.5k
Interior loads:
Rn = (5k + N) Fy tw/1000 (kN)
For load at a distance greater than the depth of
member from the end.
End reactions:
Rn = (2.5k + N) Fy tw/1000 (kN)
Transverse stiffeners are not required when
Pu ≤ φ Rn with φ = 1.0
The weld connecting transverse stiffener to the
web shall be designed for the unbalanced force
in the stiffener to the web.
2. Web Crippling
Single stiffener or a pair of transverse stiffeners, is
not required where:
Pu ≤ φ Rn with φ = 0.75
a) When Pu is applied at a distance from the

member end that is greater than or equal to
d / 2,
  
1.5
 EF t
   w  
N t
Rn = 0.80 t w 1 + 3    
2 y f
  d  tf   tw
 
b) When Pu is applied at a distance from the

member end that is less than d/2,
For N / d ≤ 0.2, Rn = half of the above value
  tw 
1 .5
 EF t
 4 N 
0.40 t w 1 +  − 0.2    
2 y f
For N / d > 0.2, Rn =   d   t f 
  tw
 
3. Web Sidesway Buckling
A pair of transverse stiffeners extending at least

one-half the depth of the web is to be provided if
the following condition is not satisfied:
Pu ≤ φ Rn
with φ = 0.85 (LRFD) and Ω = 1.76 (ASD)
Where Rn is evaluated as follows:

a) The compression flange is not restrained

against rotation.
h / tw
i) > 1.7, the bearing stiffener is not required.
l / bf
h / tw C t t  3
 h / t 
3

ii) ≤ 1.7, Rn =
r f
 0
w
.4  w  
l / bf h 2   l / b f  
 
b) The compression flange is restrained against
rotation.
h / tw
i) > 2.3, the bearing stiffener is not required.
l / bf
Cr t t f  
3
3
 h / tw 
ii)
h / tw
≤ 2.3, Rn =
w
1 + 0. 4   
l / bf h2  l/b  
  f  
l = largest laterally unbraced length along

either flange at the point of load, mm
Cr = 6.62 × 106 MPa when Mu < My at the
location of Pu
= 3.31 × 106 MPa when Mu ≥ My at the
location of Pu
4. Fourth Condition
When the section for provision of the stiffener is
restrained against rotation about the longitudinal
axis of the beam in case of unframed ends of
beams and girders, transverse stiffener is not
required to be provided.
Are all the four conditions satisfied?
Yes. No bearing stiffeners are required; provide

only intermediate stiffener. However, it is
better to use a minimum size bearing
stiffener.
b f − tw bst
No. Let bst = & tst =
2 15
Note: For transverse and diagonal stiffeners, the

following requirements must be satisfied:
bst ≥ bf / 3 − ½ tw
tst ≥ tf / 2
tst ≥ bst / 15
Check Bearing Strength

φ = 0.75
Rbn = nominal bearing strength
= 1.8 Fy Apb / 1000 (kN)
Apb = contact area of stiffener bearing against
the flange
= area of stiffener leaving the web and the
web-to-flange weld
Pu ≤ φ Rbn
Yes No
Increase tst and revise

Check Column Action
Equivalent length le ≥ 3/4 lst
or le = 3/4 h
Ae = total area of x-section

= (25 tw or 12 tw) (tw) + 2 bst tst
I = M.O.I about web center-line

3
t w bst3
= (25 tw or 12 tw) + 2 tst
12 12
+ 1/2 tst bst (bst + tw)2
Stiffener
Bending/buckling Web
axis 2bst + tw
25 tw for interior stiffener

& 12 tw for end stiffener
Figure 6.21. Equivalent Column
Cross-Section.
I
r =
Ae
le
Slenderness ratio =
r
Find φc Fcr against slenderness ratio from tables.
φc Pn = φc Fcr Ae/1000
Pu ≤ φc Pn
Yes No
Provide continuous weld Increase tst and again check

but check the shear column action.
transfer
END
Design Of Bearing Stiffener

Example 6.3: Design load bearing and end
bearing stiffeners for the plate girder of
Example 6.1.
Solution:
Design Of Bearing Stiffener Under The Load
1. Web Local Yielding Limit State:
Pu = 750 kN
k = tf + 8 = 28 + 8 = 36 mm
N = length of bearing
= 150 mm (suppose) > k OK
φRn = 1.0 (5×36+150) × 250×10 / 1000

= 825 kN
Pu ≤ φ Rn
∴ No bearing stiffener is required for this

limit state.
2. Web Crippling Limit State:
  tw 
1 .5
 EF t
 N 
φ Rn = 0.75 × 0.80 t w 1 + 3     
2 yw f
  d   t f 
  tw
 
0.75 × 0.80   150   10 
1.5
 200,000 × 250 × 28
= ×10 × 1 + 3 
2
  
1000   2356   28   10
= 739.9 kN
Pu > φ Rn
∴Bearing stiffener is required for

this limit state.
Note: There is no need to check the other

conditions if a bearing stiffener is required for one
particular condition. However, other limit states are
checked here just for practice.
3. Web Sidesway Buckling Limit State:

The compression flange is laterally supported at a
maximum spacing of 7 m, and it may be assumed
that the rotation is not restrained.
h / tw 2300 / 10
= = 19.71 > 1.7
l / bf 7,000 / 600
∴ Bearing stiffener is not required for this limit state.
4. The load point is not an unframed end and

hence bearing stiffener is not required for this limit
state.
Proportioning Of Stiffener
bst,min = bf – 1/2 tw
= 600 / 3 – 0.5 × 10 = 195
say 200 mm
tst = maximum out of the following:
i) tf / 2 = 28 / 2 = 14 mm
ii) bst / 15 = 13.33 mm
= 14 mm say 15 mm
Use stiffener plates 200 × 15 mm on full web depth

and both sides, although only half depth stiffener is
also sufficient.
Bearing Strength Check:
Apb = 2 × (200 − 8) × 15 = 5760 mm2
φ Rbn = 0.75 (1.8 Fy) Apb/1000
= 0.75 × 1.8 × 250 × 5760 / 1000 = 1944 kN
Pu ≤ φ Rbn OK
Column Action Check (Only for full depth stiffeners)
Le = ¾h = 1725 mm
Ae = 25 tw2 + 2 bst tst
Ae = 25 tw2 + 2 bst tst

= 25 × 102 + 2 × 200 × 15 = 8500 mm
3
25 4 t b t st bst
I = tw + st st
+ (bst + t w ) 2
12 6 2
25 15 × 200 15 × 200
3
= × 10 +
4
+ (200 + 10) 2
12 6 2
= 8617 × 104 mm4
r = I / Ae = 100.7 mm
Le / r = 1725 / 100.7 = 18
φc Fcr = 221.17 MPa

Welds
Provide 8 mm thick welds on all four corners.

Weld strength = 4 × 1.26 × (2300 – 2 × 8)
= 11,511 kN > Pu OK
Design Of End Bearing Stiffener
1. Web Local Yielding Limit State:
Pu = 1519 kN
tf = 18 : k = 18 + 8 = 26
φ Rn = 1.0 × (2.5 × 26 + 150) × 250 × 10 / 1000

= 537.5 kN
Pu > φ Rn
∴ Bearing stiffener is required.
2. Web Crippling Limit State:
N / d = 150 / 2336 = 0.064 < 0.2

  tw 
1.5
 EF t
 N 
φ Rn = 0.75 × 0.40 t w 1 + 3   
2 

 yw f
  d  tf   tw
 
0.75 × 0.40   150     200,000 × 250 ×18
10
1.5
= ×10 × 1 + 3 
2
  
1000   2336   18   10
= 307.3 kN
Pu > φ Rn
∴ Bearing stiffener is required.

3. Web Sidesway Buckling Limit State:
The compression flange is laterally supported at a

maximum spacing of 7 m, and it may be assumed
that the rotation is restrained.
h / tw 2300 / 10
= = 16.43 > 2.3
l / bf 7,000 / 500
∴ Bearing stiffener is not required for this
limit state.
4. Bearing stiffeners are always required at
the unframed, hinged or roller ends.
Proportioning Of Stiffener
bst,min = b f / 3 – ½ tw = 500/3 – 5
= 162 mm
Total available space = (bf − tw)/2 = 245

mm
Take bst = 240 mm
tst = maximum out of

i) tf / 2 = 9 mm
ii) bst / 15 = 240 / 15 = 16 mm say 18 mm
Use 2 stiffener plates 240 × 18 mm

Bearing Strength Check:
Apb = 2 × (240 − 8) × 18 = 8352
mm2
φ Rbn = 0.75 (1.8 Fy) Apb/1000
= 0.75 × 1.8 × 250 × 8352 / 1000
= 2819 kN
Pu ≤ φ Rbn OK
Column Action Check:
Le = ¾h = 1725 mm
2
Ae = 12 t + 2 bst tst = 12 × 100 + 2 × 240 × 18
w
= 9840 mm2
3
t b t st bst
I = tw +
4 st st
+ (bst + t w )2
6 2
18 × 240 18 × 240
3
= 104 + + (250) 2
6 2
= 17,648 × 104 mm4
r = I = 133.9 mm
A
Le / r = 1725 / 133.9 ≅ 13
φc Fcr = 222.99 MPa
φc Pn = φc Fcr Ae / 1000
= 222.99 × 9840 / 1000
= 2194 kN
Pu < φc Pn (O.K.)
Final size: 240 × 16 mm plates on both sides.
Welds
Provide 8 mm thick continuous welds on all four

corners.
Weld strength = 4 × 1.26 × (2300 – 2 × 8)
= 11,511 kN > Pu
OK
CONNECTIONS
• Connections are the devices used to join elements
of a structure together at a point such that forces
can be transferred between them safely.
• Connection design is more critical than the design
of members.
• The failure of connection usually means collapse
of a greater part or whole of the structure.
• In general, relatively more factor of safety is
provided in the design of connections.
• The rigid connection should provide

sufficient strength and ductility.
• The ductility is very useful for redistribution
of stresses and dissipation of extra energy in
case of earthquakes, etc.
TYPES OF CONNECTIONS
Based On Means Of Connection
A. Welded connections
B. Riveted connections
C. Bolted connections
Based On Forces To Be Transferred
A. Truss connections
B. Moment connections
– i) Fully rigid connections
– ii) Semi-rigid connections
C. Simple/shear connections
D. Splices
E. Brackets
Moment Connections
• Moment connections are also referred to as rigid,
continuous frame or FR connections.
• Knee joints are the typical example.
• They are assumed to be sufficiently rigid keeping
the original angles between members practically
unchanged after application of loads.
• Greater than 90 percent moment may be
transferred with respect to ideally rigid connection
besides the full transfer of shear and other forces.
• These connections are particularly useful

when continuity between the members of
the building frame is required to provide
more flexural resistance and to reduce
lateral deflection due to wind loads.
• Both the flanges and web of the member are
to be connected for this type of connection.
• End connections of restrained beams
girders, and trusses shall be designed for the
combined effect of forces resulting from
moment and shear induced by the rigidity of
the connections.
Semi-Rigid / Partially
Restrained Connections
• Type PR connections have rigidity less than 90
percent compared with ideally rigid connections.
• Although the relative rotation between the
joining members is not freely allowed, the
original angles between members may change
within certain limits.
• They transfer some percentage of moment less
than 90 percent and full shear between the
members.
• Semi-rigid connections provide rigidity in-

between fully restrained and simple
connections.
• Approximately 20 to 90 percent moment
compared with ideal rigid joint may be
transferred.
• End moments may develop in the beams and
the maximum beam moment may be
significantly reduced.
• Usually no advantage is taken of this
reduction and beams are designed as simply
supported because of various reasons.
• One of the reasons is the difficulty of structural

frame analysis for varying degrees of restraints at
the joints and unpredicted rotations.
• Further, LRFD Specification states that a
connection can only be considered as semi-rigid if
proper evidence is presented to prove that it is
capable of providing a certain end restraint.
• These are the commonly used types of
connections in practice because their performance
is exceptionally well under cyclic loads and
earthquake loadings.
Shear Connections
• Simple or shear connections have less than
20 percent rigidity.
• They are considerably flexible and the
beams become simply supported due to the
possibility of the large available rotation.
• Moment may not be transferred in larger
magnitudes with the requirement that the
shear force is fully transferred.
• In these connections, primarily the web is to

be connected because most of the shear
stresses are concentrated in it.
• Connections of beams, girders, or trusses
shall be designed as flexible joints to resist
only the reaction shears except otherwise
required.
• Flexible beam connections shall
accommodate end rotations of unrestrained
beams.
Bearing Joints
• There shall be sufficient connectors to hold
all parts of the section securely in place
when columns rest on bearing plates.
• All compression joints shall be designed to
provide resistance against uplift and tension
developed during the uplift load
combination.
SPLICES
These are used to extend the length of a
particular member.
The two sides of the member may have same or
different cross-sections.
Splice joint is a connection between two parts of
the same member whereas a regular joint is the
connection of more than one members of the
structure.
BRACKETS
Brackets are the connections used to transfer

torque besides other types of forces.
The term bracket is generally used for an extra
plate projecting out of the column and acting
like a seat for the beam.
Types of Joints Based On Placement

Of Parts To Be Joined
The types of joint depends on factors such as the
size and shape of the members coming into the
joint, the type of loading, the amount of joint area
available for welding, and the relative costs for
various types of welds.
Butt joints
The butt joint is used mainly to join the ends of flat
plates of the same or nearly the same thickness.
A gap or groove is left between abutting members,
which is later on filled with weld (Figure 8.1).
The principal advantage of this type of joint is to

eliminate the eccentricity developed in single lap
joints.
Groove filled with

weld
Welded Butt Bolted Butt

Joint Joint
Lap joints
The members are either overlapped with each
other or with some connecting plates like gusset
plates, splice plates, etc, as shown in Figure 8.2.
Eccentricity of load and hence moment may be
produced in these joints.
In welded lap joints, the minimum amount of lap is
to be five times the thickness of the thinner part
joined, but not less than 25 mm.
Welded Lap Joint Bolted Lap Joint
Advantages of Lap Joints
a. The plates of different thickness can easily

be joined such as in a truss connection (Figures
8.3 and 8.4).
b. Ease of Filling: Pieces being joined do not
require the preciseness in fabrication, as do the
other types of joints.
Lapped plate Lapped plate
Truss Connection
Beam
bracket
Splice joint
The pieces can be slightly shifted to accommodate

minor errors in fabrication or to make adjustments
in length.
c. Ease of Joining: The edges of the pieces
being joined do not need special preparation and
are usually sheared or flame cut.
Occasionally the pieces are positioned by a small
number of erection bolts, which may be either left
in place or removed after the welding is
completed.
Tee joint
In a tee joint, one member
meets the other member at
right angles, as shown in
Figure 8.4.
Corner joint
A typical example of corner
joint is shown in Figure 8.5.
Edge joint
The parts to be joined come
parallel to each other from one
side and are joined at their edge.
WELDING
Welding is a process in which metallic parts are
connected together by heating their surfaces to a
fluid state and allowing the parts to flow together
and join with or without the addition of other
molten metal.
General Types Of Welding
Gas welding
In gas welding a mixture of oxygen and
acetylene is burned at the tip of a torch or
blowpipe held in the welder’s hand.
Additional metal is introduced by a metal rod

known as filler or welding rod.
Gas welding is a rather slow process as
compared to other means of welding and is
normally used for repair and maintenance work
and not for the fabrication and erection of large
steel structures.
Electric arc welding
In arc welding an electric arc is formed between
the pieces being welded connected to negative
terminal of battery and an electrode held in the
operator’s hand with some type of holder
connected to positive terminal of battery.
The arc is a continuous spark which upon contact

brings the electrode and the piece being welded to
the melting point.
The resistance of the air or gas between the
electrode and the piece being welded changes the
electrical energy into heat.
A temperature of somewhere between 3100 and
5500 oC is produced in the arc.
In electric-arc welding the metallic rod, which is
used as the electrode, melts off in to the joint as it
is being made.
Hence, the type of welding electrode is very

important as it decidedly affects the weld properties
such as strength, ductility, and corrosion resistance.
Weld filler
material
Electrode covering (+)

Shielding
atmosphere
Slag Metal and slag

droplets
Weld
Penetration depth
Molten weld pool

Base material (-)
Advantages Of Welding
1- Welded structures allow the elimination

of a large percentage of the gusset and
splice plates necessary for riveted or bolted
structures along with the elimination of rivet
or bolt heads.
In some bridge trusses it may be
possible to save up to 15% or more of the
steel weight by using welding making the
structure economical.
2- Welding requires appreciably less labor

than does riveting because one welder can
replace the standard four person riveting crew.
However, skilled and experienced welders are
needed for better quality.
3- Welding has a much wide range of
application than riveting or bolting. Consider a
steel pipe column and the difficulties of
connecting it to other steel members by riveting
or bolting.
4- Welded structures are more rigid because
the members are often welded directly to each
other.
The connections for riveted or bolted structures

are often made through connection angles or
plates which deflect due to load transfer, making
the entire structure more flexible.
On the other hand, greater rigidity can be a
disadvantage where simple end connections with
little moment resistance are desired. For such
cases designers must be careful as to the type of
joint they specify.
5- Welding changes and repairs are quick and
easy.
6- Welding has relative silence of operation.
7- Fewer pieces are used and as a result time

is saved in detailing, fabrication and field
erection.
8- Welded connections are not recommended
for temporary connections, where bolts are
preferred.
9- Welding gives truly continuous structures
with smooth and clean surfaces.
Types Of Welds Depending
Upon Weld Shape
The welds may be groove or fillet welds.
Groove welds
This type of weld is used in approximately 15% of
construction. A groove of one of the shapes
shown in Figure 8.8 is formed between the
adjoining surfaces, which is then filled with weld.
Name Symbol Use

t1 t2
1. Square t ≤ 10mm
weld
2. Single - V t ≤ 12mm
3. Double - V t > 12mm
4. Single - bevel t ≤ 12mm
5. Double - bevel t > 12mm
6. Single - U t ≤ 12mm
7. Double - U t > 12mm
8. Single - J t ≤ 12mm
9. Double - J t > 12mm
Fillet Welds
Fillet welds owing to their overall economy, ease
of fabricating and adaptability are the most widely
used (in approximately 80% of construction).
It is actually triangular filling of weld around the
overlapping edges.
Slot and Plug Welds
In this type of welding, the pieces to be joined are
placed one above the other and a hole or slot is
drilled in the top plate.
This hole or slot is then filled with the weld
material (Figure 8.9).
Symbol :
A A
Slot weld
(Called plug weld
if circular)
Section AA
Intermittent Welds
The effective length of any segment of
intermittent fillet welding shall be not less than 4
times the weld size, with a minimum of 38mm.
Minimum effective length of one weld segment
should be 4 tw, but not less than 38 mm. In lap
joints, the minimum amount of lap shall be five
times the thickness of the thinner part joined,
but not less than 25 mm.
1 3 5 7 1 3 5 7
2 4 6 8 2 4 6
Other Welding Symbols

Some other common symbols are shown in Figure.
= weld all around
= field weld
= flush contour
= convex contour
= concave contour
Standard Welding Symbol

A standard weld symbol is used on the
drawings and it gives complete information
about the referenced weld.
A typical standard weld symbol is shown in
Figure 8.11 and the terms used in it are
explained below:
(Weld specification for side opposite to arrow)

This line is F
contour symbol Field weld symbol
A
L-P
S(E) D or L@P
T Weld all around symbol
G
Reference line Arrow connects to

arrow side of joint
(Weld specification for arrow side)
Figure 8.11. Standard Weld Symbol.

T = Specification reference. Tail is omitted

when reference is not used.
S = Depth of preparation or size (mm).
E = Effective throat (mm).
F = Finish symbol.
A = Groove angle or included angle of
countersink for plug welds.
D = Apposite-to-arrow side weld shape
symbol.
G = Arrow-side weld shape symbol.
L = Length of weld (mm).
P = Pitch (center-to-center spacing) of
welds (mm).
6 150
The symbol indicates fillet weld on near or

arrow side. Size of weld is 6 mm and length
of weld is 150 mm.
50@150 or
12 50 - 150
The symbol shows 12 mm thick fillet weld on far

or opposite-to-arrow side. The weld is
intermittent with length of each segment equal to
50 mm and pitch equal to 150 mm.
6 150
6mm fillet weld, 150mm long is present on both

sides. As indicated, if weld dimensions are same
on both sides, write only once. Further, it is field
weld.
10 50 - 150
A staggered, intermittent, 10mm fillet weld,

50mm long, 150 on centers, is provided on
both sides.
Minimum Weld Size For Fillet Welds

The minimum fillet weld sizes for
various thicknesses of thinner tp1
parts joined are given by AWS tp2

D1.1 (American Welding Society)
and are reproduced in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1. Minimum Fillet Weld Sizes.
Base metal thickness of thinner Minimum leg size of fillet weld
part joined (tp2) (tw)min.
mm mm
0 < tp1 ≤ 6 3
6 < tp1 ≤ 13 5
13 < tp1 ≤ 19 6
19 < tp1 8
Maximum Fillet Weld Size
1- Along edges of material less than 6

mm thick,
(tw)max. = tp1 where tp1 =
thickness of thinner plate joined.
2- Along edges of material 6 mm or
more in thickness,
(tw1)max. = tp1 − 2
Practical Weld Size

The smallest practical weld size is about
3mm and the most economical size is probably
about 8mm giving the best efficiency of welder.
This 8mm weld is the largest size that can be
made in one pass with the shielded arc welding
process.
Optimum weld size (tw)opt = 8mm
Minimum Length Of Fillet Weld

There is always a slight tapering off in the
region where the fillet weld is started and where
it ends.
Therefore, if the length is very small, large
percentage difference is created between actual
and expected strengths.
Hence, the minimum effective length of a fillet
weld is specified as four times its nominal size.
(lw)min. = 4 tw
If this requirement is not met, the size of the weld

for calculating strength should be considered to
be one-fourth of the effective length provided.
The effective length of any segment of
intermittent fillet weld shall be not less than 4tw,
with a minimum of 38 mm.
Recommended Maximum Weld Length

lmax. = 30 tw
If the weld length is greater than this limit, it is
better to use intermittent weld at a clear
spacing of 100 - 150mm.
Strength Of Weld
Strength of weld depends upon the following factors:

1- Size of weld (tw).
2- Length of weld (l1, l2).
3- Type of electrode.
4- Type of weld.
5- Type of base metal.
6- Thickness of plates.
Table 8.3. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) Electrodes.
Electrode Type Minimum Tensile Strength (FE)

MPa
E60 425
E70 495
E80 550
E100 690
E110 760
STRESSES IN FILLET WELDS

Fillet welds are subjected to shear stresses in
case of connection of tension and compression
members.
For the cases where fillet weld is subjected to
direct tension or compression, the failure is still
expected at the maximum shear stress plane
due to the ductile nature of the weld material.
Effective Throat Of Fillet Welds
Tests have shown that fillet welds are stronger in

direct tension and compression than they are in
shear, so the controlling fillet weld stresses given
by the various specifications are shearing
stresses.
Further, when practical, it is desirable to arrange
welded connections so that they will be subjected
to shear stresses only and not to a combination of
shear and tension or shear and compression.
Weld Face
Weld Face
Theoretical Theoretical
Leg of Face Face
Weld
Effective Throat
Effective Throat
Root of Weld Leg of Weld
(a) Convex Surface (b) Concave Surface
The theoretical throat of a weld is the shortest

distance from the root of the weld to its theoretical
face.
45°
Throat
a tw
te 45°
b tw
(a) a not equal to b (b) a = b = tw
ab te = 0.707 tw
te =
a2 + b2
Area of weld = te × length of weld = 0.707× tw ×lw
The effective throat of the weld (te) is the shortest

distance from the root of the weld to its theoretical
face.
For the 45° or equal leg fillet, the throat
dimension is 0.707 times the leg of the weld (tw),
but it has a different value for fillet weld with
unequal legs, as shown in Figure 8.16.
Adopted Or Selected Weld Size (tw)

Three limiting weld sizes, (tw)min, (tw)max and
(tw)opt are found as explained earlier and are
arranged in ascending or descending order.
The middle value is then selected and is
rounded to the nearest whole number millimeter.
Selected Weld Length

Selected weld length at any face of the member
(l1, l2, and l3) should be greater than or equal to
the calculated value but should be within (lw)min
and (lw)max.
Weld Value (Rw)

It is the strength or load carrying capacity in kN of a unit
length of the weld (usually 1mm) depending on weld or
member strength, whichever is lesser.
Rw = lesser of the following two:

1) φRnw = φ × effective throat (te) × unit length × weld
shear strength
= 0.75 × 0.707 × tw × 1 × 0.6 FE / 1000
2) φRBM = 0.75 × 0.6 Fu × Ans / 1000
= 0.75 × 0.6 Fu × t × 1 / 1000
where t = thickness of base metal
REQUIRED LENGTH OF WELD
The total weld length required is calculated by

dividing the design force with the weld value.
This weld length is then divided into weld on three
sides of the member namely l1, l2 and l3, as
shown in Figure 8.17.
These calculations are made depending on the
basic requirement that no moment should be
generated at the connection.
Fu
lw = = l1 + l2 + l3
Rw
l2
l2
Fu
l3
l1 l1
l1
l2
B
P2
d−y
l3 Fu
P3
Gravity axis
y
P1
A l1
Fu
l1 + l2 + l3 = lw =
Rw
P1 = Rw l1
P2 = Rw l2
P3 = Rw l3
Fu = Rw lw
Taking moments about point A and equating it to

zero, following expression is obtained:
P2(d) + P3(d/2) – P × y = 0
l2 d + l3 d/2 − lw y =0
lw y l3
l2 = −
d 2
Similarly taking moments about the point B,
length l1 may be calculated as follows:
l w (d − y ) l3
l1 = −
d 2
Length of weld on that side of the member will be
greater which is closer to centroidal axis, like
towards the projecting leg of the member, etc.
If l1 is greater than l2 and l3 is first selected

equal to zero, the following procedure may be
used to check the lengths for the minimum
and the maximum limits.
Check l1:
If l1 ≤ (lw)max and l1 ≥ (lw)min Use l1 without any change
If l1 < (lw)min Increase l1 to (lw)min
If l1 > (lw)max a) Provide l3 equal to length of end face of

the member and revise l1 and l2 (most
common solution)
b) Increase tw, if it is lesser than (tw)max and
revise calculations
c) Provide intermittent weld
PROCEDURE FOR DESIGN OF

WELDED TRUSS CONNECTIONS
1. Write all the known data including selected

member sections, factored member forces, etc.
2. In case of lap joints, the amount of lap shall
be five times the thickness of the thinner part
joined, but not less than 25mm.
3- Decide gusset plate thickness such that it
should be:
a) same throughout the truss,
b) comparable to greatest thickness of

members joining with it,
c) not less than 6mm, and
d) preferably kept at a minimum of 10mm.
This thickness is most commonly used.
e) Size and shape of the gusset plate are
decided during drawing as explained in
Reference-1 (in instructions to make
working drawing for a truss).
4- In case of members with reversal of forces,
only design for the greater magnitude force and
use the corresponding section capacity.
5- Find out load carrying capacity of the

member, φtTn or φcPn, if not known.
6. The design factored force (Fu) for a member
discontinued at the joint is taken as the greater of
applied load and 50% (any value may be specified
for effective use of the member strength up to
100%) of the section capacity.
7. If the member is double angle section,
consider Fu as half of the above force for one angle.
The weld will be designed for one angle and the
same will be provided on the other side.
8. Find d and y for the section from the table.
9. Select size of weld (tw) considering (tw)min,

(tw)max and (tw)opt.
10. Decide the type of electrode to be used.

11. Find weld value (Rw) as smaller of φ Rnw and
φ RBM.
φRnw = φ × te×1×0.6 FE / 1000
where te = 0.707 tw : φ = 0.75
φRBM = φ × tp1×1×0.6 Fu / 1000
for base plate subjected to shear, φ =0.75
12. Calculate total weld length required (lw) as

follows:
Fu
lw =
Rw
13. Calculate (lw)min and (lw)max.
14. Divide total weld length (lw) into l1 and l2,
which are weld lengths at top and bottom of the
member, considering l3 = 0 in the start.
d−y
l1 = lw × y / d and l1 = lw ×
d
Greater value is provided on that face of the
member which is closer to the centroidal axis.
15- Check lengths l1 and l2 for minimum and

maximum limits and decide the side weld length l3.
a- Assuming that l1 is the greater length, first
check it against the limiting values as follows:
If l1 ≥ (lw)min and l1 ≤ (lw)max ⇒ OK
If l1 < (lw)min ⇒ use l1 = (lw)min
If l1 > (lw)max ⇒
i) Take l3 = d, l1 and l2 will be previous
values minus d / 2.
ii) If l1 is still bigger than (lw)max., we can
increase tw or use intermittent weld.
b- Similar check is made for the smaller length

out of l1 and l2.
The minimum length of one segment of

intermittent weld should be larger of 4tw and
38mm.
16- The connection length for a tension member
must be such that a better shear lag factor may be
achieved. The preferred connection length may
be calculated as under:
x
U = 1−
l
x
For U = 0.9 1− = 0.9
l pref
x
= 0.1 lpref = 10 x
l pref
where x = distance between centroid of the

element and the plane of load tranfer
17- Check block shear strength, for tension
members only.
The nominal strength for block shear is the lesser
of the following two cases because only that will
cause the final separation of the block from the
member.
Rn = lesser of 0.6 Fu Anv + Ubs Fu Ant
and 0.6 Fy Agv + Ubs Fu Ant
Nominal tension rupture strength = Ubs Fu Ant

Nominal shear rupture strength = 0.6 Fu Anv
Shear yielding strength = 0.6 Fy Agv
0.6Fy ≅ yield shear strength = τy

0.6Fu ≅ ultimate shear strength = τu
φ = 0.75 (LRFD) and Ω = 2.00 (ASD)
Agv = gross area subjected to shear
Anv = net area in shear
Ant = net area in tension
Ubs = tensile rupture strength reduction factor
(subscript ‘bs’ stands for block shear)
= 1.0 when tensile stress is uniform
18. If more than one member is meeting at a

joint, consider free body diagram of each member
separately, to design the weld. For example, each
member of Figure 8.6 is to be designed separately
for its force.
Splice Plate
Figure 8.6. Spliced Top And Bottom Chord Joints.
19. If the top or bottom chord member is

discontinued at a joint (Figure 8.6), splice plate
should be used with the projected leg of the
member, perpendicular to the gusset plate.
Thickness of this splice plate must be
approximately equal to thickness of the member.
This type of joint is called a Spliced Joint.
Splicing is done at some distance away from the
point of intersection of members to avoid stress
concentration on gusset plate.
Force transferred to splice plate may be taken as

50 percent of lesser member force out of the
forces on both sides.
This force may be used to check the size of the
plate for the required strength.
20. In case of un-spliced and unloaded top or
bottom chord joint (as in Figure 8.20), the top or
bottom chord weld is designed for the difference
of forces on the two sides, which is greater of:
a) F1 – F2, greater of F1 and F2 may be
replaced with 50 percent of member capacity
for the corresponding member, if it is larger in
magnitude.
b) F3 cosθ3 – F4 cosθ4

c) 25 percent capacity of larger member.
F5
F4 F3
θ4 θ3
F2 F1
Figure 8.20. Un-Spliced Top And

Bottom Chord Joints.
21. In case of loaded un-spliced joint, design is

carried out as in step 20 but an additional check as
under is performed at the end.
This is required because the weld should provide
extra strength to transfer perpendicular load (V)
from the member to the gusset plate.
In Figure 8.21, P = 1.2 PD + 1.6 PL
and V = P cosθ
2 2
 F   
R'w =   + 
u V
Calculate  (l w )   (l w ) 
 prov   prov 
Gravity Load
P
V θ
F1
F2
F5
F4
F3
Figure 8.21. Loaded Un-Spliced Top And Bottom Chord Joints.

If Rw′ ≤ Rw OK
Otherwise:
i) Increase the weld length in steps and check
ii) Increase the weld size if it is lesser than (tw)max
22- Show results of weld design on a neat
sketch using standard weld symbol.
Example 8.1: Design weld for the tension-

member shown in Figure 8.22 using E 70 electrode.
The thickness of gusset plate is 10 mm and the
factored tensile force is 300 kN.
l2
d–y
Tu = 300 kN
l1 L89 × 76 × 9.5
Solution:
From tables (Reference – 1), y = 27.4 mm,

d – y = 61.6 mm and A = 1480 mm2.
φt Tn = 0.9 × 250 × 1480/1000 = 333.0 kN
φt Tn = 0.75 × 400 × 1.0 × 1480/1000
= 444.0 kN
∴ φt Tn /2 = 166.5 kN
Design force for the connection,
Fu = greater of 166.5 kN and 300 kN
= 300 kN
tp1 = 9.5 mm ; tp2 = 10 mm

(tw)max = tp – 2 = 7.5 mm
(tw)min = 5 mm
topt = 8 mm
∴ (tw)adopted = 7.5 mm ≈ 8 mm
φRnw = 0.75 × 0.707 × 8 × 1 × 0.6 × 495 / 1000

= 1.26 kN/m
φRBM = 0.75 × 0.6 × 400 × 9.5 × 1 / 1000
= 1.71 kN/m
∴ Rw = 1.26 kN/m
Length of weld lw = 300 / 1.26

= 238 mm
lw × y 238 (27.4 )
l2 = = 89
d
= 73 mm (say 75 mm)
l1 = lw – l2 = 165 mm
For efficiency factor (U) of 0.85,

preferred length of connection = 6.7 (x )
= 6.7 (21.1)
≅ 145 mm
∴ l1 = 165 mm
(lw)min = 4 tw = 32 mm
(lw)min = 30 tw = 240mm
32 mm ≤ l1, l2 ≤ 240 mm OK
Block Shear Strength
Perform the check as done in tension
member design
75 8
The results are

shown in Figure
8.23.
165 8
Example 8.2: Design welded connection for the

truss compression member shown in Figure 8.26
using E70 electrode. The weld length on any face
should not exceed 150 mm.
10mm Thick Gusset Plate
l2
l3
Pu = 600 kN
l1 2Ls 102×102×9.5
A = 1850 mm2
L = 1.5 m
Solution:
A = 1850 mm2 for one angle

y = 29 mm
rx = 31.2 mm
Iy = 2(181 × 104 + 1850 × 342)
= 790 × 104 mm4
790 ×10 4
ry = = 46.2 mm
2 ×1850
Kl 1×1500
R = = ≅ 48 :
rmin 31.2
φFcr = 199.13 MPa
½ φcPn = ½ × 199.13 × 2 × 1850 / 1000

≅ 368.4 kN
∴ Fu for 2 angles = larger of 600 and 368.4
= 680 kN
and Fu for one angle = 300kN
tp1 = 9.5 mm ; tp2 = 10 mm

(tw)max = tp – 2 = 7.5 mm
(tw)min = 5 mm
topt = 8 mm
∴(tw)adopted = 7.5 mm ≈ 8 mm
φRnw = 0.75 × 0.707 × 8 × 1 × 0.6 × 495 /
1000 = 1.26 kN/m
φRBM = 0.75 × 0.6 × 400 × 9.5 × 1 / 1000

= 1.71 kN/m
∴ Rw = 1.26 kN/m
300
lw = = 238 mm
1.26
l (d − y ) 238 (102 − 29 )
l1 = w
= = 170 mm
d 102
l2 = 238 – 170 = 68 mm
The joint efficiency and block shear checks are not

required here because it is a compression member.
As l1 > 150 mm, let l3 = 102 mm

102
l1 = 170 – = 119 mm (say 120 mm)
2
102
l2 = 68 – = 17 mm
2
(lw)min = 4tw = 32
(lw)max = 30 tw = 240 mm
l1 is between (lw)min and (lw)max OK

l2 < (lw)min ∴ l2 = 32 mm (say 35 mm)
Final Result
l1= 120 mm
l2= 35 mm
l3= 102 mm
To show the results on a neat sketch are left as exercise

for the reader.
Prof. Zahid Ahmad Siddiqi
RIVETED AND BOLTED TRUSS

CONNECTIONS
Consider the example of a lap joint made by
installing a fastener and subjected to tensile or
compressive load as shown in Figure 8.27.
The fastener is placed in already drilled hole
through the parts to be joined.
The fastener has a head on one side of its shaft
for anchorage.
The other end is also worked into a head in case
of rivets and a nut is tightened at other end in
case of a bolt.
T T
Bearing Stresses
Head of Fastener
T Grip
Failure Plane
Shaft of Fastener
Figure 8.27.Lap Joint Using a Single Rivet.

The bolts may be arbitrarily tightened called snug

tight bolts.
Or they may be subjected to a predefined torque
producing pre-tension in the bolts and compression
on the joining plates known as high strength
bolts.
The distance between the two heads after placing
of the fasteners is called grip of the fastener.
A bolted joint in which the slip resistance of the
connection is also utilized is called Slip Critical
Joint.
The minimum bolt pretension for high strength bolts

is given in Table 8.4.
The pretension is measured by the turn-of-nut
method, direct tension indicator, calibrated wrench
or alternative design bolt.
Bolt Size, d A325M Bolts A490M Bolts Standard Hole
(mm) Pretension (kN) Pretension (kN) Dia (mm)
M15 80 100 17
M18 115 145 20
M20 142 179 22
M22 176 221 24
M25 225 282 28
M28 286 358 31
M30 326 408 33
M35 448 562 38
> M35 − − d+3
The rivets used for structural purposes are driven

and installed in red hot state and are therefore
known as hot driven rivets.
Once the head is made on both sides of the rivet in
red-hot state and the rivet is then allowed to cool,
compression on the parts to be joined is produced.
This is required for close packing of members at
the joint and to avoid chattering of joints.
Further, by using hot rivets, it becomes easy to
make head by hammering.
ASTM Specification A502 deals with these types

of rivets and the qualities of these rivets are
defined as Grade1, Grade 2 and Grade 3 rivets.
Grade 1 rivets are having lesser strength and
their corrosion resistance is also of ordinary
level.
Grades 2 and 3 rivets are used for higher
strength and better corrosion resistance.
The tensile and shear strengths of some
common types of rivets and bolts are given in
Table 8.5.
Table 8.5. LRFD Nominal Tensile and Shearing Strengths for Rivets and Bolts.
S.# Fastener Type Tensile φt Shearing φv

Strength Strength in
(MPa) Bearing Type
Connections
(MPa)
1- A502, grade 1, hot driven 310 0.75 172 0.75
rivets.
2- A502, grade 2 or 3, hot driven 414 0.75 228 0.75
rivets.
3- A307 bolts. 310 0.75 165 0.75
4- A325M bolts (Fu = 825 MPa) 0.75 Fu 0.75 0.40 Fu 0.75

when threads are not excluded = 620 = 330
from shear planes.
5- A490M bolts (Fu = 1035 0.75 Fu 0.75 0.40 Fu 0.75
MPa) when threads are not = 780 = 414
excluded from shear planes.
TYPE OF STRESSES IN FASTENERS

When the lap type connection of Figure 8.27 is
subjected to tension or compression, the fastener
is subjected to shear at a cross-section lying at the
interface of the two parts.
This cross-section at which different layers of the
fastener try to slide against each other and failure
can occur here is called a shear failure plane.
The cross-sectional area resisting shear in case of
rivets will be π/4 d2 where d is the diameter of the
rivets. However, in case of a bolt, there are two
possibilities.
Bolt will have more strength if failure plane lies in

unthreaded portion and less strength if failure
plane lies within the threads.
The effective area of cross-section resisting shear
in the later case will be less, considered equal to
approximately 75% of the total area without
threads, due to grooves within the threads.
However, adjustment for this reduction is made in
the strength and then area calculated on the basis
of outer diameter is used to evaluate the strength.
Because the fastener and plate are not fully joined

with each other, the forces from the fasteners are
transferred to the plates by bearing stresses in the
plate material surrounding the bolt on one side as
Bearing Stresses
Bearing stresses are very high but local
compressive stresses produced when two surfaces
abut each other and transfer load.
If sufficient material is available around the zone of
high bearing stresses, these stresses quickly
spread over a greater region reducing the intensity.
The locally stressed material is confined in nature.

For this reason and for the reason that these local
compressive stresses cannot produce fracture and
buckling, stresses up to 3.0 times the ultimate
tensile strength of plate material (3.0 Fu) may be
allowed at nominal strength level.
According to AISC, bearing strength must be
checked for both bearing type and slip critical
connections.
(a) When deformation at bolt hole due to service

loads is a consideration:
Nominal bearing strength,
Rn = 1.2 Lc t Fu ≤ 2.4 d t Fu
where Lc = clear edge distance or clear
spacing between bolts
t = thickness of connected material
φ = 0.75 and Ω = 2.00
(b) When deformation at bolt hole due to

service loads is not a consideration:
Nominal bearing strength,
Rn = 1.5 Lc t Fu ≤ 3.0 d t Fu
φ = 0.75 and Ω = 2.00
Shear Stresses
When two plates of a lap joint are pulled in opposite
direction as in Figure 8.28, only one failure plane is
produced and the fastener strength is determined by one
cross-section of the fastener.
Figure 8.28. Rivet Under Single Shear.
T/2
T/2
Figure 8.29. Rivet Under Double Shear.

This type of shear is called single shear denoted by “1s”

in calculations.
In case of the simplest half part of butt joint (Figure
8.29), three plates are trying to move relative to each
other.
Two failure planes are produced and two cross-sections
resist the applied load.
The shear strength becomes double as that of single
shear for same material and diameter of the fastener.
In other words, the applied force is divided at greater
number of cross-sections.
This type of shear is called double shear denoted by

“2s” in calculations.
In general, number of shear planes is always equal

to one less than the number of moving plates.
Number of shears = Number of moving plates – 1

For example, the fastener in Figure 8.30 is
subjected to 4- times shear because of five
moving plates.
It should be noted that any adjacent plates,
which cannot move in opposite direction, are
counted as a single unit in the above formula.
T/3
T/2
T/3
T/2
T/3
Figure 8.30. Rivet Under 4-Times Shear.

The four plates in Figure 8.31 are subjected to single

shear.
Figure 8.31. Single Shear In Rivet Joining Four Plates.
BEARING TYPE CONNECTIONS

When the loads to be transferred are larger than
the frictional resistance caused by tightening the
bolts, the members slip a little on each other
putting the fasteners in shear and the surrounding
member in bearing.
The resulting type of connections are called

bearing connections.
EFFECTIVE BEARING AREA

According to AISC, the effective bearing area of
bolts, threaded parts and rivets shall be the
diameter of such fasteners multiplied by the length
of bearing:
∴ Rn = 2.4 Fu × d × t when Lc ≥ 2d
otherwise Rn = 1.2 Fu × Lc × t
(In case deformation at service load is a
design consideration)
where φ = 0.75 (LRFD)

and Ω = 2.00
t = smaller thickness of plate, subjected
to following conditions:
a) edge distance not less than 1.5 d,
b) c/c distance between fasteners not less
than 3d, and,
c) 2 or more fasteners in the line of force.
RIVET AND BOLT VALUE

The load in kN which a single rivet can
carry is called its rivet value (Ru).
The rivet value is smaller of rivet shear

strength and the plate bearing strength.
Ru = lesser of φRns and φRn

Rivet/bolt shear strength,
φ Rns = resistance factor × rivet shear
strength × area in shear × number
of shear planes
= φ × rivet shear strength ×π/4 d2 × n
Rivet/bolt plate bearing strength,
φRn = resistance factor × bearing strength ×
area in bearing
= 0.75× 2.4Fu× d×t when Lc ≥ 2d
where d is the outer or nominal diameter of the rivet or

bolt.
Rivet Value In Case Of Lap Joint
Typical example of a lap joint is the connection of

a single angle section (thickness = ta) with the
gusset plate (thickness = tg), as shown in Figure
8.32.
Because of two moving plates, the rivets will be
subjected to single shear (1s). Most commonly,
the angle thickness is lesser than the gusset
plate thickness.
Using A502 Grade-2 rivets, the rivet value may be

calculated as follows:
ta
T
T tg
ta ≤ tg
Ru = lesser of 1) shear strength of rivet

in single shear
φRIS = 0.65×330×π/4 d2×1 / 1000
= 0.168 d2 (kN)
2) strength of rivet
based upon its bearing on
plate.
φRn = 0.75 × 2.4 × 400 × d × ta
= 0.72 d ta (kN) when Lc ≥ 2d
for A36 steel
Rivet Value In Case Of Half Butt Joint
Typical example of a half butt joint is the

connection of double angle section with the
gusset plate (Figure 8.33).
The rivets are subjected to double shear.

For bearing, the total load is either resisted by
the thickness of gusset plate (tg) or two times the
angle thickness (2ta), usually tg is lesser than 2ta.
Using A502 Grade 2 rivets, the rivet value is
evaluated as under:
Ru =lesser of
1) φR2s = 0.65×330×π/4 d2 ×2 / 1000
= 0.337d2 (kN)
2) φRn = 0.75 × 2.4 × 400 ×d × tg
= 0.72 d tg (kN) when Lc ≥ 2d
T/
2
T/
2
REQUIRED CLEARANCES
Minimum Edge Distance
The minimum distance from center of rivet to

the edge should preferably be not less than
1.5d.
If this distance is not maintained, detailed

formulas given in the chapter on tension
members and in another article in this chapter
are to be satisfied.
The distance should be kept equal to 2.5d + 2
(mm) to obtain bearing strength equal to 2.4 Fu.
Minimum Spacing Of Fasteners
The minimum longitudinal and transverse

spacing of fasteners (pitch or gage) shall
preferably be not less than 3d.
This is to avoid stress concentrations and to

make drilling of holes and tightening of bolts
easier.
For spacing lesser than 3d, formulas given earlier
for tension members must be checked.
Further, to improve bearing strength of bolts, it is
better to slightly increase this spacing to a value
of 3d+3 mm, which given clear spacing (Lc) equal
to 2d.
Maximum Edge Distance And Spacing

The maximum distance from the center of
fastener to the nearest edge of parts shall be
lesser of 12 t and 150 mm, where ‘t’ is the
smaller thickness of the connected parts.
The pitch of fasteners is kept lesser than the
following maximum value to prevent corrosion
of loose plates from inside of the over lap:
pmax = lesser of 305 mm and 24 t for painted
and non-corrosive steels
pmax = lesser of 180 mm and 14 t for
unpainted steels
where t = thickness of thinner part joined

DIAMETER OF FASTENER
Minimum diameter of rivets and bolts for trusses

and other building structures is 15 mm. The
usual size of rivets or bolts used for specific
purposes is as under:
In buildings: 15, 18, 20 mm

In bridges: 22, 25, 28 mm
In warehouses and towers: 30, 32, 35 mm
Preferable diameter of fastener is usually taken

by the following expression:
d= 6 t
rounded to the nearest available size
where t = thickness of thicker part, mm
Economical diameter of fastener means the
diameter of a rivet or bolt for which the shearing
strength is theoretically equal to bearing strength
of the parts to be joined. However, for most
practical cases, it becomes difficult to use this
diameter.
For A 502 Grade 2 rivets connecting double angles

section with the gusset plate both of A36 steel,
0.65 × π/4 d2 × 330×2 = 0.75 × 2.4 × 400 × d × tG
Economical diameter, d = 2.14 tG
(rounded to nearest available size)
The grip of a rivet shall not exceed 8 times the
diameter of the holes in any case.
ADVANTAGES OF BOLTS OVER RIVETS

1. Smaller working crews are required as
compared with riveting. The efficiency of
construction is approximately double per
person.
2. Less high strength bolts may be needed as
compared with rivets.
3. The experience required to properly install
bolts is significantly lesser than is necessary
for welded and riveted connections.
4. Less noise is produced during construction as
compared with riveting.
5. Cheaper equipment is used to make bolted

connections compared with welded or
riveted connections.
6. Fire in case of welding and hot material in
case of rivets is avoided.
7. Fatigue strength of fully tight high strength
bolts is greater than that of rivets.
8. Future changes are very easy with bolts.
ROCEDURE FOR DESIGN OF

RIVETED TRUSS CONNECTIONS
1. Find design capacity of the member, φtTn or
φcPn.
2. Compare calculated factored force in the
member with the given percentage of the
member capacity (usually not less than 50%)
and select the design force for connection as
follows:
Fu = larger of 1) factored force
2) a %age of φt Tn or φcPn
3. For un-spliced top and bottom chord members,

the difference of forces in the adjacent panels is to
be used in a way to get the maximum possible
answer.
4. Decide the rivet diameter which should remain
same throughout the truss.
5. Find rivet value (Ru) according to single or
double shear.
6. Find number of rivets (N) as follows:
Fu
N= (rounded to higher whole number)
Ru
7. For better joint efficiency and lesser stress
concentrations, a minimum of 3 rivets is preferred.
Cost of few extra rivets is much lesser than extra
cost spent on the member for lesser joint
efficiency.
8. The length of joint should not be excessive. If
numbers of rivets are more than approximately
five, arrange them in more rows. However, the
connection length of a tension member (l) must be
large enough to give better joint efficiency.
For U = 0.9, lpref = 10 x
x = distance between the centroid of element
and the interface surface.
9. Decide the spacing and edge distances of

rivets depending on minimum and maximum
requirements. In transverse direction, place the
rivets along standard gages.
10. Check block-tearing strength as discussed
earlier for welded connections.
11. Make a neat sketch to show the results.
12. Verify that net area and U, in case of tension
members, are greater than or equal to the values
taken during the member design.
Example 8.3: Design rivets for the connection

shown in Figure 8.34 with the condition that each
member should be able to develop at least 50% of
the effective strength. Use A502 Grade 2 hot driven
rivets. The magnitudes of forces are all factored.
Gusset plate is 10 mm thick.
L 76 × 64 × 9.5 F3 = 70 kN(C)
Length = 1.0 m
F4 = 210 kN(T)
L 76 × 64 × 9.5
F2 = 350 kN(T) F1 = 168 kN(T)

45° 45°
2Ls 102 × 102 × 9.5

50% capacity of L76×64×9.5 in compression

For compression members, double angle sections
should be preferred.
However, the capacity calculated based on the
assumption of concentric loading for single angle
section will be on safer side for the connection.
A = 1240 mm2
Kl 1× 1000
= ≅ 76
rz 13.3
φcFcr = 165.66 MPa

0.5φcPn = ½ × 165.66 × 1240 / 1000 ≅ 102.7 kN
50% capacity of L76×64×9.5 in tension

The calculation may be based on the
assumption that An is equal to 85% of Ag in the
absence of accurate value of net area and the
value of U may be taken equal to 0.85.
Both of these assumptions are to be checked
after the connection design.
A = 1240 mm 2
0.5φt Tn = lesser of
1. 1/2 × 0.9 × 250 ×1240/1000 = 139.5
kN
2. 1/2 ×0.75×400×0.85×0.80×1240/1000 = 126.5
kN
= 126.5 kN
50% Capacity of 2Ls102×102×9.5 in tension
Area of one angle = 1850 mm2

Using the same assumptions as above:
0.5φtTn = lesser of
1. ½×
0.9×250×2×1850/1000
= 416.3 kN
2. ½×
0.75×400×0.85×0.80×2×1850/1000 =
377.4 kN
= 377.4 kN
Fu for members 1and 2= larger of
1) (larger of F2 and its 0.5φtTn)
– F1
= 377.4 – 168 = 209.4 kN
2) 210 cos45°+ 102.7 cos45°
= 221.1 kN
= 221.1 kN
Fu for member 3 = larger of
1) 70 kN
2) 102.7 kN
= 102.7 kN
Fu for member 4 = larger of

1) 210 kN
2) 126.5 kN
= 210 kN
d = 6 t = 6 10
= 18.97 mm say 18 mm
Rivet Values
on the next slide
L76×64×9.5, assuming Lc ≥ 2d,
Ru = lesser of
φR1S = 0.75 × 228 × π/4(18)2 ×
1/1000
= 43.51 kN
φRn = 0.75 × 2.4 × 400 ×18 ×
9.5/1000
= 123.12 kN
= 43.51 kN
2Ls 102×102×9.5, assuming Lc ≥ 2d,
Ru = lesser of
φR2S = 0.75 × 228 × π/4 (18)2 ×
2/1000
= 87.03 kN
φRn = 0.75 × 2.4 × 400 × 18 ×
10.0/1000 = 129.60 kN
= 87 03 kN
221.1
Number of rivets for members 1and 2 =
87.03
= 2.54 say 3
102.7
Number of rivets for member 3 =
43.51
= 2.36 say 3
210
Number of rivets for member 4 =
43.51
= 4.83 say 5
Minimum edge distance to provide Lc = 2d:

= 2.5 d + 2 = 2.5 × 18 + 2 = 47 mm
Maximum edge distance = lesser of

1) 12 t = 12 × 9.5 = 114 mm
2) 150 mm
= 114 medge distance
Let
= 50 mm for inclined members
Minimum pitch = 3d = 3 × 18 =
54 mm
Maximum pitch, considering unpainted
surfaces,
= lesser of 1) 180 mm
2) 14 t = 133 mm
= 133 mm
Let pitch= 60 mm for diagonal members and 130

mm for bottom chord members.
x for L76×64×9.5 = 17.9 mm
For U = 0.80, lpref = 5.0 x
= 89.5 mm
Connection length for L76×64×9.5 in tension
= 4 × 60
= 240 mm > 89.5 mm OK
Provide all rivets in a single line along the
standard gage line. The rivets on bottom chord
are spread closer to maximum value of pitch to
satisfy the shape of gusset plate.
32 32
44 44
50
60
60 50
60 60
60 60
50 50
38
64
Between 130 130 Between

50 and 50 and
Block shear may be checked by a procedure

discussed earlier. The readers are required to
perform this check.
To verify that An ≥ 0.85 Ag and U = 0.80 are left
as exercise for the readers.
DESIGN OF LOADED TRUSS JOINTS
Spliced joint is a joint where the upper or lower
chord is discontinuous and it is designed like an
ordinary joint even if load is acting on it.
The loaded joint with continuous upper or lower
chord member is called un-spliced loaded joint.
This is also designed as for an unloaded joint.

However, the transverse component of the load is
to be transferred through the member to the
gusset plate, and this force is not considered in
the truss analysis for the axial forces (Figure
8.36).
Transverse load component (V) acts on top chord
at the joint of Figure and is to be transferred to
gusset plate through the rivets.
Hence, resultant force on rivets R′u is to be
P
V θ
F1
θ3
θ4
F2
F3
F5
F4
R′u = resultant force on each rivet

N = number of rivets provided for the top
chord
Fu = design force for the connection
2 2
 Fu   V  ≤ Ru
When R′u =   +  OK
 N  N
If R′u > Ru:
1. The number of rivets is increased.
2. Diameter of the rivets is increased.
3. Lug angle may also be used.
BOLTS SUBJECTED TO ECCENTRIC SHEAR
Eccentrically loaded bolt/rivet groups are

subjected to direct shears and torque as shown in
Figure 8.54.
In a truss, if the center of gravity of a member is
not in line with the center of gravity of the bolts at
its end connections, moments are produced.
Eccentricity is quite obvious in a bracket and is
also present in shear connection of beam with a
column.
In Figure 8.55, a typical group of four bolts is

shown with the load acting at some eccentricity,
e, from the centroid of the bolt system.
This load may be transferred to the centroid but
it will then be accompanied by a torque (T = P ×
e), as shown in Figure 8.56.
Both Figures 8.55 and 8.56 are equivalent as far
as the structural behavior is concerned.
b) Shear
a)
Connection of
Bracket Beam With Column
e P P
2 1
Group of Tu = P × e
Bolts c.g. c.g.
3 4
Figure 8.55. Figure 8.56.

Typical Group of Bolts/Rivets Subjected Eccentric Shear On a Bolt/Rivet
to Eccentric Shear. Group Converted to Shear and
Torque at the Centroid.
The bolts shown in Figure 8.56 are subjected to

a downward force (P / N) in each fastener called
direct shear force plus the shear force due to
the torque called eccentric shear.
The force in each fastener (Fi) due to the torque
and distance of each fastener (di) from the
centroid are shown in Figure 8.57.
F1
e P
F2 d1
d2
c.g
.
d3
d4
F3 F4
The torque causes the plate to rotate about the

centroid of the bolt connection keeping the amount of
rotation or strain at a particular bolt being
proportional to its distance from the centroid.
These strains produce stresses and forces Fi in the
bolts. Greater is the distance of a fastener from the
centroid, more will be the force.
Further, force in each fastener will be perpendicular
to the distance vector between the centroid and that
fastener.
These eccentric forces will produce same turning
effect as that of the applied torque (clockwise or
counterclockwise).
Magnitude Of Eccentric Shear

From Figure 8.57,
Tu =P × e = F1 d1 + F2 d2 + F3 d3 + F4 d4 I
For force to be proportional to the distance, we can
write:
F1 F2 F3 F4
= = =
d1 d2 d3 d4
Equation I can be written as:
F1d12 F2 d 22 F3 d 32 F4 d 42
Tu = + + +
d1 d2 d3 d4
=
F1
d1
(d12 + d 22 + d32 + d 42 ) II
F1
⇒ Tu =
d1
∑ d 2
Tu d1
⇒ F1 = III
∑d 2
Tu d 2 Tu d 3 Tu d 4
Similarly F2 = , F3 = , F4 =
∑d 2
∑d 2
∑ d 2
IV
Each force Fi is perpendicular to the line drawn
from the centroid to the particular bolt.
It is usually more convenient to break these down
into vertical and horizontal components (Figure
8.58).
The horizontal and vertical components of the

distance d1 are represented by h1 and ν1,
respectively, and the horizontal and vertical
components of force F1 are represented by H1
and V1, respectively.
F1 θ 1 V1
H1
d1 v1
θ1
c.g
. h1
From Figure 8.58:

V1 h1 h1
= or V1 = F1
F1 d1 d1
Substituting the value of F1 from above:
Tu h1
V1 = V
∑ d 2
H1 v1 v1
Similarly, = ⇒ H1 = F1
F1 d1 d1
Tu v1
⇒ H1 = VI
∑ d 2
Tu vi Tu hi
In general: Hi = and Vi = VII
∑ d 2
∑d 2
Σd2 for a rivet system may be calculated as

2
Σ d1
2 d
+ d2 + - - - + n
2
or as Σ hi2 ν
+Σ i
2
The total shear for each fastener is calculated as

the sum of eccentric shear and direct shear. The
magnitude of this total shear will vary for each
fastener.
.
The fastener which has the maximum shear is

called the most heavily stressed fastener and is
to be located before further calculations.
One way of locating this critical rivet is to find

resultant shear for each fastener and then finding
the maximum value.
However, this procedure may require lengthy
calculations.
A visual observation is used to reduce such extra
work.
The fasteners having the maximum distance from
the centroid (corner fasteners) are expected to be
more critical.
Further, out of these, whichever has both

horizontal and vertical components of direct and
eccentric shears in the same direction is expected
to be the most critical.
If there is any doubt about the condition of this
fastener by visual observation, all the competing
fasteners must by investigated by calculating the
resultant shear.
The procedure is clear in Example 8.6.
Required Number of Fasteners

When the eccentricity of the load on a bolt group
is less than about 60 mm, it is neglected.
For a shear force of Pu (kN) and a torque of Tu
(kN-m), the number of A502 Grade 2 rivets (N) of
15 mm diameter may be approximately
determined as under:
Pu Tu
N = +
70 15,000
Example 8.6: Find the diameter of rivets for

the bracket shown in Figure 8. 59.
P=800kN (factored force)

50 100 100 250
20°
50 10 11 12
75 9
7 8
100 c.g.
4 5 6
125 3
1 2
Solution:
Let y = distance from top of bracket to
centroid of the rivet system,
and A = area of a single rivet.
Taking moment of the resultant rivet area about the
top edge of bracket (12A × y) and equating it to the
sum of moments of the individual areas about the
same edge, y may be evaluated.
3A (50 ) + 3A (125) + 3A(225) + 3A(350 )
y = = 187.5 mm
12A
Rivet 10 is expected to be critical as horizontal and

vertical forces due to moment and applied load add
into one another. However, rivet-1 may also be
investigated.
Horizontal component of load = Px = 800 × cos20°
= 751.8 kN
Vertical component of load = Py = 800 × sin20°
=273.6 kN
Px 751.8
Horizontal force on each rivet = =
N 12
= 62.65 kN
Py 273.6
Vertical force on each rivet = =
N 12
= 22.80 kN
Torque at centroid Tu
= 751.8 × 187.5 (counterclockwise)
− 273.6 × 350 (clockwise)
= 45,202.5 kN-mm (counterclockwise)
d1 = 100 2 + 162.5 2
= 190.8 mm = d3
d2 = 162.5 mm
d4 = 100 2 + 37.5 2
= 106.8 mm = d6
d5 = 37.5 mm
d7 = 100 2 + 62.5 2
= 117.9 mm = d9
d8 = 62.5 mm
d10 = 100 2 + 137.5 2
= 170.0 mm = d12
d11 = 137.5 mm
Σd 2 = 231,848 mm2
Rivet Value
Ru = 0.75 × π/4d2 × 228 / 1000
= 0.1343 d2
Shear For Rivet 10
Eccentric Shear
Tu v10 45,202.5 × 137.5
H10 = = = 26.81 kN
∑d 2 231,848
Tu h10 45,202.5 × 100
V10 = = = 19.50 kN
∑d 2 231,848
Total horizontal force = 62.65 + 26.81

= 89.46 kN
Total vertical force = 22.80 + 19.50
= 42.30 kN
Resultant force = 89.46 2 + 42.30 2
= 98.96 kN
Rivet Diameter
The rivet diameter may be found by equating the
rivet value to the shear force in the most heavily
stressed rivet, as under:
0.1343 d2 = 98.96
d = 27.15 mm
Use 28 mm diameter rivets
Check Fastener Bearing Strength
This check is performed if the plate thicknesses
are given. The bolt bearing value must be
greater than its shear value.
MOMENT CONNECTIONS
Rigid Frame Knees
• These are a type of fully restrained (FR) or
moment connection.
• In the design of rigid frames the safe transmission
of load at the junction of beam and column is of
great importance.
• When members join with their webs lying in the
plane of the frame, the junction is frequently
referred to as a knee joint.
Typical knee joints are:
Square Knees, with and without a diagonal

stiffener, are shown in Figure 8.31.
Column or beam section may be continued

through the junction.
a) Square Knee Without Stiffener b) Square Knee With Stiffener
Figure 8.31. Square Knee Joints.

Square Knee With a Bracket is shown in

Figure 8.32.
This type of joint may resist large negative

moments reducing the size of the beam and
the column.
Figure 8.32. Square Knee With a Bracket.

Straight Haunched Knee is a modification

of the square knee with a bracket.
The beam and column sections are

discontinued short of the connection.
The haunch consists of a separate plate

reinforced by perpendicular stiffeners (see
Figure 8.33).
Figure 8.33. Straight Haunched Knee.

Curved Haunched Knee is similar to a

straight haunched knee with the difference
of having a curved inner profile, as shown
in Figure 8.34.
Figure 8.34. Curved Haunched Knee.

For haunched knees, variable moment of

inertia has to be considered with the
knees for both beams and column to
perform analysis.
To be adequately designed, a knee

connection must satisfy the following
requirements:
1. The end moment between the beam and the

column must be transferred.
2. The beam end shear must safely go to the
column.
3. The shear at the top of the column should be
transferred into the beam.
4. The joint must deform in a manner consistent
with the analysis by which moments and shears
are determined.
5. If a plastic hinge associated with the failure
mechanism is expected to form at or near the
knee, adequate rotation capacity must be built
into the connections.
• Square knees have the greatest plastic rotation

capacity but this flexibility increases the service
load deflections as they deform elastically the
most under the loads.
• Curved knees are the most stiff but have the
least rotation capacity.
• Since straight tapered knees provide reasonable
stiffness along with adequate rotation capacity,
in addition to the fact that they are cheaper than
curved haunches to fabricate, the straight
haunched knees are more commonly used.
Shear Transfer In Square Knees

• In the design of a rigid frame having square
knees, two rolled sections may come together at
right angles.
• The moments, shears and axial forces (M, V and
H) acting on the boundaries of the square knee
region, as shown in Figure 8.35(a), may be
determined by either elastic or plastic analysis.
• The forces carried by the flanges must be
transmitted by shear into the web, as shown in
(b) part of the same figure.
Tb
A B
M H
db
D C V From tension in top
Cb
flange of beam
H Tb
M
V A B From
WEB compression in
D C right flange of
Tc column
From tension From

in left flange compression in
Cc of column bottom flange of
Tc ≈dc beam
(a) (b)
Figure 8.35. Forces Acting on Web of a Square Knee.

Assuming all bending moment to be carried

by the flanges, and approximating the
distance between flange centroids as 0.95
db, the flange force is:
Mu
Tu = Tb =
0.95 d b
The nominal shear strength of the web in
across the edge AB is:
Vn = Vab = τy tw dc
where τy = 0.6 Fy and φν = 0.9
For design, φ Vn = Tu,

which gives:
Mu
φν (0.6 Fy) tw dc = 0.95 d
b
1.95 M u
Req. tw without diagonal stiffener =
Fy d b d c
1.95 M u
= Fy Abc
where Abc = the planner area within the knee

= db dc.
Diagonal Stiffeners
• In a rigid frame knee, the required web
thickness usually exceeds that provided by a W-
section and reinforcement is required.
• A doubler plate is sometimes used to thicken the
web region, which is not a general practical
solution because of the difficulty of making the
attachment to the column web.
• Usually, a pair of diagonal stiffeners is the best
solution, as shown in Figure 8.37.
Cst cos θ
A B
Cst
θ
D C
Figure 8.37. Web of a Square Knee Connection With a Stiffener.

• Stiffener resistive compressive force

= Cst
= Ast φc Fcr
• Applied shear on the web ( Figure 8.35 (b))
= Tu
• When diagonal stiffeners are used, the
horizontal component Cst×cosθ of the
stiffener force participates in resisting the
shear with the web.
ΣFx = 0 ⇒
Tu = Vab + Cst cos θ
Mu
= φν (0.60 Fy) tw dc + Ast φcFcr cos θ
0.95 d b
 Mu 
− φν (0.60 Fy )t w d c 
1
Ast, req = 
φ c Fcr cosθ  0.95 d b 
where φν = 0.90 for any yield limit state
like in shear
φc = 0.85 for compression
elements
Fcr = compression limit state stress
Example 8.6
Design the square knee connection given in
Figure 8.38 to join a W690 × 140 girder to a
W360 × 110 column. The factored moment
Mu to be carried through the joint is 510 kN-
m. Use A36 steel and E70 electrodes with
SMAW.
A
510 kN-m
W690 × 140
D 67 kN
θ
C 285 kN db = 684 mm
B (tw)b = 12.4 mm
tf = 18.9 mm
bf = 254 mm
W360 × 110
dc = 360 mm
(tw)c = 11.4 mm
tf = 19.9 mm
bf = 256 mm
67 kN
510 kN-m
285 kN
Figure 8.38. Square Knee of Example 8.6.

Solution
Check the web without diagonal stiffener:
1.95 M u
Required tw =
Fy Abc
1.95 × 510 ×10 6
=
250 × 684 × 360
= 16.15 mm
Actual tw = 12.4 mm for W690 × 140
< 16.15 mm
∴ A diagonal stiffener is required.
Stiffener size:
db 684
tan θ = =
dc 360
⇒ θ = 62.24° and cos θ = 0.466
Assuming Fcr ≅ Fy,
1  510 ×10 6 
(Ast)req =  − 0.9 × 0.60 × 250 ×12.4 × 360
0.85 × 250 × 0.466  0.95 × 684 
= 1840 mm2
(half area on one side = 920 mm2)
Using tst = 12 mm ; bst = 77 mm

say 80 mm
λ= = 6.67 < λr = 15.8 OK
Size of stiffener:2 PL s 12 × 80 on both sides of

the web
Strength of the stiffener acting as a column:
Overall width of stiffener = b = 2 bst + tw

= 2 × 80 + 12.4 = 172.4 mm
t st (b )3 12
r = =
1
(b) = 0.289 b
t st b 12
= 49.82 mm
KL d c cosθ 360 0.466
= r
= 49.82
≅ 16
r
∴ φc Fcr = 209.64 MPa
This means that Fcr is equal to 246.6 MPa,

which is very close to the assumed value of
Fcr = Fy.
Determine the fillet weld size along length AB.

The weld must transmit the factored flange
force into the beam web. The maximum design
flange force that can be developed is φt Fy Af.
Flange force = φt Fy Af = 0.90 × 250 × 19.9 ×

256/1000 = 1146.24 kN
The design strength of fillet welds along both
sides of web is:
φ Rnw = 2(0.75 × 0.707 × tw × 0.6 × 495/1000)
= 0.315 tw kN/mm
Available length for weld = db – 2 tf

= 684 – 2 × 18.9 = 646.2 mm
∴ 0.315 tw (646.2) = 1146.24
tw = 6 mm
Use 6 mm thick E70 fillet weld along length

AB (both sides of girder web)
Determine fillet weld size along length BC.

The connection of the column web to the beam
flange must carry the force resulting from
flexure and axial load, combined with the
shear acting simultaneously on the weld.
The forces transferred through this weld may

conservatively be estimated as follows:
Tensile component = φt Fy tw
= 0.9 × 250 × 12.4/1000 = 2.79 kN/mm
Vu 67
Shear component = d c − 2t f = 360 − 2 ×19.9
= 0.21 kN/mm
Resultant loading = 2.79 2 + 0.212 = 2.80 kN/mm

2.80
Required tw = 0.315
≅ 9 mm
Use 9 mm thick E70 fillet weld along length BC

on both sides of girder web
Weld required along diagonal stiffeners is

designed next. This weld must develop the
required stiffener strength.
φ Cs = φ Fy Ast
= 0.9 × 250 × 2 × 12 × 80/1000 = 432 kN
432 (360 0.466 )
Required tw = 4 × 0.75 × 0.707 × 0.6 × 0.495 = 1 mm
say 6 mm
Use 6mm thick E70 fillet weld along diagonal

stiffener on both sides of girder web
Determine the required length of the stiffener CD:
The design strength based on local web yielding from

the inside column flange at C is:
Pbf = φ (5 k + tfb) Fyc twc

= 1.0(5 × 37 + 18.9) × 250 × 11.4/1000
= 581.12 kN
Flange force as calculated earlier = 1146.24 kN
The force is greater than capacity of the web alone and
diagonal stiffener is already resisting other forces.
Hence, vertical stiffener is required at C.
Stiffener along CD:

1146.24 − 581.12 1
Required Ast = ×
φ Fy 2
= 1256 mm2 per plate

b fb − t wb 254 − 12.4
Width available = =
2 2
= 120.8 mm say 110 mm

1256
Required tst = ≅ 12 mm
110
110
λ = 12
= 9.17 < λp = 10.8 OK
d − 2t f
Length of stiffener = 2 ≅ 325 mm
Use 2 PL s – 12 × 110 × 325, tapered from full

width at C to zero at D
BEAM COLUMNS
Beam columns are structural members that are

subjected to a combination of bending and axial
stresses.
The structural behaviour resembles
simultaneously to that of a beam and a column.
Majority of the steel building frames have
columns that carry sizable bending moments in
addition to the usual compressive loads.
The sources of this bending moment are shown in

Figure 5.1 and explained below:
P
P e
e
P
M=P×e
a) Out-Of-Plumb b) Initial Crookedness c) Eccentric Load
Figure 5.1. Sources of Eccentricity in Columns.

It is almost impossible to erect the columns

perfectly vertical and centre loads exactly on
columns.
Columns may be initially crooked or have other
flaws with the result that lateral bending is
produced.
In some cases, crane beams parallel to columns-
line and other perpendicular beams rest on brackets
projecting out from columns. This produces high
values of bending moments.
Wind and other lateral loads act within the

column height and produce bending.
The bending moments from the beams are
transferred to columns if the connections are
rigid.
CONTROLLING DESIGN FACTOR:
SECOND ORDER EFFECTS
The elastic analysis carried out to calculate
deflections and member forces for the given
loads is called 1st order and analysis.
The high axial load present in the column

combined with this elastic deflection produces
extra bending moment in the column, as is clear
from Figure 5.2.
The analysis of structure including this extra
moment is called 2nd order analysis.
Similarly, other higher order analysis may also be
performed.
In practice, usually 2nd order analysis is
sufficiently accurate with the high order results of
much lesser numerical value.
P
M
Deflected shape
or elastic curve
δ due to applied
Maximum lateral bending moment
deflection due to (M)
bending moment
(M)
M Extra moment = P×δ,
P which produces more
deflections
Figure 5.2. Eccentricity Due to First Order Deflections.

The phenomenon in which the moments are

automatically increased in a column beyond the
usual analysis for loads is called moment
magnification or 2nd order effects.
The moment magnification depends on many
factors but, in some cases, it may be higher
enough to double the 1st order moments or even
more.
In majority of practical cases, this magnification
is appreciable and must always be considered for
a safe design.
1st order deflection produced within a member

(δ) usually has a smaller 2nd order effect called P-
δ effect, whereas magnification due to sides-way
(∆) is much larger denoted by P-∆ effect (refer to
Figure 5.3).
P-Delta effect is defined as the secondary effect
of column axial loads and lateral deflections on
the moments in members.
The calculations for actual 2nd order analysis are
usually lengthy and can only be performed on
computers.
For manual calculations, empirical methods are

used to approximately cater for these effects in
design.
2nd order effects are more pronounced when loads
closer to buckling loads are applied and hence the
empirical moment magnification formula contains
a ratio of applied load to elastic buckling load.
The factored applied load should, in all cases, be
lesser than 75% of the elastic critical buckling load
but is usually kept much lesser than this limiting
value.
INTERACTION EQUATION AND

INTERACTION DIAGRAM
P ∆
The combined stress at any M
point in a member subjected to

bending and direct stress, as in
Figure 5.3, is obtained by the Extra Moment
M = P×∆
formula:
P
P Mxy M yx
f = ± ± Figure 5.3.
A Ix Iy A Deflected Beam-Column.
For a safe design, the maximum compressive

stress (f) must not exceed the allowable material
stress (Fall) as follows:
P Mxy M yx
f = ± ± ≤ Fall
A Ix Iy
P Mx My
+ S F + ≤ 1
AFall x all S y Fall
P Mx My
+ + M ≤ 1
Pmax M x , max y , max
This equation is called interaction equation

showing interaction of axial force and bending
moment in an easy way.
If this equation is plotted against the various terms

selected on different axis, we get an interaction
curve or an interaction surface depending on
whether there are two or three terms in the
equation, respectively.
1.0
1.0
0,0
Figure 5.4. A Typical Interaction Curve.
Pr = required axial compressive strength

(Pu in LRFD)
Pc = available axial compressive
strength
= φcPn, φc = 0.90 (LRFD)
= Pn / Ωc, Ωc = 1.67 (ASD)
Mr = required flexural strength (Mu in
LRFD)
Mc = available flexural strength
= φbMn, φb = 0.90 (LRFD)
= Mn / Ωb, Ωb = 1.67 (ASD)
AISC INTERACTION EQUATIONS

The following interaction equations are
applicable for doubly and singly symmetric
members:
Pr
If ≥ 0.2, axial load is considerable, and
Pc
following equation is to be satisfied:
Pr 8  M rx M ry 
+ + ≤ 1.0
Pc 9  M cx M cy 
Pr Prof. Dr. Zahid Ahmad Siddiqi
If < 0.2, axial load is lesser, beam

Pc
action is dominant, and the applicable
equation is:
Pr  M rx M ry 
+ + ≤ 1.0
2 Pc  M cx M cy 
MOMENT ADJUSTMENT FACTOR
(Cmx or Cmy)
Moment adjustment factor (Cm) is based on
the rotational restraint at the member ends
and on the moment gradient in the members.
It is only defined for no-sway cases.
1. For restrained compression members in

frames braced against joint translation (no
sidesway) and not subjected to transverse loading
between their supports in the plane of bending:
M1
Cm = 0.6 – 0.4
M2
where M1 is the smaller end moment and M2 is
the larger end moment.
M 1 / M 2 is positive when member is bent in
reverse curvature and it it is negative when
member is bent in single curvature (Figure 5.5b).
P P
M2
M2
M1 M1
P P
a) Reverse Curvature b) Single Curvature
Figure 5.5. Columns Bent in Reverse and Single Curvatures.
When transverse load is applied between the

supports but or sway is prevented,
for members with restrained ends Cm = 0.85
for members with unrestrained ends Cm = 1.0
K-VALUES FOR FRAME BEAM-COLUMNS

K-values for frame columns with partially fixed
ends should be evaluated using alignment charts
given in Reference-1.
However, if details of adjoining members are not
given, following approximate estimate may be
used:
K = 1.2 – 1.5 if sidesway is permitted with
partially fixed ends
K =1 if sidesway is prevented but end
conditions are not mentioned
MOMENT MAGNIFICATION FACTORS

Moment magnification factors (B1 and B2) are
used to empirically estimate the magnification
produced in the column moments due to 2nd order
effects.
These are separately calculated for sway or lateral
translation case (lt-case) and for no-sway or no
translation case (nt-case).
Accordingly, the frame is to be separately
analysed for loads producing sway and not
producing sway.
Ml t = moment due to lateral loads producing

appreciable lateral translation.
B2 = moment magnification factor to take
care of Pu∆ effects for sway and
deflections due to lateral loads.
Mnt = the moment resulting from gravity
loads, not producing appreciable lateral
translation.
B1 = moment magnification factor to take
care of Puδ effects for no translation
loads.
Mr = required magnified flexural strength

for second order effects
= B1 Mnt + B2 Mlt
Pr = required magnified axial strength
= Pnt + B2 Plt
No-Sway Magnification
Cm
B1 = ≥ 1.0
1 − α Pr Pe1
where
α = 1.0 (LRFD) and 1.60 (ASD)
Pe1 = Euler buckling strength for
braced frame
= π2 EI / (K1 L)2
K1 = effective length factor in the
plane of bending for no lateral
translation, equal to 1.0 or a
smaller value by detailed analysis
Sway Magnification
The sway magnification factor, B2, can be
determined from one of the following formulas:
1
B2 =
α ∑ Pnt
1−
∑ Pe 2
where,
α = 1.0 (LRFD) and 1.60 (ASD)
ΣPnt = total vertical load supported by
the story, kN, including gravity loads
ΣPe2 = elastic critical buckling

resistance for the story
determined by sidesway
buckling analysis
= Σπ2 EI / (K2 L)2
where I and K2 is calculated in the plane of
bending for the unbraced conditions
SELECTION OF TRIAL BEAM-

COLUMN SECTION
The only way by which interaction of axial

compression and bending moment can be
considered, is to satisfy the interaction equation.
However, in order to satisfy these equations, a
trial section is needed.
For this trial section, maximum axial compressive
strength and bending strengths may be
determined.
The difficulty in selection of a trial section for a

beam column is that whether it is selected based
on area of cross-section or the section modulus.
No direct method is available to calculate the
required values of the area and the section
modulus in such cases.
For selection of trial section, the beam-column
is temporarily changed into a pure column by
approximately converting the effect of bending
moments into an equivalent axial load.
Peq = equivalent or effective axial load

= Pr + Mrx mx + Mry my
mx (for first trial) = 8.5 − 0.7K1xLx
my (for first trial) = 17 − 1.4K1yLy
mx = 10 − 14(d / 1000)2 − 0.7K1xLx
my = 20 − 28(d / 1000)2 − 1.4K1yLy
The above equation is evaluated for Peq and a

column section is selected from the
concentrically loaded column tables for that
load.
The equation for Peq is solved again using a
revised value of m.
Another section is selected and checks are then
applied for this trial section.
WEB LOCAL STABILITY

For stiffened webs in combined flexural and axial
compression:
Pu E  2.75 Pu 
If ≤ 0.125 λp = 3.76 
1−
φ b Py Fy  φ b Py 
 2.75 Pu 
For A36 steel, λp = 106.7 1 − φ P 
 b y 
Pu  
λp =  2.33 − Pu
E  ≥ 1.49 E
If φ b Py > 0.125 1.12
Fy  φ b Py  Fy
 
 Pu 
For A36 steel, λp = 
31.8 2.33 −
 φ b Py
 ≥ 42.3

 
where λ = h / tw and Py = Fy Ag
FLOW CHART FOR DESIGN OF

BEAM-COLUMNS
Known Data: Pu, Mntx, Mltx , Mnty, Mlty, KxLx, KyLy
Mr = Mu = Mnt + Mlt for the first trial

Calculate Mr both in the x and y directions
Assume an approximate magnification of

15% for the moments only.
Peq = Pr + Mrx(mx) + Mry(my)
mx (for first trial) = 8.5 − 0.7K1xLx

my (for first trial) = 17 − 1.4K1yLy
mx = 10 − 14(d / 1000)2 − 0.7K1xLx
my = 20 − 28(d / 1000)2 − 1.4K1yLy
Select section as a simple column depending

upon the following criteria:
1. Asel ≈ Areq
2. Minimum weight
3. Connecting leg width b > bmin
4. Depth of W-section ≤ 360 mm
The column selection tables may also be

employed to select the section using the values of
Peq and KyLy.
See rx/ry from column selection table for selected

section
K x Lx
Calculate (KyLy)eq =
rx ry
Re-enter the table for greater of KyLy and (KyLy)eq
and revise to obtain suitable section for the load
Peq.
Find new values of m for subsequent trials.

Select a new section and repeat until values
of load capacities, Peq, and m are stabilized.
Peq = Pr + Mrx (mx) + Mry (my)
Select a new section and repeat until values of

load capacities, Peq and m are stabilized.
Calculate Cmx and Cmy for no sway conditions
K 1 x Lx K 2 x L x K 1 y L y K 2 y Ly
Calculate , , and
rx rx ry ry
R = maximum of the above values
Check for maximum slenderness ratio: R ≤ 200

Axial strength of trial section:

Calculate φcFcr corresponding to the R-value or
directly read it from the table in Reference-1 and
evaluate the compression capacity by multiplying
with the area of cross-section.
Pc = φcPn = φcFcr Ag / 1000
Calculate Euler buckling strength (Pe1)x, (Pe1)y

, (Pe2)x and (Pe2)y for both lt and nt cases.
Pe1 = π2 EI / (K1 L)2 / 1000 (kN)

Calculate no-sway moment magnification factors

C mx C my
B1x = Pr ≥ 1.0 : B1y = Pr
≥ 1.0
1−α 1−α
(Pe1 )x (Pe1 ) y
where α = 1.0 for LRFD procedure.
Note: Pr in the above formulas is the actual
factored axial load and not Peq.
Calculate B2x and B2y.
1
B2 = α ∑ Pnt
1−
∑ Pe 2
Calculate design moments

Mrx = Mux = B1x Mntx + B2x Mltx
Mry = Muy = B1y Mnty + B2y Mlty
Bending strength of the trial section:

φbMny = φb Fy Zy / 106 (kN-m)
There are no chances of lateral buckling because
the lateral direction for y-axis bending is the
stronger direction.
Check conditions of compact section as a beam.
Find Lp and Lr from column table and check

against Lbx.
Calculate φbMnx as for a beam using Lbx, Lp, Lr

and beam selection tables. Use Cb = 1.0 in the
expressions.
Pr
Calculate to see which interaction
Pc
equation is applicable.
Check interaction equations:

Pr Pr 8  M rx M ry 
For ≥ 0.2 + + ≤ 1.0
Pc Pc 9  M cx M cy 
Pr Pr  M rx M ry 
For < 0.2 + + ≤ 1.0
Pc 2 Pc  M cx M cy 
Get the value of Left Side of equation (LS) up to

2nd decimal place, truncating the 3rd decimal digit,
which should not be more than 1.00.
This means that LS can be as high as 1.0099 but
not 1.01.
Values of LS between 0.9 and 1.0 → Very economical design

Values of LS between 0.8 and 0.9 → Economical design
Values of LS between 0.7 and 0.8 → May be acceptable,
but better to try
an economical section
Values of LS lesser than 0.7 → Revise by selecting
a lighter section
Values of LS greater than 1.0099 → Select a stronger section
Check shear strength, which may usually be

omitted in hot rolled W sections because of very
high available strength.
Write the final solution using standard designation.

Example 5.1: Design the columns in a single-

bay multi-storey unbraced frame shown in Figure
5.6, where P is the load from the top stories.
Ratio of moment of inertia of beams with respect
to columns may be assumed as shown in the
figure. Approximate analyses results are also
provided in Figures 5.7 and 5.8. Assume that
sway is not allowed in the y-direction.
Solution:
Total Factored Loads
1. Load Combination 1, Gravity Load
Combination (1.2 D + 1.6 L)
P P
6.0 m I w I
H
1.4 I
6.0 m
I I
8.5 m
Figure 5.6. Frame And Loading For Example 5.1.
Pu = 1.2(1025) + 1.6(410) = 1886 kN

wu = 1.2(7.3) + 1.6(22.0) = 43.96 kN/m
P = 1025 kN dead load

= 410 kN live load
w = 7.3 kN/m dead load
= 22.0 kN/m live load
H = 345 kN wind load
1886kN 1886kN
43.96kN/m
75.8 kN-m 227 kN-m
37.9 kN-m
Figure 5.7. Partial Gravity Load Analysis Results.

2. Load Combination 2, Wind Load

Combination (1.2D+0.5L+1.3W)
Pu = 1.2(1025) + 0.5(410) = 1435 kN
Hu = 1.3(345) = 448.5 kN
wu = 1.2(7.3)+0.5(22.0) = 19.76 kN/m
Value of Kx
∑ (I L ) for columns 2(I 6 )
Gtop = ∑ (I L ) for beams = 1 .4 I 8 .5
= 2.02
Gbotton = 1.0 for sway columns
∆oh
1435kN 1435kN
448.5kN
19.76kN/m
93.7 kN-m
586 kN-m 586 kN-m
51.2 kN-m
759 kN-m
759 kN-m
25.6 kN-m
138 kN
138 kN
( No Sway Part ) ( Sway Part )
Figure 5.8. Partial Lateral Load Analysis Results.

Kx = 1.0 for braced frame

Kx = 1.45 for unbraced conditions
Value of Ky:
No data of connected elements is given for y-

direction and hence the approximate value may
conservatively be assumed for no sway in this
direction.
Ky = 1.0
Here, design is made for the wind combination and

check is then made for the gravity combination.
Design for Combination 2:
Pr = 1435 + 138 + 19.76 × 8.5/2
= 1656.7 kN
According to AISC, max. moments for different
types of loading (nt or lt case), acting at different
locations or of different signs, are to be added
magnitude-wise in any combination.
The Right column is critical for the axial load.
Mntx = 51.2 kN-m

Mltx = 759 kN-m
Mnty = Mlty = 0
K2xLx = 1.45 × 6 = 8.7 m for lt-case
K1xLx = 1.00 × 6 = 6.00 m for nt-case
K1yLy = 1.00 × 6 = 6.00 m
= 8.5 − 0.7K1xLx
mx (for first trial)
= 8.5 − 0.7 × 6 = 4.3
Assume 15% magnification of moments.
Peq = Pu + 1.15 Mux (m)
= 1656.7 + 1.15 (51.2 + 759.0) (4.3)
= 5663 kN
Using column tables of Reference 1 for this Peq

and KyLy = 6.0 m;
Trial Section = W360 × 262
Revised mx = 10 − 14(d / 1000)2 − 0.7K1xLx

= 10 − 14 × 0.362 − 0.7 × 6
= 3.99
Peq = Pu + 1.15 Mux (m)

= 1656.7 + 1.15 (51.2 + 759.0) (3.99)
= 5374 kN
Trial Section-1: W360 × 237

A = 30,100 mm2
rx = 162 mm, ry = 102 mm
rx/ry = 1.60
Ix = 79,100 × 104 mm4
M1 / M2 is positive because of reverse curvature
K 2 x Lx 8.7
(KyLy)eq = = = 5.44 m (not critical)
rx / ry 1.60
M1
Cmx = 0.6 – 0.4 M2
 25.6 
= 0.6 – 0.4   = 0.4
 51.2 
K 1 x Lx 6.0 ×1000
rx = 162
= 37.04 ( for nt case)
K 2 x Lx 8.7 ×1000
rx = 162
= 53.70 (for lt-case)
K1 y L y 6.0 ×1000
ry = 102 = 58.82
R ≈ 59 < 200 OK
φcFcr = 187.09 MPa
187.09 × 30,100
Pc = φcFcr Ag = = 5,631 kN
1000
Pe1x = π2 EI / (K1x L)2
π 2 × 200,000 × 79,100 × 10 4
= = 43,371 kN
6000 × 1000
2
for nt-case
Pe2x = π2 EI / (K2x L)2

π 2 × 200,000 × 79,100 × 10 4
=
8700 2 × 1000
= 20,628 kN for lt-case
C mx 0.4
B1x = =
1 − αPr Pe1, x 1 − 1 × 1656.7 43,371
= 0.42 ∴ B1x = 1.0
ΣPnt = 1435 × 2 + 19.75 × 8.5 = 3038 kN

ΣPe2,x = 2 × 20,628 = 41,256 kN
1
B2x = α ∑ Pnt = 1 = 1.08
1− 1−
1.0 × 3038
∑ Pe 2, x 41,256
Mrx = B1x Mntx + B2x Mltx
= 1.0 (51.20) + 1.08(759.00)
= 870.9 kN-m
Pr = Pnt + B2 Plt
= 1518.98 + 1.08(138)
= 1668.02kN
From column selection table:
Lp = 5.06 m, Lr = 25.43 m
Check conditions of compact section:

bf
= 6.5 < λp = 10.8 OK
2t f
Pu 1656.7
= = 0.245
φ b Py 0.9 × (250 / 1000) × 30,100
 Pu 
For web, λp = 
31.8 2.33 −
 φ b Py
 ≥ 42.3

 
= 66.3 for A36 steel
h
tw
= 15.3 < λp OK
Lb = 6.00m > Lp, bending strength is to be

calculated using the inelastic LTB formula.
Mp = 250 × 4700 × 103 / 106 = 1175.0 kN-m
φbMp = 0.9 × 1175 = 1057.5 kN-m
Mr = 0.7 × Fy × Sx / 106
= 0.7 × 250 × 4160 × 103 / 106
= 728.0 kN-m
M p − Mr  1175 − 728 
BF = =   = 21.94 kN
Lr − L p  25.43 − 5.06 
Mcx = φb[Mp − BF(Lb − Lp)]

= 0.9 [1175 − 21.94(6.0 − 5.06)]
= 1038.9 kN-m
Check Interaction Equation:
Pr 1668.02
= = 0.296 > 0.2
Pc 5,631
Pr 8  M rx  8  870.92 
+   = 0.296 +  
Pc 9  M cx  9  1038.9 
= 1.041 > 1.00 NG
Trial Section-2: W360 × 262

A = 33,400 mm2
rx = 163 mm, ry = 102 mm
rx/ry = 1.60
Ix = 89,100 × 104 mm4
K 2 x Lx
(KyLy)eq =
rx / ry
8.7
= = 5.44 m (not critical)
1.60
Cmx = 0.4 (as before)

K 1x L x 6.0 ×1000
= = 36.81 ( for nt case)
rx 163
K 2 x Lx 8.7 ×1000
= = 53.37 ( for lt case)
rx 163
K1 y L y 6.0 ×1000
ry
= = 58.82
102
R ≈ 59 < 200 OK
φcFcr = 187.09 MPa
Pc = φcPn = φcFcr Ag
187.09 × 33,400
= = 6,248 kN
1000
Pe1x = π2 EI / (K1x L)2
π × 200,000 × 89,100 × 10
2 4
=
6000 × 1000
2
= 48,854 kN for nt-case

Pe2x = π2 EI / (K2x L)2
π × 200,000 × 89,100 × 10
2 4
=
8700 × 1000
2
= 23,236 kN for lt-case

C mx
B1x =
1 − αPr Pe1, x
0 .4
= 1 − 1 × 1656.7 48,854 = 0.41 ∴ B1x = 1.0
ΣPnt = 1435 × 2 + 19.75 × 8.5

= 3038 kN
ΣPe2,x = 2 × 23,236 = 46,472 kN
1 1
B2x = α ∑ Pnt = = 1.07
1.0 × 3038
1− 1−
∑ Pe 2, x 46,472
Mrx = B1x Mntx + B2x Mltx

= 1.0 (51.20) + 1.07(759.00)
= 863.33 kN-m
Pr = Pnt + B2 Plt
= 1518.98 + 1.07(138)
= 1666.64 kN
From column selection table:
Lp = 5.08 m, Lr = 30.44 m
Check conditions of compact section:

bf
= 6.0 < λp = 10.8 OK
2t f
Pu 1656.7
= = 0.220
φ b Py 0.9 × (250 / 1000 ) × 33,400
For web,
 Pu 
λp = 
31.8 2.33 −

 ≥ 42.3

for A36 steel
 φ b Py 
= 67.1
h
= 13.7 < λp OK
tw
Lb = 6.00m > Lp, bending strength is to be

calculated using the inelastic LTB formula.
Mp = 250 × 5240 × 103 / 106
= 1310.0 kN-m
φbMp = 0.9 × 1310 = 1179 kN-m
Mr = 0.7 × Fy × Sx / 106
= 0.7 × 250 × 4600 × 103 / 106
= 805.0 kN-m
M p − Mr  1310 − 805 
BF = =  
Lr − L p  30.44 − 5.08 
= 19.91 kN
Mcx = φb[Mp − BF(Lb − Lp)]
= 0.9 [1310 − 19.91(6.0 − 5.08)]
= 1162.5 kN-m
Pr 1666.64
= = 0.267 > 0.2
Pc 6,248

Pr 8  M rx  8  863.33 
+   = 0.267 +  
Pc 9  M cx  9  1162.5 
= 0.927 < 1.00 OK
Section Selected For Wind
Combination: W360 × 262
Check for Combination 1:
Pr = Pu = 1886 + 43.96 × 8.5/2
= 2073 kN
Mntx = 75.8 kN-m
Cmx = 0.4 same as before

C mx 0.4
B1x = =
1 − αPr Pe1, x 1 − 1 × 2073 48,854
= 0.42 ∴ B1x = 1.0
Mrx = B1x × Mntx = 75.8 kN-m
Pr 2073
= = 0.332 > 0.2
Pc 6,248

Pr 8  M rx  8  75.8 
+   = 0.332 +  
Pc 9  M cx  9  1162.5 
= 0.39 < 1.00 OK
Final Selection: W360 × 262

Example 5.2: Design the column for the

following data:
1.Braced frame
2.Pu = 1750 kN
3.Mntx = 330 kN-m
4.Mltx = 0
5.Mnty = 105 kN-m
6.K1xLx = K1yLy = 7.3 m
7.Lb = 7.3 m
8.Cm = 0.85
9.Fy = 250 MPa
Solution:
Peq = Pu + Mux mx + Muy my
For first trial: mx = 8.5 − 0.7 K1xLx
= 8.5 − 0.7 × 7.3 = 3.39
my = 17 − 1.4 K1yLy
= 17 − 1.4 × 7.3 = 6.78
Assume 15% magnification.
Peq = 1750 + 1.15 × 330 × 3.39 + 1.15
× 105 × 6.78
= 3855 kN
KyLy = 7.3 m
From column load table, the trial section is:

W360 × 196
mx = 10 − 14 (d/1000)2 − 0.7 K1xLx
= 10 − 14 (0.36)2 − 0.7 × 7.3 = 3.08
my = 20 − 28 (d/1000)2 − 1.4 K1yLy
= 20 − 28 (0.36)2 − 1.4 × 7.3 = 6.15
Peq = 1750 + 1.15 × 330 × 3.08
+ 1.15 × 105 × 6.15
= 3661 kN

W360 × 179
rx/ry = 1.67
K1xLx / 1.67 = 4.37 < KyLy

∴ KyLy is critical
Trial Section No. 1: W360 × 179
Ag = 22,800 mm2
rx = 158 mm
ry = 95.0 mm
Lp = 4.73 m
Lr = 21.20 m
Ix = 57,400 × 104 mm4
Iy = 20,600 × 104 mm4
Zx = 3,474 × 103 mm3
Zy = 1,671 × 103 mm3

Sx = 3,110 × 103 mm3
Mp = 868.5 kN-m
Mr = 544.25 kN-m
BF = 19.69 kN
Mcx = φbMnx = 736.11 kN-m
Cm = 0.85 (given)
K1x L x 7.3×1000
= = 46.20
rx 158
K1 y L y 7.3 ×1000
= = 76.84
ry 95.0
R ≈ 77 < 200 OK
φcFcr = 164.32 MPa

164.32
Pc = φcFcrAg = × 22,800 = 4108 kN
1000
π × 200,000 × 57,400 × 10
2 4
Pe1,x =
7300 × 1000
2
= 21,262 kN
π × 200,000 × 20,600 × 10
2 4
Pe1,y =
7300 × 1000
2
= 7,630 kN
Cm 0.85
B1x = = = 0.93
αPnt 1 × 1750
1− 1−
Pe1, x 21,262
∴ B1x = 1.0
0.85
B1y = = 1.10
1 × 1750
1−
7,630
Pr is not magnified as Plt = 0.
Mux = B1x × Mntx = 330 kN-m

Muy = B1y × Mnty = 1.10 × 105 = 115.5 kN-m
Mcy = φbMpy
0.9 × 250 × 1,671 × 10 3
=
10 6
= 375.98 kN-m
bf / 2tf = 7.8 < 10.8 OK

h / tw = 19.3 < 42.3 (worst case) OK
Pr 1750
= = 0.467 > 0.2
Pc 3746
Interaction Equation:
Pr 8  M rx M ry  8  330
 = 0.467 + 
115.5 
+ + + 
Pc 9  M cx M cy 
 9  736 . 11 375 . 98 
= 1.139 > 1.0 NG

Ag = 25,000 mm2
rx = 160 mm
ry = 95.5 mm
Ix = 63,700 × 104 mm4

Iy = 22,800 × 104 mm4
Zx = 3,835 × 103 mm3
Zy = 1,852 × 103 mm3
Sx = 3,420 × 103 mm3
Mp = 958.75 kN-m
Mr = 598.50 kN-m
BF = 19.74 kN
Pc = 4108 kN
Pe1,x = 23,595 kN
Pe1,y = 8,445 kN
B1x = 1.0
B1y = 1.07
Mux = 330 kN-m
Muy = 112.5 kN-m
Mcy = φbMpy = 416.7 kN-m

Pr 1750
= = 0.426 > 0.2
Pc 4108
Pr 8  M rx M ry 
+ +
Pc 9  M cx M cy 
8  330 112.5 
= 0.426 +  + 
9  817.57 416.7 
= 1.025 > 1.0 NG
Ag = 27,500 mm2
rx = 161 mm
ry = 101 mm
Lp = 5.03 m
Lr = 25.43 m
Ix = 71,200 × 104 mm4
Iy = 28,200 × 104 mm4
Zx = 4,260 × 103 mm3
Zy = 2,180 × 103 mm3

Sx = 3,800 × 103 mm3
Mp = 1065 kN-m
Mr = 665 kN-m
BF = 19.61 kN
Pr 1750
= = 0.375 > 0.2
Pc 4665
Pr 8  M rx M ry 

+ +
Pc 9  M cx M cy 

8  330 107.3 
= 0.375 +  + 
9  918.44 490.5 
= 0.889 > 1.0 OK

Pu =290 kN
Example 5.3: Design
the beam column
320 kN-m
shown in Figure 5.9, if
sidesway is allowed
along weak axis but is
prevented along strong 5.2m
220
axis. The moments kN-m
shown are factored
320 kN-m
and are due to lateral
loads. The column Pu =290 kN
ends are partially fixed.
Figure 5.9. Column of Example 5.3.
Solution:
Although lateral load is present, sway is not
allowed along strong axis. Hence, the
moments may be considered to be of nt-case.
Pu = 290 kN; Mntx = 320 kN-m; Mltx = 0 kN-m
Due to unavailability of the connection data, use
approximate values of Kx and Ky as follows:
K1x = 1.0 ; K1y = 1.0 ; K2y = 1.2
K1xLx = 5.2 m ; K1yLy = 5.2 m
K2yLy = 6.24 m
For first trial: mx = 8.5 − 0.7 K1xLx

= 8.5 − 0.7 × 5.2 = 4.86
Assume 15% magnification.
Peq = Pu + 1.15 Mux (mx)
= 290 + 1.15 × 320(4.86)
= 2079 kN
W360 × 110 is uneconomical.
From column selection table, the trial section
is: W310 × 97
mx = 10 − 14 (d/1000)2 − 0.7 K1xLx

= 10 − 14 (0.31)2 − 0.7 × 5.2 = 5.01
Peq = 290 + 1.15 × 320 × 5.01
= 2134 kN
W310 × 97
rx/ry = 1.75
K1xLx / 1.75 = 2.97 < KyLy
∴ KyLy is critical
Trial Section No.1: W310 × 97

Ag = 12,300 mm2
rx = 134 mm
ry = 76.7 mm
Lp = 3.82 m
Lr = 13.90 m
Ix = 22,700 × 104 mm4
Iy = 7,240 × 104 mm4
Zx = 1,586 × 103 mm3 ; Zy = 723 × 103 mm3

Sx = 1,440 × 103 mm3 ; Mp= 396.5 kN-m
Mr= 252 kN-m ; BF= 14.34 kN
Mcx = φbMnx= 339.04 kN-m
Check for local stability:
bf/2tf = 9.9 < λp
h/tw = 24.9 < λp 42.3 for the worst case
⇒ Compact Section
Cmx = 1.0 (Consider member with

unrestrained ends to be on conservative side.)
K1xLx/rx = 5200/134 = 38.81

K1yLy/ry = 5200/76.7 = 67.80
K2yLy/ry = 6240/76.7 = 81.36
R = 82 < 200 OK
φcFcr = 157.54 MPa

Pc = φcFcrAg / 1000
= 157.54 × 12,300/1000 = 1938 kN
π 2 × 200,000 × 22,200 × 10 4
Pe1,x =
5200 2 × 1000
= 16,206 kN
C mx 1
B1x = ≥ 1.0 =
αPnt 1 × 290
1− 1−
Pe1, x 16,206
= 1.018
Mrx = B1x Mntx
= 1.018 × 320 = 325.76 kN-m
Pr 290
= = 0.150 < 0.2
Pc 1938
Pr  M rx  0.150 325.76
+   = +
2 Pc  M cx  2 339.04
= 1.036 > 1.0 NG
Trial Section No.2: W310 × 107
Pr  M rx 
+  
2 Pc  M cx 
0.134 325.12
= +
2 379.77
= 0.923 < 1.0 OK

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BEAMS

INTRODUCTION
A beam is a structural member in which the

major deformation is bending.
The bending moment is primarily generated due
to transverse loads.
This member carries the loads throughout its
span and transfers it to its ends with or without
accompanying moment.
Beam is a combination of a compression member

on one side of neutral axis and a tension member
on the other side, joined together through a shear
element.
Following terms are used for various types of
beams according to their use:
Girder: The primary beams that are frequently

used at wide spacing supporting the smaller
beams and other structural components are called
girders.
Frequently, girders are made of built-up sections

and carry heavier loads over larger spans.
These are supported directly on columns (Figure
4.1).
Secondary Beam: These are relatively smaller
beams resting on primary beams/girders carrying
load of lesser part of roof and having smaller
span lengths (Figure 4.1).
Secondary
Beams
Joist
Column
Main Beam (Girder)
Figure 4.1. Typical Plan of a Building Showing Layout of Columns and Beams.
Joists: Joists are less important beams that

are closely spaced and are frequently having
truss-type webs.
These are closely spaced smaller beams resting
on secondary beams in majority of the cases.
With the presence of joists, the strength
requirements of the roof sheathing or slab are
greatly reduced (Figure 4.1).
Purlins: These are roof beams spanning
between trusses.
Roof sheathing is connected with purlins, which
is in turn are connected to panel points of the
truss, with no direct connection between the
roof and the truss top chord.
Uniformly distributed roof load is carried by the
purlins and is converted into point loads acting
at panel points of the truss.
Because of inclination of the load with the
centroidal axes of the section and application of
load on top chord, these beams are subjected to
biaxial bending along with torsion.
Stringers: Longitudinal bridge beams spanning

between floor beams and placed parallel to
roadway are called stringers (Figure 4.2).
Floor Beams: Floor beams are main girders of
the bridge spanning between trusses or plate
girders and running perpendicular to the roadway
of the bridge (Figure 4.2).
Girts: Horizontal wall beams used to resist
horizontal bending due to wind acting on the side
of an industrial building are referred to as girts.
R.C. Slab Shear Connectors
Truss or
Plate Girder
Stringer
Floor Beam
Figure 4.2. Typical Cross-Section of a Steel Bridge.

Lintels: Lintels are members supporting a wall

over window or door openings.
Spandrels: In case of high-rise buildings, the
masonry walls are usually not able to withstand
their self-weight and the slab weight.
In such cases, beams are provided in exterior walls
at each floor level to support the wall load and
perhaps some roof load also.
These beams are termed as spandrels.
THE FLEXURE FORMULA

By denoting the elastic section modulus by S and
the applied bending moment by M, the bending
stresses may be calculated using the flexure
formula as under:
Elastic bending stress,
My M M
Fb = = =
I I y S
Using the above expression, the required section
modulus to resist a particular bending moment
may be obtained as follows:
M
Sreq = F
a
where Fa = allowable bending stress
In a similar manner, plastic section modulus (Z) to

provide a particular ultimate moment capacity
may be calculated for a laterally supported and
compact section beam by using the formula:
Mu
Zreq =
φFy
STABILITY OF BEAM SECTIONS

Local Stability
If width over thickness ratio of the compression
flange is greater than a certain limit, flange can
buckle locally.
The phenomenon is called flange local buckling
(FLB) and is shown in Figure 4.3.
Similarly, if depth over thickness ratio is greater
for the web, it can locally buckle or cripple under
compression (Figure 4.4).
This phenomenon is called as web local buckling
(WLB).
Buckling is
diagonal
perpendicular to the
paper
(a) Web Local Buckling
Figure 4.3. Flange Local (b) Web Crippling Due

Buckling. to Concentrated Load
Figure 4.4. Web Instability.

Web local buckling usually occurs in a diagonal

position and is produced by the diagonal
compression existing in the web due to shear.
On the other hand, web crippling occurs due to
local compression transferred by the flange to
the connecting portion of web.
Lateral Stability
Due to lateral buckling of the compression zone,
the section is twisted as a whole due to the fact
that tension zone remains stable and tries to retain
its position.
This combined twisting and buckling of beam in a

lateral direction is called lateral torsional buckling
(LTB).
It depends upon the laterally unsupported length
besides the loading and the sectional
dimensions.
Unbraced or unsupported length
of beam (Lb)
It is defined as the length of beam within its two
sections whose compression flange is laterally
supported or braced against twist of the cross
section by perpendicular beams, slab or by some
other means.
In other words, it is the distance between two

points braced against lateral displacement of
the compression flange denoted by Lb.
The sections braced to prevent twist of the
member are considered better for the bracing
against the lateral torsional buckling.
Lateral stability against LTB

AISC-F2 deals with doubly symmetric compact I-
shaped members and channels bent about their
major axis.
These provisions are valid for sections having

compact webs and compact flanges.
The nominal flexural strength (Mn) is the lower
value for limits states of yielding and lateral -
torsional buckling.
A member will be safe against lateral torsional
buckling up to its full plastic moment capacity if
the unbraced length of the beam (Lb) is not
greater than Lp, i.e.,
L b ≤ Lp for no LTB
where,
Lp = Limiting laterally unbraced length for full
plastic bending capacity (Mp = Zx×Fy) in uniform
moment case (Cb = 1.0).
For I-shaped members including hybrid sections and
channels:
E
Lp = 1.76ry ≅ 50 ry (for A-36 Steel)
Fy
A section may develop yielding only at some points
in case of inelastic buckling, when the unbraced
length is between the two limiting lengths Lp and Lr,
that is, when,
L p < Lb ≤ Lr
where Lr = limiting laterally unbraced
length for inelastic torsional
buckling, mm.
For doubly symmetric I-shaped members:
2
E Jc  0.7 Fy S x ho 
Lr = 1.95 rts 1 + 1 + 6.76 
0.7 Fy S x ho  E Jc 
E
≈ 1.95 rts (very conservative estimate)
0.7 Fy
Mr = limiting buckling moment dividing

elastic and inelastic buckling for Cb = 1.0, Cb
will be defined later
= 0.7Fy Sx/106 kN-m
2 I yCw I y ho
r
ts = = for doubly symmetric I-sections
Sx 2S x
rts ≈ radius of gyration of the compression

flange plus one-sixth of the web for
doubly symmetric I-sections
bf
rts =
 1 h tw 
121 + 
 6b t 
 f f 
c = 1.0 for a doubly symmetric I-shape

ho = distance between the flange centroids
= d – tf / 2
Cw = warping torsional constant for the
section, mm6
I f ho2 I y ho2
For symmetrical sections, Cw = ≈
2 4
If = moment of inertia of one flange in
lateral direction, mm4
J = torsional constant for the section, mm4

1 3
≈ ∑ bt
3
For the above expression, b is the long
dimension and t is the short dimension of any
rectangular element of the section and
summation is for all the elements of that section.
When Lb > Lr Mn = FcrSx ≤ Mp
Fcr = compression flange critical buckling stress

Cbπ 2 E Jc  Lb 
Fcr = 2
1 + 0.078  
 Lb  S x ho  rts 
 
 rts 
Cbπ 2 E
≈
(Lb / rts ) 2
TYPES OF BEAM SECTIONS

Types According To Section Stability
Depending upon the stability, sectional shapes
can be classified as compact, non-compact and
slender sections. The details of this
classification are explained in the following
paragraphs.
Compact section
A compact section is the one that is capable of
developing its full plastic moment capacity
before any local buckling occurs.
In order to qualify under this category, a
member must meet the following requirements
(Table B4.1 of AISC Specification):
1. Web is continuously connected with the flange.
2. Flange local stability criterion is satisfied.
3. Web local buckling criterion is satisfied.
4. Lateral torsional buckling is absent.
Flange local stability criterion

Flange is locally stable when the width over
thickness ratio (λ) for the flange is lesser than the
limiting slenderness parameter for compact
element (λp).
The parameter λ for flange may be calculated as bf
/ 2tf or bf / tf depending on the whether half of the
flange undergoes buckling or the full flange acts as
one element for buckling, respectively.
λ ≤ λp
λp for compact section

1. Unstiffened flanges of I-shaped rolled beams,
channels, tees and built-up doubly and single
symmetric I-sections.
λp = 0.38 E / Fy = 10.8 for A-36 steel
2. Unstiffened legs of single angles.
λp = 0.54 E / Fy = 15.3 for A-36 steel

3. Stiffened flanges of HSS shapes
λp = 1.12 E / Fy = 31.8 for A-36 steel
Web local buckling criterion

Web is locally stable when the following condition
is satisfied:
λ ≤ λp
h
where λ=
tw
and assumed web depth for stability (h) is
defined as under:
h = twice the distance from the neutral
axis to the inside face of the
compression flange less the fillet or
corner radius for rolled sections
h = twice the distance from the neutral axis

to the nearest line of fasteners at the
compression flange or the inside face of
the compression flange when welds are
used.
λp for compact section
For webs of doubly symmetric I-sections and
channels:
λp = 3.76 E / Fy = 107 for A-36 steel
For webs of rectangular HSS (λ = h / t):
λp = 2.42 E / Fy = 68.7 for A-36 steel

Lateral torsional buckling

The member is laterally stable when Lb ≤ Lp
when Cb = 1.0.
Non-compact section
A non-compact section is the one, which can
develop yielding at least on one of its outer edges
before showing local instability.
The width-thickness ratio of one or more elements
exceeds λp, but λ for all elements do not exceed λr.
The values of λr are given in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1. λr For Non-Compact Sections.
S. No. Type of Element Expression For λr λr for A36

steel
i) Unstiffened rolled flanges 28.4

1 .0 E / F y
ii) Unstiffened flanges of doubly and to be
singly symmetric built-up I-sections Ek c calculated
0.95
FL
iii) Flexure in legs of single angles 25.8
0.91 E / Fy
iv) Stiffened webs purely in flexure 162

5.70 E / Fy
FL =0.7Fy for minor axis bending, major axis

bending of slender web of built-up I-shaped
member and major axis bending of
compact and non-compact webs of built-up
I-sections with Sxt / Sxc ≥ 0.7.
=Fy (Sxt / Sxc) ≥ 0.5 F0.35for
between y
other cases.
and 0.76.
4
kc = between 0.35 and 0.76.
h / tw
Slender section
This type of section cannot develop yielding at
any point within the cross-section before it shows
local instability.
The width over thickness ratio of any element
exceeds λr.
TYPES OF BEAMS
Depending on various aspects, the beams
may be categorized as under:
Position
Central beams.
End beams.
End Conditions
Simple beams. The simple beams, girders
and trusses have an effective length equal to
the distance between centres of gravity of the
members on which they rest.
Cantilever beams.
Continuous beams.
Fixed ended beams.
Propped cantilever beams.
Fabrication
(a) Rolled steel sections
W-sections are most economic and widely used
shapes as beams.
However, beams may also be of S or M shapes.
Angle and channel sections are used for smaller
beams.
tf
d
tw
bf
Figure 4.5. Standard Notation For Sizing of I-

Section Beams.
(b) Cold formed beams

These are formed by bending high strength steel
plates at room temperature, in the form of shapes
shown in Figure 4.6, and are used for less loads
and smaller spans.
(c) Built-up sections
When the largest rolled steel section does not

satisfy the requirements of loads or span exceeds
approximately 12m, built-up sections are used.
Rolled steel sections with cover plates are used
for spans up to approximately 14 m.
Typical built-up sections are shown in Figure 4.7.
(d) Composite sections

When steel beams and some part of reinforced
concrete slab act together due to some type of
shear connection between the two, the resulting
beam is said to have a composite section, as
Shear
Connectors
a) Top Flange of Beam Embedded b) Top Flange of Beam Connected to

in RC Slab. RC Slab By Shear Connections.
General Spans
Table 4.2. General Span Range for Beams.
S. No. Type of Beam Span Range
a) Main beams ≤ 12 m
b) Secondary beams 4–6m
c) Steel joists 2–4m
Stiffeners
a) Stiffened beam: Stiffening plates are
provided for webs, flanges, or for stability as in
built-up sections.
b) Unstiffened beam: Beams without any

additional stiffeners such as rolled steel sections
alone are called unstiffened beams.
Stability Of Section
The beams may consist of compact, non-compact
and slender sections depending on the braced
length and the loading.
The flexural capacity and economy of the beam
greatly depends on the stability of the section
used.
Lateral Support
In case of a beam, lateral support is generally
required to be provided for the compression
flange to prevent lateral torsional buckling.
However, a full support preventing the rotation of
the section is considered preferable.
The lateral support can be of the following types:
(a) Continuous lateral support
In this case, compression flange is braced
laterally along its entire span.
Shear Connectors
RC Slab
For example, as shown in Figure 4.9, if

compression flange is encased in concrete slab or
is connected by sufficient shear connectors with the
slab, a continuous bracing is provided.
Chances of local instability of compression flange
and overall lateral instability are eliminated.
(b) Lateral support at intervals

This can be provided by cross beams, cross
frames, ties, or struts, framing in laterally.
The lateral system supporting the braces should
itself be adequately stiff and braced.
C D
A B
G H
E F
(a) Plan View of a Building
Secondary Beam Like CG or

DH
Main beam AB
(b) Connection of Secondary Beam (Brace) to the Main Beam
C D
A B
3m 3m 3m
(c) Unbraced Lengths for the Main Beam, AB
While providing lateral support at intervals, it is

necessary to make sure that the supporting structure
itself does not buckle simultaneously.
Figure 4.11(a) represents a case in which all the
main beams can buckle as a whole with unbraced
length equal to their full span even if cross beams
are present.
However, cross bracing is provided in Figure
4.11(b), which makes the lateral bracing effective.
The system of cross bracing provided in one of the
bays will act as sufficient lateral support for the
beams of several bays.
Cross Bracing
(a) Unbraced System (b) Braced System

FLEXURAL BEHAVIOR OF
COMPACT BEAMS
When beams have adequate lateral stability of the
compression flange, the only stability limit state that
might limit moment strength is local buckling in
compression flange and/or web plate elements
making up the cross-section.
For an internally compact section, even these types
of instabilities do not occur and the section may
reach the limit state of yielding throughout the
depth of the cross section.
The stress distribution on a typical wide-flange

shape subjected to increasing bending moment is
shown in Figure.
F<Fy F=Fy F=Fy F=Fy

Plastic
Region
Elastic
Region Very Small and
Particularly Zero
Dimensions
Plastic
Region
a) M<My b) M=My c) M>My d) M=Mp
but M<Mp Fully Plastic Section
When the yield stress is reached at the extreme

fibre, the nominal moment strength Mn is referred
to as the yield moment My and is computed as
Mn = My = Sx Fy
When the condition of part (d) is reached, every

fibre has a strain equal to or greater than εy = Fy /
Es and is in the plastic range.
The nominal moment strength Mn in this case is,
therefore, referred to as the plastic moment
(Mp), which is computed as follows:
Mp = Fy ∫ A y dA = Fy Zx
Where Zx, equal to ∫ ydA, is first moment of all
the area about an axis that equally divides the
area (equal area axis) and is called plastic
section modulus.
It is observed that the ratio Mp / My is a property of
the cross-sectional shape and is independent of
the material properties.
It tells how much the moment at a section can be
increased beyond first yield moment.
This ratio is referred to as the shape factor
denoted by the letter f.
Mp Zx
f = =
My Sx
Once the plastic moment strength Mp has been
reached, the section can offer no additional
resistance to rotation, behaving as a fictitious
hinge but with constant resistive moment Mp, a
condition known as a plastic hinge.
Plastic hinge acts just like a real hinge in
producing instability of the structure.
In general, any combination of three hinges, real
or plastic, in a span will result in an unstable
condition known as a collapse mechanism.
Mp
Nominal Moment Strength (Mn)
My
Mr
Mn = Mp
Inelastic
Behaviour
Elastic Behavior
Lp Lr
Laterally Unbraced Length (Lb)
Further, the nominal flexural strength, Mn, of a

beam is the lowest value obtained for the
following limit states:
a) yielding,
b) lateral-torsional buckling,
c) flange local buckling, and
d) web local buckling.
LTB BUCKLING MODIFICATION

FACTOR (Cb)
According to AISC, Cb is the lateral-torsional
buckling modification factor for non-uniform moment
diagrams when both ends of the unsupported
segment are braced.
The factor Cb accounts for the moment gradient or
the shape of the bending moment diagram.
Effect of the maximum moment present throughout
the beam segment is much more severe and Cb =
1.0 for this case.
Greater values of Cb indicate more flexural strength.
If bending moment is lesser within the span

than the ends, Cb can be taken greater than
one.
Similarly, in addition to above, if reverse
curvature is present, the situation becomes still
less severe and value of Cb may further be
increased.
Value of Cb
1. Cb = 1.0 for cantilevers or overhangs with

unbraced free ends.
12.5 M max
Cb = Rm ≤ 3.0
2.5 M max + 3 M A + 4 M B + 3 M C
where M is the absolute value of a moment in

the unbraced beam segment defined as follows:
Mmax = the maximum absolute moment in
the unbraced beam segment
MA = absolute moment at the quarter point
of the unbraced beam segment
MB = absolute moment at the centreline of
the unbraced beam segment
MC = absolute moment at the three-quarter
point of the unbraced beam segment
Rm = cross section mono-symmetry parameter

= 1.0 for doubly symmetric member
Unbraced Length And Cb For Cantilever Beams
If no lateral brace is provided in the cantilever
length, Lb = actual length and Cb = 1.0.
If lateral brace is provided at free end, Lb = actual
length and Cb is calculated by the formula.
FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF BEAMS

For a safe beam, the applied moment (service
moment Ma in ASD and factored moment Mu in
LRFD) must be lesser than or equal to the
design strength of the beam.
Mu ≤ φbMn φb = 0.90 (LRFD)
Ma ≤ Mn / Ωb = 1.67 (ASD)
where Mn = nominal flexural strength as
determined by the limit state of yielding, lateral
torsional buckling, or local buckling.
To graphically show the effect of a value of Cb

greater than one on the design flexural strength of
a beam, the curve of Figure 4.13 is multiplied with
Cb = 1.0 and is reproduced in Figure 4.14 as
Curve-1.
The flexural capacity is increased by multiplying
with Cb (greater than one) and is presented as
Curve-2.
However, the flexural capacity of any section
cannot be greater than the full plastic moment
capacity.
Applying this condition, Curve-2 is changed into

the applicable curve shown by solid line in the
figure.
A new value of limiting unbraced length denoted
by Lm is to be defined in place of Lp as follows:
Lm = limiting unbraced length for full

plastic bending capacity when
Cb>1.0 which is between the lengths
Lp and Lr.
This length may be calculated by using the
following expression:
Design Curve For Cb

CbMp >1.0
Nominal Flexural Strength (Mn)
Curve-2 Obtained By
Multiplying Curve-1
Mp With Cb >1.0
Curve-1 For Cb
=1.0
C bM r
Mr
Lp Lm Lr
Laterally Unbraced Length (Lb)
(C M
b p − M p )(Lr − L p )
C b (M p − M r )
Lm = Lp +
(C M
b p −M p)
= Lp +
C b × BF
M p  Cb −1 
= Lp +   ≤ Lr
BF  C b 
BF = slope of moment capacity versus

unbraced length for inelastic lateral
torsional buckling.
M p − Mr
=
Lr − L p
When Cb = 1.0, Lm = Lp
Design moment capacity (Mn) is determined for
various cases of unbraced lengths as follows:
Case I: Compact Sections, Cb ≥ 1.0, Lb ≤ Lm

Mn = Mp = Z Fy / 106 (kN – m)
Case II: Compact Sections, Cb ≥ 1.0,
Lm < Lb ≤ Lr
  Lb − L p 
Mn = Cb  M p − ( M p − 0.7 Fy S x )  ≤ M (kN – m)

 L
 r − L p 
p
Mn = Cb [Mp – BF(Lb – Lp)] ≤ Mp (kN – m)
Case III: Compact Sections, Cb ≥ 1.0,

Lb > Lr
For doubly symmetric I-shaped and channel
section members:
Mn = CbFcrSx ≤ Mp
2
Cbπ E 2
Jc  Lb 
where Fcr = 2
1 + 0.078  
 
 rts 
The variables rts and others are as defined earlier.
DESIGN SHEAR STRENGTH

In case of beams, the shear stress distribution
creates negligibly less stresses in the flanges and
only web resists most of the applied shear.
This fact is schematically shown in Figure 4.15.
Hence, the area resisting shear is equal to area
of web as under:
Aw = d × tw
N.A.
Shear Stress Distribution
Figure 4.15.Shear Stress Distribution in An I-Section Beam.

The stable web of a beam may reach its limit by

web yielding, in which yielding in shear takes
place when the applied shear stress (τ)
becomes equal to shear yield stress (τy).
For ductile materials, shear yield stress is
approximately equal to 60 percent of the
tension yield stress (0.6 Fy).
The factor 0.6 is not a factor of safety but is a
factor to approximately change principal tensile
stress into shear stress at maximum shear
stress plane or vice versa.
The design shear strength of webs is φν Vn with

φν = 0.90 (LRFD) and the allowable shear
strength is Vn / Ωv with Ωv = 1.67 (ASD).
For webs of rolled I-shaped members:
Vn = 0.6FyAwCv
Web Yielding:
h
For ≤ 2.24 E / Fyw
tw
(= 63.4 for A36 steel) Cv = 1.0
Notes:
Vu
1) Average applied shear stress, fv =
dt w
(LRFD)
2) Beam is safe in shear when Vu ≤ φνVn
(LRFD)
DEFLECTIONS
Deflection check is a serviceability limit state
check and hence it is applied using the service
loads and not the factored loads.
Further, for steel structures, this check is usually
applied only using the service live load and the
deflection due to dead loads are not considered.
The reason for not including the dead load in the
calculation of deflections is that the structure is
given a negative camber during construction to
balance the dead load deflections.
There are several justifications for limiting service

live load deflections, some of which are as under:
1. The deflections produced should not be

visible to the people.
It is important to remember that some
deflection always occur which can be
measured by instruments.
Common people may consider a structure
that is completely safe from strength point of
view unsafe and dangerous if the deflections
are larger.
2. The appearance of structures may be

damaged by excessive deflections such as the
plaster may crack and other surface finishes
may be disturbed.
3. Excessive deflections in a member may
damage other members attached to it.
For example, deflections produced in a main
beam may cause high extra stresses in the
secondary beams and roofing resting on it.
4. In case the structure is supporting any type
of machinery, the deflection of one part may
disturb the alignment of the machinery shafts.
5. Sometimes, it may be required that different

parts of structure deflect by same amount when
symmetric loads are applied on them.
In case of buildings, the maximum service live load

deflection is usually limited to L /360.
This limit is considered invisible not damaging the
surface finishes.
The deflections may be limited to L/1500 or L /2000
for structures supporting delicate machinery.
In case of bridge, deflections due to live and impact
loads are restricted to L /800.
During initial proportioning of steel beams, it is

customary to indirectly control deflections by limiting
the span-over-depth ratio (L /d ratio) for the
members.
When these conditions are satisfied it is more likely
that the deflection check, to be performed later on,
will be satisfied eliminating the need for greater
number of trials to get a reasonable section.
Typical span-over-depth ratios used for various
types of members are as under:
1- For buildings, L/d ratio is usually limited to a

maximum of 5500 / Fy.
L /d ≤ 5500 / Fy
∴ dmin = Fy L /5500 (L /22 for A36 steel)
2- For bridge components and other beams
subjected to impact or vibratory loads,
L /d ≤ 20
3- For roof purlins,
L /d ≤ 6900 / Fy (27.5 for A36 steel,
sometimes relaxed to a value equal to 30)
The actual expected deflections may be calculated

using the mechanics principles.
However, results given in Manuals and Handbooks
may also be used directly.
Some of the typical deflection formulas are
reproduced here.
1- For uniformly loaded and simply supported

beams,
4
5wl l
∆max =
384 EI
2- For uniformly loaded continuous beams,

∆midspan =
5l 2 [M – 0.1(M + M )]
c a b
48 EI
Where Mc = magnitude of central moment,
Ma, Mb = magnitude of end moments.
3- For simply supported beams subjected to

point load (refer to Figure 4.16),
∆midspan =
12 EI
(
Pa 3 2
4
l − a )
2
where a ≤ L/ 2
P
a b
4- For overhanging part of beam subjected to

UDL,
l a
w per meter
No Load
3
wa
∆max ≅ (4l + 3a )
24 EI
5. For the above case, with UDL also present

within supports,
∆max ≅ wa
24 EI
(4a 2 l − l 3 + 3a 3 )
6- For overhanging part of beam subjected to

point load,
P
No load
l a
P a 2 (l + a )
∆max =
3EI
FLOW CHART FOR DESIGN OF BEAMS

Write Known Data
Estimate self-weight of the member.

a. The self-weight may be taken as 10 percent
of the applied dead UDL or dead point load
distributed over all the length.
b. If only live load is applied, self-weight may
be taken equal to 5 percent of its magnitude.
c. In case only factored loads are given, self-
wt. may be taken equal to 3 % of the given loads.
Calculate Factored Loads
Draw B.M. and S.F. Diagrams
Calculate Cb For Each Unbraced Segment
Find Mu,max, Vu,max, Lb for each segment and guess

which segment is the most critical.
Design this segment first and then check for
others.
Assume the section to be compact without LTB in

the start and calculate Zx accordingly.
M u ×10 6
Assumed Zx,req = φb = 0.9 ;
φb Fy
Fy = 250 MPa for A36 steel
Zsel ≥ Zreq
Selection of Section Minimum weight
Fy l d ≥ dmin
dmin = For ∆max = L/360
5500
= L /22 for A36 steel and simply supported beams
For ∆max required to be lesser than L /360, like L /500

or L /800, find (Ix)req from the deflection formula, with
only the live load acting, and select section such that Ix
≥ (Ix)req.
Method 1 Use Of Selection Tables

1. Enter the column headed Zx and find a value
equal to or just greater than the plastic
section modulus required.
2. The beam corresponding to this value in the
shape column and all beams above it have
sufficient flexural strength based on these
parameters.
3. The first beam appearing in boldface type

(top of a group) adjacent to or above the
required Zx is the lightest suitable section.
4. If the beam must have to satisfy a certain
depth or minimum moment of inertia
criterion, proceed up the column headed
“Shape” until a beam fulfilling the
requirements is reached.
5. If Cb > 1.0, use Lm in place of Lp for the
approximate selection.
6. If Lb is larger than Lm of the selected section,
use the unbraced design charts.
7. Apply moment capacity, shear capacity,

deflection and all other checks.
8. The column headed φbMp may also be used
in place of the Zx column in the above
method.
Method 2: Use Of Unbraced Design Charts
This method is applicable in cases where the

above method is not fully applicable and Lb ≥ Lp.
The design charts are basically developed for
uniform moment case with Cb = 1.0.
Following notation is used to separate full plastic,

inelastic LTB, and elastic LTB ranges:
Solid Circle represents Lp
Hollow Circle represents Lr
1. According to Mu in kN-m units and Lb in

meters, enter into the charts.
2. Any section represented by a curve to the
right and above ( ) the point selected
in No. 1 will have a greater allowed unbraced
length and a greater moment capacity than
the required values of the two parameters.
3. A dashed line section is not an economical

solution.
If dashed section is encountered while
moving in top-right direction, proceed
further upwards and to the right till the first
solid line section is obtained.
Select the corresponding section as the trial
section, and it will be the lightest available
section for the requirements.
4. If Cb > 1.0, use Mu,req = Mu / Cb but check
that the selected section has φbMp > Mu.
Check the three conditions of compact section for

internal stability, namely,
1. web continuously connected with flange,
2. flange stability criterion, and
3. web stability criterion.
If any one out of the above three is not satisfied,
revise the section.
Either calculate Lp, Lr, and Lm or find their values

from beam selection tables.
Lp = 1.76 ry E Fyf (mm)
= 0.05 ry (m) for A36 steel

2
E Jc  0.7 Fy S x ho 
Lr = 1.95 rts 1 + 1 + 6.76 
0.7 Fy S x ho  E Jc 
Mr = 0.7Fy Sx/106 kN-m

2 I yCw I y ho
rts = =
Sx 2S x
for doubly symmetric I-sections
c = 1.0 for a doubly symmetric I-shape
ho = d – tf
M p − Mr
BF =
Lr − L p
M p  C b −1 
Lm = Lp +   ≤ Lr
BF  Cb 
Calculate design flexural strength:

1- If Lb ≤ Lm Mn = Mp = Zx Fy / 106 (kN – m)
2- If Lm < Lb ≤ Lr Mn = Cb [Mp – BF(Lb – Lp)]
≤ Mp (kN – m)
3- If Lb > Lr Mn = CbFcrSx ≤ Mp
2
C bπ E 2
Jc  Lb 
where Fcr = 2
1 + 0.078  
 
 rts 
Bending strength check:

Mu ≤ φbMn OK
If not satisfied revise the trial selection.
Shear check:
h
For ≤ 2.24 E / Fyw (= 63.4 for A36 steel)
tw
Cv = 1.0
0 .9 × 0 .6
φv Vn = Fyw Aw Cv (kN)
1000
If not satisfied, revise the section.
Deflection check:
Find ∆act due to service live loads.
∆act ≤ L/360 or other specified limit OK
Check self-weight:
Calculated self weight ≤ 1.2 × assumed self
weight OK
Otherwise, revise the loads and repeat the
calculations.
Write final selection using standard designation.

Example 4.1: BEAMS WITH CONTINUOUS

LATERAL SUPPORT
Design a 7m long simply supported I-section beam
subjected to service live load of 5 kN/m and
imposed dead load of 6 kN/m, as shown in Figure
4.18. The compression flange is continuously
supported.
Use (a) A36 steel and (b) steel with fy = 345 MPa
and permissible live load deflection of span / 450.
Solution:
In beams with continuous lateral support,
unbraced length is not applicable or it may be
assumed equal to zero in calculations.
Assumed self weight = 10% of
superimposed DL
= 0.6 kN/m
wu = 1.2D + 1.6L
= 1.2 × 6.6 + 1.6 × 5
= 15.92 kN/m
15.92 kN/m
7m
55.72 kN 55.72 kN
55.72 kN
S.F.D.
55.72 kN
97.51 kN-m
B.M.D.
If the beam is continuously braced, Cb value is not

applicable but may be considered equal to 1.0 in case it is
required in the formulas.
Mu = Mmax = 97.51 kN-m

Vu = Vmax = 55.72 kN
Compression flange continuously braced.
(a) A36 Steel
Assuming the section to be internally compact and

knowing that there is no LTB,
M u ×10 6 97.51×10 6
(Zx)req = = = 433.4 × 103 mm3
φ b Fy 0.9 × 250
7000
dmin = = 318 mm
22
Zsel ≥ Zreq
Selection of section Min. weight section
d ≥ dmin
Consulting beam selection tables (Reference-1),
following result is obtained:
W310 × 32.7 provides sufficient strength but
depth is little lesser.
Select W360 × 32.9; Zx = 544 × 103 mm3
Check internal compactness of section as under:

1. web is continuously connected OK
bf
2. 2 t f = 7.5 < λp = 10.8 OK
h
3. = 53.3 < λp =107 OK
tw
∴ The section is internally compact.
Continuously braced conditions imply: Lb < Lp
and Cb = not included in formulas
φbMn = φbMp
= 0.9 × 544 × 103 × 250 / 106 ≅ 121 kN-m
Mu = 97.51 kN-m < φbMp OK
h/tw =53.3 < 63.4

⇒ shear yield formula is applicable
0 .9 × 0 .6
φvVn = 1000
FywAwCv
0.9 × 0 .6
=
1000
× 250 × 349 × 5.8 × 1.0
= 273.27 kN
Vu = 55.72 (kN) < φvVn OK
5 wl l 4
∆act due to service live load = ×
384 EI
5 × (7000 )
4
5
= × = 9.44 mm
384 200000 × 8280 ×10 4
∆all = L/360 = 7000 / 360 = 19.44 mm

∆act < ∆all OK
32.9 × 9.81
Self-weight = = 0.32 kN/m
1000
This is lesser than assumed self-weight of 0.6 kN/m in

the start. OK
Final Selection: W360 × 32.9

(b) Steel With Fy = 345 MPa

M u ×10 6 97.51×10 6
(Zx)req = = = 314.0 × 103 mm3
φ b Fy 0.9 × 345
7000
dmin = = 438 mm
16
This dmin is much larger, so the direct deflection criteria

will be used.
4
l 5 wL l
=
450 384 EI
5 × 450 wL l 3 × × 3
I req = = 5 450 5 7000
384 E 384 200000
= 5024 × 104 mm4
Zsel ≥ Zreq
I ≥ Imin
Consulting beam selection tables (Reference-1),

following result is obtained:
W310 × 28.3 provides sufficient strength and
moment of inertia.
Ix = 5410 × 104 mm4 ; Zx = 405 × 103 mm3
Check internal compactness of section as under:
1. web is continuously connected OK

2. bf / 2tf = 5.7 < λp = 9.1 OK
3. h / tw= 46.2 < λp =90.5 OK
Continuously braced conditions imply: Lb < Lp

and Cb = N.A.
φbMn = φbMp
= 0.9 × 405 × 103 × 345 / 106
≅ 125.8 kN-m
Mu = 97.51 kN-m < φbMp OK
h/tw =53.3 < 2.24 E / Fy = 53.9
⇒ shear yield formula is applicable

0 .9 × 0 .6
φvVn = FywAwCv
1000
0 .9 × 0 . 6
= 1000
× 345 × 309 × 6.0 × 1.0
= 345.40 kN
Vu = 55.72 (kN) < φvVn OK
∆act < ∆all Already satisfied OK
28.3 × 9.81
Self-weight = = 0.28 kN/m
1000
This is lesser than assumed self-weight of 0.6 kN/m in

the start. OK
Final Selection: W310 × 28.3
Example 4.2: BEAMS WITH COMPRESSION

FLANGE LATERALY SUPPORTED (BRACED)
AT REACTION POINTS ONLY
Design the beam of Figure 4.19 with the lateral

bracing only provided at the reaction points.
PD = 60 kN
PL = 50 kN
wD = 8 kN/m
wL = 10 kN/m
3.5m 3.5m
Solution:
 60 
Self load = 0.1  8 + 7 
 
= 1.7 kN/m
wu = 1.2 × 9.7 + 1.6 × 10

= 27.64 kN/m
Pu = 1.2 × 60 + 1.6 × 50
= 152 kN
The factored loading and the shear force and bending

moment diagrams are shown in Figure 4.20.
Pu = 152 kN
wu = 27.64 kN/m
172.74 kN 3.5m 3.5m 172.74 kN
76
172.74 kN S.F.D.
76
172.74 kN
169.30 kN-m
B.M.D.
266.00 kN-m
Calculation of Cb:
MB = Mmax = 435.3 kN-m
MA = MC = 172.4 × 1.75 – 27.64 × 1.752/2
= 259.97 kN-m
12.5 × 435.30
Cb = Rm = 1.24
6.5 × 435.30 + 6 × 259.97
≤ 3.0 (where Rm = 1.0)
Mmax = 435.3 kN-m : Vmax = 172.74 kN : Lb = 7 m

Assuming the section to be internally compact with no LTB,

M u ×10 6
(Zx)req =
φ b Fy
435.3 ×10 6
= 0.9 × 250
= 1935 × 103 mm3
dmin. = L/22 = 7000/22 = 318 mm
Zsel ≥ Zreq
d ≥ dmin
Using beam selection tables of Reference-1,

Trial section: W610 × 82

Mp = 549.00 kN-m, Mr = 327.25 kN-m,
BF = 64.99, Lr = 5.10 m
549.00  1.24 − 1 
Lp = 1.67 m : Lm = 1.67 +   = 3.33 m
64.99  1.24 
Lb >> Lm ⇒ revise the section using beam
selection charts of Reference-1
For Lb = 7m and Mu,eq = 435.3 / 1.24 = 351.05 kN-

m, from design charts of Reference-1,
Select W410 × 100

φbMp = 479.25 kN-m > Mu OK
d > dmin OK
Check internal compactness of section:

1- web is continuously connected OK
bf
2- 2t f
= 7.7< λp = 10.8 OK
h
3- = 35.9 < λp = 107 OK
tw
Lp = 3.11 m
Lr = 10.00 m
BF = 28.53 kN
Mp = 532.50 kN-m
M p  Cb −1 
Lm = Lp +   ≤ Lr
BF  C b 
532.50  1.24 − 1 
Lm = 3.11 + 28.53  1.24  = 6.72 m
 
Lm < Lb ≤ Lr:
φbMn = Cb × φb [Mp – BF(Lb − Lp)] ≤ φbMp
= 1.24 × 0.9 [532.50 – 28.53(7.00 − 3.11)]
= 470.44 kN-m
Mu = 435.3 kN-m ≤ φbMn OK
h/tw = 35.9 < 63.4 ⇒

0 . 9 × 0 .6
φvVn = Fyw Aw Cv
1000
0 .9 × 0 .6
= × 250 × 415 × 10.0 × 1.0
1000
= 560.25 kN
Vu = 172.74 kN < φvVn OK
10 × (7000 ) 50000 × 3500

( )
4
∆act = 5
× +
384 200000 × 39700 × 10 4 12 × 200000 × 39700 × 10 4
0 .75 × (7000 ) 2
− (3500 ) 2
= 3.94 + 4.50 = 8.44 mm

L/360 = 19.44 mm
∆act < L/360 OK
100× 9.81
Self weight = = 0.981 kN/m
1000
< 1.7 kN/m assumed in the start OK

Example 4.3: BEAMS WITH COMPRESSION

FLANGE LATERALLY SUPPORTED AT
INTERVALS
Design the beam of Figure 4.21, ignoring self-weight

and deflection check. Compression flange is laterally
supported at points A, B and C.
Solution:
The factored loading and the shear force and bending

moment diagrams are shown in Figure 4.21.
wD =3 kN/m PD =60 kN PD =35 kN

wL =2 kN/m PL =50 kN PL =30 kN
B
D
A C
7m 8m 6m
Pu =152 kN Pu =90 kN
wu =6.8 kN/m
81.56 kN 208.04 kN
81.56 90 90
33.96
S.F.D.
118.04 118.04
404.32 kN-m
(+)
B.M.D.
(−)
540.00 kN-m
Mu = Mmax = 540 kN-m

Mu = 404.32 kN-m for portion AC
Mu = 540.00 kN-m for portions CB and BD
Vu = Vmax = 118.04 kN
Lb for portion AC = 7 m
Lb for portion CB = 8 m
Lb for portion BD = 6 m
Calculation of Cb:
i) Portion AC
M = 81.56 x – 6.8 x2/2

Mmax = 404.32 kN-m
MA = 132.32 kN-m (x = 1.75 m)
MB = 243.81 kN-m (x = 3.50 m)
MC = 334.48 kN-m (x = 5.25 m)
12 . 5 × 404 . 32
Cb = 2 . 5 × 404 . 32 + 3 × 132 . 32 + 4 × 243 . 81 + 3 × 334 . 48
Rm
≤ 3.0 (where Rm = 1.0)

= 1.49
ii) Portion CB
M = 540 – 118.04 x (x starts from the end B)
Mmax = 540.00 kN-m

MA = 303.92 kN-m (x = 2 m)
MB = 67.84 kN-m (x = 4 m)
MC = 168.24 kN-m (x = 6 m)
12.5 × 540 .00
Cb = Rm
2.5 × 540 .00 + 3 × 303 .92 + 4 × 67.84 + 3 × 168 .24
≤ 3.0 (where Rm = 1.0)

= 2.22
iii) Portion BD
Cb = 1.0
Portion (Mu)max (Vu)max Lb Cb

(kN-m) (kN) (m)
AC 404.32 81.56 7 1.49
CB 540.00 118.04 8 2.22
BD 540.00 90.00 6 1.00

Greater value of Mu makes a segment more

critical.
Similarly, a longer unbraced length reduces the
member capacity.
However, smaller value of Cb is more critical for a
particular segment.
The effect of these three factors together
determines whether a selected segment is actually
more critical than the other segments.
The decision about which part of the beam is

more critical for design depends on experience
but may not always be fully accurate.
If a wrong choice is made for this critical section,
the procedure will correct itself.
Only the calculations will be lengthy in such cases
with the end result being always the same.
For this example, assume that portion BD is more

critical and first design it. Later on, check for the
other two portions.
l 15000
dmin ≈ = = 682 mm
22 22
Depth for portion AB may be relaxed a little due to the
presence of cantilever portion.
However, the portion BD may have its own larger depth
requirements.
Portion BD
Assuming the section to be internally compact
with no LTB,
M u ×10 6 540 ×10
6
Assumed (Zx)req = =
φ b Fy 0.9 × 250
= 2400 × 103 mm3
From beam selection tables, the trial section is:

W610 × 92
Lp = 1.75 m, Lr = 5.33 m, Lb = 6 m,
Lm = Lp (as Cb = 1.0)
Lb >> Lm ⇒ use beam selection charts
For Mu = 540 kN-m and Lb = 6m
From unbraced beam curves ⇒ W610 × 125

is the first choice but select W690×125 to
satisfy dmin.
Trial Section: W690×125

Actual d = 678 (still a little lesser but within
permissible limits)
Lp = 2.62 m ; Lr = 7.67 m ; BF = 77.0 kN ; Lm = Lp ;
Mp = 999.50 kN-m ; Mr = 610.75 kN-m
Compactness Check:
1- web is continuously connected OK

2- bf/2tf = 7.8 ≤ λp = 10.8 OK
3. h/tw = 52.7 ≤ λp = 107 OK
∴ Section is internally compact.
Lm < Lb ≤ Lr
φbMn = Cb × φb [Mp – BF(Lb – Lp)] ≤ φbMp
= 1.0 × 0.9 [999.50 – 77.0(6 – 2.62)]
= 665.22 kN-m ≤ 899.55 kN-m
Mu = 540 kN-m < φbMn OK
h/tw = 52.7 ≤ 63.4 ⇒

0 .9 × 0 .6
φvVn = × 250 × 678 × 11.7 × 1.0
1000
= 1070.9 kN
Vu = 118.04 kN ≤ φvVn OK
Check for Portion AC

Lb = 7m ; Cb = 1.49
Lp < Lb ≤ Lr
φbMn = Cb × φb [Mp – BF(Lb – Lp)] ≤ φbMp
= 1.49 × 0.9 [999.50 – 77.0(7 – 2.62)]
= 887.92 kN-m ≤ 899.55 kN-m
∴ φbMn = 887.92 kN-m

Mu = 404.32 kN-m < φbMn OK
Check For Portion CB
For W690×125:
Sx = 3490×103 mm3
Mp = 999.50 kN-m ; Mr = 610.75 kN-m
φbMp = 899.55 kN-m

J = 117 ×104 mm4 ; ry = 52.6 mm
Lb = 8m ; Cb = 2.22
Iy = 4410 ×104 mm4 ; ry = 52.6 mm
d = 678 mm ; tf = 16.3 mm
ho = d − tf = 678 − 16.3 = 661.7 mm
I y ho
rts =
2S x
4410 × 10 4 × 661.7
= = 64.66 mm
2 × 3490 × 10 3
Lb > Lr
Lb 8000
= = 123.86
rts 64.59
2
C bπ E 2
J c  Lb 
φbMn = φb 2
1 + 0.078  × Sx / 106 ≤ φbMp
 
 rts 
2.22 × π 2 × 200000 1170000 × 1
= 0.9 × 1 + 0.078 × 123.86 2
× 3490 × 10 3
/ 10 6
123.86 2 3490 × 10 3 × 661.7
φbMn = 1137.10 kN-m ≤ 899.55 kN-m
Hence φbMn = φbMp = 899.55 kN-m and portion BD

is most critical as expected earlier.
Mu = 540 kN-m < φbMn OK
Deflection Check:
Requires detailed calculations for ∆actual that is not
asked for in this example. Very approximate
calculations are performed as under:
Pa 2 (l + a )
∆max for cantilever ≈
3EI
where a is the cantilever length and l is the span
30,000 × 6,000 2 (15,000 + 6,000)
=
3 × 200,000 × 119,000 × 10 4
∆max = 31.76 mm (will be reduced by loads on span ‘l’)
Also ∆max considering one end of the overhang as

fixed
Pa 3
≈
3EI
30,000 × 6,000 3
= 3 × 200,000 × 119,000 × 10 4
= 9.08 mm
l/360 = 6000/360 = 16.67mm

∴ Deflection may be critical, detailed
calculations are recommended.
125× 9.81
Self weight = = 1.23 kN/m
1000
(asked to be ignored in the problem statement)
Final Selection: W690×125
Example 4.4: Select suitable trial section for a 8m long

simply supported W-section beam subjected to service
live load of 10 kN/m and imposed dead load of 4 kN/m.
The compression flange is continuously supported in the
lateral direction and the deflection is limited to
span/1500.
Solution:
Assumed self weight = 10% of superimposed
dead load
= 0.4 kN/m
say 0.8 kN/m as live load is greater and deflection
requirements are strict.
wu = 1.2D + 1.6L
= 1.2 × 4.8 + 1.6 × 10 = 21.76 kN/m
21.76 × 8 2
Mu = Mmax = = 174.08 kN-m
8

M u ×10 6 174.08 ×10 6
(Zx)req = =
φ b Fy 0.9 × 250
= 773.7 × 103 mm3
8000
dmin = = 364 mm
22
4
5 w l
∆act due to service live load = × l
384 EI
5
×
(
10 × 8,000 ) 4
= 8,000 / 1500
384 200,000 × I min
Imin = 50,000 × 104 mm4

Zsel ≥ 773.7 × 103 mm3
Selection Minimum weight section
of section d ≥ 364 mm
Imin = 50,000 × 104 mm4
From beam selection tables,

Trial section no.1: W360 × 44
d = 352 mm < dmin
Ix = 12,100 × 104 mm4
Moving upwards in the same tables,

Trial section no.2: W410 × 46.1
d = 403 mm > dmin
Ix = 15,600 × 104 mm4
d = 355 mm < dmin
Ix = 14,200 × 104 mm4
Ix = 21,200 × 104 mm4
Skipping W410 × 60 and W460 × 60,

Ix = 35,100 × 104 mm4
Ix = 41,000 × 104 mm4
Ix = 56,200 × 104 mm4
Trial Section: W610 × 82
After selection of the trial section, all the checks are

to be performed. This part of the exercise is left for
the reader to be completed.
End of Chapter 4
DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS

Members subjected to axial tensile forces are called
Tension Members.
These members tend to elongate on the application

of load.
Bending due to simultaneous transverse loads and

buckling are significantly reduced and a initially non-
straight member tends to straighten up.
Typical examples are main members of trusses

subjected to tension.
However, some secondary members like tie rods

and certain braces may also be subjected to tensile
loads.
In general, the use of single structural shape is
more economical than the built-up section in case
of a tension member. However, built-up members
may be required in the following situations:
a. The tensile capacity of a single rolled section

is not sufficient.
b. The slenderness ratio (KL/r) does not
provide sufficient rigidity.
c. The effect of bending combined with the

tensile behaviour requires a larger lateral
stiffness.
d. Unusual connection details require a
particular cross-section.
e. Aesthetics dictates a particular cross-
sectional shape.
Round Bar
Flat Bar
Double Double Channel Box

Built-up Angle Section
Section
Double Channel
Built-up Section Built-up
I-Section
4-Angle Box Section
GROSS AREA OF CROSS-SECTION (Ag)
It is the total area of cross-section present

throughout the length of the member (AISC – D3.1).
The elements, which are discontinued lengthwise,
are not included.
For example, area of lacing elements and spacer
plates is not included in gross area.
The gross area for rolled steel shapes is directly
available in the properties tables.
NET AREA OF CROSS-SECTION (An)
When tension members have holes punched in

them for rivets or bolts, the minimum reduced area
after the holes are taken out is called the net area.
Failure of a tension member always occurs at the
weakest section where area of cross-section is
minimum.
According to AISC – D3.2, the gross area of a
member is the sum of the products of the thickness
and the net width of each element.
SHEAR LAG FACTOR (U)

Bearing pressure due to bolts acting over smaller
areas and transferring forces only near the weld
produce stress concentrations at some points
within the member cross-section.
Further, eccentricity in connection may produce
extra stresses due to unwanted moments.
Similarly, at a connection, if one part of the section
is connected while the other is left free, all the
forces have to pass only through the connected
part at the joint.
Away from the joint, these stresses spread to give

a uniform stress distribution.
Efficiency of a joint is defined as how well the
stresses are distributed to transfer the applied
forces.
If the joint is not fully efficient, premature failure can
occur reducing the member strength.
This expected reduction is usually applied on the
area of cross-section to get effective net area used
to calculate the reduced member strength.
Shear lag factor (U)

Shear lag factor (U) is the factor by which net area
of a section is reduced for shear lag, stress
concentrations and eccentricity at the joints.
Ae = U An
The approximate values of this factor for various

joining conditions are given below.
a. When tension load is transmitted through

each of the cross-sectional elements by
fasteners or welds, U = 1.0.
b. The preferable expression for U for all

tension members, except plates and HSS,
where load is not transferred by all elements
of the section, is as follows:
U = 1− x
l
x = distance from centroid of element
being connected eccentrically to plane
of load transfer, called connection
eccentricity.
l = length of connection, centre-to-centre
of the outer rivet holes or actual length
of weld.
x
x
gusset plate
c.g of angle
c.g of
equivalent T
c. When tension load is transferred by

transverse welds,
Ae = An U
where, A = area of directly connected
elements
and U = 1.0
d. When two separate plates are connected by

longitudinal welds,
For lw ≥ 2 B U = 1.00
For 2 B > lw ≥ 1.5B U = 0.87
For 1.5 B > lw ≥ B U = 0.75

where, lw = length of weld
B = width of plate equal to distance
between welds
e. For W, M, S, HP or tees with flange

connected with 3 or more fasteners per line in
the direction of loading, the following values
may approximately be considered.
a) bf ≥ 2/3 d U = 0.90
b) bf < 2/3 d U = 0.85
f. For W, M, S, HP or tees with web connected

with 4 or more fasteners per line in the
direction of loading, U = 0.70.
g. For single angle section with 4 or more
fasteners per line in the direction of loading,
U = 0.80.
h. For single angle section with 2 or 3 fasteners
per line in the direction of loading, U = 0.60.
i. For double angles, the same value as given
by AISC for single angles may approximately
be used.
CALCULATION OF NET AREA
Reduction In Area For One Fastener
In fabricating structural steel, which is to be

connected with rivets or bolts, the holes are usually
punched larger than the diameter of the rivet or bolt.
Furthermore, the punching of hole is assumed to
damage or even destroy 0.75 mm or more of the
surrounding metal beyond the drilled hole.
The nominal holes for bolts are given in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1. Nominal Bolt Hole Dimensions, mm.
Bolt Diameter Standard Hole Oversize

(d) Diameter Diameter
(dh)
15 17 19
18 20 22
20 22 24
22 24 28
25 28 31
28 31 36
30 33 38
≥ 35 d+3 d+8
Diameter of holes considered for strength

calculations
= (diameter of the rivet + 1.5 + 1.5) mm
= (diameter of standard bolt hole, dh + 2) mm
The diameter of hole for the rivet is d + 1.5,

whereas another 1.5 mm is to be added because
this extra portion around the hole may be
damaged due to drilling of the hole.
The area of hole to be subtracted from width of

the cross section is rectangular and equals the
diameter of the hole times the thickness of metal.
Reduction in area for one fastener = (d + 3) t
for rivets
= (dh + 2) t for standard bolt holes
Where d = diameter of rivet and
dh = diameter of hole for the bolt.
Reduction In Area For

More Than One Holes
Reduction in area = n (d + 3) t
for rivets
= n (dh + 2) t for standard bolt holes
where n = number of holes in the critical

failure path
d = diameter of fastener, and
t = thickness of plate
An = Ag – n (d + 3) t for vertical failure

planes when rivets are used
Example 2.1: Determine the net area of a 10 x

200 mm plate joined with two 6 x 200 mm plates
as shown in Figure 2.3. The plates are connected
to each other with two lines of 20 mm rivets.
Solution:
10×200 = 2000 mm2
Ag = smaller of
2×6×200 = 2400 mm2
= 2000 mm2
The failure plane is vertical having two holes in its
path, n = 2.
T T
Critical section
10x200 mm plate
T/2
T
T/2
6x200 mm, 2 plates
Figure 2.3. Connection of Three Plates By Rivets.

An = Ag – n (d + 3) t
= 2000 – (2) (20 + 3) (10)
= 1540 mm2
Fastener Spacing
Pitch of fasteners
The centre-to-centre distance of the fasteners along
the longitudinal axis of the member is called pitch
and is denoted by p, as shown in Figure 2.4.
Gage distance of fasteners

The centre-to-centre distance between the
fasteners along the transverse direction is called
gage denoted by g; refer to Figure 2.4.
Stagger of fasteners
The longitudinal distance between two nearest
rivets lying in two adjacent layers of rivets is called
stagger denoted by s and shown in Figure 2.4.
A
B
T C g T
p s
Failure Plane = A – B – C – D
D
Figure 2.4. Fastener Spacing In Various Directions.
Standard gage distances for angles and channels

are given in Figures 2.5 and 2.6.
Leg Dimension (mm) 203 178 152 127 102 89 76 64 51 44 38 35 32 25
g 114 102 89 76 64 51 44 35 29 25 22 22 19 16
g1 76 64 57 51
g2 76 76 64 44
g2
g1
Figure 2.5. Usual Gages For Angles.

Actual flange width g Actual depth g1

bf (mm) (mm) d (mm) (mm)
g1
< 46 25 240-460 64
46-51 29 150-239 57
52-64 33 100-149 51
65-70 38
g
71-81 44
82-90 51
91-100 57
> 100 64
Figure 2.6. Usual Gages For Channels.

Additional Area Due To

Inclined Failure Plane
Just like each hole in the path of failure plane

 s2 
reduces net area, area equal to  × t  is
 4g 
added to the net area for each inclined line in the
assumed failure plane.
Total Net Area (An)
 s2 
An = Ag – (d + 3) t +  ∑  t for rivets
 4g 
s2
or Wn = Wg – n (d + 3) + ∑ 4 g for rivets
Note: The net area must be calculated for all the

possible critical failure planes and the least value
must be taken.
A typical truss connection is shown in Figure 2.7 to

explain the position of gusset plate and the
fasteners.
Gusset plate is a plate to which all the truss
members are connected at a joint.
2LS
Preferably not Gusset Plate

less than 23°
Rivet
Centre-Lines
Gusset Plate
2LS
Gusset plate transversely

placed within the member
Front View End View
Figure 2.7. A Typical Riveted Truss Connection.

Total Net Area For

Welded Connections
In case of welded members, net area and effective
net area are both considered equal to the gross
area with U = 1.
Example - 2.2: Determine the minimum net area of
plate shown in Figure 2.8 where the location of 20
mm diameter fasteners is also indicated.
Solution:
Path AD
An = Ag − n (d + 3) t
= (6)(305) − 2(20 + 3)(6) = 1554 mm2
6mm Thick Plate

54 48 A - 36 Steel
65
A
65 B
T 305 T
100
D C
75
Figure 2.8. Connection Details For Data of Example 2.2.

Path ABD
 s2 
An = Ag − n (d + 3) t + ∑  t
 4g 
 54 2 54 2 
= (6)(305) − 3(20 + 3)(6) +  +  ( 6)
 ( 4)( 65) ( 4)(100) 
= 1527 mm2
Path ABC
 54 2 482 
An = (6)(305) − 3(20 + 3)(6) +  ( )( ) + ( )( )  ( 6)
 4 65 4 100 
≈ 1518 mm2 ⇐ Controls

NET AREA OF STRUCTURAL SHAPES
The structural shapes are assumed to be flattened

out into single plates.
The horizontal plates are rotated until these
become in the same vertical plane (refer to Figure
2.9).
The general procedure may then be used to
calculate the net area in which all possible failure
planes are considered.
A great care is required to use the thickness of

various parts in the formulas, because it may be
double of the actual thickness of that part.
For example, in Figure 2.9, thickness of the
flange is to be considered double in the
analogous section.
tf
⇒ tw
d tw d - tf
g - tw/2
ga
2tf
⇒
ga ga + gb − t/2 − t/2
= ga+gb − t Turning Line
gb
Leg is turned through 90°
Figure 2.9. Net Area of Structural Shapes.

Example - 2.3: Determine the net area An for the

angle given in Figure 2.10 if 18 mm diameter
fasteners are used.
L 152×102×12.7
g2=64
g1=57
12.7
g=64 76 76 76
Figure 2.10. Connection Details For Angle Section of Example 2.3.

Solution:
A
64 B
57+ 64 - 12.7 Turning

=108.3 Line
C D
76 76 76
After opening the section, a single plate is

obtained. Calculations for net area can now be
made for various failure planes like AC, ABC and
ABD, etc., and minimum value can be selected
as the final answer (See book for details).
Minimum Spacing Of Bolts In

Line Of Transmitted Force
The distance between the centres of standard,
oversized or slotted holes should be greater than or
equal to 2.67 d, however, a distance of 3 d is
preferred.
Minimum End Distance In
Direction Of Transmitted Force
The prevention of splitting out at the end bolt of a
series of bolts in a line requires a certain minimum
edge distance.
Minimum Edge Distance Using Standard Hole

d (mm) At Sheared Edges At Rolled Edges (mm)
(mm)
12 22 19
15 27 21
18 32 24
20 34 26
22 38 28
25 43 31
28 49 35
30 52 38
32 57 41
35 63 45
Over 35 1.75 d 1.25 d
The distance from the centre of a standard hole to

an edge of a connected part in any direction is
given in Table 2.2.
It is not permitted to be less than the value
evaluated by the following expression (when
deformation at the bolt hole due to service load is
not a design consideration):
Pu Pu
Lc ≥ 0.75 × 1.2 ×Fu t
and dmin = 0.75 × 2.4 ×F t (LRFD)
u
2P 2P
Lc ≥ and dmin = 2.4 ×Fu t (ASD)
1.2 ×Fu t
where
Lc = clear distance of end bolt to edge
measured in the line of force,
Pu = factored load on end bolt,
P = service load on end bolt, and
dmin = minimum diameter of the bolt.
For oversized and slotted holes, the correction is

given in AISC Specification.
When deformation at the bolthole due to service
load is a design consideration, the expressions are
modified as under:
Pu Pu
Lc ≥ 0.75 ×1.5 ×Fu t
and dmin = 0.75 × 3 ×Fu t (LRFD)
2P 2P
Lc ≥ and dmin = 3 ×Fu t (ASD)
1.5 ×Fu t
Maximum Edge Distance

The maximum distance from the centre of a bolt to
the nearest edge is smaller of 12t and 150mm,
where t is the thickness of the connected part.
The purpose is to make sure that the painted pieces
cannot have excessive separation with the resulting
corrosion due to entering moisture.
Maximum Longitudinal Spacing

In case of members not subjected to corrosion,
the maximum longitudinal spacing is lesser of the
following:
a) 24 times the thickness of thinner plate
b) 305 mm
In case of members subjected to atmospheric
corrosion, the maximum longitudinal spacing is
lesser of the following:
a) 14 times the thickness of thinner plate
b) 180 mm
MINIMUM CONNECTED LEG WIDTH
Figure 2.10. Various Clearances Required For Fasteners.
bmin ≅ 3.25d + 26 if bolt is present on

the perpendicular leg,
or 2.5d + 23 if no bolt is present on
the perpendicular leg.
For welded connections bmin should be greater
than or equal to 50 mm.
MAXIMUM SLENDERNESS RATIO

According to AISC – D1, there is no maximum
slenderness limit for design of members in tension.
Even though stability is not a criterion in the design
of tension members, it is still preferable to limit
their length in order to prevent a member from
becoming too flexible both during erection and final
use of the structure.
Two main factors controlling slenderness ratio in
tensions members are:
a) Tension members that are too long may sag
excessively due to their own weight.
b) They may vibrate when subjected to wind
forces or when these are supporting vibrating
equipment such as fans or compressors.
For members whose design is based on tensile
force, the slenderness ratio L/r preferably should
not exceed 300 where L is the actual and not the
effective length.
The above limitation does not apply to rods in
tension where L/r may be kept up to 500. However,
this second value is not an AISC limit.
AISC-D1, means that the Specification is given by
American Institute of Steel Construction, D is the
chapter no. and 1 is the article no. of that chapter.
DESIGN FOR REPEATED

LOADING/FATIGUE STRENGTH
Repeated loading and unloading may result in
failure at a stress level lesser than the yield stress.
The term fatigue means reduction in material
strength and hence failure under cyclic loading.
The effect is more pronounced when repeating
loads have tensile extreme value.
The fatigue strength is mainly governed by three
variables:
a. The number of cycles of loading.

b. The range of variation of service load
stress.
This range is calculated by taking the difference
between the maximum and minimum stress
during the history of loading.
If stress-reversal occurs, the range becomes
equal to the sum of maximum magnitude of
tension and maximum magnitude of compression
in a cycle and the condition becomes more
critical.
c. The presence and initial size of any

microscopic discontinuities or flaws within
the metal structure.
In Appendix-3, AISC Specifications prescribe no

fatigue effect for fewer than 20,000 cycles, which is
approximately two applications a day for 25 years.
Since, most loadings in buildings are in this
category, fatigue is generally not considered.
DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS
Tu = factored or ultimate tensile load,

Ta = actual or service tensile load,
φt = resistance factor related with tensile
strength, 0.9 when failure occurs by
yielding and 0.75 when failure occurs
by fracture,
Tn = nominal strength of a tension member,
φtTn = expected strength to be used in LRFD
design, and
Tn/Ωt = allowable tensile strength to be used in
design.
Design equation: Tu ≤ φt Tn (LRFD)

Ta ≤ Tn/Ωt (ASD)
The design strength φtTn or Tn/Ωt according to

AISC-D2 is the smaller of that based on:
Yielding in the gross section (Yielding Limit State)
Tn = Fy Ag φt = 0.90 (LRFD) and Ωt = 1.67 (ASD)
For LRFD design, Tu = φtTn = φt Fy Ag / 1000
Tu (in kN ) × 1000
(A )
g req =
0.9 Fy
Fy Ag
For ASD design, Ta = Tn / Ωt =
Ω t × 1000
Ta (in kN ) × 1670
(A )
g req =
Fy
Fracture in the net section (Fracture Limit State)
Tn = Fu Ae
= Fu U An
φt = 0.75 (LRFD) and Ωt = 2.00 (ASD)
For LRFD design,

Tu = φtTn = φt Fu U R Ag / 1000
Tu (in kN ) × 1000
(A ) =
0.75 Fu × U × R
g req
R = assumed ratio of An and Ag

FuURAg
For ASD design, Ta = Tn / Ωt =
Ωt ×1000
Ta (in kN ) × 2000
(A ) =
Fu × U × R
g req
Yielding in the net section is not a failure but

yielding on the gross section is a failure.
The reason is that the net section is limited in
length and hence elongation due to yielding may
not be excessive.
However, gross area is present nearly all along

the length and the elongation limit state may be
exceeded.
TEARING FAILURE AT BOLT HOLES/
BLOCK SHEAR FAILURE MODE
In block shear failure, a part of the failure plane is

transverse subjected to tension while the other part
is longitudinal subjected to shear.
In Figure 2.11 (a), ab part is subjected to shear and
bc part is having tension.
T
a Tension
b c
c Gusset plate
b
Shear
Shaded area may
tear out a d
T
a)Failure by tearing out b)Large tension, small shear
T
b c
a d
c)Large shear, small tension
The failure plane abcd, as shown in Figures 2.11

(b) and (c), consists of a plane subjected to
tension denoted by bc and two planes subjected
to shear shown as ab and dc.
The tearing out failure is either a fracture failure
on both the tension resisting and shear resisting
sections together or shear yielding combined with
tension fracture failure.
The nominal strength for block shear is the lesser
of the following two cases because only that will
cause the final separation of the block from the
member:
Rn = lesser of
1) 0.6 Fu Anv + Ubs Fu Ant
2) 0.6 Fy Agv + Ubs Fu Ant
Nominal tension rupture strength = Ubs Fu Ant
Nominal shear rupture strength = 0.6 Fu Anv
Shear yielding strength = 0.6 Fy Agv
0.6Fy ≅ yield shear strength = τy

0.6Fu ≅ ultimate shear strength = τu
φ = 0.75 (LRFD) and Ω = 2.00 (ASD)

Agv = gross area subjected to shear
Anv = net area in shear
Ant = net area in tension
Ubs = tensile rupture strength reduction factor
(subscript ‘bs’ stands for block shear)
= 1.0 when tensile stress is uniform, such as
in all tensile members and gusset plates
and single row beam end connections
= 0.5 when tensile stress is not uniform
such as for multiple row beam end
connections
Prof. Dr. Zahid A. Siddiqi
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
When a load tends to squeeze or shorten a
member, the stresses produced are said to be
compressive in nature and the member is called a
compression member (Figure 3.1).
Examples are struts (short compression members
without chances of buckling), eccentrically loaded
columns, top chords of trusses, bracing members,
compression flanges of beams and members that
are subjected simultaneously to bending and
compressive loads.
P
There are two significant differences
between the behavior of tension and
compression members, as under:
1. The tensile loads tend to hold
a member straight even if the
member is not initially in one line
and is subjected to simultaneous
bending moments.
P
In contrast, the compressive loads tend to bend
the member out of the plane of the loads due to
imperfections, simultaneous bending moment or
even without all of these.
Tests on majority of practical columns show that

they will fail at axial stresses well below the
elastic limit of the column material because of
their tendency to buckle (which is a sudden
lateral bending due to a critical compressive
force).
For these reasons, the strength of compression
members is reduced in relation to the danger of
buckling depending on length of column, end
conditions and cross-sectional dimensions.
The longer a column becomes for the same cross-

section the greater is its tendency to buckle and
the smaller is the load it will support.
When the length of a compression member
increases relative to its cross-section, it may
buckle at a lower load.
After buckling the load cannot be sustained and
the load capacity nearly approaches zero.
The condition of a column at its critical buckling
load is that of an unstable equilibrium as shown in
Figure 3.2.
(a) Stable (b) Neutral (c) Unstable
Figure 3.2. Types of Equilibrium States.
In the first case, the restoring forces are greater

than the forces tending to upset the system.
Due to an infinitesimal small displacement
consistent with the boundary conditions or due to
small imperfection of a column, a moment is
produced in a column trying to bend it.
At the same time, due to stress in the material,

restoring forces are also developed to bring the
column back to its original shape.
If restoring force is greater than the upsetting
moment, the system is stable but if restoring force
is lesser than the upsetting moment, the system
is unstable.
Right at the transition point when restoring force
is exactly equal to the upsetting moment, we get
neutral equilibrium.
The force associated with this condition is the
critical or buckling load.
2. The presence of rivet or bolt holes in tension

members reduces the area available for resisting
loads; but in compression members the rivets or
bolts are assumed to fill the holes and the entire
gross area is available for resisting load.
CONCENTRICALLY AND ECCENTRICALLY

LOADED COLUMNS
The ideal type of load on a column is a concentric
load and the member subjected to this type of load
is called concentrically loaded column.
The load is distributed uniformly over the entire

cross-section with the center of gravity of the
loads coinciding with the center of gravity of the
columns.
Due to load patterns, the live load on slabs and
beams may not be concentrically transferred to
interior columns.
Similarly, the dead and live loads transferred to
the exterior columns are, generally, having large
eccentricities, as the center of gravity of the loads
will usually fall well on the inner side of the
column.
In practice, majority of the columns are

eccentrically loaded compression members
Slight initial crookedness, eccentricity of loads, and

application of simultaneous transverse loads
produce significant bending moments as the
product of high axial loads (P) multiplied with the
eccentricity, e.
This moment, P × e, facilitates buckling and
reduces the load carrying capacity.
Eccentricity, e, may be relatively smaller, but the
product (P × e) may be significantly larger.
P e P P
e P P
a) Initial b) Eccentric Load c)Simultaneous
Crookedness Transverse Load
The AISC Code of Standard Practice specifies an

acceptable upper limit on the out-of-plumbness and
initial crookedness equal to the length of the
member divided by 500 (equal to 0.002, AISC C2-
2b-3).
RESIDUAL STRESSES
Residual stresses are stresses that remain in a
member after it has been formed into a finished
product.
These are always present in a member even
without the application of loads.
The magnitudes of these stresses are

considerably high and, in some cases, are
comparable to the yield stresses (refer to Figure
3.4).
The causes of presence of residual stresses are
as under:
1. Uneven cooling which occurs after hot rolling

of structural shapes produces thermal stresses,
which are permanently stored in members.
The thicker parts cool at the end, and try to shorten
in length.
While doing so they produce compressive
stresses in the other parts of the section and
tension in them.
Overall magnitude of this tension and
compression remain equal for equilibrium.
In I-shape sections, after hot rolling, the thick
junction of flange to web cools more slowly than the
web and flange tips.
Consequently, compressive residual stress exists at
flange tips and at mid-depth of the web (the regions
that cool fastest), while tensile residual stress exists
in the flange and the web at the regions where they
join.
(C) (C)
80 to 95 MPa (T)
80 to 95 MPa
83 to 93 MPa ≈ 0.3Fy for A36
(C)
(T)
80 to 95 MPa
(T)
a)Rolled Shapes
84 MPa (C) 140 MPa (C)
140 MPa (T) 280 MPa (T)

140 MPa
(C)
240 MPa
(T)
Weld
Weld
b)Welded Shapes
2. Cold bending of members beyond their

elastic limit produce residual stresses and strains
within the members.
Similarly, during fabrication, if some member
having extra length is forced to fit between other
members, stresses are produced in the
associated members.
3. Punching of holes and cutting operations
during fabrication also produce residual stresses.
4. Welding also produces the stresses due to

uneven cooling after welding.
Welded part will cool at the end inviting other
parts to contract with it.
This produces compressive stresses in parts
away from welds and tensile stresses in parts
closer to welds.
SECTIONS USED FOR COLUMNS

Single angle, double angle, tee, channel, W-
section, pipe, square tubing, and rectangular tubing
may be used as columns.
Four Angles Two Inward Two Outward Built-Up W - Section

Box Section Channels Box Channels Box Box With Cover
Section Section Plates
Built-Up Built-Up W And Channels

I−Section Rectangular Built-Up Section Built-Up I−Section
Box
Different combinations of these structural shapes

may also be employed for compression members
to get built-up sections as shown in Figure 3.5.
Built-up sections are better for columns because
the slenderness ratios in various directions may be
controlled to get nearly equal values in all the
directions.
This makes the column economical as far as the
material cost is concerned. However, the joining
and labor cost is generally higher for built-up
sections.
The total cost of these sections may become less

for greater lengths.
The joining of various elements of a built-up
section is usually performed by using lacing.
LIMITING SLENDERNESS RATIO

The slenderness ratio of compression members
should preferably not exceed 200 (AISC E2).
This means that in exceptional cases, the limit
may be exceeded.
INSTABILITY OF COLUMNS
Local Instability A
B
During local instability, the
C
individual parts or plate
elements of cross-section
buckle without overall
buckling of the column.
Width/thickness ratio of
each part gives the
slenderness ratio (λ = b/t), Figure 3.6. Local Flange
Instability.
which controls the local
buckling.
Local buckling should never be allowed to occur

before the overall buckling of the member except
in few cases like web of a plate girder.
An unstiffened element is a projecting piece with

one free edge parallel to the direction of the
compressive force.
The example is half flange AB in Figure 3.6.
A stiffened element is supported along the two
edges parallel to the direction of the force.
The example is web AC in the same figure.
For unstiffened flange of figure, b is equal to half

width of flange (bf / 2) and t is equal to tf. Hence,
bf / 2tf ratio is used to find λ.
For stiffened web, h is the width of web and tw is
the thickness of web and the corresponding value
of λ or b/t ratio is h / tw, which controls web local
buckling.
Overall Instability
In case of overall instability, the column buckles as
a whole between the supports or the braces about
an axis whose corresponding slenderness ratio is
bigger.
Buckling
about
major
axis.
a)Buckling about
a)Buckling about minor axis
major axis
Figure - Buckling of a Column Without Intermediate Bracing

Bracing to
Buckling prevent major
about axis buckling,
minor connected to
axis lx1 stable
structures
lx2
Minor Axis
Bracing
Ly1
Ly2
Single angle sections may buckle about their weak

axis (z-axis, Figure 3.10).
Calculate Le / rz to check the slenderness ratio.
In general, all un-symmetric sections having non-
zero product moment of inertia (Ixy) have a weak
axis different from the y-axis.
Z
Z
Figure 3.10. Axis of Buckling For Single Angle Section.
Unsupported Length
It is the length of column between two consecutive

supports or braces denoted by Lux or Luy in the x
and y directions, respectively.
A different value of unsupported length may exist in
different directions and must be used to calculate
the corresponding slenderness ratios.
To calculate unsupported length of a column in a
particular direction, only the corresponding supports
and braces are to be considered neglecting the
bracing preventing buckling in the other direction.
Effective Length Of Column

The length of the column corresponding to one-
half sine wave of the buckled shape or the length
between two consecutive inflection points or
supports after buckling is called the effective
length.
BUCKLING OF STEEL COLUMNS
Buckling is the sudden lateral bending produced
by axial loads due to initial imperfection, out-of-
straightness, initial curvature, or bending produced
by simultaneous bending moments.
Chances of buckling are directly related with the
slenderness ratio KL/r and hence there are three
parameters affecting buckling.
1. Effective length factor (K), which depends on the
end conditions of the column.
2. Unbraced length of column (Lu), in strong
direction or in weak direction, whichever gives
more answer for KL/r.
3. Radius of gyration (r), which may be rx or ry
(strong and weak direction) for uniaxially or
biaxially symmetrical cross-sections and least
radius of gyration (rz) for un-symmetrical cross-
sections like angle sections.
Following points must be remembered to find the

critical slenderness ratio:
a. Buckling will take place about a direction for
which the corresponding slenderness ratio is
the maximum.
b. For unbraced compression members
consisting of angle section, the total length
and rz are used in the calculation of KL/r
ratio.
c. For steel braces, bracing is considered the
most effective if tension is produced in them
due to buckling.
d. Braces that provide resistance by bending

are less effective and braces having
compression are almost ineffective because
of their small x-sections and longer lengths.
e. The brace is considered effective if its other
end is connected to a stable structure,
which is not undergoing buckling
simultaneously with the braced member.
f. The braces are usually provided inclined to
main members of steel structures starting
from mid-spans to ends of the adjacent
columns.
g. Because bracing is most effective in

tension, it is usually provided on both sides
to prevent buckling on either side.
h. Bracing can be provided to prevent
buckling along weak axis. KL/r should be
calculated by using Ky, unbraced length
along weak axis and ry.
i. Bracing can also be provided to prevent
buckling along the strong axis. KL/r in this
case should be calculated by using Kx, the
unbraced length along strong axis and rx.
j. The end condition of a particular

unsupported length of a column at an
intermediate brace is considered a hinge.
The reason is that the rotation becomes free

at this point and only the lateral movement is
prevented.
EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR (K)

This factor gives the ratio of length of half sine
wave of deflected shape after buckling to full-
unsupported length of column.
This depends upon the end conditions of the

column and the fact that whether sidesway is
permitted or not.
Greater the K-value, greater is the effective length
and slenderness ratio and hence smaller is the
buckling load.
K-value in case of no sidesway is between 0.5 and
1.0, whereas, in case of appreciable sidesway, it is
greater than or equal to 1.0
Le = K Lu
Sidesway
Any appreciable lateral or sideward movement of
top of a vertical column relative to its bottom is
called sidesway, sway or lateral drift.
If sidesway is possible, k-value increases by a
greater degree and column buckles at a lesser
load.
Sidesway in a frame takes place due to:-
a. Lengths of different columns are unequal.
b. When sections of columns have different cross-
sectional properties.
c. Loads are un-symmetrical.

d. Lateral loads are acting.
I
I 2I
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 3.11. Causes of Sidesway in a Building Frame.
Sidesway may be prevented in a frame by:

a. Providing shear or partition walls.
b. Fixing the top of frame with adjoining rigid

structures.
c. Provision of properly designed lift well or
shear walls in a building, which may act like
backbone of the structure reducing the
lateral deflections.
Shear wall is a structural wall that resists
shear forces resulting from the applied
transverse loads in its own plane and it
produces frame stability.
Provision of lateral bracing, which may be of

following two types:
i. Diagonal bracing, and
ii. Longitudinal bracing.
Unbraced frame is defined as the one in which the

resistance to lateral load is provided by the bending
resistance of frame members and their connections
without any additional bracing.
K-Factor For Columns Having Well

Defined End Conditions
Theoretical K=1.0
Le = L Practical K = 1.0 Theoretical K = 0.5
No Sidesway Le = KL Practical K = 0.65
No Sidesway
Inflection
Points
Theoretical K=1.0
Practical K = 1.2
Sidesway Present
Theoretical K = 0.7
Le = KL Practical K = 0.8
No Sidesway
Le = KL
Theoretical K=2.0
Practical K = 2.0
Theoretical K=2.0 Sidesway Present
Le = KL Practical K = 2.10
Sidesway Present
Partially Restrained Columns
Consider the example of column AB shown in

Figure 3.13.
The ends are not free to rotate and are also not
perfectly fixed.
Instead these ends are partially fixed with the fixity
determined by the ratio of relative flexural stiffness
of columns meeting at a joint to the flexural
stiffness of beams meeting at that joint.
∑ ( EI l) of columns
ψ or G at each end =
∑ ( EI l) of beams
Columns
A
A GA or ψA
Beams
B
B GB or ψB
Part-X
Column AB of Part-X
Figure 3.13. Partially restrained Columns.

K-Values For Truss And

Braced Frame Members
The effective length factor, K, is considered equal

to 1.0 for members of the trusses and braced frame
columns.
In case the value is to be used less than one for
frame columns, detailed buckling analysis is
required to be carried out and bracing is to be
designed accordingly.
ELASTIC BUCKLING LOAD

FOR LONG COLUMNS
P = Pcr
A
Buckled
Shape
L/2
umax.
C
D u L/2
y
B
P = Pcr
A column with pin connections on both ends is

considered for the basic derivation, as shown in
Figure 3.15.
The column has a length equal to L and is
subjected to an axial compressive load, P.
Buckling of the column occurs at a critical
compressive load, Pcr.
The lateral displacement for the buckled position at
a height y from the base is u. The bending
moment at this point D is:
M = Pcr × u (I)
This bending moment is function of the deflection

unlike the double integration method of structural
analysis where it is independent of deflection.
The equation of the elastic curve is given by the
Euler-Bernoulli Equation, which is the same as that
for a beam.
d2u
EI 2 = −M (II)
dy
d2u
or EI 2
+ Pcr u = 0
dy
d 2u Pcr
or 2 + u = 0 (III)
dy EI
Pcr
Let = C2 where C is constant (IV)
EI
d 2u
∴ 2 + C2 u = 0 (V)
dy
The solution of this differential equation is:
u = A cos (C × y) + B sin (C × y) (VI)
where, A and B are the constants of integration.
Boundary Condition No. 1:
At y = 0, u = 0
0 = A cos(0°) + B sin (0°) ⇒ A=0
∴ u = B sin (C × y) (VII)
Boundary Condition No. 2:
At y = L, u = 0
From Eq. VII: 0 = B sin (C L)
⇒ Either B = 0 or sin (C L) = 0 (VIII)
If B = 0, the equation becomes u = 0, giving un-
deflected condition. Only the second alternate is
left for the buckled case.
 Pcr 
sin (C L) = sin  L = 0
 (IX)
 EI 
sin θ = 0 for θ = 0, π, 2π, 3π, … (radians)

Or nπ where n = 0, 1, 2, … (X)
Pcr
Hence, from Eq. IX: L = nπ
EI
n 2π 2 EI
Pcr = (XI)
L2
The smallest value of Pcr is for n = 1, and is given
below:
π 2 EI
Pcr = 2
(XII)
L
For other columns with different end conditions, we

have to replace L by the effective length, L e = K L.
π 2 EI
Pcr = (XIII)
(KL ) 2
π 2 E Ar 2
Pcr =
(KL )2
π 2EA
= = Fe A (XIV)
(K L r ) 2
π2E
and Fe = (XV)
( K L r )2
It is important to note that the buckling load

determined from Euler equation is independent of
strength of the steel used.
The most important factor on which this load
depends is the KL/r term called the slenderness
ratio.
Euler critical buckling load is inversely proportional
to the square of the slenderness ratio.
With increase in slenderness ratio, the buckling
strength of a column drastically reduces.
In the above equations:

KL
= slenderness ratio
r
Pcr = Euler’s critical elastic buckling load
and
Fe = Euler’s elastic critical buckling stress
Long compression members fail by elastic buckling

and short compression members may be loaded
until the material yield or perhaps even goes into
the strain-hardening range.
However, in the vast majority of usual situations

failure occurs by buckling after a portion of cross-
section has yielded.
This is known as inelastic buckling.
This variation in column behaviour with change of
slenderness ratio is shown in Figure 3.16.
E
where Rc = 4.71 F ≈ 133 for A36 steel.
y
Compression Yielding
Inelastic Buckling (Straight Line Or

D
Fy a Parabolic Line Is Assumed)
C
Euler’s Curve
(Elastic Buckling)
Fcr
B
0.4 Fy Elastic Buckling
Approximately
Rc 200
≈ 20 to 30 KL / r (R)
Intermediate Long Columns

Short Columns (KL / r)max
Columns
TYPES OF COLUMNS DEPENDING

ON BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR
Elastic Critical Buckling Stress
The elastic critical buckling stress is defined as
under:
Fe = Elastic critical buckling (Euler) stress
π2E
= 2
 KL 
 
 r 
The critical slenderness ratio dividing the expected
elastic and the inelastic buckling is denoted by Rc
and is given below:
E
Rc = 4.71 F ≈ 133 for A36 steel
y
Long Columns
In long columns, elastic buckling is produced and
the deformations are recovered upon removal of
the load.
Further, the stresses produced due to elastic
buckling remains below the proportional limit.
The Euler formula is used to find strength of long
columns.
Long columns are defined as those columns for
which the slenderness ratio is greater than the
critical slenderness ratio, Rc.
No Buckling
φc Fy
C Inelastic Buckling
Maximum
Compressive
Stress (φc Fcr)
Elastic Buckling
Rc 200
≈ 20 to 30 KL / r
Intermediate Long Columns

Short Columns (KL / r)max
Columns
Short Columns
For very short columns, when the slenderness ratio

is less than 20 to 30, the failure stress will equal
the yield stress and no buckling occurs.
In practice, very few columns meet this condition.
For design, these are considered with the
intermediate columns subjected to the condition
that failure stress should not exceed the yield
stress.
Intermediate Columns
Intermediate columns buckle at a relatively higher load
(more strength) as compared with long columns.
The buckling is inelastic meaning that part of the
section becomes inelastic after bending due to
buckling.
The columns having slenderness ratio lesser than the
critical slenderness ratio (Rc) are considered as
intermediate columns, as shown in Figure 3.16.
COLUMN STRENGTH FORMULAS

The design compressive strength (φc Pn) and the
allowable compressive strength (Pn / Ωc) of
compression members, whose elements do not
exhibit elastic local instability (only compact and
non-compact sections), are given below:
φc = 0.90 (LRFD) : Pn = Fcr Ag

Ωc = 1.67 (ASD) : Pn = Fcr Ag
Fcr = critical or ultimate compressive strength
based on the limit state of flexural buckling
determined as under:
Elastic Buckling
When KL / r > Rc or Fe < 0.44Fy
Fcr = 0.877 Fe (AISC Formula E3-2)
where Fe is the Euler’s buckling stress and 0.877
is a factor to estimate the effect of out-of-
straightness of about 1/1500.
Inelastic Buckling and No Buckling

When KL / r ≤ Rc or Fe > 0.44Fy
 Fy

 0.658 Fe 
Fcr =   Fy (AISC Formula E3-3)
 
TYPES OF COLUMN SECTIONS

FOR LOCAL STABILITY
Compact Sections
A compact section is one that has sufficiently thick

elements so that it is capable of developing a fully
plastic stress distribution before buckling.
The term plastic means stressed throughout to the
yield stress.
For a compression member to be classified as

compact, its flanges must be continuously
connected to its web or webs and the width
thickness ratios of its compression elements may
not be greater than the limiting ratios λp give in
AISC Table B4.1 and reproduced in Table 3.1.
Element λp λp For A36
Un-stiffened: Defined only for −

flexure
Stiffened: Flanges of hollow E 31.8

sections subjected to 1.12
compression. Fy
Non-Compact Sections
A non-compact section is one for which the yield
stress can be reached in some but not all of its
compression elements just at the buckling stage.
It is not capable of reaching a fully plastic stress
distribution.
In AISC Table B4.1, the non-compact sections are
defined as those sections which have width-
thickness ratios greater than λp but not greater than
λr.
Values of limiting b/t ratios (λr) are given in Table
3.2.
Width- λr λr For A36

Thickness Steel
Ratio
Element
Unstiffened
1. Flanges of I-shaped sections in pure compression, 15.9
plates projecting from compression elements, outstanding
b E
0.56
legs of pairs of angles in continuous contact, and flanges t Fy
of channels in pure compression.
2. Legs of single angle struts, legs of double angle b E 12.8
struts with separators and other un-stiffened elements 0.45
supported along one edge. t Fy
3. Stems of tees. d 0.75
E 21.3
t Fy
4. Flanges of built-up I-sections with projecting plates b 0.64
kc E
18.1 kc
or angles. Fy
t
Width- λr λr For A36

Thickness Steel
Ratio
Element
Stiffened
1. Flanges of rectangular hollow sections of uniform b E 39.7
thickness used for uniform compression. 1.40
t Fy
2. Flexure in webs of doubly symmetric I-shaped sections
and channels. h E
5.70 161.8
tw Fy
3. Uniform compression in webs of doubly symmetric I-

shaped sections and uniform compression in all other b 1.49
E 42.3
stiffened elements. Fy
t
4. Circular hollow sections in axial compression.
D/t 0.11 (E / Fy) 88.6
Slender Compression Sections
These sections consist of elements having width-

thickness ratios greater than λr and will buckle
elastically before the yield stress is reached in any
part of the section.
A special design procedure for slender
compression sections is provided in Section E7 of
the AISC Specification.
However, it will not be covered in detail here.
Width Of Un-stiffened Elements

For un-stiffened elements, which are supported
along only one edge parallel to the direction of the
compression force, the width shall be taken as
follows:
a. For flanges of I-shaped members and tees, the
width b is half the full nominal width (bf/2).
b. For legs of angles, the width b is the longer leg
dimension.
c. For flanges of channels and zees, the width b
is the full nominal dimension (bf).
d. For plates, the width b is the distance from the

free edge to the first row of fasteners or line of
welds.
e. For stems of tees, d is taken as the full
nominal depth.
Width Of Stiffened Elements
a. For webs of rolled or formed sections, h is the
clear distance between the flanges less the fillet
or corner radius at each flange and hc is twice the
distance from the centroidal axis to the inside
face of the compression flange less the fillet or
corner radius.
b. For webs of built-up sections,

h is the clear distance between the inner lines of
fasteners on the web or the clear distance
between flanges when welds are used,
hc is twice the distance from the centroidal axis to
the nearest line of fasteners at the compression
flange or the inside face of the compression
flange when welds are used, and
hp is twice the distance from the plastic neutral
axis to the nearest line of fasteners at the
compression flange or the inside face of the
compression flange when welds are used.
MODIFIED SLENDERNESS RATIO

Snug Tight Connections
Snug tight connection is defined as the type in
which the plates involved in a connection are in firm
contact with each other but without any defined
contact prestress.
It usually means the tightness obtained by the full
effort of a man with a wrench or the tightness
obtained after a few impacts of an impact wrench.
Obviously there is some variation in the degree of
tightness obtained under these conditions. The
tightness is much lesser than tensioning of the high-
strength bolts.
Turn-of-Nut Method: After the tightening of a nut to a

snug fit, the specified pre-tension in high-strength bolts
may be controlled by a predetermined rotation of the
wrench.
This procedure is called turn-of-nut method of fixing the
bolts.
Shear Connections / Stay Plates
Between Elements Of A Built-Up
Member
Built-up compression members composed of two

or more hot rolled shapes shall be connected to
one another at intervals by stay plates (shear
connectors) such that the maximum slenderness
ratio a / ri of individual element, between the
fasteners, does not exceed the governing
slenderness ratio of the built-up member, that is,
the greater value of (KL / r)x or (KL / r)y for the
whole section.
Shear connectors are also required to transfer
shear between elements of a built-up member that
is produced due to buckling of the member.
Following notation is used in further discussion

of the effect of spacing of shear connectors:
a = distance between connectors

ri = minimum radius of gyration of individual
component
a / ri = largest column slenderness of individual
component
rib = radius of gyration of individual
component relative to its centroidal axis
parallel to member axis of buckling
 KL 
  = column slenderness of built-up member
 r 0
acting as a unit
 KL 
  = modified column slenderness of the
 r m
built-up member as a whole
α = separation ratio = h / (2 rib), and
h = distance between centroids of individual
components perpendicular to the
member axis of buckling
Modified Slenderness Ratio

Depending On Spacing Of Stay Plates
If the buckling mode of a built-up compression
member involves relative deformation that
produces shear forces in the connectors between
individual parts, the modified slenderness ratio is
(a) For snug-tight bolted connectors:

 KL   KL   a 
2 2
  =   + 
 r m  r  0  ri 
(b) for welded connectors and for fully tightened

bolted connectors as required for slip-critical
joints:
 KL   KL 
2
α a
2

2
  =   + 0.82 
2 

 r m  r 0 1 + α  rib 
(KL / r)m should only be used if buckling occurs

about such an axis such that the individual
members elongate by different amounts.
For example for double angles in Figure 3.17, if
buckling occurs about x-axis, (KL / r)m is not
evaluated as both the angles bend symmetrically
without any shear between the two.
However, if buckling occurs about y-axis, one of

the angle sections is elongated while the other is
compressed producing shear between the two and
consequently (KL / r)m is required to be evaluated.
At the ends of built-up compression members
bearing on base plates or milled surfaces, all
components in contact with one another shall be
connected by a weld having a length not less than
the maximum width of the member, or
by bolts spaced longitudinally not more than four
diameters apart for a distance equal to 1.5 times
the maximum width of the member.
The slenderness ratio of individual component

between the connectors (Ka / ri) should not exceed
75% of the governing slenderness ratio of the built-
up member.

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Prof. Dr.

Zahid Ahmad Siddiqi

Behaviour Of Thin Webs With Stiffeners

Differential Element Close

The produced diagonal compression causes the

Figure 6.16. Tension Field Action In Plate Girder Web.

The shear strength present after buckling of the web

During tension field action, a diagonal strip of the web

The estimated ultimate shear that a panel of web

Design Of Intermediate Stiffeners

Cν′ = additional Cv value for T.F.A. due to

Example 6.2: Design intermediate stiffeners for

Solution: Using the flow chart of intermediate

∴ Intermediate stiffeners are required.

amax = 0.552×(2300/1000) = 1.27 m

φv Vn = 0.9 × 23000 × 0.6 × 250 × 0.534 / 1000

9. Considering unstiffened webs with kv equal

10. φv Vn = φv Aw (0.6Fy) Cv/1000

amax ≤ 3.0 h / 1000 = 3.0 × 2.3

13. Total distance upto next bearing

15. Check which formula for Cv is applicable here.

1.51 k v E 1.51 × 8.145 × 200,000

18. φv Vn = 0.9 × Aw (0.6 Fy) (Cv + Cv′ )/1000

19. Vu = 1426.72 kN< φv Vn OK

∴ No intermediate stiffeners are required for

However if length of the portion is greater than

20. Size Of Intermediate Stiffeners

21. bst ≈ 7.9( Ast )min

This is to keep λr less than or equal to 0.56 E / Fyst

For first space, a / h = 1.2/2.3 = 0.52, j = 7.25

23. (Ist)min = 7.25 × 1200 × 103

bst ≈ [(I ) ]× 2.21

tst = bst / 15.8 = 8 mm

Use 8 × 125 mm PLs

25. Design Of Weld

Notes, Formulas And Definitions

Vn = Cv (0.6 Fy) Aw/1000 (kN) Eq. 1

φv = 0.9 (LRFD) Eq. 2

Definition 2 kv = web plate buckling coefficient

Except k = 5.0, if, for unstiffened webs,

Axis to determine Ist

Sectional Plan of Girder at Intermediate Stiffener Position

Note 2: Stiffness Requirement For

Ist ≥ j a tw3 (AISC G 2.2) Eq. 8

Ds = factor to account for eccentric loading

Vr = required shear strength at the location

Flow Chart For Design Of

h/tw ≤ 2.46 E / Fy (69.6 for A36 steel) AISC G2.2

Intermediate stiffeners are

If kreq = 5 , select max. a / h smaller

Decide a ≤ amax Select a rounded value.

Calculate Vn = 0.6 Aw Fy Cv/1000

Other Intermediate Stiffeners

Check whether intermediate stiffeners are required

Check two Conditions:

Not to any one Yes to both

& a ≤ 3.0 × h/1000

bfc = width of the compression flange

Calculate a/h ratio and then calculate kv using Eq. 5.