MANAGING THE COLD CHAIN

FOR
QUALITY AND SAFETY

FLAIR-FLOW EUROPE
TECHNICAL MANUAL
F-FE 378A/00

May 2000
 This technical manual is one of five in the (ready-to-use European
MANAGING THE COLD CHAIN research) series produced by the FLAIR-FLOW EUROPE dissemination project. This
project is funded under the EU FAIR and INNOVATION Programmes (contracts CT-97-
3014 and INAMI 0520 respectively).
FOR
QUALITY AND SAFETY
F-FE 378A/00 [May 2000]

This technical manual was prepared for FLAIR-FLOW

EUROPE by: 2000 Teagasc
The National Food Centre
Dunsinea, Castleknock
Dublin 15, Ireland
Martin George
ISBN 1 84170 108 4
Campden and Chorleywood Food Research Association
(CCFRA) TITLE Managing the Cold Chain for Quality and Safety
Chipping Campden
Glos GL55 6LD
No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or
United Kingdom property as a matter of product liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or
operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the materials
herein.

For more information on the FLAIR-FLOW EUROPE dissemination Neither the European Commission nor any person acting on behalf of the Commission is
system contact Ronan Gormley at Teagasc, The National Food responsible for the use which might be made of the information contained in this volume.
Centre, Dunsinea, Castleknock, Dublin 15, Ireland. Mention of any brand or firm names does not constitute an endorsement over others of a
similar nature not mentioned.
Telephone: +353-1-8059500; Fax: +353-1-8059550;
E-mail: r.gormley@nfc.teagasc.ie
or visit website http://www.exp.ie/flair.html
 PREFACE CONTENTS
The acronym ‘ ’ was coined by the FLAIR-FLOW dissemination team to
denote ‘ready-to-use European research’ and resulted in a series of
workshops across Europe. The workshops are aimed at food SMEs, and
especially at the small and very small companies. The goal is to bring results from EU- Page
supported food research projects to food SMEs Europe-wide, in an easily understood
form, thereby facilitating application and use of the results both in the short and long
term. Each workshop carries a series of handouts and these have been collated into five • Introduction 6
technical manuals with the following titles:

• Quality and safety in chilled and frozen

1. Ready-to-use fruit and vegetables foods: an overview 6
[ISBN 1 84170 106 8]
• Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) 9
2. Food processing equipment design and cleanability
[ISBN 1 84170 107 6]
• Chilled foods- some pointers for success 12

3. Managing the cold chain for quality and safety

• Freezing foods for optimum quality 15
[ISBN 1 84170 108 4]

4. Microbial control in the meat industry • Temperature abuse and shelf life of chilled
[ISBN 1 84170 109 2] and frozen foods 18

• A practical guide to the cold chain from factory

5. Freshness, quality and safety in seafoods to consumer 21
[ISBN 1 84170 110 6]

• The role of food packaging in the cold chain 24

Ronan Gormley
Project Leader, FLAIR-FLOW EUROPE
Teagasc, The National Food Centre • A brief guide to legislation and Good Manufacturing
Dunsinea, Castleknock Practices (GMP) for the cold chain 26
Dublin 15, Ireland
Tel: +353-1-8059500 • Glossary of terms and frequently asked questions 30
Fax: +353-1-8059550
E-mail: r.gormley@nfc.teagasc.ie
• Acknowledgements 32

5
Introduction during storage, handling, distribution, retail display and consumer
Refrigerated foods are one of the fastest growing sectors of the grocery storage.
and foodservice industries. Continued success relies upon effective
management of the ‘cold chain’, a term used to describe the series of Freezing preserves the storage life of foods by making them more inert
interdependent operations in the production, distribution, storage and and slowing down the detrimental reactions that promote food spoilage
retailing of chilled and frozen foods. Control of the cold chain is vital to and limit quality shelf life. However, it should be recognised that a
preserve the safety and quality of refrigerated foods and comply with number of physical and biochemical reactions can still occur and many of
legislative directives and industry ‘codes of practice’. these will be accentuated when recommended conditions of handling,
production and storage are not maintained. Although few microorganisms
This manual summarises the key recommendations for processing, grow below –10oC, it should be recognised that freezing and frozen
handling, distribution and storage of chilled and frozen foods. storage is not a reliable biocide. The production of safe frozen foods
requires the same attention to good manufacturing practices (GMP) and
Quality and safety of chilled and frozen foods: a general overview HACCP principles as the chilled or fresh counterpart. A false sense of
security, based on the good safety record of frozen foods, should not
Chilling involves reducing food temperatures to below ambient reduce the care and diligence when preparing, handling or distributing
o
temperatures, but above –1 C. This results in effective short-term frozen foods.
preservation of food materials by retarding many of the microbial,
physical, chemical and biochemical reactions associated with food The cold chain extends from the raw material supplier (e.g. on-farm
spoilage and deterioration. At chilled temperatures (generally between cooling of milk) through to the consumers’ refrigerator/freezer, and all
o o
0 C and +5 C) the growth of microorganisms occurs only slowly and the steps in between. The list below contains some of the most important
food spoilage and deterioration reactions are inhibited to such an extent ‘do’s and don’ts’ for both the chilled and frozen food producer:
that food safety and quality is preserved for extended periods, often for a
few days, sometimes for a few weeks, longer than the fresh counterpart. • Maintain high levels of hygiene at all stages of the product’s life.
However, chilled foods are perishable and they deteriorate progressively • Chill or freeze products quickly and adequately after preparation and
throughout their life. The growth and activity of microorganisms, which manufacture.
may be present in the food ingredients or may be introduced when the • Rigidly maintain chill (<5oC) or frozen (<-18oC) temperatures,
food is handled or processed, may cause deterioration. Safe and high wherever possible, during storage and distribution.
quality chilled foods require minimal contamination during manufacture • Rigidly maintain chill (<5oC) and frozen (<-18oC) temperatures in
(including cross-contamination), rapid chilling and low temperatures holding stores and display cabinets.

6 7
• Ensure that chilled or frozen products are transferred in a continuous To preserve quality and safety in frozen foods, temperature requirements
operation (no stopping or delays) between temperature-controlled exist for each major stage of the cold chain. It is recommended that
areas, e.g. delivery trucks to holding stores; storage areas to retail stabilised food temperatures are maintained at –18oC or colder, although
display units. exceptions for brief periods are allowed during transportation or local
• Segregate cooked and uncooked chilled or frozen products in storage distribution when –15oC is permitted. Also, retail display cabinets should
and retail display cabinets, e.g. segregate uncooked meats and ready- be at –18oC, to an extent consistent with good storage practice, but not
to-eat meat products. warmer than –12oC. Consideration should also be made for the likely
• Conduct frequent and systematic temperature checks on chilled and temperatures experienced by the foods within domestic freezers – this is
frozen food product temperatures, using appropriate and calibrated dependent upon the ‘star rating’ of the freezer; a three-star freezer is
instrumentation. capable of temperatures below –18oC, a two-star freezer of temperatures

• Do not overload chilled or frozen retail cabinets with product: refer to below –12oC, and a one-star freezer of temperatures below –6oC. In the

cabinet manufacturer’s recommended capacity and loading patterns. latter, the practical storage time for frozen products is limited to just a

• Train and educate all personnel (including consumers) in the correct few days.

handling and storage of chilled and frozen foods. Re-educate when

new practices are adopted. Throughout chilled and frozen food manufacturing, assurance of food
safety is paramount. Combining the principles of food microbiology,

The transport and distribution sections of the chill chain are particularly quality control and risk assessment, a Hazard Analysis Critical Control

important to control in order to ensure both safety and quality. The major Point (HACCP) approach is recommended by many regulatory bodies to

tool at our disposal is the temperature monitoring of foods at each point assure food safety and demonstrate ‘due diligence’ in accordance with

within the chill chain. food safety legislation.

To preserve safety in chilled foods, there are prescribed maximum Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP)

temperatures. Currently, the Agreement on the International Carriage of

Perishable Foodstuffs (ATP Agreement) specifies the following maxima HACCP is an important element in the control of safety and quality in

for transportation: 7oC for meats; 6oC for meat products, butter; 4oC for food production. When properly applied, it provides a management tool

poultry, milk and dairy products; 3oC for offal; 2oC for fish. These aimed at complete commitment to product quality and safety. HACCP is

temperatures are also a good guideline to be followed throughout all useful in identifying problems in food production and works well for

stages of production, including distribution, storage and retail display. simple products and processes. The inevitable drawback for the SME
food producer is that considerable resources and expertise may be

8 9
required to carry out hazard analysis on novel or complex products. • Verify that the HACCP system is working
However, there are many guideline documents and PC-based software – establish and apply methods to ensure that the HACCP system is
now available to guide the user through the essential steps. working, including documentary evidence, e.g. auditing, end product
testing, process validation.
The 7 principles of HACCP, with a brief indication of necessary action
are: • Establish a documentation system for procedures and records
– develop and maintain procedures and practices for record keeping.
• Identify the potential hazards
– together with the HACCP team (including microbiologists and Generally, the use of microbiological tests to control microbiological
process engineers) construct a flow diagram for all product/process hazards is both cost-prohibitive and ineffective. Instead, it is desirable to
operations – list all hazards associated with each process step – list measure physical or chemical parameters that can be used as an indirect
measures which will eliminate or reduce hazards. measure of control. Microbiological tests can, however, establish process
limits for new products or to verify existing controls, e.g. end-product
• Determine the critical control points (CCPs) for identified hazards sampling, challenge tests or swab tests.
– determine the CCP (a step at which control can be applied and is
essential to eliminate the hazard). Generally, prevention of microbial contamination is the best approach. In
the context of chilled foods Listeria monocytogenes is worthy of special
• Establish the target levels/tolerances for controlling the CCPs mention. Box 1 indicates a simple ‘check-list’ to be considered by the
– establish a predetermined value for control which has been shown to eliminate food producer:
hazards at a CCP. Box 1. Checklist for control of Listeria monocytogenes
1. Do your raw material suppliers practice environmental
monitoring and control measures for Listeria?
• Establish/implement monitoring systems for controlling CCPs
2. Are your raw materials tested for Listeria?
– e.g. set out a planned sequence of observations or measurements to
3. Are the appropriate codes of practice followed for Listeria
assess the degree of control on identified CCPs. control?

4. Is there efficient cleaning and biocide treatment of fridges

• Identify corrective actions when a deviation occurs at a CCP and freezers?
– identify a predetermined action for when the CCP indicates a loss of 5. Can pneumatic systems contaminate the factory and the
control. process environment?

6. Is contamination between raw and cooked product

prevented?
10 11
Chilled foods – some pointers for success • Process
‰ The speed and effectiveness of the chilling operation.
There are major attractions with the freshness, quality, safety and ‰ The use of additional processes, e.g. heating, pasteurisation.
convenience of chilled foods. Increased sophistication of the chilled
foods industry has led to many breakthroughs in chilled food technology, • Package
but diligent controls are needed at all times. These include ‰ ‘ordinary’ packaging, offering physical, chemical and
microbiological safety, extended quality shelf life, temperature control, barriers.
and the retention of nutrients. ‰ ‘advanced packaging’, including Modified Atmosphere
Packaging.
Two principles dominate control of quality and safety in chilled foods:
PPP (product-process-package) and TTT (time-temperature tolerance). A useful step in processing of chilled foods is the use of ‘hurdle
technology’. Hurdles are cumulative steps, each of which has the effect
PPP factors need to be considered at an early stage in the production of of reducing microorganisms within the food. Well-known hurdles are:
chilled foods, as they dictate the likely commercial success of the • physical hurdles.
product. In this category, a useful ‘rule of thumb’ is to consider that any ‰ heat (e.g. blanching, pasteurising, canning).
processing or handling step will take away some of the food material’s ‰ cold (e.g. chilling and freezing).
inherent natural characteristics and qualities. Generally, quality cannot be ‰ packaging (e.g. vacuum, aseptic, MAP).
gained from processing, but it certainly can be lost. High quality chilled • physico-chemical hurdles.
foods require high quality raw materials and ingredients. The product ‰ salt, sugar, dehydration, water activity.
development team needs to consider the interaction between ingredients ‰ acidity (acidulants, fermentation).
and components of formulated foods. The PPP factors are: ‰ sulphur dioxide, smoke, gases, ethanol.
‰ chlorine.
• Product • microbially-derived hurdles.
‰ Raw material quality. ‰ competitive flora within the food micro-environment.
‰ Quality and suitability of ingredients, including ‰ starter cultures.
additives/enhancers. ‰ bacteriocins.
‰ Product formulation – how the component parts integrate to
form the final chilled food product. In cold chain applications, temperature is the most important hurdle.
Control of temperature is, therefore, essential.

12 13
TTT factors maintain quality and safety during storage and offer guidance • Product and environment temperatures should be closely
on how to deliver foods with long quality shelf life. TTT concepts refer monitored and recorded during the distribution process.
to the relationship between storage temperature and storage life. For Systems available include dataloggers (both in-situ and
different foods, different mechanisms govern the rate of quality portable).
degradation and the most successful way of determining practical storage • Time-temperature indicators (TTIs) are an emerging technology
life is to subject the food to long term storage at different temperatures. for food product monitoring: a British Standards Document has
TTT relationships are also able to predict the effects of changing or been compiled (BS7908, 1999).
fluctuating temperatures on quality shelf life. As a guide to food
manufacturers, the International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR) has In chilled food retail display:
published ‘Recommendations for the processing and handling of frozen • Introducing warm products into chilled food cabinets can cause
foods (1986)’ (commonly known as the ‘Red Book’), which gives a general temperature increase: it should be noted that cabinets
indications of recommended storage life for different foods. are intended only for holding and are not designed for cooling
foods.
Chilled foods are easily temperature-abused and temperature control and • Poor cabinet stocking and stacking arrangements and
monitoring is an important factor in the control of safety and quality. inadequate servicing can cause significant problems with
There is also the need to maintain awareness for potential growth of maintaining low temperatures.
microorganisms such as Listeria, Yersenia and Aeromonas at chill • Iced-up cooling coils in cabinets indicate the need for proper
temperatures. In summary, the following factors are important in relation defrosting regimes and correct setting of thermostats.
to achieving the necessary temperature control for chilled foods: • Interference with cabinet design can disrupt the flow of cool air
through the cabinet and cause a rise in temperature.
In chilled food production and storage:
• Use product temperatures as ‘critical control points’ in the Freezing foods for optimum quality
HACCP plan.

Freezing can preserve the taste, texture and nutritional value of foods
In chilled food distribution: better than most other preservation methods. However, such qualities
• Prior cooling of the distribution vehicle is necessary to achieve depend upon the careful choice of food materials, use of appropriate pre-
the appropriate temperature during the entire distribution treatments, the choice of freezer and frozen storage options and the use of
process. appropriate packaging.

14 15
The major considerations for optimum quality of frozen foods can be Step 2: understand the effects of some common pre-freezing treatments.

described under pre-freezing, freezing and post-freezing stages of Pre-freezing considerations

manufacture. The boxes below show some considerations for three major Fruits & Vegetables Meats Fish
1. Cutting contributes to cell 1. Cooking of meat helps 1. Whole and eviscerated
food categories:
rupture and reduced increase shelf life fish have longer quality
shelf life 2. Herbs and spices can shelf life than cut/minced
Step 1: considerations prior to the freezing process.
Pre-freezing considerations 2. Blanching or chemical contain substances to 2. Complete and effective
treatments help to avoid control rancidity in meat ‘gutting’ helps to remove
Fruits & Vegetables Meats Fish
browning and off- 3. Smoking meat increases the enzymes responsible
1. High quality raw 1. High quality raw 1. High quality raw materials,
flavours quality shelf life and can for spoilage and rancidity
materials, including materials, including including microbial status
3. Immersion treatments, have antioxidant effects 3. Cryoprotectants, e.g.
elimination of foreign microbial status (TVC, coliforms and
e.g. sugar solutions, can 4. Cutting contributes to carbohydrates and
bodies (mesophilic, Staphylococus)
reduce evaporation and reduced shelf life polyphosphates can
2. Suitable cultivars for psychotrophic and 2. Fish species variability of
texture changes in the 5. Oil and salt uptake can minimise disruption to
freezing/frozen storage pseudomonas). sensory, odour/flavour
cold chain lead to increased textural properties
3. Safety aspects, e.g. 2. Livestock breeding/diet 3. Handling-induced damage,
rancidity
removal of pesticides, 3. Chilling and ageing, e.g. filleting.
foreign matter accelerated conditioning 4. Chilling – as rapidly as Step 3: understand the needs of the freezing process.
4. Measurement of quality 4. Measurement of quality possible, sanitation
Freezing considerations
attributes, e.g. sensory, attributes, e.g. rancidity, 5. Measurement of quality
nutritional, colour, oBx meat-fat ratio, texture attributes, e.g. texture,
Fruits & Vegetables Meats Fish

5. Industry specifications 5. Industry specifications histamine levels 1. Freeze immediately after 1. Freeze immediately after 1. Freeze immediately after
preparation or pre- preparation or pre- preparation or pre-
treatment treatment treatment
2. Avoid slow freezing, e.g. 2. Avoid slow freezing, e.g. 2. Avoid slow freezing, e.g.
within cold stores within cold stores within cold stores
3. Promote rapid freezing to 3. Promote rapid freezing to 3. Promote rapid freezing to
retain moisture, minimise retain moisture, reduce retain texture and
cellular damage and protein denaturation, flavour, minimise
preserve nutrients and reduce ‘toughening’, e.g., chemical and enzymic
structure, e.g. within use commercial freezers reactions leading to
commercial freezers 4. Faster freezing promotes spoilage
4. For large products, too smaller ice crystals which 4. Faster freezing promotes
rapid freezing rates can scatter light more smaller ice crystals which
induce mechanical effectively and give a reduce ice-induced
damage, e.g. cracking lighter, more glossy physical damage and
product retain the characteristic
flesh texture

16 17
For frozen storage, practical storage times for various foods at a freezer minimum growth temperatures (MGT) of six, recognised pathogenic
o
temperature of –18 C are given in Table 1. genera:

Table 1. Suggested maximum storage times for frozen foods at –18oC Table 2: Minimum growth temperatures of some bacteria found in foods
Product Practical storage life Class Bacteria species Minimum growth
(in months)
temperature (oC)
Vegetables 15
Broccoli 18 Mesophilic Salmonella 5.1oC to 8.7oC
Green beans 15
Staphylococus aureus 9.5oC to 10.4oC (for growth)
Carrots 18
Cauliflower 15 14.3oC (for toxin production)
Corn on the cob 12
Escherichia coli 7.1oC
Peas 18
Potato chips 24 Psychrotrophic Listeria monocytogenes -0.1oC to +1.2oC
Spinach 18
Yersinia enterocolitica -0.9oC to –1.3oC
Raw meat and meat products
Beef joints, steaks 12 Aeromonas hydrophilia -0.1oC to +1.2oC
Beef mince 10
Lamb joints, chops 10
Pork joints, chops 6 It should be noted that chilled foods are easily temperature abused in
Sausages 6
Bacon 2-4
comparison with frozen foods as the temperature of the former can rise
Chicken, whole 18 quickly. The ice in the latter 'protects' them in safety terms, and from
Chicken, portioned 18
Turkey, whole 15 quality loss for brief periods at less-than-ideal temperatures. Awareness
Duck/geese, whole 12
of the need for temperature control at all stages in the chill chain and for a
Fish and shellfish
Oily fish (e.g. herring, salmon, mackerel) 4 low initial bacteria count (e.g. less than 103 per gram) is of paramount
White fish (e.g. sole, plaice) 8
Flat fish (e.g. sole, plaice) 10 importance to all involved with the handling of chilled foods – including
Prawns, lobster, crab 6
the consumer.
Clams, oysters 4
Other foods
Ice cream 6
In addition, temperature control also preserves both sensory and
nutritional qualities, e.g. vitamin C losses in vegetables can be up to 10%
Temperature abuse and shelf life of chilled and frozen foods per day when stored at a temperature of 2oC; however, vitamin C loss can
increase to over 50% per day when stored at temperatures of +20oC.
Temperature control within chilled foods is most important from a food
safety perspective. Abuse of temperature is likely to lead to increased Freeze damage occurs by a number of mechanisms that results in loss of
occurrence and growth of pathogenic bacteria. Table 2 shows the quality in a product after thawing. Loss of quality may be seen in the

18 19
frozen product, e.g. freezer burn, discoloration, mechanical damage, but • Solute concentration and osmotic dehydration – during ice formation,
in many cases the loss of quality is not noticeable until after thawing and the concentration of solutes in the unfrozen water increases, leading to
cooking. Most of the mechanisms of quality loss are determined by inconsistency throughout the product and damage to the cell
storage temperature and are accelerated with time spent above the membranes. Also water and solutes can leach out of cellular
recommended value. They are also promoted by temperature structures, causing loss of turgor and internal damage. These effects
fluctuations. can be minimised by low storage temperatures.

Ice and water can damage food materials in many ways, including A practical guide to the cold chain from factory to consumer
o
• Unfrozen water. Even below –18 C, up to 10% water can be unfrozen
and take part in physical and biochemical reactions. The sequence of events within a typical cold chain is illustrated in Figure
• Freezing damage – the expansion of water as it turns to ice can cause 1.
structural damage to the food. This is often the cause of large voids
and excessive drip loss in frozen materials after thawing. The effect Figure 1. A typical cold chain

can be minimised by freezing rapidly and maintaining low and

consistent temperatures during frozen storage.
• ‘Ostwald ripening’ – this is the tendency for large ice crystals to grow
at the expense of smaller ice crystals. The effect is to induce freezing
damage. It can be minimised by maintaining low and consistent
storage temperatures.
• Accretion – the joining together of two adjacent ice crystals, leading to
increased ice crystal size and freezing damage. Again, it can be
minimised by maintaining low and consistent storage temperatures.
• Vapour migration – this is most apparent on the surface of frozen
foods as the build up of ice on the interior of packaging and on food
surfaces. If unchecked, this can lead to freezer burn and associated
Increasingly good temperature control is being achieved throughout the
changes in colour and texture. It is caused by temperature gradients
cold food chains as a result of improved equipment design, quality
between the surface and centre of the product and can be minimised
control and heightened awareness of issues surrounding food safety and
by maintaining low and consistent storage temperatures.
quality. However, it is important to avoid complacency and to integrate

20 21
temperature monitoring as a part of the Total Quality Management Temperatures can be measured directly (contact with the food) or
programme. indirectly (measuring the environment or between packages). The
common stages of investigation for temperature checks are:
Transfer points, e.g. chiller/freezer to cold store, factory to distribution
vehicle, retail cabinets to consumers’ refrigerators, are well known • Inspect air temperature recorders and thermometers to ascertain the
problem areas. A useful concept is that of the ‘relay system’, where the temperature history of the product.
baton (the food product) is transferred safely from one responsible person • Visually check the product appearance, looking for signs of thawing.
to another, and where a signing-over system includes information on These may include: evidence of drip loss, ice on the inside of the
product temperature and history. Such a system necessitates thorough package, soiled packaging.
education and training of staff likely to come into contact with the food • Undertake a non-destructive investigation by measuring the
product. temperature between adjacent packages or boxes.
• Undertake measurements with a pre-cooled probe and ensure good
Monitoring the cold chain requires detailed information on food product surface contact. Ensure the probe has good thermal conductivity and a
temperatures. Temperature monitoring includes both measurement and low heat mass.
recording. Box 2 lists some of the relevant questions which define the • Apply sufficient pressure between the probe and the package to obtain
requirements of the monitoring system: a good measurement. The probes should be inserted to a depth
Box 2: Defining the temperature monitoring system sufficient to immerse completely the temperature-sensitive part of the

• What is the required temperature range and likely operating probe, and also to minimise errors from heat conduction from other
temperature range for the instrument ?
• Do we need to measure product temperatures ? Ambient areas.
temperatures ? Package temperatures ?
• Do we need to measure or measure/record temperature? • The probe should be held in place for a time sufficient to obtain a
• Do we need to measure time and temperature combination ?
What sampling frequency is required? steady, non-fluctuating indication of temperature. Measurements
• Does the system need to provide a permanent record of
temperatures ? should be taken at several points if possible, moving quickly from one
• What is the required accuracy ?
• What is the required response time ? point to another.
• If electronic, does the battery life compromise the application ?
• What shape of probe is required ? A long flat probe to reach • If any of the above tests indicate that temperatures are too high, an
between packages ?
• Is water proofing of the probe/electronics required ? invasive test may be required. Reference should be made to the food
• Can the temperature data be imported into commercial data
analysis spreadsheets or software packages ? producer and relevant EU directives (e.g. 92/2/EEC for official
• Does the system allow ease of calibration ?
procedures for measurements, 93/43/EEC for hygiene of foodstuffs).

22 23
The role of food packaging in the cold chain Table 3. Relative oxygen and water vapour permeabilities
of some food packaging materials

Packaging plays a key role in protecting the product from contamination Package material Relative permeability
Oxygen Water vapour
by external sources and from damage during its passage from the food
Aluminium <50 (barrier) <10 (barrier)
producer to the consumer. The choice of packaging is dictated primarily
Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVOH) <50 (barrier) variable
by economic, technical and legislative factors. Also, a well-designed and Polycarbonate (PC) 200-5000 (medium barrier) 100-200 (high)

consumer-appealing package will help to portray an image of high quality Polyester (PET) 50-200 (semi-barrier) 10-30 (semi-barrier)
Polyethylene (PE)
and responsible food production to the consumer.
High density (HDPE) 200-5000 (medium barrier) <10 (barrier)
Low density (LDPE) 5000-10000 (high) 10-30 (semi-barrier)

The primary function of food packaging is to protect the food from Polypropylene (PP) 200-5000 (medium barrier) 10-30 (semi-barrier)

external hazards. Similarly, the package itself should not affect the food
As a means of further enhancing material properties, laminates can
in any way, as indicated by European Directives on food contact
provide a combination of ‘ideal’ package properties. However, it is
materials, including migration limits (e.g. EC Directives 97/48/EC;
generally true that improved package properties incur increased costs.
90/128/EEC; 82/711/EEC and 85/572/EEC).
Board and paper packages are often laminated with synthetic plastics to
improve barrier properties.
Package barrier properties protect the food from ingress of gas, light, and
water vapour, each of which can result in deterioration of colours,
Additional requirements are that the food package should be both
oxidation of lipids and unsaturated fats, denaturation of proteins and a
physically and chemically stable over the required temperature range
general loss of characteristic sensory qualities. Similarly, barrier
(which may extend from freezer temperatures to oven temperatures), be
properties protect against the loss of moisture from the food to the
compatible with common packaging/filling machinery, and provide
external environment thereby eliminating dehydration and weight loss.
‘consumer appeal’. A key requirement is that the package also needs to
comply with environmental directives, the essential requirements of
A wide range of materials is used for food packaging, including plastic,
which are:
metals and paper/card. Plastic packages can provide a wide variety of
• Packaging must be minimal subject to safety, hygiene and
properties, depending on the requirements of the food material and the
acceptance for the packed product and for the consumer
cost of the package. Table 3 shows some comparisons of barrier
• Noxious or hazardous substances in packaging must be
properties for a range of common package materials:
minimised in emissions, ash or leachate from incineration or
land-fill

24 25
 • Packaging must be recoverable through at least one of the storage and handling of frozen foods (British Frozen Foods
following: material recycling; incineration with energy Federation, London))
recovery; composting or biodegradation - covering basic food hygiene and standards, guidance on
• Packaging may be reusable temperature control and specific product needs within the
cold chain.
A brief guide to legislation and GMP for the cold chain
GMP intends to give the best guidance available on practical means of
Legislation and good manufacturing practices (GMP) within the cold achieving and maintaining high quality chilled and frozen foods. There
chain are designed to ensure effective control of safety and quality. are key guidance points given for each stage of the operation:

General legislative directives relevant to cold chain operations include: Step 1: Raw materials and packaging
• The Food Safety Act (1990, COP No. 13, MAFF, UK) Set product specifications, e.g. microbiological, temperature,

- covering descriptions of safety, quality, description offences, quality, hygiene

defence and enforcement and penalties Adopt ‘approved suppliers’ and incoming product inspection

• Compositional Standards regimes

- covering specific product categories, e.g. quick-frozen foods, Comply with packaging directives, e.g. contact materials,

meat products, milk and dairy products, bread and bakery environmental

products Ensure packaging meets technical requirements, e.g. barrier,

• Labelling, presentation and advertising (SI 1996, No. 1449) insulation

- covering nutritional declarations, ingredient declarations,

minimum durability, e.g. ‘best-before’, ‘use-by’ dates. Step 2: Control the manufacturing operation

• Additives and contaminants Use appropriate freezing equipment to maximise quality

- e.g. colours and sweeteners, pesticides and residues, metals Pass through ‘zone of crystallisation’ as quickly as possible

• Packaging directives (SI 1994, No. 979) Regard freezing as complete only when product reaches –18oC

- e.g. materials in contact with foods, packaging waste throughout

• General Food Hygiene (IFST Guidelines for the handling of If manufacture requires heating, cool as soon and quickly as

chilled foods (ISBN 0905367073; RFIC Guidelines for the possible

Ensure storage and transportation of chilled foods is below 4oC

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 High risk categories require special (segregated) manufacturing Category 3 (0oC to 8oC): fruit and vegetables, fermented
conditions meats, hard cheese, bakery products, butter/margarine,
spreads
Step 3: Maintain the appropriate storage conditions
Maintain primary and secondary freezer stores at between –20oC to Step 5: Ensure appropriate conditions for retailing/foodservice
o
–28 C Inspect and measure incoming food for temperature control
o Monitor in-house cold store facilities
Maintain frozen product temperatures at less than –18 C
Operate retail display cabinets according to manufacturer's
Maintain chill stores at between 0oC and 8oC
guidance
Maintain chilled products that spoil rapidly at between –1oC and
For cook-chill and cook-freeze products, ensure a minimum
+2oC
reheating operation of 70oC for 2 minutes is achieved
Maintain microbiologically susceptible products at between 0oC Maintain food temperatures above 63oC for foodservice
and +5oC
Minimise air temperature variations in cold stores Doubts on the integrity and control of food temperatures at any stage of
Ensure optimum stacking patterns in storage regimes the cold chain can be allayed or confirmed by the following simple
Monitor and record air temperatures in warmest part of the storage sequence of checks:
facility
Provide alarms to indicate temperature abuse Inspect air temperature recorders and thermometers to
determine temperature history of product

⇓
Step 4: Distribution of chilled and frozen foods
Visually check product appearance
For primary frozen distribution, temperatures between –12oC and –
18oC
⇓
For local frozen distribution, -12oC to –15oC Conduct non-invasive temperature measurements (e.g. between
packs)
For chilled foods temperatures control, ensure
Category 1 (-1oC to +2oC): fresh meat, poultry, offals, ⇓
comminuted meats, fish and shellfish, smoked fish If the above tests indicate excessive product temperatures,
conduct invasive food product temperature measurements
Category 2 (0oC to 5oC): pre-cooked foods, cured meats,
sandwiches, pasteurised milk/cream
A useful ‘rule of thumb’ is the NEVER WARMER THAN rule for any point
o o
within the cold chain: -18 C for frozen foods, +4 C for chilled foods.

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 Frozen foods: foods which are maintained at temperatures below -18oC,
Glossary of terms and frequently asked questions to retain their quality shelf life, wholesomeness and safety.

This section offers an explanation of some of the key terms used High risk foods: foods which have the highest potential for causing food
throughout this document and answers some of the questions most poisoning and require to be manufactured within production areas
frequently asked by the food producer and consumer: designed and maintained to very high standards of hygiene, and all
operations are managed to minimise contamination.
Cold chain: the sequence of temperature controlled events from raw
material supply, through production, manufacture or slaughter, to the How long can frozen foods be kept ? this depends on the type of food and
presentation of the product for final consumption. the storage temperature. Most foods obey the rule, ‘the colder the better’,
and commercial freezer stores should operate at temperature of –18oC
Chilled foods: perishable foods which are maintained at temperatures in (0oF) or below. Retail display freezers also need to maintain –18oC or
o o
the range –1 C to +8 C, to retain their quality shelf life, wholesomeness below. Domestic freezer temperatures depend on the ‘star rating’, as
and safety. described earlier. Practical storage lives range from 12-18 months for
fruit and vegetables to c. 6 months for fish, shellfish and ice cream.
Cook-chill and Cook-freeze: a system based on the cooking of foods (to
time-temperature combinations of 70oC for 2 minutes, or equivalent), Thawed foods, can they be frozen again? Refreezing of thawed foods is
before rapid chilling or freezing and storage at chilled or frozen not advisable for both safety and quality reasons. Foods labelled as
temperatures respectively. ‘quick frozen’ must be labelled as ‘do not refreeze after thawing’. The
main reason is to avoid the risk that consumers may use inappropriate
Distribution: a business system concerned with the physical thawing methods.
transportation of foods, including the ‘handover’ of foods between
different links in the cold chain, e.g. producer to delivery truck, delivery Thawed foods, what storage life can be expected? thawed frozen foods
truck to retailer. need to be treated as carefully as chilled foods, i.e. kept at refrigerated
temperatures. Care needs to be taken with storage conditions to avoid the
Food spoilage: the deterioration of foods resulting in undesirable sensory possibility of cross-contamination.
quality loss. Spoilage can occur by microbial or physico-chemical
means. What can consumers do to keep chilled and frozen foods as fresh as
possible? There are some simple steps that the consumer can take to

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ensure that chilled and frozen foods are as safe, high quality and
nutritious as possible. These include:
When shopping: try to purchase chilled and frozen foods at the end
of a shopping run and pack chilled and frozen foods in separate
bags (preferably insulated) to keep them cool or frozen.
On returning home: pack the chilled and frozen foods away first –
ensure they are put in the chiller/freezer as soon as possible “don’t
wait – refrigerate!”
At home: purchase and use a refrigerator and freezer thermometer.
Check the operating temperature of the refrigerator and freezer.
Are they operating below +4oC (refrigerator) or below-18oC
(freezer)?

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to the EU Commission for its funding of the food R and
D projects whose results are given in this manual, and also to the
transnational research terms who generated the results. The support of
the FLAIR-FLOW EUROPE dissemination project by the EU
Commission is also gratefully acknowledged.

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