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Science Skills Guide

ScienceSkill 1 Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Safety Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
WHMIS Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
ScienceSkill 2 Scientific Inquiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Making Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Stating an Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Making a Prediction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Identifying Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Designing a Fair Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
Forming a Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
A Process for Scientific Inquiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
ScienceSkill 3 Technological Problem Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Identifying the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Identifying Criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Planning and Constructing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Evaluating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
A Process for Technological Problem Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
ScienceSkill 4 Societal Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Identifying the Issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Gathering Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Making a Decision. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
A Process for Societal Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
ScienceSkill 5 Organizing and Communicating Scientific Results with Graphs . . . . . . . 485
Drawing a Line Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Constructing a Bar Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Constructing a Circle Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Graphing on a Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
ScienceSkill 6 Scientific Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
Making a Scientific Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
Drawing to Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
ScienceSkill 7 Estimating and Measuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Estimating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Measuring Length and Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Measuring Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Measuring Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Measuring Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
Measuring Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
ScienceSkill 8 Using Models in Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
ScienceSkill 9 Using a Microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
ScienceSkill 10 Using Your Textbook as a Study Tool. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Using Your Textbook to Read for Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Using Your Textbook Visuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Using the Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Using the Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
Using Graphic Organizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
ScienceSkill 11 Units of Measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
The Metric System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
SI Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506

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Science Skill 1

Safety
Safety Symbols WHMIS Symbols
The following safety symbols are used in BC Look carefully at the WHMIS (Workplace
Science 8 to alert you to possible dangers. Be Hazardous Materials Information System)
sure you understand each symbol used in an safety symbols shown here. The WHMIS
activity or investigation before you begin. symbols are used throughout Canada to
identify dangerous materials used in all
Disposal Alert workplaces, including schools.
This symbol appears when care must be taken Make certain you understand what these
to dispose of materials properly. symbols mean. When you see these symbols on
Thermal Safety containers in your classroom, at home, or in a
This symbol appears as a reminder to use workplace, use safety precautions.
caution when handling hot objects.
Sharp Object Safety
This symbol appears when a danger of cuts
or punctures caused by the use of sharp
objects exists. Compressed Gas Flammable and
Combustible Material
Electrical Safety
This symbol appears when care should be
taken when using electrical equipment.
Skin Protection Safety Oxidizing Material Corrosive Material
This symbol appears when use of caustic
chemicals might irritate the skin or when
contact with micro-organisms might
transmit infection. Poisonous and Infectious Poisonous and Infectious
Material Causing Immediate Material Causing Other
Clothing Protection Safety and Serious Toxic Effects Toxic Effects
A lab apron should be worn when this
symbol appears.
Fire Safety
This symbol appears when care should Biohazardous Infectious Dangerously Reactive
Material Material
be taken around open flames.
Eye Safety
This symbol appears when a danger to the
eyes exists. Safety goggles should be worn
when this symbol appears.
Instant Practice—WHMIS
Find any two WHMIS symbols on
Instant Practice—Safety Symbols containers in your school, or ask your
Find four of the BC Science 8 safety symbols parent or guardian to look for WHMIS
in activities or investigations in this symbols in a workplace. Record the name
textbook. Record the page number and the of the substance on which the symbols are
title of the investigation or activity in which used, and where you or your parent or
you found the symbol. What are the possible guardian saw the containers stored. What
dangers in the activity or investigation you dangers are associated with the substance in
have identified that relate to each symbol? each container?

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Science Skill 2

Scientific Inquiry
The rain has stopped and the Sun is out. You notice that a puddle has disappeared from the
sidewalk. What happened to that puddle of water that was here a while ago? You could probably
quickly answer that question, but how would you prove your answer? You would need to make
observations and record data.

Making Observations
First, you might observe what happens to some other puddles. You would watch them closely
until they disappeared and record what you observed.
One observation you might make is, “The puddle is almost all gone.” If you did, you would
be making a qualitative observation, an observation in which numbers are not used. A little later,
you might also say, “It took five hours for the puddle to disappear completely.” You have made a
quantitative observation, an observation that uses numbers.

Beginning your observations of water puddles Concluding your observations of water puddles

Instant Practice—Making Qualitative and Quantitative Observations

In your notebook, copy the observations below. Beside each, write “Qual” if you think it is a
qualitative observation and “Quan” if you think it is a quantitative observation.

(a) Food colouring made (d) The liquid boiled

the water blue. in 5 min.
Adding 3 mL of food The liquid took only
colouring turned a few minutes to boil.
250 mL of water blue.

(b) The water became (e) The mass of this solid is

warmer. 5 g more than that one.
The water’s temperature This solid is heavier
increased by 5°C. than that one.

(c) We needed just over (f) He drinks eight glasses

a dozen floor tiles for of water each day.
our model room. He drinks 2 L of water
We needed 14 floor tiles each day.
for our model room.

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You probably already know that evaporation Identifying Variables

is the reason that the puddles are disappearing,
“But wait a minute,” you think, as you look
but there are still lots of questions you can ask
again at your recorded observations. “There
about evaporation. Although the two puddles
was a strong breeze blowing today. What effect
were the same size, one evaporated much
might that have had?” The breeze is one factor
more quickly than the other one did. Your
that could affect evaporation. The Sun is
quantitative observations tell you that one
another factor that could affect evaporation.
evaporated in 4 h, whereas the other one took
Scientists think about every possible factor that
5 h. Your qualitative observations tell you that
could affect tests they conduct. These factors
the one that evaporated more quickly was in the
are called variables. It is always important to
Sun. The one that evaporated more slowly was
test only one variable at a time.
in the shade. You make the same observations
You need to control your variables. This
about another pair of puddles. You now have a
means that you change only one at a time. The
question to ask: Does water always evaporate
variable that you change is called the
more quickly in the Sun than in the shade?
manipulated variable. In this case, the
manipulated variable is the condition under
Stating an Hypothesis
which you observe the puddle (one variable
Now you are ready to make an hypothesis, a would be adding thermal energy; another
statement about an idea that you can test, based would be moving air across it).
on your observations. Your test will involve According to your hypothesis, adding
comparing two things to find the relationship thermal energy will change the time it takes for
between them. You know that the Sun is a the puddle to evaporate. The time in this case is
source of thermal energy, so you might use that called the responding variable.
knowledge to make this hypothesis: Evaporation Often, experiments have a control. This is
from natural pools of water is faster for pools in a test that you carry out with no variables, so
sunlight than for pools in shade. that you can observe whether your
manipulated variable does indeed cause a
Making a Prediction change. Look at the illustration below to see
As you prepare to make your observations, you some examples of variables.
can make a prediction, a forecast about what
you expect to observe. In this case, you might (a) Find the best filter for muddy water
two layers of four layers of
predict that pools A, B, and C will dry up cheesecloth
cheesecloth
more quickly than pools X, Y, and Z.
manipulated
variable
(filter)
control responding
(no manipulated variable
variable) (clarity of water)
(b) Find the best plant food for plant-growth
responding
variable
(growth)

manipulated
variable
(plant food)
control plant plant
(no manipulated food A food B
variable)
( )D h f id i ff d i i ?

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Designing a Fair Test

Instant Practice—Doing a Fair Test
If you consider more than one variable in a
1. With a partner, examine the following
test, you are not conducting a fair test (one
illustration. In your notebook, write the
that is valid and unbiased), and your results
letters of the “puddles” you would not
will not tell you anything useful. You will not
use to set up a fair test. Explain why you
know whether the breeze or the Sun made the
would not use them.
water evaporate.

As you have been reading, a question may have

occurred to you: How is it possible to do a fair
test on puddles? How can you be sure that
they are the same size? In situations such as
this one, scientists often use models. A model
can be a mental picture, a diagram, a working 2. Now, you can carry out your
model, or even a mathematical expression. To experiment. How many times will you
make sure your test is fair, you can prepare do it in order to be sure that you have
model “puddles” that you know are all exactly truly tested your hypothesis?
the same. Science Skill 8 gives you more
information on using models. 3. What kinds of errors can creep into a
test such as the one described above?
Use your sense of humour, and work
with a partner to draw some sketches
that illustrate some errors. (Make sure
they are errors that could actually
occur!)

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Forming a Conclusion A Process for Scientific Inquiry

Many investigations are much more complex One model of the scientific inquiry process is
than the one described here, and there are shown in the concept map below.
many more possibilities for error. That is why
it is so important to keep careful qualitative The Scientific Inquiry Process
and quantitative observations.
After you have collected all your data, you observations and curiosity
stimulate questions
are ready to analyze it and draw a conclusion.
A conclusion is a statement that indicates
identify the problem
whether your results support or do not support
your hypothesis. If you had hypothesized that
gather information
the addition of thermal energy would have no
effect on the evaporation of water, your results
form an hypothesis or
would not support your hypothesis. An make a prediction
hypothesis gives you a place to start and helps
you design your experiment. If your results do perform an experiment/
investigation
not support your hypothesis, you use what you
have learned in the experiment to come up
revise prediction analyze data repeat several
with a new hypothesis to test. or hypothesis times
Scientists often set up experiments without
knowing what will happen. Sometimes they draw conclusions

deliberately set out to prove that something

will not happen. prediction or hypothesis prediction or hypothesis
not supported supported
Eventually, when a hypothesis has
been thoroughly tested and nearly all communicate results
scientists agree that the results support the
hypothesis, it becomes a theory.

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Science Skill 3

Technological Problem Solving

“Technology”—what does that word make you Your school is soon to close for a 16-day
think of? Do you think of complicated winter holiday. Your science class has a hamster
electronic equipment? Do you think of the whose life stages the class observes. Student
latest-model cars? Do you think of space volunteers will take the hamster home and care
exploration? Well, all of those have to do with for it over the holiday. However, there is a
technology, but think about this: Have you three-day period when no one will be available
ever used a pencil to flip something out of a to feed the hamster. Leaving extra food in the
tight spot where your fingers could not reach? cage is not an option because the hamster will
Have you ever used a stone to hammer bases eat it all at once. What kinds of devices could
or goal posts into the ground? you invent to solve this problem?
First, you need to identify the exact nature
of the problem you have to solve. You could
state it as follows:
The hamster must receive food and water
on a regular basis so that it remains healthy
over a certain period and has no
opportunity to overeat.

Identifying Criteria
These, too, are examples of technology. Now, how will you be able to assess how well
Technology is the use of scientific knowledge, your device works? You cannot invent a device
as well as everyday experience, to solve practical successfully unless you know what criteria
problems. You may not know why your pencil (standards) it must meet.
works as a lever or the physics behind levers, but In this case, you could use the following as
your everyday experiences tell you how to use a your criteria:
lever successfully. Often, science has a part in 1. Device must feed and water the hamster.
technology, but not always. 2. Hamster must be thriving at the end of the
three-day period.
Identifying the Problem 3. Hamster must not appear to be “overstuffed.”
When you used that pencil to move the small How could you come up with such a
item you could not reach, you did so because device? On your own, you might not. If you
you needed to move that item. In other words, work with a team, however, each of you will
you had identified a problem that needed to be have useful ideas to contribute.
solved. Clearly identifying a problem is a good
first step in finding a solution. In the case of the
lever, the solution was right before your eyes, but
finding a solution is not always quite so simple.

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Planning and Constructing You might find, too, that your invention
always seems to fail in a particular way. Perhaps
You will probably come up with something
it always leaks at a certain point where two
great. Like all other scientists, though, you will
parts are joined. Perhaps the food and water
want to make use of information and devices
are not kept separate. Perhaps you notice a
that others have developed. Do some research
more efficient way to design your device as
and share your findings with your group. Can
you watch it operate. Make any adjustments
you modify someone else’s idea? With your
and test them so that your device works in the
group, brainstorm some possible designs. How
best and most efficient way possible.
would they work? What materials would they
require? How difficult would they be to build?
Evaluating
How many parts are there that could stop
working during the three-day period? Make a When you are satisfied with your device, you
clear, labelled drawing of each design, with an can demonstrate it and observe those
explanation of how it would work. constructed by other groups. Evaluate each
Examine all of your suggested designs design in terms of how well it meets the design
carefully. Which do you think would work best? criteria. Think about the ideas other groups
Why? Be prepared to share your choice and your used and why they work better than (or not as
reasons with your group. Listen carefully to what well as) yours. What would you do differently
others have to say. Do you still feel yours is the if you were to redesign this device?
best choice, or do you want to change your
mind? When the group votes on the design that A Process for Technological
will be built, be prepared to co-operate fully, Problem Solving
even if the group’s choice is not your choice. The problem-solving model you have just used
Get your teacher’s approval of the drawing is shown here.
of the design your group wants to build. Then
gather your materials and build a prototype (a Solving a Technological Problem

model) of your design. Experiment with your Identify the problem.

design to answer some questions you might have
about it. For example, should the food and water Decide on design criteria.
be provided at the same time? Until you try it .

out, you may be unsure if it is possible (or even a Plan and construct:
good idea) for your invention to deliver both at • Make a sketch.
• Draw a complete plan.
the same time. Keep careful, objective records of • Build a model.

each of your tests and of any changes you make Revise Revise
to your design. the design Evaluate the plan. the
criteria. plan.

The design The product or technique The plan had

criteria were not is an excellent solution obvious
satisfactory. to the problem. flaws.

Use the product Patent the product or

or technique. technique for possible
mass production.

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Science Skill 4

Societal Decision Making

Suppose you are part of an enthusiastic mixed
hockey team that practises at an arena
belonging to a town a few kilometres away.
The town council is in the middle of budget
discussions, and one of the items under
discussion is the salting of roads. The council is
prepared to expand the salting program so that
roads in your area will be salted in winter. You
“What do you mean, damage the
and your teammates are delighted. This will
environment?” you ask. “Surely it is important
make your trip to the arena easier—and always
to make our roads safer.”
possible. There are days now when you just
cannot get there because the roads are too icy.
Gathering Information
“It is,” answers your friend, “but is there some
way we can make the roads safer without doing
so much harm to the plants at roadsides and to
the drinking water in springs and wells? I was
going to check the Internet to find information
about these questions I have written down.”
“Whew,” you say. “There is an awful lot to
Identifying the Issue think about here. Let us see what we can find
out from the Internet.”
Soon after hearing the news about the road-
“Well, we found a lot of information, but I
salting, you go to your friend’s house. You find
am still not completely convinced that salting the
your friend sitting in front of the computer,
roads could cause a problem with our water,”
composing a letter to the town council. In it,
you say. “What sorts of things do we need to
your friend is asking that the salting program not
find out in order to answer that question?”
be expanded to your area. You cannot believe
“We could do an investigation,” your
your eyes, but as you begin discussing the letter,
friend suggests. “Then I could use the results
you start to see your friend’s point of view.
in my letter to the town council.”

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decision, you have to find ways to persuade the

group to think as you do.
Title:
Investigation STS 1 Effect of Road Salt on Water Systems After all the data are in, and after all the
Question: persuading is done, it is time to take some
Does the addition of salt to soil affect the
surrounding water? action. The seemingly small actions done by
Manipulated Variable: you and your friends can have a snowball
– salt
Responding Variable: effect. You are very keen to show your sense of
– amount of salt in water responsibility and community spirit by getting
Hypothesis:
– Water near soils that contain salt will also contain salt. your ideas across to town council when one of
Prediction: your friends makes you stop and think. “I have
– If we add salt to soil, any water that drains through
that soil will contain salt. noticed you putting a lot of salt out on your
Procedure sidewalk,” says your friend. “You could use a
1.
bit of time and muscle power to chip away the
ice, but that is not the choice you make.” You
realize your friend is right—it is not up to the
town council or any other group to act
responsibly; it is up to you and your friends.
How easy is it for you to give up an
undemanding way of doing a task in order to
make an environmentally responsible decision?
“I guess road salt does get into the water
system,” you admit after completing your
investigation. “But we added quite a lot of salt.
I wonder if any salt stays in the soil—maybe
we could add less salt so that much less would
get into the water, and our roads would still be
safe for driving.
Let us do some more research in the
library and on the Internet, and see if we can
find out how salt leaches through soil. Maybe
we can also see what alternatives there are. We
could look for something about using less salt
on the roads—or even no salt.” Making a Decision
When you have all of the data that your Issues rarely have easy answers. Those who are
scientific studies can provide, your decision will affected have differing, valid points of view. It
still involve some very human and personal is easier for you to act as an individual, but if
elements. People have strong feelings about you can persuade a group to act, you will have
the social and environmental issues that affect greater influence. In the issue discussed here,
them. Something that seems obvious to you you might write a letter to town council. As a
might not be so obvious to another person. compromise, you might suggest a combination
Even your scientific data might not change that of salt and sand on the roads. Your scientific
person’s mind. If you are going to encourage a study can provide you with appropriate
group to make what you consider a good statistics. As a group, you could attend a town

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council meeting or sign a petition to make

your views known. Instant Practice—Making Societal
Over time, you can assess the effects of Decisions
your actions: Are there fewer accidents on the 1. Describe two ways in which each of the
salted/sanded roads? Does less salt end up in following technological developments
the water than when more salt alone is used? has affected society positively:
(a) dam building
A Process for Societal Decision (b) production of supertankers
Making (c) mass production of the automobile
(d) mass production of computers
As you reached your decision, you went
(e) harnessing nuclear reactions
through various stages. Now you can think
2. Now describe two ways in which each of
about how well each stage worked and how
the above technologies has affected or
well you feel you completed each stage. If you
might affect society negatively.
look back over these pages, you will see that
3. How would you evaluate whether each
we have indeed developed a process that can
of the technologies in question 1 is
be used for decision making.
“good” or “bad” for society?
Examine the flowchart below. You can see
4. For each of the technologies in question
that you used every step in this process. As
1, record ideas you have on the kinds of
with science inquiry and technological problem
scientific knowledge that were necessary
solving, having a process to use helps you to
for its development.
focus your thinking and stay on track.
5. An issue has two or more possible
solutions, and a decision must be made
A Process for Societal Decision Making in favour of one solution over the
Identify the Issue others. In weighing the advantages and
disadvantages of the solutions, is it
Errors of judgment may have been made at any
of these steps in the decision-making process.

Gather Relevant Information important to take into account:

(a) Who benefits from the solution?
Identify All the Alternatives (b) Who is affected by the costs or
disadvantages?
Weigh Each Alternative by (c) Who proposes a solution?
Clarifying its Consequences
Why or why not?
Make a Decision
6. As a class, discuss the possible shortage
of fresh water. Identify possible solutions
Evaluate the Decision
and consider the benefits and risks of
each solution. Do the solutions involve
The decision is the One or more of the steps the use of technology? Do we have
best alternative based in the decision-making enough scientific knowledge to assess
on risks/benefits and, process were faulty.
thus, probable No action should be taken the risks attached to each solution? Is
consequences. and the process should
be repeated to ensure there a simple answer? Is there a
that the faulty steps are solution that does not interfere with
eliminated and replaced by
improved thinking. the environment at all? If so, is it a
Take Action/Communicate the Decision realistic solution?

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Science Skill 5

Organizing and Communicating Scientific Results with Graphs

In your investigations, you will collect 1. With a ruler, draw an x-axis and a y-axis
information, often in numerical form. To on a piece of graph paper. (The horizontal
analyze and report the information, you will line is the x-axis, and the vertical line is
need a clear, concise way to organize and the y-axis.)
communicate the data. 2. To label the axes, write “Number of
A graph is the most visual way to present recycling bins” along the x-axis and
data. A graph can help you to see patterns and “Number of students using recycling
relationships among the data. The type of bins” along the y-axis.
graph you choose depends on the type of data 3. Now you have to decide what scale to
you have and how you want to present it. You use. You are working with two numbers
will be using line graphs, bar graphs, and circle (number of students, and number of
graphs (pie charts). bins). You need to show how many
students use the existing bin, and how
Drawing a Line Graph many would recycle if there were a
A line graph is used to show the relationship second, a third, and a fourth bin. The
between two variables. The following example scale on the x-axis will go from 0 to 4.
will demonstrate how to draw a line graph There are 65 students, so you might want
from a data table. to use intervals of 5 for the y-axis. That
means that every space on your y-axis
Example represents 5 students. Make a mark at
Suppose you have conducted a survey to find major intervals on your scale, as shown in
out how many students in your school are the graph on the next page.
recycling drink containers. Out of 65 students 4. On the x-axis, you want to make sure you
that you surveyed, 28 are recycling. To find will be able to read your graph when it is
out if more recycling bins would encourage complete, so make sure your intervals are
students to recycle cans and bottles, you place large enough.
temporary recycling bins at three other 5. To plot your graph, gently move a pencil
locations in the school. Assume that, in a up the y-axis until you reach a point
follow-up survey, you obtained the data just below 30 (you are representing
shown Table 1. Compare the steps in the 28 students). Now move along the line on
procedure with the graph on the next page to the graph paper until you reach the
learn how to make a line graph to display your vertical line that represents the first
findings. recycling bin. Place a dot at this point
(1 bin, 28 students). Repeat this process
Table 1 Students Using Recycling Bins until you have plotted all of the data for
Number of students the four bins. Now, draw a line from one
Number of bins using recycling bins
dot to the next.
1 28
2 36
3 48
4 62

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6. If it is possible, draw a line that connects

all of the points on your graph. This Instant Practice—Drawing a Line
might not be possible. Scientific Graph
investigations often involve quantities that Make a line graph using the following data
change smoothly. On a graph, this means on the development of a fetus. The first
that you should draw a smooth curve (or column represents the time since
straight line) that has the general shape conception, in months. Plot these values
outlined by the points. This is called a along the x-axis. The second column is the
line of best fit. Such a best fit line often average length of a fetus at that stage of
passes through many of the points, but development. Plot these values along the
sometimes it goes between them. Think of y-axis. Be sure to include units. Give your
the dots on your graph as clues about graph a title.
where the perfect smooth curve (or
straight line) should go. A line of best fit Table 2 Development of a Fetus

shows the trend of the data. It can be Time since Average

conception (months) length (cm)
extended beyond the first and last points
1 0.6
to indicate what might happen.
2 3.0
7. Give your graph a title. Based on these
3 7.5
data, what is the relationship between the 4 18.0
number of students using recycling bins 5 27.0
and the number of recycling bins? 6 31.0
7 37.0
8 43.0
Graph of Student Use of 9 50.0
Recycling Bins
70

60
Number of students
using recycling bins

50 Constructing a Bar Graph

40 Bar graphs help you to compare a numerical
quantity with some other category, at a glance.
30
The second category may or may not be a
20 numerical quantity. It could be places, items,
10 organisms, or groups, for example.

0 Example
1 2 3 4
Number of To learn how to make a bar graph to display
recycling bins
the data in Table 3, examine the
corresponding graph in the column next to the
table as you read the steps below. The data
show the number of days of fog recorded
during one year, at one weather station in each
of the provinces and territories.

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Table 3 Average Number of Days of Fog per Year in Canadian Average Number of Days of Fog per Year in
Provinces and Territories (prior to April 1, 1999) Canadian Provinces and Territories before April 1, 1999
Province Number of days of fog
250
Newfoundland 206
200

Average Number
Prince Edward Island 47

of Days of Fog
New Brunswick 106 150
Nova Scotia 127
100
Québec 85
Ontario 76 50
Manitoba 48
Saskatchewan 37
Newfoundland Manitoba
Alberta 39
Prince Edward Island Saskatchewan
British Columbia 226 New Brunswick Alberta
Yukon Territory 61 Nova Scotia British Columbia
Northwest Territories 196 Québec Yukon Territory
Ontario Northwest Territories

1. Draw your x-axis and y-axis on a sheet of

graph paper. Label the x-axis with the
Instant Practice—Drawing a
names of the provinces and territories and
Bar Graph
the y-axis with the average number of days
of fog. Construct a bar graph to display the
2. Look at the data carefully in order to select data in Table 4 showing the average
an appropriate scale. Write the scale of your heart rates of adult animals in several
y-axis on the lines. different species.
3. Decide on a width for the bars that will be Table 4 Heart Rate and Species
large enough to make the graph easy to Heart rate
read. Leave the same amount of space Species (beats per min)
between each bar. codfish (in water at 18˚C) 30
iguana (in hot sun) 90
4. Using Newfoundland and 206 as the first
duck (resting) 240
pair of data, move along the x-axis the
dog (resting) 100
width of your first bar, then go up the human (resting) 70
y-axis to 206. Use a pencil and ruler to elephant (resting) 30
draw in the first bar lightly. Repeat this white rat (resting) 350
process for the other pairs of data.
5. When you have drawn all of the bars, you
might want to colour them so that each
one stands out. If you have no colours, you
Constructing a Circle Graph
could use cross-hatching, dots, or diagonal
lines to distinguish one bar from another. A circle graph (sometimes called a pie chart)
If you are comparing two or more uses a circle divided into sections (pieces of
manipulated variables that you have plotted pie) to show the data. Each section represents
on the x-axis, you will need to make a a percent of the whole. All sections together
legend or key to explain the meaning of represent all (100%) of the data.
the colours. Write a title for your graph.

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Example 4. Draw a straight line from the centre to the

To learn how to make a circle graph from the edge of the circle. Use your protractor to
data in Table 5, study the corresponding circle measure 32° from this line. Make a mark,
graph on the right as you read the following then use your mark to draw a second line
steps. 32° from the first line.

Table 5 Birds Breeding in Canada 5. Repeat steps 2 to 4 for the remaining types
Number Percent Degrees in of birds.
Type of bird of species of total “piece of pie”
ducks 36 9.0 32
Species of Birds Breeding in Canada
birds of prey 19 4.8 17
shorebirds 71 17.7 64 owls
owls 14 3.5 13 shorebirds birds of prey
perching birds 180 45.0 162
other 80 20.0 72

ducks
1. Use a mathematical compass to make a
perching birds
large circle on a piece of paper. Make a dot
in the centre of the circle. other

2. Determine the percent of the total number

of species that each type of bird represents
by using the following formula.
Number of species within the type
Percent of total  Total number of species  100%
Instant Practice—Drawing a
Circle Graph
For example, the percent of all species of Make a circle graph using the following data
birds that are ducks is: on the elements in Earth’s crust. Notice
that the data are given in percent.
Percent that  36 species of ducks
 100%  9.0%
400 species Table 6 Percent of Elements in Earth’s Crust
are ducks
Percent of
Element Earth’s crust (%)
3. To determine the degrees in the “piece of aluminum 8.0
pie” that represents each type of bird, use calcium 2.4
the following formula. iron 6.0
magnesium 4.0
Degrees in Percent for a type of bird
 100%
 360° oxygen 46.0
“piece of pie” potassium 2.3
silicon 28.0
Round your answer to the nearest whole sodium 2.1
number. For example, the “piece of pie” other 1.0
for ducks is:
9.0%
Degrees for ducks  100%
 360°  32.4° or 32°

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Graphing on a Computer 5. Errors can be corrected much more easily

Computers are a great tool for graph when working with a computer. Just
preparation for the following reasons: change the incorrect number and print
1. Data need only be entered once. As many again. Imagine the time and effort involved
graphs as you need can then be prepared if you had to redo your graph by hand.
without any more data entry. 6. Computer graphs can be easily inserted
2. Once the data are entered, you can use the into written lab reports, magazine articles,
computer to manipulate them. You can or Internet pages. It is possible to scan
change the scale, zoom in on important hand-drawn graphs into a computer, but it
parts of the graph, graph different parts of isn’t easy to do it well, and the resulting
the data in different ways, and so on—all files are very large.
without doing any calculations! 7. Once data have been entered into a
3. Computers prepare graphs far more quickly computer, the computer can determine a
than people working carefully. line of best fit and a mathematical equation
4. Computers can be hooked up to sensors that describes the line. This helps scientists
(thermometers, timers, and such) so you to discover patterns in their data and make
do not need to read instruments and enter predictions to test their inferences in a very
data by hand, with all the resulting precise manner.
possibilities for error. The computer can
display the readings on a graph as data are
collected (in “real” time) so you can
quickly get a picture of how your
experiment is going.

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Science Skill 6

Scientific Drawing
Have you ever used a drawing to explain Making a Scientific Drawing
something that was too difficult to explain in
Follow these steps to make a good scientific
words? A clear drawing can often assist or
drawing.
replace words in a scientific explanation.
1. Use unlined paper and a sharp pencil with
In science, drawings are especially important
an eraser.
when you are trying to explain difficult
2. Give yourself plenty of space on the paper.
concepts or describe something that contains a
You need to make sure that your drawing will
lot of detail. It is important to make scientific
be large enough to show all necessary details.
drawings clear, neat, and accurate.
You also need to allow space for labels. Labels
Examine the drawing shown below. It is
identify parts of the object you are drawing.
taken from a Grade 8 student’s lab report on
Place all of your labels to the right of your
an experiment to test the expansion of air in a
drawing, unless there are so many labels
balloon. The student’s verbal description of
that your drawing looks cluttered.
results included an explanation of how the
3. Carefully study the object that you will be
particle model can explain what happens to the
drawing. Make sure you know what you
balloon when the bottle is placed in hot water
need to include.
and in cold water. As you can see, the clear
4. Draw only what you see, and keep your
diagrams of the results can support or even
drawing simple. Do not try to indicate parts
replace many words of explanation. While your
of the object that are not visible from the
drawing itself is important, it is also important
angle you observed. If you think it is
to label it clearly. If you are comparing and
important to show another part of the object,
contrasting two objects, label each object and
do a second drawing, and indicate the angle
use labels to indicate the point of comparisons
from which each drawing is viewed.
between them.

5. Shading or colouring is not usually used in

scientific drawings. If you want to indicate
a darker area, you can use stippling (a series
of dots). You can use double lines to
indicate thick parts of the object.

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6. If you do use colour, try to be as accurate microscope. This type of drawing is called a
as you can and choose colours that are as scale drawing. A scale drawing allows you to
close as possible to the colours in the compare the sizes of different objects and to
object you are observing. estimate the actual size of the object being
7. Label your drawing carefully and viewed. Here are some steps to follow when
completely, using lower-case (small) letters. making scale drawings.
Pretend you know nothing about the 1. Use a mathematical compass to draw an
object you have just observed, and think accurate circle in your notebook. The size
about what you would need to know if you of the circle does not matter. The circle
were looking at it for the first time. represents the microscope’s field of view.
Remember to place all your labels to the 2. Imagine the circle is divided into four
right of the drawing, if possible. Use a equal sections (see the diagram below).
ruler to draw a horizontal line from the Use a pencil and a ruler to draw these
label to the part you are identifying. Make sections in your circle, as shown here.
sure that none of your label lines cross. 3. Using low or medium power, locate an
8. Give your drawing a title. Note: The object under the microscope. Imagine that
drawing of a human skin cell shown here is the field of view is also divided into four
from a Grade 8 student’s notebook. This equal sections.
student used stippling to show darker 4. Observe how much of the field of view is
areas, horizontal label lines for the cell taken up by the object. Also note the
parts viewed, and a title—all elements of an location of the object in the field of view.
excellent final drawing. 5. Draw the object in the circle. Position the
object in about the same part of the circle
as it appears in the field of view. Also, draw
the object so that it takes up about the
same amount of space within the circle as it
takes up in the field of view, as shown in
the diagram.

drawing made to scale (100x)

The stippling on this drawing of a human skin cell shows

that some areas are darker than others.
=
Drawing to Scale
In Unit 1, you will be making drawings of
field of view under
objects that have been magnified using a the microscope (100x)
microscope. When you draw objects seen divided into four equal sections
through a microscope, the size of your
drawing is important. Your drawing should be
in proportion to the size of the object as the
object appears when viewed through the

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Science Skill 7

Estimating and Measuring

Estimating
Instant Practice—Estimating
How long will it take you to read this page?
1. A blue whale has a mass of about
How heavy is this textbook? What is the height
140 000 kg. Students in your class have an
of your desk? You could probably answer all of
average mass of about 60 kg. Estimate the
these questions fairly quickly by estimating —
number of students it would take to equal
making an informed judgement about a
the whale in mass. Calculate the exact
measurement. You recognize that the estimate
number to see how close your estimate was.
gives you an idea of the measure but an
2. The arctic tern is a bird that nests in the
estimate is not totally accurate.
Canadian Arctic and migrates 17 500 km
Scientists often make estimates, as well,
to the Antarctic to spend the winter. It
when exact numbers are not essential. You will
makes the trip in about 16 weeks.
find it useful to be able to estimate as
Estimate how far the tern flies in one
accurately as possible, too. For example,
week. Calculate the exact distance to see
suppose you wanted to know how many ants
how close your estimate was.
live in a local park. Counting every ant would
3. A 1 L (1000 mL) jar is filled with
be very time-consuming—and the ants would
popcorn kernels. How can you make a
be most unlikely to stay in one spot for your
good estimate of the number of
convenience! What you can do is count the
popcorn kernels in the jar?
number of ants in a typical square-metre area.
(a) Decide how you can use a 100 mL
Multiply the number of ants by the number of
container and a small number of
square metres in the total area you are
popcorn kernels to estimate the
investigating. This will give you an estimate of
number in the 1 L jar.
the total population of ants in that area.
(b) Carry out your plan.
(c) Compare your results with those of
two or three classmates.
(d) About how many popcorn kernels
will a 1 L jar hold?

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Measuring Length and Area

Instant Practice—Measuring Length
You can use a metre stick or a ruler to measure and Area
short distances. These are usually marked off in
Imagine you are in charge of tiling the
centimetres and/or millimetres. Use a ruler to
floor of your classroom. How many
measure the length in millimetres between
10 cm  10 cm tiles would you need to
points A and F, C and E, F and B, and A and
cover it?
D. Convert your measurements to centimetres
(a) First, decide what unit would be most
and then to metres.
practical for the floor area—mm2, cm2,
A B or m2.
(b) Measure the length and width of your
D classroom.
C E
(c) Calculate the floor area in the unit you
have selected.
(d) Calculate how many tiles you would
F
need to fill one unit of area.
(e) Multiply that number by the number of
To calculate an area, you can use length
these units in the floor area.
measurements. For example, for a square or a
rectangle, you can find the area by multiplying
the length by the width. Measuring Volume
The volume of an object is the amount of space
that the object occupies. There are several ways
of measuring volume, depending on the kind
of object you want to measure. A cubic metre
4 cm is the space occupied by a 1 m  1 m  1 m
cube. This unit of volume is used to measure
large quantities, such as the volume of
concrete in a building. In this course, you are
4 cm more likely to use cubic centimetres (cm3) or
cubic millimetres (mm3) to record the volume
Area of square is 4 cm  4 cm = 16 cm2. of an object. You can calculate the volume of a
cube by multiplying its sides. For example,
12 mm volume  1 cm  1 cm  1 cm  1 cm3.
You can calculate the volume of a rectangular
18 mm solid if you know its length, width, and height.

Area of rectangle is 18 mm  12 mm  216 mm2. volume  length  width  height

If all the sides are measured in millimetres
Make sure you always use the same units— (mm), the volume will be in cubic millimetres
if you mix up centimetres and millimetres, (mm3). If all the sides are measured in
your calculations will be wrong. Remember to centimetres (cm), the volume will be in cubic
ask yourself if your answer is reasonable (you centimetres (cm3). The units for measuring the
could make an estimate to consider this). volume of a solid are called cubic units.

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The units used to measure the volume of Similarly, the volume of a liquid can be
liquids are called capacity units. The basic measured directly, as shown in Diagram B.
unit of volume for liquids is the litre (L). In Make sure you measure to the bottom of the
this course, you also measure volume using meniscus, the slight curve where the liquid
millilitres (mL). Recall that 1 L  1000 mL. touches the sides of the container. To measure
You have probably seen capacity in litres and accurately, make sure your eye is at the same
millilitres printed on juice, milk, and soft drink level as the bottom of the meniscus.
containers.
Cubic units and capacity units are graduated
B 100
interchangeable, for example: cylinder
1 cm3  1 mL too 90
line where
1 dm3  1 L hig
h liquid
80
1 m3  1 kL touches
As you can see in Diagram A, the volume read here 70 glass
of a regularly shaped solid object can be
60
measured directly. meniscus
low 50
A too
4 cm × 4 cm × 4 cm = 64 cm3 5 cm × 6 cm × 3 cm = 90 cm3 40

4 cm 5 cm 30
liquid

3 cm Measuring the volume of a liquid

4 cm
The volume of an irregularly shaped solid
4 cm 6 cm object, however, must be measured indirectly.
This is done by determining the volume of a
Measuring the volume of a regularly shaped solid liquid it will displace, as shown below.

1 Record the volume of the

liquid.
2 Carefully lower the object into
the cylinder containing the
liquid. Record the volume again.
3 The volume of the object is
equal to the difference between
the two volumes. The equation
below the photograph shows
you how to calculate this.

1 2 3

Measuring the volume of an irregularly shaped solid

volume of object  volume of water with object  original volume of water
 85 mL  60 mL
 25 mL

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triple beam balance is one commonly used type.

Instant Practice—Measuring Volume Following are the steps involved in
1. Imagine you are cooking potatoes for measuring the mass of a solid object.
dinner. You decide to measure the 1. Set the balance to zero. Do this by sliding all
volume of a potato so that you can three riders back to their zero points. Using
figure out how much water to use. the adjusting screw, make sure the pointer
What You Need swings an equal amount above and below
water the zero point at the far end of the balance.
500 mL beaker 2. Place the object on the pan. Observe what
large potato happens to the pointer.
wax pencil 3. Slide the largest rider along until the
graduated cylinder pointer is just below zero. Then move it
back one notch.
(a) Add water to the beaker (your 4. Repeat with the middle rider and then with
“saucepan”). How much do you the smallest rider. Adjust the last rider until
think you can add and still leave the pointer swings equally above and below
room for the potatoes? zero again.
(b) Carefully add the potato. What is its 5. Add the readings on the three scales to find
volume? (If your beaker does not the mass.
have millilitre markings, use a wax
pencil to mark the water levels a medium-
before and after the potato is added. sized dog
Pour out the water and use a 10 kg
graduated cylinder to measure and
record the number of millilitres
between the two wax pencil marks.)
(c) Could you add a second potato of
the same size without spilling water,
or would you need to pour off some
of the water?
2. Now that you know the volume of a
potato in millilitres, what is its volume
in cubic centimetres?

Measuring Mass
Is your backpack heavier than your friend’s
backpack? It can be difficult to check by
holding a backpack in each hand. At such
times, you need a way to measure mass
accurately. The mass of an object is the
a slice
measure of the amount of material that of toast
a postage
makes up the object. Mass is measured in 25 g
a very small car stamp
milligrams, grams, kilograms, and tonnes. 20 mg
1000 kg
You need a balance for measuring mass. A
a grape 600 mg

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How can you find the mass of a certain

quantity of a substance, such as table salt, that Instant Practice—Measuring Mass
you have added to a beaker? First, find the 1. Which takes more “muscle” to carry:
mass of the beaker. Next, pour the salt into the your favourite paperback book or your
beaker and find the mass of the beaker and salt favourite portable electronic game? Find
together. To find the mass of the salt, simply out by using a balance to compare their
subtract the beaker’s mass from the combined masses.
mass of the beaker and salt. 2. Write the steps you would take to find
the mass of the contents of a container
of juice.

Measuring Angles
In Unit 2, Optics, you need to be able to
measure angles using a protractor. Protractors
usually have an inner scale and an outer scale.
The scale you use depends on how you place
the protractor on an angle (symbol ⬔). Look
at the following examples to learn how to use
a protractor.
Example 1
What is the measure of ⬔XYZ?

Z
The mass of the beaker is 160 g.

Y X

Solution
Place the centre of the protractor on point Y.
YX crosses 0° on the outer scale. YZ crosses 70°
on the outer scale. So ⬔XYZ is equal to 70°.
Example 2
Draw ⬔ABC  155°.
Solution
First, draw a straight line, AB. Place the centre
of the protractor on B and line up AB with 0°
on the inner scale. Mark C at 155° on the
The mass of the table salt and beaker together is 230 g. inner scale. Join BC. The angle you have
Therefore, the mass of the salt is 70 g.
drawn, ⬔ABC, is equal to 155°.

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is also known as absolute zero. It is equivalent

Instant Practice—Measuring Angles to 273°C, which is 273 degrees below the
1. State the measure of each of the following freezing point of water. Notice that degree
angles using the following diagram. symbols are not used with the Kelvin scale.
(a) ⬔DAE (d) ⬔HAG (g) ⬔EAH Most laboratory thermometers are marked
(b) ⬔DAG (e) ⬔GAE (h) ⬔EAF only with the Celsius scale. Because the
(c) ⬔IAH (f) ⬔DAH (i) ⬔FAI divisions on the two scales are the same size,
G
the Kelvin temperature can be found by
F
adding 273 to the Celsius reading. Thus, on
80 100 1
60
70
100
90 80
10
70
12
0
the Kelvin scale, water freezes at 273 K and
0 110 60 13
50 12 0
boils at 373 K.
0 50
E 13

14
40

0
0

40
14

15
30
0

0
30
15

160
H
20
60

20

100
180 170 1

170 180
10

10 0

D I
0

2. Use a protractor to draw angles with the

following measures. Label each angle.
(a) ABC 60° (c) XYZ 10° (e) HAL 45°
(b) QRS 90° (d) JKL 32°

0
Measuring Temperature
Temperature is a measure of the thermal
energy of the particles of a substance. In the
very simplest terms, you can think of
temperature as a measure of how hot or how
cold something is. The temperature of a Tips for Using a Thermometer
material is measured with a thermometer.
When using a thermometer to measure the
For most scientific work, temperature is
temperature of a substance, here are three
measured on the Celsius scale. On this scale,
important tips to remember:
the freezing point of water is zero degrees
• Handle the thermometer extremely
(0°C), and the boiling point of water is
carefully. It is made of glass and can break
100 degrees (100°C). Between these points,
easily.
the scale is divided into 100 equal divisions.
• Do not use the thermometer as a stirring
Each division represents one degree Celsius.
rod.
On the Celsius scale, average human body
• Do not let the bulb of the thermometer
temperature is 37°C, and a typical room
touch the walls of the container.
temperature may be between 20°C and 25°C.
The SI unit of temperature is the Kelvin
(K). Zero on the Kelvin scale (0 K) is the
coldest possible temperature. This temperature

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Science Skill 8

Using Models in Science

When you think of a model, you probably
think of a toy such as a model airplane. Is a
model airplane similar to a scientific model? If
building a model airplane helps you learn
about flight, then you can also say it is a
scientific model.
In science, a model is anything that helps
you better understand a scientific concept. A
model can be a picture, a mental image, a
structure, or even a mathematical formula.
Sometimes, you need a model because the
objects you are studying are too small to see You can learn about day and night by using a globe and a
with the unaided eye. You may have learned flashlight to model Earth and the Sun.
about the particle theory of matter, for
example, which is a model that suggests that
all matter is made of tiny, invisible particles.
On the other hand, sometimes a model is
useful because some objects are extremely
large—the planets in our solar system, for
example. In other cases, the object may be
hidden from view, like the interior of Earth or
the inside of a living organism. A mathematical The particles shown here are models representing the
model shows you how to perform a calculation. atoms and molecules of a gas.
Scientists often use models to communicate
their ideas to other scientists or to students.
They also use models to test an idea and to
find out if an hypothesis is supported. Models
assist scientists in planning new experiments in
order to learn more about the subject they are
studying. Sometimes, scientists discover so
much new information that they have to
modify their models. Examine the models in
the illustrations on this page. How can they
help you learn about science?

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Science Skill 9

Using a Microscope
The light microscope is an optical instrument A microscope is a delicate instrument, so
that greatly increases our powers of proper procedure and care must be practised.
observation by magnifying objects that are This Science Skill reviews the skills that you
usually too small to be seen with the unaided will need to use a microscope effectively.
eye. The microscope you will use is called a Before you use your microscope, you need to
compound light microscope because it uses a know the parts of a microscope and their
series of lenses (rather than only one as in a functions.
magnifying glass) and it uses light to view the
object.

A. Eyepiece (or ocular lens)

You look through this part. It has a lens
that magnifies the object, usually by
10 times (10). The magnifying power
B. Tube F. Coarse focus knob
is engraved on the side of the eyepiece.
Holds the eyepiece and the Moves the tube up and down
objective lenses at the proper to bring the object into focus.
working distance from each A Use it only with the low-
other. power objective lens.

C. Revolving nosepiece G. Fine focus knob

Rotating disk holds two or Use with medium- and high-
more objective lenses. Turn it B
F power magnification to bring
to change lenses. Each lens the object into sharper focus.
clicks into place. G
C H. Stage
D. Objective lenses E Supports the microscope
Magnify the object. Each lens
D slide. Stage clips hold the
has a different power of
slide in position. An opening
magnification, such as 4, H
in the centre of the stage
10, 40. (Your microscope
J allows light from the light
may instead have 10, 40,
source to pass through the
and 100 objective lenses.) I slide.
For convenience, the
objective lenses are referred K
to as low, medium, and high I. Condenser lens
power. The magnifying power Directs light to the object
is engraved on the side of being viewed.
K. Light source
each objective lens. Be sure Shining a light through the object being
you can identify each lens. viewed makes it easier to see the details. J. Diaphragm
Your microscope might have a mirror Controls the amount of
E. Arm instead of a light. If it does, it must be light reaching the object
Connects the base and the adjusted to direct the light source through being viewed.
tube. Use the arm for the lenses. CAUTION: Use an electric light,
carrying the microscope. not sunlight, as the light source for
focussing your mirror.

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Troubleshooting
Instant Practice—Drawing
You may encounter difficulties when using A scale drawing is a drawing in which you
your microscope. The following list details the keep constant the proportions of what you
more common problems and how you can deal see through the microscope. This is
with them. important because it allows you to compare
• You cannot see anything. Make sure the the sizes of different objects and helps you
microscope is plugged in and the light is on. form an idea of the actual size of an object.
If the microscope has no light, adjust your Also, a scale drawing makes it easier to
mirror. explain what you see to someone else. Do
• Are you having trouble finding anything on the following to make a scale drawing.
the slide? Be patient. Follow all of the steps 1. Draw a circle (the size does not matter)
outlined in this procedure from the in your notebook. The circle represents
beginning and make sure the object being the microscope’s field of view.
viewed is in the middle of the stage 2. Imagine that the circle is divided into four
opening. While watching from the side, equal sections (see the diagram below).
lower the low-power objective as far as it Use a pencil and a ruler to draw these
will go. Then look through the ocular lens sections in your circle, as shown below.
and slowly raise the objective lens using the
coarse-adjustment knob. drawing made to scale
• Are you having trouble focussing, or is the
image very faint? Try closing the diaphragm
slightly. Some objects that you will examine
are almost transparent. If there is too much =
light, a specimen may be difficult to see or
will appear “washed out.”
• Do you see lines and specks floating across the microscope's
field of view
slide? These are probably structures in the
fluid of your eyeball that you see when you 3. Using low or medium power, locate a
move your eyes. Do not worry; this is sample from the prepared slide that
normal. interests you. Imagine that the field of view
• Do you see a double image? Check that the is also divided into four equal sections.
objective lens is properly clicked into place. 4. Note in what part of the field of view
• Do you close one eye while you look through the the object lies and how much of the
microscope with the other eye? You might try field of view the object occupies.
keeping both eyes open. This will help 5. Draw the object in the circle. Position it
prevent eye fatigue. It also lets you sketch so that it is in the same part of the circle
an object while you are looking at it. as it appears in the field of view. Draw the
• Always place the part of the slide you are object to scale. This means that it should
interested in at the centre of the field of take up the same proportion of space on
view before changing to a higher-power the circle as it does in the field of view.
objective lens. When you turn to medium 6. Label your drawing.
and high power, you otherwise may not see 7. Estimate the size of the object in your
the object you were viewing under low drawing.
power.

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Science Skill 10

Using Your Textbook as a Study Tool

How can you use your textbook effectively to anything you have just written to help you
understand science concepts better? This understand the text better.
Science Skill will give you strategies to help 5. As you read each section, you will
you better understand what you read. It will encounter Reading Checks. You should be
also explain how to use textbook visuals and able to answer these questions. If you
describe different types of graphic organizers cannot answer them correctly, go back and
that can help you organize your information. review the material you just read.

Using Your Textbook to Read for Using Your Textbook Visuals

Information As you read each page, look at any
Reading a textbook is different from reading a photographs, illustrations, or graphs that
novel or magazine. A textbook contains many appear on the page. Read the captions and
different terms and concepts that you must labels that accompany the photographs, as well
understand and apply throughout each section. as the titles of graphs. Think about the
Here are several strategies to help you record information each visual provides, and note
the information. how it helps you to understand the ideas
1. Before reading a section, scan the pages. presented in the text. For example, look closely
While you are scanning, look at the at the illustration on this page. What
pictures and try to predict what you think information does it convey to you?
the section will be about. Try to figure out
the definitions for bolded words with the
help of the Glossary or from the sentence
the bolded word is in.
2. A light brown shaded box at the beginning
of each section summarizes the key ideas
covered in the section. Read this summary.
You may not completely understand
everything in the summary at first. When
you finish working through the section,
reread this summary. If you still do not
understand something in the summary, ask Water on Earth moves in an endless water cycle.
your teacher for help.
3. Rewrite the section headings and
Using the Glossary
subheadings as questions. Then look for Look, as well, at any terms that are in bold
the answer to each question as your read. (dark, heavy) type. These terms will provide
4. When you finish reading the text under a important definitions that you will need in
heading or subheading, think about what order to understand and write about the
you have just read. Then write brief notes information in each topic. Make sure that you
that explain the key ideas discussed there. understand these terms and how they are used.
Try to do this without looking at the text. Each boldfaced term appears in the Glossary at
After you make your notes, go back to the the back of this book.
text you have just read. Add or change

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Using the Review Questions Concept Map

At the end of every section, you will find A concept map is a diagram that represents
review questions under the heading Check visually how ideas are related. Because the
Your Understanding. At the end of every concept map shows the relationships among
chapter, there are questions in the Chapter concepts, it can clarify the meaning of the
Review. If you are unable to answer the ideas and terms and help you to understand
questions at the end of the sections and what you are studying.
chapters, reread the material to find the Study the construction of the concept map
answers. Ask your teacher to explain anything below. Notice how some words are enclosed
you still do not understand. while others are written on connecting lines.
The enclosed words are ideas or terms called
concepts. The lines in the map show related
Instant Practice — Reading for
concepts, and the words written on them
Information
describe relationships between the concepts.
1. Go to the unit your teacher tells you As you learn more about a topic, your
that your class will be studying next. concept map will grow and change. Concept
Scan the unit to predict the key ideas maps are just another tool for you to use.
you will be studying. There is no single “correct” concept map, only
2. In the first section of the unit, use the connections that make sense to you. Make
strategies 1 and 2 on the previous page your map as neat and clear as possible and
before you read the section. make sure you have good reasons for
3. Read the first section of the unit using suggesting the connections between its parts.
strategies 3 and 4 to make notes. When you have completed the concept map,
you may have dozens of interesting ideas. Your
map is a record of your thinking. Although it
Using Graphic Organizers may contain many of the same concepts as other
students’ maps, your ideas may be recorded and
A good way to organize information you are
linked differently. You can use your map for
learning is to use a graphic organizer. One
study and review. You can refer to it to help you
kind of graphic organizer you will find useful is
recall concepts and relationships. At a later date,
a concept map.
you can use your map to see what you have
learned and how your ideas have changed.

CANADIAN COINS

appearance appearance appearance appearance

silver
copper silver gold
and gold

value value value

value value value

one-dollar two-dollar
penny nickel dime quarter coin
coin

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Flowchart solid
A flowchart describes ideas in order. In science
a flowchart can be used to describe a sequence
of events, the steps in a procedure, or the Changes in
liquid the state liquid
stages of a process. When making a flowchart,
of water
you must first find the one event that starts the
sequence. This event is called the initiating
event. You then find the next event and
continue until you reach an outcome. Here is a gas
flowchart showing how an animal fossil may be
formed.
Spider Map
An animal dies. A spider map is a concept map that you may
find useful for brainstorming. You may, for
Scavengers consume most of the body. example, have a central idea and a jumble of
associated concepts, but they may not
necessarily be related to each other. By placing
Bacteria cause soft parts to decay.
these associated ideas outside the main
concept, you can begin to group these ideas so
A solution of water and quartz flows through the bones.
that their relationships become easier to
understand. Examine the following spider map
The water dissolves the calcium in the bones. of the geological time scale to see how various
concepts related to this time scale may be
The quartz takes the place of the calcium. grouped to provide clearer understanding.

A hard, rocklike fossil is formed. 1st time span 2nd time span

trilobites,
bacteria

ic
Pre

brachiopods

o
oz
ca

A cycle chart is a special type of flowchart.

le
mb

Pa
Appalachian
ri

In a cycle chart, the series of events do not few rocks

an

Mountains
produce a final outcome. This type of chart has GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE
no beginning and no end.
Rocky
To construct a cycle chart, you first decide ice ages
ic

Mountains
zo

Me
no

on a starting point and then list each

so
Ce

zo

age of mammals age of dinosaurs

important event in order. Since there is no
ic

outcome and the last event relates back to the 4th time span 3rd time span
first event, the cycle repeats itself. Look at the
cycle chart in the next column, which shows
changes in the state of water.

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Venn Diagram
Instant Practice—Using Graphic
Comparing and contrasting is another way to
Organizers
help solidify your learning. When you
compare, you look for similarities between two 1. Use the following words to produce a
concepts or objects. When you contrast, you concept map: music for listening, music
look for differences. You can do this by listing for dancing, rap, classical, rhythm and
ways in which two things are similar and ways blues, favourite CDs, rock, folk.
in which they are different. You can also use a 2. Make a Venn diagram to compare and
graphic organizer called a Venn diagram to do contrast chocolate chip cookies with
this, using two circles. oatmeal cookies.
3. Produce a a flowchart that starts with
the buzzing of your clock radio and
ends with your sitting at your desk as
Differences Similarities Differences school begins.
4. Design a spider map to represent
different means of transportation.
Example

Plants Animals
• make their • living • must find food
own food • made • move from
• remain in of cells place to place
one place

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Science Skill 11

Units of Measurement
Throughout history, people have developed Commonly Used Metric Prefixes
systems of numbering and measurement. In Prefixes Symbol Relationship to the base unit
time, when different groups of people began giga- G 109 = 1 000 000 000
to communicate with each other, they mega- M 106 = 1 000 000
discovered that their systems and units of kilo- k 103 = 1 000
measurement were different. Groups within hecto- h 102 = 100
societies created their own unique systems of deca- da 101 = 10
– – 100 = 1
measurement.
deci- d 10–1 = 0.1
Today, scientists around the world use the
centi- c 10–2 = 0.01
metric system of numbers and units. The
milli- m 10–3 = 0.001
metric system is the official system of ␮
micro- 10–6 = 0.000 001
measurement in Canada. nano- n 10–9 = 0.000 000 001

The Metric System

Example 1
The metric system is based on multiples of
The distance from Halifax to Winnipeg is
10. For example, the basic unit of length is the
3538 km Express this distance in metres.
metre. All larger units of length are expressed
in units based on metres multiplied by 10,
100, 1000, or more. Smaller units of length Solution
are expressed in units based on metres divided 3538 km ⫽ ? m
by 10, 100, 1000, or more. 1 km ⫽ 1000 m
Each multiple of 10 has its own prefix (a 3538 km ⫽ 3538 ⫻ 1000 m
word joined to the beginning of another ⫽ 3 538 000 m
word). For example, kilo- means multiplied by
1000. Thus, one kilometre is 1000 metres.
Example 2
1 km ⫽ 1000 m There are 250 g of cereal in a package. Express
this mass in kilograms.
The prefix milli- means divided by 1000.
Thus, one millimetre is one one-thousandth of Solution
a metre. 1000 g ⫽ 1 kg
1 250 g ⫻ 4 ⫽ 1000 g
1 mm ⫽ 1000 m
1000
4
g ⫽ 250 g
In the metric system, the same prefixes are 1 kg ⫽ 0.25 kg
used for nearly all types of measure, such as 4
mass, weight, area, and energy. A table of the
The next table lists most of the frequently used
most common metric prefixes is given at the
metric quantities you will encounter in your
top of the next column.
science classes.

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Frequently Used Scientific Quantities, Units, and Symbols SI Units

Quantity Unit Symbol In science classes, you will often be instructed
length nanometre nm to report your measurements and answers in SI
micrometre m
millimetre mm units. The term SI is taken from the French
centimetre cm name Le Système international d’unités. In SI,
metre m
the unit of mass is the kilogram, the unit of
kilometre km
mass gram g
length is the metre, the unit of time is the
kilogram kg second, the unit of temperature is the Kelvin,
tonne t and the unit of electric current is the ampere.
area square centimetre cm2 Nearly all other units are defined as
square metre m2
hectare ha combinations of these units.
volume cubic centimetre cm3
Example 1
cubic metre m3
millilitre mL Convert 527 cm to SI units.
litre L
time second s Solution
temperature degree Celsius ˚C The SI unit of length is the metre.
force newton N 1 m  100 cm
energy joule J
527 cm × 1 m = 5.27 m
kilojoule kJ
100 cm
pressure pascal Pa
kilopascal kPa Example 2
electric current ampere A
Convert 3.2 h to SI units.
quantity of coulomb C
electric charge Solution
frequency hertz Hz
The SI unit of time is the second.
power watt W
1 min  60 s; 1 h  60 min
3.2 h × 60 min × 60 s = 11 520 s
Instant Practice—Using Metric h 1 min
Measurements
1. A box is 35 cm wide. Express the width
in metres. Instant Practice – Converting to
2. You ride your bicycle 1.4 km to school. SI Units
Express the distance in metres. Convert the following quantities to SI units.
3. A teaspoon of water has a mass of 5.0 g. 1. 52 km 5. 537 891 cm
Express the mass in milligrams. 2. 43 min 6. 1.75 h
4. There are 600 mL of soft drink in a 3. 8.63 g 7. 16 Mg (megagrams)
bottle. Express the volume in litres. 4. 45 973 mm 8. 100 km/h
5. A glass of water contains 32 µg of sulfur.
Express the mass in grams.
6. A student added 0.0055 L of cleaning
solution to some water. Express the
volume in mL.

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