CHAPTER 1

1.INTRODUCTION TO FOUR WHEEL STEERING

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Four wheel steering is a method developed in automobile industry for

the effective turning of the vehicle and to increase the manuverbility. In a typical
front wheel steering system the rear wheels do not turn in the direction of the curve
and thus curb on the efficiency of the steering. In four wheel steering the rear
wheels turn with the front wheels thus increasing the efficiency of the vehicle. The
direction of steering the rear wheels relative to the front wheels depends on the
operating conditions. At low speed wheel movement is pronounced, so that rear
wheels are steered in the opposite direction to that of front wheels. At high speed,
when steering adjustments are subtle, the front wheels and the rear wheels turn in
the same direction.

By changing the direction of the rear wheels there is reduction in turning

radius of the vehicle which is efficient in parking, low speed cornering and high
speed lane change. In city driving conditions the vehicle with higher wheelbase
and track width face problems of turning as the space is confined, the same
problem is faced in low speed cornering. Usually customers pick the vehicle with
higher wheelbase and track width for their comfort and face these problems, so to
overcome this problem a concept of four wheel steering can be adopted in the
vehicle. Four wheel steering reduces the turning radius of the vehicle which is
effective in confined space, in this project four wheel steering is adopted for the
existing vehicle and turning radius is reduced without changing the dimension of
the vehicle.

1
1.2 Objectives
There are two objectives need to be achieved by the end of the semester which are:
i. To develop an active control of four wheel steering system on RC vehicle.
ii. To analytically study the advantages of additional rear wheel steering system
in reducing the turning radius during maneuver.

1.3 Scope
The main scopes for this project are:
i. Deriving mathematical model of four wheel steering system.
ii. To modify the existing Forward Wheel Steering (FWS) of RC vehicle into 4
Wheel Steering (4WS) systems.
iii. Simulation studies on the controller design of 4WS system by using the
MATLAB Simulink.

2
 CHAPTER 2

2.LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 OVERVIEW

The most effective type of steering, this type has all the four wheels of
the vehicle used for steering purpose. In a typical front wheel steering system the
rear wheels do not turn in the direction of the curve and thus curb on the efficiency
of the steering. Normally this system is not been the preferred choice due to
complexity of conventional mechanical four wheel steering systems. However, a
few cars like the Honda Prelude, Nissan Skyline GT-R have been available with
four wheel steering systems, where the rear wheels turn by an angle to aid the front
wheels in steering. However, these systems had the rear wheels steered by only 2
or 3 degrees, as their main aim was to assist the front wheels rather than steer by
themselves.

With advances in technology, modern four wheel steering systems boast of

fully electronic steer-by-wire systems, equal steer angles for front and rear wheels,
and sensors to monitor the vehicle dynamics and adjust the steer angles in real
time. Although such a complex four wheel steering model has not been created for
production purposes, a number of experimental concepts with some of these
Technologies have been built and tested successfully.

3
 Compared with a conventional two wheel steering system, the advantages
offered by a four wheel steering system include:

1. Superior cornering stability.

2. Improved steering responsiveness and precision.

3. High speed straight line stability.

4. Notable improvement in rapid lane changing maneuvers.

5. Smaller turning radius and tight space maneuverability at low speed.

6. Relative wheel angles and their control

The direction of steering the rear wheels relative to the front wheels
depends on the operating conditions. At low speed wheel movement is ronounced,
so that rear wheels are steered in the opposite direction to that of front wheels. This
also simplifies the positioning of the car in situations such as parking in a confined
space. Since the rear wheels are made to follow the path on the road taken by the
front wheels, the rear of a four wheel steering car does not turn in the normal way.
Therefore the risk of hitting an obstacle is greatly reduced. At high speed, when
steering adjustments are subtle, the front wheels and the rear wheels turn in the
same direction. As a result the vehicle moves in a crab like manner rather than in a
curved path. This action is advantageous to the vehicle while changing lanes on a
high speed road.
4
5
 2.2PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

Nowadays all vehicles uses two wheel steering system, but the
efficiency of the two wheel steering (2WS) vehicle is proven that it is still low
compared to the four wheel steering (4WS) system car. So, this project is base on
how to prove that the 4WS is better than 2WS in terms of turning radius.

A vehicle with higher turning radius face difficulty in parking and low
speed cornering due to its higher wheelbase and track width, but the passenger
prefer the vehicle to be higher wheelbase and track width as it gives good comfort
while travelling. In this scenario four wheel steering will be effective as the turning
radius will be decreased for the same vehicle of higher wheelbase. In this project a
benchmark vehicle is considered and four wheel steering is implemented without
change in dimension of the vehicle and reduction in turning radius is achieved. For
achieving reduction a mechanism is built which turns the rear wheels opposite to
the front wheels.

6
CHAPTER 3

3.CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF PROJECT

3.1 CONSTRUCTION

3.1.1 INTRODUCTION TO STEERING SYSTEM

Functions of the steering system:

The various functions of the steering wheel are:

1. To control the angular motion the wheels and thus the direction of motion of the
vehicle.

2. To provide directional stability of the vehicle while going straight ahead.

3. To facilitate straight ahead condition of the vehicle after completing a turn.

4. The road irregularities must be damped to the maximum possible extent. This
should co-exist with the road feel for the driver so that he can feel the road
condition without experiencing the effects of moving over it.

5. To minimize tyre wear and increase the life of the tyres.

7
3.1.2 TYPES OF STEERING:

Depending on the number and position of the wheels being steered, steering
systems can be classified as follows:

FRONT WHEEL STEERING:

The most commonly used type of steering, only the two front wheels of
the vehicle are used to steer the vehicle. This type of steering suffers from the
comparatively larger turning circle and the extra effort required by the driver to
negotiate the turn A typical front wheel steering mechanism layout is given in FIG

REAR WHEEL STEERINNG:

Some only the two sun suitable types of in rear wheels for high
spendustry batter control the end purposes ery trucks an steering. It cand for eased
backhoe can produce e of use loaders use ed smaller tu R R Rack and pin Rack
and pin

8
 Rack and pinion unit mounted in the cockpit of an Ariel Atom sports car
chassis. For most high volume production, this is usually mounted on the other side
of this panel Many modern cars use rack and pinion steering mechanisms, where
the steering wheel turns the pinion gear; the pinion moves the rack, which is a
linear gear that meshes with the pinion, converting circular motion into linear
motion along the transverse axis of the car (side to side motion). This motion
applies steering torque to the swivel pin ball joints that replaced previously used
kingpins of the stub axle of the steered wheels via tie rod sand a short lever arm
called the steering arm.

The rack and pinion design has the advantages of a large degree of
feedback and direct steering "feel". A disadvantage isthat it is not adjustable, sothat
when it does wear and develop lash, the only cure is replacement. Older designs
often use the recirculating ball mechanism, which is still found on trucks and
utility vehicles. This is a variation on the older worm and sector design; the
steering column turns a large screw (the "worm gear") which meshes with a sector
of a gear, causing it to rotate about its axis as the worm gear is turned; an arm
attached to the axis of the sector moves the Pitman arm, which is connected to the
steering linkage and thus steers the wheels. The recirculating ball version of this
apparatus reduces the considerable friction by placing large ball bearings between
the teeth of the worm and those of the screw; at either end of the apparatus the
balls exit from between the two pieces into a channel internal to the box which
connects them with the other end of the apparatus, thus they are "recirculated".

9
The recalculating ball mechanism has the advantage of a much greater mechanical
advantage, so that it was found on larger, heavier vehicles while the rack and
pinion was originally limited to smaller and lighter ones; due to the almost
universal adoption of power steering, however, this is no longer an important
advantage, leading to the increasing use of rack and pinion on newer cars. The
recalculating ball design also has a perceptible lash, or "dead spot" on center,
where a minute turnof the steering wheel in either direction does not move the
steering apparatus; this is easily adjustable via a screw on the end of the steering
box to account for wear, but it cannot be entirely eliminated because it will create
excessive internal forces at other positions and the mechanism will xi wear very
rapidly. This design is still in use in trucks and other large vehicles, where rapidity
of steering and directfeel are less important than robustness, maintainability, and
mechanical advantage.

The much smaller degree of feedback with this design can also
sometimes be an advantage; drivers of vehicles with rack and pinion steering can
have their thumbs broken when a front wheel hitsa bump, causing the steering
wheel to kick to one side suddenly (leading to driving instructors telling students
tokeep their thumbs on the front of the steering wheel, rather than wrapping around
the inside of the rim). This effect is even stronger with a heavy vehicle like a truck;
recirculating ball steering prevents this degree of feedback, just as it prevents
desirable feedback under normal circumstances.

10
 The steering linkage connecting the steering box and the wheels usually
conforms to a variation of Ackermann steering geometry, to account for the fact
that in a turn, the inner wheel is actually travelling a path of smaller radius than the
outer wheel, so that the degree of to esuitable for driving in a straightpath is not
suitable for turns. The worm and sector was an older design, used for example in
Willys and Chrysler vehicles, and the Ford Falcon.

Other systems for steering exist, but are uncommon on road vehicles.
Children's toys and go karts often use a very direct linkage in the form of a bell
crank(also commonly known as a Pitman arm) attached directly between the
steering column and the steering arms, and the use of cable-operated steering
linkages (e.g. the Capstan and Bowstring mechanism) is also found on some home-
built vehicles such as soapbox car sand recumbent tricycles.

11
 POWER STEERING :

Power steering assists the driver of anautomobile in steering by directing

a portion of the vehicle's power to traverse the axis of one or more of the road
wheels. As vehicles have become heavier and switched to front wheel drive,
particularly using negative offset geometry, along with increasesin tyre width and
diameter, the effort needed to turn the steering wheel manually has increased -
often to the point where major physical exertion is required.

To alleviate this, auto maker shave developed power steering systems: or

more correctly power assisted steering - on road going vehicles there has to be a
mechanical linkage as a failsafe. There are two types of power steering systems—
hydraulic and electric/electronic. A hydraulic-electric hybrid system is also
possible. A hydraulic power steering (HPS) uses hydraulic pressure supplied by an
engine-driven pump to assist the motion of turning the steering wheel. Electric
power steering (EPS) is more efficient than the hydraulic power steering, since the
electric power steering motor only needs to provide assistance when the steering
wheel is turned, whereas the hydraulic pump must run constantly. In EPS the assist
level is easily tunable to the vehicle type, road speed, and even driver preference.
An added benefit is the elimination of environmental hazard posed by leakage and
disposal of hydraulic power steering fluid.

12
 SPEED ADJUSTABLE STEERING:

An outgrowth of power steering is speed adjustable steering, where the

steering is heavily assisted at low speed and lightly assisted at high speed. The auto
makers perceive that motorists might need to make large steering inputs while
maneuvering for parking, but not while traveling at high speed. The first vehicle
with this feature was the Citroën SM with its Derive layout, although rather than
altering the amount of assistance as in modern power steering systems, it altered
the pressure on a centering cam which made the steering wheel try to "spring" back
to the straight-ahead position.

Modern speed-adjustable power steering systems reduce the pressure fed

to the ram as the speed increases, giving a more direct feel. Thisfeature is gradually
becoming commonplace across all new vehicles

FOUR WHEEL STEERING:

The most effective type of steering, this type has all the four wheels of
the vehicle used for steering purpose. A detailed description of this type follows

13
 DESIGN OF FOUR WHEEL STEERING SYSTEM

It is to be remembered that both the steered wheels do not turn in the same
direction, since the inner wheels travel by a longer distance than the outer wheels,
as described in FIG 2.1.

14
ACKERMAN STEERING MECHANISM:

Shown in FIG 2.2, Ackermann steering geometry is a geometric

arrangement of linkages in the steering of a car or other vehicle designed to solve
the problem of wheels on the inside and outside of a turn needing to trace out
circles of different radii. The steering pivot points are joined by a rigid bar called
the tie rod which is also a part of the steering mechanism. With perfect
Ackermann, at any angle of steering, the centre point of all of the circles traced by
all wheels will lie at a common point. But this may be difficult to arrange in
practice with simple linkages, and designers draw or analyze their steering systems
over the full range of steering angles. Hence, modern cars do not use pure
Ackermann steering, partly because it ignores important dynamic and compliant
effects, but the principle is sound for low speed maneuvers, and the right and left
wheels do not turn by the same angle, be it any cornering speed.

15
 FIG 2.2 - Ackerman steering geometry

This presents a difficult problem for vehicles with independent steering,

as the wheels cannot be easily given the correct Ackerman turning angles. This
would directly affect the dynamic handling ofthe car, making it impossible to
control properly. With all the four wheels steered, the problem getscompounded,
since the appropriate steering angles for all four wheels need to be calculated. It is
to be noted that the variation in steering angles as a result of Ackerman geometry is
progressive and not fixed, hence they have to be pre-calculated and stored by the
controller. This dictates that the control offour-wheel steering systems be very
precise, and consequently, complex.

16
 This is another reason why manufacturers have not preferred the use of
such systems in their vehicles, even with recent advances in technology. The cost
of such systems can be high, and a good amount of research & development is
required upfront. Nevertheless, the benefits that engineers can reap out of this
technology are significant enough to work around these obstacles.

We chose to use a simple control circuit todemonstrate the effectiveness

of a four wheel steering system, and at the same time, simulated the suspension-
steering assembly of a typical car to predict the Ackerman angles for
corresponding steer angles. The design calculation for the model follows shortly.

17
3.1.3 CONDITION FOR TRUE ROLLING MOTION:

As observed from FIG 2.3, perfect steering of the wheels can be achieved only
when all four wheels are rolling perfectly for all dynamic conditions. While
ackling a turn, the condition of perfect rolling motion will be satisfied if all the
four wheel axes when projected at one point called the instantaneous centre, and
when the following equation is satisfied: Cot φ– cot θ= c / b (1)

18
 It is seen that the inside wheel is required to turn through a greater
angle than the outer wheel. The larger the steering angle, the smaller the turning
circle. It has been xxi found that the steering angle can have a maximum value of
about 44 degrees under dynamic conditions. The extreme positions on either side
are called lock positions. The diameter of the smallest circle which the outer front
wheel of the car can traverse and obtained when the wheels are at their extreme
positions is known as the turning circle.

3.1.4 BENEFITS OF FOUR WHEEL STEERING:

• With the 360 mode, the vehicle can quickly turn around at the press of a button
and a blip of the throttle. Complicated three-point steering maneuvers and huge
space requirements to park the vehicle are entirely phased out with this.

• Crab mode helps simplify the lane changing procedure.

• In conjunction with rear steer mode, four-wheel steering can significantly

improve the vehicle handling at both high and low speeds.

• Due to the better handling and easier steering capability, driver fatigue can be
reduced even over long drives.

19
• The only major restriction for a vehicle to sport four-wheel steering is that it
should have four or more wheels. Hence, every kind of private and public transport
vehicle, be it cars, vans, buses, can benefit from this technology.

• Military reconnaissance and combat vehicles can benefit to a great extent from
360 mode, since the steering system can be purpose built for their application and
are of immense help in navigating difficult terrain. 

3.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE

In this project battery provides the power supply to the control unit. The

equipment contains totally four motors, one motor are coupled with the vehicle’s

left wheel of the front side, the next one motors are connected to the vehicle’s

right side of the back side. The two motors are used to run the vehicle. Another

two motors are connected to rotate the vehicle wheel 90 degree by the chain drive

arrangements. The keypad in the control unit has eight keys they are left, right,

forward, reverse and four reverse forward switch. We press the left key in the

keypad the vehicle turns left side in a required angle, we press the right key in the

keypad the vehicle turns at right side in a required angle, similarly the forward and

reverse motion of the vehicle are controlled by the forward and reverse key in the

20
keypad. We want to park the vehicle in left side by press the park left key then the

motor connected in the chain drive is turns the wheel left side 90 degree

automatically, then the vehicle is parked in the left side, this process is same as

right side. Using this we can easily park the vehicle in various areas. This vehicle

can also be rotated 360*.The vehicle is operated by joystick, a transformer is used

to convert AC into DC as vehicle is operated by viper motor which require dc

current.

3.2.1MERITS

 Easy to operate

 Less maintenance

 Good efficient

3.2.2DEMERITS

 Need a separate power to operate the control unit

21
CHAPTER 4

4.MATERIAL SELECTION,DESIGN AND CALCULATION

4.1MATERIAL SELECTION
The proper selection of material for the different parts of a machine is the
main objective in the fabrication of machine. For a design engineer it is a must
that he be familiar with the effect, which the manufacturing process and heat
treatment have on the properties of materials.

The Choice of material for engineering purposes depends upon the

following

factors:[4]

1. Availability of the material.

2. Suitability of materials for the working condition in service.
3. The cost of materials.
4. Physical and chemical properties of material.
5. Mechanical properties of material.
The mechanical properties of the metals are those which are associated with
the ability of the material to resist mechanical forces and load. We shall now
discuss these properties as follows:

1. Strength: It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied

22
 forces without breaking or yielding.

2. Stress: The internal resistance offered by a part to an externally applied

force is called stress.
3. Stiffness: It is the ability of material to resist deformation under stresses.
The modules of elasticity of the measure of stiffness.
4. Elasticity: It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after
deformation when the external forces are removed. This property is
desirable for material used in tools and machines. It may be noted that
steel is more elastic than rubber.
5. Plasticity: It is the property of a material, which retain the deformation
produced under load permanently. This property of material is necessary
for forging, in stamping images on coins and in ornamental work.
6. Ductility: It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire
with the application of a tensile force. A ductile material must be both
strong and plastic. The ductility is usually measured by the terms,
percentage elongation and percent
reduction in area. The ductile material commonly used in engineering
practice are mild steel, copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin and lead.

7. Brittleness: It is the property of material opposite to ductile. It is the

property of breaking of a material with little permanent distortion. Brittle
materials when subjected to tensile loads snap off without giving any
sensible elongation. Cast iron is a brittle material.
8. Malleability: It is a special case of ductility, which permits material to be
rolled or hammered into thin sheets, a malleable material should be plastic

23
 but it is not essential to be so strong. The malleable materials commonly
used in engineering practice are lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and
aluminium.
9. Toughness: It is the property of a material to resist the fracture due to high
impact loads like hammer blows. The toughness of the material decreases
when it is heated. It is measured by the amount of force absorbed after
being stressed up to the point of fracture. This property is desirable in parts
subjected to shock an impact loads.
10.Resilience: It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist
rock and impact loads. It is measured by amount of energy absorbed per
unit volume within elastic limit. This property is essential for spring
material.
11.Creep: When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature
for a long period of time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation
called creep. This property is considered in designing internal combustion
engines, boilers and turbines.
12.Hardness: It is a very important property of the metals and has a wide
variety of meanings. It embraces many different properties such as
resistance to wear scratching, deformation and machinability etc. It also
means the ability of the metal to cut another metal. The hardness is usually
expressed in numbers, which are dependent on the method of making the
test.

The hardness of a metal may be determined by the following test.

a) Brinell hardness test

24
 b) Rockwell hardness test
c) Vickers hardness (also called diamond pyramid) test and
d) Share scaleroscope.
Mechanical properties are structure dependent or structure sensitive. They vary
with the amounts of phases and distribution of phases (morphology of structure).
When influence of morphology is less, the property can be fairly accurately be
correlated with the amount of phases

Many of the properties like tensile strength , ductility and impact strength are
sensitive to the morphology of structure.

CLASSIFICATION AND APPLICATION OF STEELS [5] :-

On the basis of carbon:- Plain carbon steels are classified into three groups
depending on the carbon content. These are :-

A] Low carbon steels (0.008 – 0.3% C)

B] Medium carbon steels (0.3 – 0.6% C)

C] High carbon steel (0.6 – 2.00% C)

Low carbon steels:- They are soft , ductile, malleable, tough, machinable,
weldable and non-hardenable by heat treatment. They are good for cold working
purpose such as rolling into thin sheets required for galvanizing, tinning or press

25
work. They are good for fabrication work by welding , pressing or machining;
however they cannot be hardened by heat treatment.

They are used for wires, nails, rivets, screws, panels, welding rods, ship
plates, ,fan blades, gears, valves, camshafts, crankshafts, connecting rods etc.
Steels with 0.15-0.30% carbon are widely used as structural steels and finds
application as building parts, grills, beams, angles, channels etc. Mild steel is well
known from this group and its requirements as per Indian Standard specifications
(IS-226)are as follows:-

Chemical Composition:- Mechanical Properties:-

Carbon < 0.23 % Y.S. = 26.0 Kg/mm2 (minimum)

Sulphur < 0.055% U.T.S.= 42.0 -56.0 Kg/mm2

Phosphorus < 0.055% Elongation = 23.0% (Minimum)

26
4.2 ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS SELECTION

CAPACITORS

It is a electronic component whose job is to store charge and after some interval
to reales it. It consists of two plate placed near to each other without touching. If
a battery is connected to these plate , positive of battery to one plate and -ve of
battery to the another plate, then electron from the battery will be attached from
the plate to the positive of the battery. In this position if battery is disconnected
than one plate will be left with excess of electron while other plate will be having
the shortage of electrons. Thus there is a difference of potential between these
two plates and these plates act as capacitor. Capacitors are of two type:-

1. Fixed type [like ceramic, polyester, electrolyte.]

2. Variable type [like gang condenses trimmers etc.]

Fig.: 8.1 Capacitor

In a fixed type capacitor there are two leads and its value is written on its body. In
variable type condenser there are three leads. Electrotype capacitor is polarity

27
type and its terminals are marked as positive and negative. Make sure that they
are connected in circuit in proper polarity. The value of the capacitor is measured
in fared and denoted by the symbol F. Small value of capacitor are measured in
the Pico fared and denoted by PF.

KEY SWITCH

Switches are used to supply the power to a circuit. When it is pressed it makes the
current to flow through it. When the switch is released the current stops flowing.
Thus a switch is a mechanical part which controls the flow of current in a circuit. A
switch is rated according to

1. The maximum current it can carry.

2. Its working voltage

Fig.: 8.2 Key Switch

Swithes are of the following types.

1. Push Button Switches

2. Rocker Switches [Toggle]
3. Key Switches
4. Rotary Switches
5. SlidingType Generally a switch consists of a fixed and moving contact but
there are switches which have several contacts in one unit.

28
TRANSISTOR

It is a solid state semi-conductor device. It is used in electronics for amplification

or switching. A transistor has three terminals.

1. Collector 2. Base 3. Emitter

Electrons are emitted from the emitter and collected on the collector of the
transistor. Third terminal is called base and it acts as a control element. The
function of these entire three terminals depends upon the supply voltage applied
to these terminals. Each transistor has a number marked on its body. This number
has its own specification. There are two types of transistors.

1. NPN 2. PNP

Fig.: 8.3 Transistor

NPN TRANSISTOR

In this type of transistor when positive voltage is given to the base current starts
flowing through the collector to the emitter circuit. The current flowing through
the base circuit causes a much more current to pass through the emitter/collector
circuit. There is current gain and this gain is measured in beta.

29
PNP TRANSISTOR

It functions in similar way that of NPN transistor accept that it has a negative
voltage on its collector and positive voltage on its emitter. In other words its
supply voltage and biasing are quite opposite to the NPN transistor.

TRANSFORMER

There are different types of transformers depending upon the application just as
step-up, step-down, sound output, frequency matching and amplifier driver etc.
Transformer consists of two coils wound over a core in a such a way that both
coils are magnetically coupled. These coils are called primary and secondary
winding. The core of the transformer consists of a number of thin plates
leminated from each other. These plates are made of hardened silicon steel. The
coil of the transformer are wound over a plastic bobbin or a former made of hard
paper. The winding of the transformer consist of number of turns of enamelled
copper wires. To prevent the short circuit between these windings a strip of
insulation paper is placed between each layer of the winding.

In a transformer the coupling between the coils makes a path for the magnetic
flux to link both the coils. Because of high permeability of the core iron. the flux
30
path is only in the iron and thus it links both the windings. When coupling is not
good there is some leakage of flux and it does not link both the coils. Ferrite core
is used in high frequency transformer.

31
32
4.3 DESIGN AND CALCULATION

Material: M.S.

The vertical column channel is subjected to bending stress

Stress given by => M/I = f b / y

In above equation first we will find the moment of inertia about x and y axis and
take the minimum moment of inertia considering the channel of ISLC 20 x 16 size.

We know the channel is subject to axial compressive load. In column section the
maximum bending moment occurs at channel of section

M = Ra x L/2

M = 750 x 1500/2

M = 562500 N-mm

We know

Fb = M/Z

Z = t (l x b + (b2/6))

Z = 5 (40 x 65 + (652/6))

Z = 3304 mm3

 Now check bending stress induced in C-Section

33
 Fb induced = M/Z

Fb induced = 562500 /3304 = 170.25 N / mm 2

As induced stress value is less than allowable stress value design is safe.

Fb = Permissible bending stress = 320 N / mm²

Fb induced < fb allowable

Hence our design is safe.

DESIGN OF WELDED JOINT OF SQUARE PIPE:

The welded joint is subjected to pure bending moment. So it should be design for
bending stress. We know minimum area of weld or throat area

A = 0.707 x s x l

Where s = size of weld

l = length of weld

A = 0.707 x 5 x (75 + 40 + 35 + 58 +35)

A = 0.707 x 5 x 243

 A = 859 mm2

 Bending strength of parallel fillet weld P = A x f b

Fb = 80 N / mm2

34
 As load applied at the end of lever is 250 N. So moment generated at the welded
joint is

M = P x L = 250 x 450 = 112500 N – mm

We know fb = M /Z

BH3 - bh3

  Z = --------------------------------

  6H

40×753 -35 x 583

Z = ----------------------------------

6 x 75

Z = 209824

Calculating induce stress developed in welded joint

Fb induced = 112500 / 209824 = 0.536 N /mm2

 As induce stress is less then allowable stress the design is safe.

35
DESIGN FOR WELDED JOINTS:

Diameter of shaft = D = 20 mm.

Size of weld = s = 4 mm

Fs = load/shear area

=600/π D x t

=600/π x 20 x t

  

Now, t = s.cos 45 = 0.707 s

fs = 9.55/0.707×4 N/mm2

fs = 3.37 N/mm2

 As induced stress value is less than allowable value, which is 56 N/mm2

 So design is safe.

36
CHAPTER 5

5.MANUFACTURING COST ESTIMATION

5.1 PURPOSE OF COST ESTIMATION

Cost estimation may be defined as the process of forecasting the expenses

that must be incurred to manufacture a product. These expenses take into a
consideration all expenditure involved in a design and manufacturing with all
related services facilities such as pattern making, tool, making as well as a portion
of the general administrative and selling costs.

PURPOSE :

1. To determine the selling price of a product for a quotation or contract so as

to ensure a reasonable profit to the company.
2. Check the quotation supplied by vendors.
3. Determine the most economical process or material to manufacture the
product.
4. To determine standards of production performance that may be used to
control the cost.

5.2 TYPES OF COST ESTIMATION:-

1. Material cost
2. Machining cost

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5.2.1 MATERIAL COST ESTIMATION:

Material cost estimation gives the total amount required to collect the raw
material which has to be processed or fabricated to desired size and functioning
of the components.

These materials are divided into two categories.

1. Material for fabrication:

In this the material in obtained in raw condition and is manufactured or
processed to finished size for proper functioning of the component.

2. Standard purchased parts:

This includes the parts which was readily available in the market like allen
screws etc. A list is forecast by the estimation stating the quality, size and

standard parts, the weight of raw material and cost per kg. For the fabricated
parts.

5.2.2 MACHINING COST ESTIMATION:

This cost estimation is an attempt to forecast the total expenses that may
include manufacturing apart from material cost. Cost estimation of manufactured
parts can be considered as judgment on and after careful consideration which

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includes labour, material and factory services required to produce the required
part.

PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATION OF MATERIAL COST:

The general procedure for calculation of material cost estimation is after

designing a project,

1. A bill of material is prepared which is divided into two categories.

a. Fabricated components
b. Standard purchased components

2. The rates of all standard items are taken and added up.
3. Cost of raw material purchased taken and added up.

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40
MATERIALS RESEARCH

When attempting a project based on resistant materials you must consider metals
as part of your research. A vast range of metals exist and they fit in two categories,
‘ferrous’ and ‘non-ferrous’ metals. These metals can be used to build/manufacture
an equally large range of items. Study the properties of the materials below, you
may find that they are useful for your project. You may need to investigate metals
further.

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5.2.3 Machining cost:-

Here we have to work on the different machines for having different

operations. So the machine is being hired for that much period of
time.Considering the depreciation and the electric light bill along with the rent
of The work shop or the initial investment, the machining cost is calculated as
the cost in Rs.60/hour

Sr. Machine Time Rate Operation Rs.

No. hours Rs.

Turning and 1400
1 Lathe 4 100
boring /-

2 Welding 10 80 Fixing the linkages 1800

M/C /-

3 Drilling 3 60 Making holes and, 400/

M/C threads -

CHAPTER 6

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6. APPLICATION OF FOUR WHEEL STEERING:

6.1APPLICATIONS

PARALLEL PARKING:

Zero steer can significantly ease the parking process due to its extremely
short turning footprint. This is exemplified by the parallel parking scenario which
is common in foreign countries and is pretty relevant to our cities. Here a car has to
park itself between the two other cars parked on the service lane. This maneuver
requires a three way movement of the vehicle and consequently heavy steering
inputs. More over to successfully park the vehicle without incurring any damage at
least 1.75 times the length of the car must be available for parking a two wheeled
steer car.

As can be seen clearly the car requires just about the same length as itself
to park in the spot. Also since the 360 degree mode does not require steering inputs
the driver can virtually park the vehicle without even touching the steering wheel.
All he has to do give throttle and brake inputs and even they can be automated in
modern cars. Hence such a system can even lead to vehicles that can drive and
park by themselves.

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HIGH SPEED LANE CHANGING:

Another driving maneuver that frequently becomes cumbersome and even

--dangerous is changing lanes at fairly high speed. Although this is less steering
sensitive this does require a lot of concentration from the driver since he has to
judge the space and vehicles behind them. The vehicle with arrows is the model
under study. As can be seen from the figure the vehicle can turn with hardly any

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space requirement with a single steering action and also resume without any
corrective inputs. Thus it also acts as a driver aid helping relatively inexperienced
drivers make quick lane changes even at high speeds.

The company Honda Prelude [3] manufactured the first four wheel
steering car and it defines four wheel steering as the effect of the 4WS mechanism
acting in this way was non-linear steering. That is, the effective steering ratio
varied from a low ratio at small steering angles, to high ratio at large angles. This
means more steering angle input is required to perform a gradual turn, making the
car less twitchy and more relaxed to drive at high speed, without requiring constant
corrections; while less steering angle is required to perform a tight-radius turn,
giving the car a go-kart like feel during tight maneuvers. The observed effect while
driving might be best imagined as a variable effective wheelbase, from a long
wheelbase at small steering angles, to very short wheelbase at large angles.

Sano [4] conducted experiment and calculated for the turning radius and
suggested low speed turning performance is improved by steering the rear wheels
out of phase with the front wheels to reduce the turn radius, thus improving
aneuverability. Normally the rear wheel steer angles are a fraction of that at the
point (typically limited to about 5 degrees of steer) and may only be applied at low
speeds. At 50 percent rear steer angle, a one third reduction in turn radius is
achieved. At 100 percent rear steer angle, a 50 percent reduction in turn radius
occurs.

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 The primary advantage of 4WS is derived from the better control of
ransient behaviour in cornering. In general 4WS systems yield a quicker response
with better damping of the yaw oscillation that occurs with initiation of a turn.

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47
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Design data book -P.S.G.Tech.

2. Machine tool design handbook –Central machine tool Institute, Bangalore.

3. Strength of Materials -R.S.Kurmi

4. Manufaturing Technology -M.Haslehurst.

5. Design of machine elements- R.s.Kurumi

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