Inverse markers in Andean languages:

A comparative view

Willem F.H. Adelaar (Leiden University)

1. Introduction
The purpose of the present contribution is to compare the use of inverse
markers in the verbal morphology of three unrelated Andean languages:
Quechua, Puquina and Mapuche. It will be argued that inverse markers
tend to develop as a result of typological convergence among languages
with a predominantly suffixing morphology. Inverse markers allow lan-
guages with a limited set of personal reference endings (e.g. with subject
markers only, or with an incomplete set of endings encoding both an ac-
tor and a patient in a transitive relation) to expand their inventory without
having recourse to object markers specified for grammatical person. In-
stead, the absence or insufficiency of fully specified object markers can
be compensated by assigning the role of patient to what is normally a
subject or agent marker. Inverse markers are used to indicate such a
switch of roles.

2. Function of the inverse marker

In the three languages under scrutiny, the inverse marker is used in tran-
sitional1 endings encoding two different speech act participants, a subject
or agent and an object or patient. At least in one of these languages
(Quechua), the encoded object need not coincide with the direct object of
a transitive verb and may function as a recipient or beneficiary, so that
the use of inverse markers is not confined to transitive verbs in the strict
sense. From a strictly morphological point of view, however, there are
never more than two categories involved. Therefore, we will refer to the

1
We will conveniently use the term ‘transition(al)’ in relation to subject-object
combinations that are encoded in the verb, rather than ‘transitive’, which may
cause confusion in this context. Spanish colonial grammarians used to refer to
these combinations as ‘transitions’.
172 WILLEM F.H. ADELAAR

two participants that can be encoded in a verb form as the ‘subject’ (S)
and the ‘object’ (O).
The function of the inverse marker is to assign the role of object to
a personal reference marker that normally specifies a subject. Character-
istically, the use of inverse markers is subject to a hierarchy of gram-
matical persons, which means that they can only occur when a subject is
lower in hierarchy than its object. Of the languages considered here, an
explicit grammatical person hierarchy has only been proposed for
Mapuche (Salas 1992, Arnold 1996), which will be presented below. It is
likely that a similar hierarchy operates in the two other languages, al-
though for Puquina the data are too limited to draw any final conclu-
sions.

3. Inverse markers in Quechua

Quechua is a language family, rather than a language.2 Personal reference
marking may vary considerably throughout the present-day linguistic va-
rieties (whether languages or dialects) that together make up the Quechua
family. In many of these modern varieties, the original system of per-
sonal reference marking that must have existed in Proto-Quechua has
suffered considerable alterations. In order to appreciate the function of
inverse markers in Quechua as it originally was, we have to set out from
that proto-language or from any conservative variety that has remained
close to the proto-language in this respect.
An uncontroversial reconstruction of personal reference marking in
Proto-Quechua verbs cannot be achieved because of the difficulty to re-
construct certain endings, namely, the first person subject ending and the
combined ending for a first person subject acting upon a second person
object. Both endings are highly variable throughout the dialects. How-
ever, the general structure and the distinctions that characterize the per-
sonal reference system of the Proto-Quechua verb are straightforward.
The Central Peruvian Quechua dialects of the Quechua I branch (follow-
ing the classification in Torero 1964) have retained the essence of the

2
Quechuan languages are found distributed over different South American
countries, including Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru. For a general over-
view of these languages see Cerrón-Palomino (1987), Adelaar with Muysken
(2004).
 INVERSE MARKERS IN ANDEAN LANGUAGES 173

original Quechua system of personal reference coding. For the present

discussion, we will conveniently draw our examples from the very con-
servative dialect of Pacaraos (originally spoken on the upper Chancay
river in the department of Lima, but now moribund), because it has not
suffered many significant mutations in its system of personal reference
coding.3
The original Quechua personal reference system is based on a four-
fold distinction between first person (‘me’), second person (‘you’), third
person (‘neither me nor you’) and inclusive person (‘both me and you’).
When personal reference markers encode the possessor of a noun, ex-
plicit number (plural) can only be expressed periphrastically. The plural-
ity of a verbal participant can also be indicated periphrastically, or it can
be expressed by means of specific suffixes, which operate independently
from the personal reference markers.4 Each grammatical person can refer
to singular or plural entities, except for the inclusive, which always refers
to a group of two or more persons. (The inclusive is often called the
‘fourth person’ in the literature on Quechua and Aymaran, but we will
refrain from using this term here in order to avoid confusion.)
Verbs with transitional endings contain an indication of both a sub-
ject and an object. There are no transitional endings encoding a third per-
son object. To put it differently, the personal reference marker for a third
person object is null. Personal reference markers referring to an object
are always first person, second person or inclusive person. As far as a
hierarchy can be established, it appears to be first person > second person
/ inclusive > third person. No hierarchy can be established between sec-
ond person and inclusive person (=1st+2nd).
Verbal subject markers (and nominal possessive markers) consist
of a set of suffixes. However, the verbal set may differ depending on the
tense and mood categories with which it is combined. For Pacaraos
Quechua, the set of verbal subject markers used in the unmarked (pre-
sent) and future tenses is shown in Table 1:5

3
For a detailed sketch of Pacaraos Quechua, see Adelaar (1987).
4
In Southern Bolivian and Argentinean Quechua, person and number markers
have become fused to such an extent that they can no longer be separated (cf.
Adelaar 1995).
5
In other Quechua dialects we find -ni, -nki, -n, -nčik (Ayacucho) or -V́:, -nki,
-n, -nči (northern Junín) in the unmarked tense.
174 WILLEM F.H. ADELAAR

present future
st
1 person -V́y -šaq
2nd person -nki -nki
rd
3 person -n -nqa
inclusive person -nsi -šun
Table 1: Verbal subject markers in Pacaraos Quechua

In the past tense, which is indicated by a specific tense marker -rqa-,

Pacaraos Quechua has a zero ending for 3rd person. For 2nd person it uses
-yki, an ending that is also found on nouns and in nominalized verbs.
The transitional endings that encode both a subject and an object
are heterogeneous in structure. The ending that encodes a first person
subject acting upon a second person object varies considerably depend-
ing on the dialects. Most central Peruvian dialects (Quechua I) use a
portmanteau suffix -q (or -k), the southern Peruvian and Bolivian dialects
(Quechua IIC) use another portmanteau suffix -yki, and Pacaraos
Quechua uses a combination of suffixes -mu-V́y.6 There is a special
portmanteau ending for the future tense, -šqayki, which has reflexes in
most Quechua dialects. Note that the relation of a first person subject act-
ing upon a second person object is not counter-hierarchical and hence
does not involve inverse marking. What we do see, however, is a great
amount of insecurity in the formation of this ending. In parts of the ver-
bal paradigm of several Quechua dialects, no ending is available for the
transitional relationship of a first person subject acting upon a second
person object, and a plain first person subject marker is used instead.
A first person object in Pacaraos Quechua is indicated by means of
the affix -ma(:)-,7 whereas the accompanying subject markers are the ex-
pected ones: 2nd S> 1st O -ma-nki, 3rd S> 1st O -ma-n. Note that the subject
marker may vary according to tense and mood, and that the two affixes
of the transition can be separated by tense markers, adverbializing affixes
or nominalizing affixes, as in (1):

6
The original function of -mu- is to indicate a motion towards the speaker or an
action performed in a designated location other than that of the speaker.
7
In Quechua II dialects the first person object marker is -wa-, which may also
have been the Proto-Quechua form (-ma(:)- < *-mu-wa-).
 INVERSE MARKERS IN ANDEAN LANGUAGES 175

(1) tapu-ma:-na-n-rayku8
ask-1ST PERSON OBJECT-NOMINALIZER-3RD PERSON SUBJECT-MOTIVE
‘for the sake of his questioning me.’

Although the two transitional relations in question are both counter-

hierarchical, there is no sign of inverse marking.
In the transition of a third person subject acting upon an inclusive
object, -ma(:)- occurs with the inclusive subject marker, but the latter
encodes the object instead of the subject. (The ending is -ma-nsi in the
unmarked tense of the indicative mood.) This combination is counter-
hierarchical, so -ma(:)- acquires the status of an inverse marker, while
losing its canonical function as a first person object marker.
For the counter-hierarchical transition of a third person subject act-
ing upon a second person object, a special inverse marker is used: -šu-.9
It is combined with the second person subject marker, which then refers
to the object and not to the subject. (The ending is -šu-nki in the un-
marked and future tenses of the indicative mood, as well as in the poten-
tial mood; it is -šu-…-yki with the past tense of the indicative mood and
with most nominalizers.) As in the previous cases, the elements of this
combination can be separated by other suffixes, as in (2), or be distrib-
uted over different phonological word forms, as in (3):

(2) mika-na:-šu-nqa-yki
eat-CAUSE.DESIRE-INVERSE-NOMINALIZER-2ND PERSON SUBJECT
‘that you get hungry’

(3) nyi-šu-q ka-nki

say-INVERSE-NOMINALIZER be-2ND PERSON SUBJECT
‘He used to say to you.’

To sum up these facts in a different perspective:

(a) Quechua has a first person object marker -ma(:)- or -wa- (depending
on the dialect).
(b) When a first person object interpretation is excluded (because the
subject marker overlaps semantically with first person), -ma(:)-/-wa- is

8
The affix -ma(:)- has a long vowel in open syllables.
9
In many Quechua II dialects the inverse marker is -su-.
176 WILLEM F.H. ADELAAR

interpreted as an inverse marker, the person of the subject marker is reas-

signed to the object, and the true subject is third person.
(c) When -ma(:)-/-wa- is not available as an inverse marker (because the
combination is already in use for a case of straightforward first person
object marking), the special inverse marker -šu-/-su- is selected, the per-
son of the subject marker is again reassigned to the object, and the true
subject is third person.
Traditionally, the Quechua personal reference system has never
been treated in terms of a hierarchy and inverse markers. There seem to
be good reasons why -šu- has not been recognized as an inverse marker.
As a matter of fact, it has developed into a true second person object
marker in a number of dialects, viz. in the northern Peruvian dialect of
Incahuasi and Cañaris (department of Lambayeque), in the province of
Santiago del Estero (Argentina) and, to a lesser extent, in Cochabamba
(Bolivia) and in Cajamarca (northern Peru) (cf. Adelaar 1995). Also, the
combination *-šu-n, which would be the expected ending for a third per-
son subject acting upon a second person object if -šu- were indeed the
object marker for second person, is blocked, because the ending -šun al-
ready has another function. It refers to an inclusive future or imperative.
However, the inverse marker interpretation has the advantage of
showing that the early Quechua speakers apparently constructed their
personal reference marking system by using fewer suffixes than the
number of categories they intended to express. We will see that similar
developments can be assumed for Puquina and Mapuche. Consequently,
the inverse marker mechanism appears to play a frequent, if not universal
role in the development of complex pronominal reference systems in suf-
fixing languages.

4. The inverse marker in Puquina

The extinct Puquina language has only been known through a mostly
translated religious text from the early seventeenth century (Oré 1607).
Therefore, in the present state of our knowledge, it is not possible to give
a full account of the personal reference marking system of Puquina. Only
some basic facts can be recovered.10

10
For more information on Puquina, see Torero (2002) , Adelaar (2004), and
 INVERSE MARKERS IN ANDEAN LANGUAGES 177

The Puquina language shares a number of lexical elements and

structural features with the Arawak language family, which is widely dis-
tributed throughout the tropical lowlands of South America. The most
conspicuous points of resemblance with the Arawak languages can be
found in the inventory of personal pronouns and in a set of pre-clitic per-
sonal reference markers that indicate nominal possession. On the other
hand, personal reference marking on verbs is achieved by means of suf-
fixes and suffix combinations, as in Quechua. This hybrid character of
the personal reference system suggests that the Puquina language may
have had non-Andean origins but that it adopted some of the features of
neighboring languages, such as Aymara and Quechua, by indirect diffu-
sion (cf. Aikhenvald 2002). There are indications that Puquina was syn-
tactically ergative, but this fact does not seem to have had any particular
relevance for the morphological make-up of the verb.
Oré’s Puquina data, here presented in their original orthography,
demonstrate the existence of an inverse marker -s-, which could be com-
bined with the subject markers -k(i) < qu(i), c, gu(i), gue> for first person
and -p(i) <p(i), u(i)> for second person. Second person with inverse is
illustrated in (4), as opposed to (5), where there is no inverse marker:

(4) pampa-cha-gue-s-p-anch
level-MAKE-FUTURE-INVERSE-2ND PERSON-DECLARATIVE
‘He will forgive you.’

(5) quichu-gue-p-anch
grieve-FUTURE-2ND PERSON-DECLARATIVE
‘You will grieve.’

The following examples illustrate the use of first person with inverse (6)
and without inverse (7, 8).

(6) ore-gue-s-c-anch
tell-FUTURE-INVERSE-1ST PERSON-DECLARATIVE
‘He will tell me.’

Adelaar and Van de Kerke (in press).

178 WILLEM F.H. ADELAAR

(7) ni-ch baptiza-gue-nch

I-AGENT baptize-1ST PERSON-DECLARATIVE
‘I baptize (you)’

(8) yti-n-qui-nch
receive-PLURAL-1ST PERSON-DECLARATIVE
‘We receive (it).’

There is no indication of a second person object in baptiza-gue-nch in

example (7). Possibly, the presence of a full pronoun with the agent-
marking suffix -ch11 leads to such an interpretation. If we assume that the
third person in Puquina is lower in hierarchy than first person and second
person, all combinations using the inverse marker -s- are counter-
hierarchical. The combination of a second person subject acting upon a
first person object is attested in the imperative form ore-suma ‘tell me!’.
Whether or not the ending -suma contains the inverse marker as well,
cannot be told for sure, considering the incompleteness of the material on
which this analysis is based. Unlike in Quechua and Mapuche, there are
no attested examples in which an inverse marker and a personal refer-
ence marker are separated from each other by other affixes.

5. Inverse markers in Mapuche12

The rather elaborate personal reference system of the Mapuche language
encodes the parameters of person and number. The number system is
based on a three-fold distinction of singular, dual and plural. The per-
sonal reference system of the verbs comprises four categories: first per-
son (speaker), second person (addressee), and two third persons (a non-
speech act participant previously in focus, and a non-speech act partici-
pant that is not previously in focus). The difference between the two
third persons only comes to light in transitional endings involving both a

11
In other contexts -ch is an ablative case marker.
12
The Mapuche language, also known as Mapudungun or Araucanian, was the
ancient language of Chile. It is nowadays spoken in parts of southern Chile and
southern Argentina. For an overview of Mapuche language facts, see Salas
(1992) or Adelaar with Muysken (2004); for a detailed grammatical study, see
Smeets (2008).
 INVERSE MARKERS IN ANDEAN LANGUAGES 179

third person subject and a third person object. The amount of contextual
salience of the entities referred to as third person determines the choice
between two competing endings. Following a practice borrowed from the
Algonquian language studies, Arnold (1996) assigns the denominations
‘proximate’ and ‘obviative’ to the two third person categories of the
Mapuche verb. She characterizes Mapuche as a language with an opposi-
tion between inverse and direct voice, taking into account the morpho-
logical make-up of the Mapuche verb in terms of person and number
marking, as well as the syntactic behavior of its arguments.
As in other languages with an alleged inverse system, Mapuche
features a grammatical person hierarchy, which has been defined as 1st
person > 2nd person > 3rd person [proximate] > 3th person [obviative]
(Salas 1992, Arnold 1996). A drawback of the Mapuche hierarchy is that
at least one transitional ending (first person singular subject acting upon
second person singular object) contains an inverse marker without being
counter-hierarchical, and that such unexpected use of the inverse marker
was even more extensive at an earlier stage of the language, as it is today
in a particular dialect of the language (Huilliche, see below).
The Mapuche verb has two affixes that can be interpreted as in-
verse markers: -e- and -mu-.13 The personal reference markers in the un-
marked (indicative) mood are shown in Table 2:

1st person 2nd person 3rd person

singular -(ï)n -(ï)ymi -(ï)y
dual -yu -(ï)ymu -(ï)y ((e)ŋu)
plural -yiny -(ï)ymïn -(ï)y ((e)ŋïn)
Table 2: Indicative personal reference markers in Mapuche

With a third person subject marker, the indication of dual and plural by
means of the elements (e)ŋu and (e)ŋïn, respectively, is optional.14 In ad-
dition, there is one exclusive object marker -fi-, which indicates an (ob-
viative) third person object, as in (9) and (10):

13
Smeets (2008: 163-5) discusses a number of disadvantages of the inverse ap-
proach in relation to these affixes.
14
The forms -ŋu, -ŋïn are clitics. The initial e- appears in non-clitical use.
180 WILLEM F.H. ADELAAR

(9) l̯aŋïm-fi-n
kill-3RD PERSON OBJECT-1ST PERSON SINGULAR INDICATIVE
‘I killed him.’

(10) l̯aŋïm-fi-y15
kill-3RD PERSON OBJECT-3RD PERSON INDICATIVE
‘He (proximate) killed him (obviative).’

There are special singular subject markers for the hortative-imperative

mood (1st person -či, 2nd person -ŋe, 3rd person -pe). The non-singular
subject markers of this mood are identical to those of the unmarked in
the first person, but slightly different in the second person. The condi-
tional mood, which is used for syntactically subordinate verbs, is charac-
terized by the presence of a marker -l- and has special endings for first
person singular (-i) and third person (-e). When co-occurring with in-
verse or object markers, the mood marker -l- stands between them and
the subject markers. The indication of tense is cumulative and can be
combined almost freely with person, mood (except imperative) and
nominalization.
Counter-hierarchical transitional endings involving a third person
subject are formed by inserting the inverse marker -e- before a (subject)
person marker, to which is then reassigned the role of object. The person
markers themselves are followed by an element -mew or -mu. In other
contexts mew is a postposition denoting oblique case. This element is
reduced to -ew after the singular person markers of the unmarked tense
(with elimination of -i of the second person marker), as in (11-13):

(11) ramtu-e-n-ew
ask-INVERSE-1ST PERSON SINGULAR INDICATIVE-POSTPOSITION
‘He asked me.’

(12) leli-e-ym-ew
watch-INVERSE-2ND PERSON SINGULAR INDICATIVE-POSTPOSITION
‘He watched you.’

15
In this combination, the 3rd person marker -y is usually not pronounced; l̯ is
an interdental lateral.
 INVERSE MARKERS IN ANDEAN LANGUAGES 181

(13) l̯aŋïm-e-y-ew
kill-INVERSE-3RD PERSON INDICATIVE-POSTPOSITION
‘He (obviative) killed him (proximate).’

Inverse transitions can also be expressed in complement clauses and rela-

tive clauses, where a nominalized verb in -e-t-ew encodes transitions
with a third person subject (obviative when the object is also third per-
son). All the other transitions, including the inverse relation of a second
person acting upon a first, are reflected in nominalized verbs ending in
-fi-el. (Note that -fi- need not refer to a third person object in this case.)
The person identity of the object with nominalizations in -e-t-ew, as well
as subject and object with nominalizations in -fi-el, is indicated non-
morphologically by an interplay of pronouns and word-order.
In order to denote the counter-hierarchical transition of a second
person singular subject acting upon a first person singular object, the in-
verse marker -e- is inserted before the first person singular subject
marker, as in (14):

(14) leli-e-n
watch-INVERSE-1ST PERSON SINGULAR INDICATIVE
‘You watched me.’

The same form is used for the hortative-imperative mood (‘watch me!’),
even though the first person singular subject marker of the hortative-
imperative paradigm is not -n but -či, as in (15):

(15) leli-či
watch-1ST PERSON SINGULAR HORTATIVE
‘Let me watch!’

When a second person subject acts upon a first person object and either
one of them, or both, are non-singular, the inverse marker -mu- is used,
instead of -e-. In that case, it is possible to distinguish between a singu-
lar, a dual or a plural first person object (-mu-n, -mu-yu, -mu-yiny), but
the number of the second person subject remains unspecified.
As in Quechua, the combination of a first person subject acting
upon a second person object reflects a certain amount of insecurity and
inconsistency. When both the subject and the object are singular, the first
182 WILLEM F.H. ADELAAR

person dual ending -yu is used in combination with the inverse marker
-e-, even though the transition is not counter-hierarchical, for instance, in
(16):

(16) leli-e-yu
watch-INVERSE-1ST PERSON DUAL
‘I watched you (singular).’

It appears that the function of the inverse marker here is to separate a pair
of individuals expressed by the subject marker and to assign the role of
object to one of the two (the addressee). Thus, even though -e- is no
longer an inverse marker, its manipulative function is still obvious. When
either the subject or the object in this transition is non-singular, the sub-
ject marker for first person plural -yiny is used in combination with the
reflexive-reciprocal marker -(ï)w-. More precise number distinctions can
not be expressed, for instance, in (17):

(17) leli-w-yiny
watch-RECIPROCAL-1ST PERSON PLURAL
‘We watched you.’
‘I watched you (two or more).’
‘We (two or more) watched each other.’

It appears that the ending -(ï)w-yiny originated by semantic extension

from a combination that originally had the more restricted function of a
first person plural reciprocal form.16
The main source for early 17th century Araucanian (Valdivia 1606),
as well as modern dialect data from the Huilliche variety of southern
Chile17 (Augusta 1990, Salas 1992), indicate an even less restricted use
of the inverse marker -e- in the transition of a first person subject acting
upon a second person object. These sources report the use of -e- in com-
bination with a second person subject marker, as in (18):

16
It can be argued on distributional grounds that the suffix -(ï)w- is no longer an
instance of the reflexive-reciprocal marker when it is used in a transitional
combination (Smeets 2008: 293).
17
The status of Huilliche as a separate language cannot entirely be determined
due to lack of data.
 INVERSE MARKERS IN ANDEAN LANGUAGES 183

(18) elu-e-ymi
give.to-INVERSE-2ND PERSON SINGULAR INDICATIVE
‘I/we give it to you (singular).’

We may conclude that in such cases, -e- is no longer an inverse marker

functioning under the dominance of a person hierarchy, but rather a kind
of universal role reverser.

6. Concluding remarks
The discussed data from Quechua, Puquina and Mapuche show a re-
markable amount of shared tendencies in the development of their per-
sonal reference marking systems. In all three systems, inverse markers
appear to play a role. As the case of -ma(:)-/-wa- in Quechua shows, the
function of an inverse marker can be a derived function assigned to af-
fixes that originally had a different meaning. The main reason for inverse
markers to emerge seems to be a shortage of suitable object markers (no
second person object marker in Quechua, neither a first nor a second per-
son object marker in Mapuche). Inverse markers have the advantage of
reducing the number of affixes needed for the composition of complex
personal reference systems in verbal morphology.
The examples also show that the existence of a person hierarchy is
not an indispensable prerequisite for the use of inverse markers. Inverse
markers tend to function counter-hierarchically, but they can also follow
the hierarchy, as occurs in the first person subject to second person ob-
ject transition in Mapuche. In the latter case, the function of the inverse
marker may become that of a universal role reverser. On the other hand,
the relevancy of a hierarchy in direct-inverse systems can be deduced
precisely from the difficulties surrounding the genesis of markers denot-
ing a first person subject acting upon a second person object in all three
languages. As long as there is no explicit second person object marker, a
hierarchically restricted inverse marker is of no help for distinguishing
between second and third person objects (or null objects), forcing the
language user to develop ad hoc strategies. As for the person hierarchy
itself, given its predictable character (1st > 2nd > 3rd, etc.), one may won-
der if it should not be defined in terms of distance from ego, rather than
as a culturally or linguistically determined choice.
184 WILLEM F.H. ADELAAR

A final question to answer is: Why did three unrelated languages

develop such similar strategies in order to set up a complex personal ref-
erence system, which they probably did not have at an earlier stage of
their development? It seems that interaction with the geographically
proximate Aymaran languages may have played a role. The Aymaran
languages (Aymara and Jaqaru) have closely-knit, complex systems of
verbal personal reference marking, which encode both a subject and an
object without having recourse to inverse markers or other affixes used
in a derived function. The Aymaran personal reference systems are
probably the oldest and the most opaque systems to be found in the An-
dean region, and they may have served as a model for the neighboring
languages. It is significant that these neighboring languages (especially
Puquina) were on their way to develop a complex suffix morphology,
which was already present in the Aymaran languages.
Diffusion from the Aymaran languages to Quechua and Puquina
comes as no surprise, but in the case of Mapuche it is problematic, con-
sidering the geographical distance between central Chile and southern
Peru. Mapuche has assimilated a number of lexical loans from Aymara,
but there are no historical records pointing at a particularly close rela-
tionship between the two languages in the past. As we have shown, lin-
guistic evidence suggests that some sort of interaction between Mapuche
and the other three languages may have existed at a certain point of time,
even though the resemblances are structural rather than formal.

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