Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table

DALTON’S THEORY

In the early 1800s, John Dalton, an English schoolteacher and chemist(1766-1844),

proposed a new atomic theory. Unlike the ideas proposed by the Greeks, Dalton’s
theory consisted of statements about the atom that could be tested through
experiments. He carried out experiments in which he combined elements in different
ratio to form compounds.

POSTULATES OF DALTON’S THEORY

There are five(5) postulates of Dalton’s theory;

1. Elements are made up of tiny particles called atoms.

2. Atoms are indestructible and invisible
3. Each element is characterized by the mass of their atoms and all atoms of the
same element have the same mass but atoms of different elements have different
mass.
4. Chemical combination of elements to make different substances occurs when
atoms join together in simple whole number ratios.
5. In chemical reactions, atoms are only rearranged but they are not changed.

Postulates 2 and 3 are no longer held due to the invention of nuclear reactions and the
discovery of isotopes, respectively.

PROPERTIES OF SUB ATOMIC PARTICLES

NAME RELATIVE MASS RELATIVE CHARGE BEHAVIOUR AROUND
MAGNETIC FIELDS
Protons 1 +1 Attracted to the
negative end
Neutrons 1 0 Not affected
electrons 0(1/1840) -1 Attracted to the
Positive end

DEFINITION OF TERMS

 Mass Number- the mass number of an atom is the total number of its protons and
neutrons.
 Isotopes- Isotopes of an element have the same number of protons, but different
number of neutrons and therefore different mass number.
 Relative Atomic Mass(RAM)- the RAM of an element is the mass of one atom
of the element relative to 1/12 the mass of one atom of the carbon-12 isotope
 Relative Isotopic Mass- is the mass of an atom of a specific isotope of the
element relative to the mass of the standard carbon-12 isotope.
NUCLEAR EQUATIONS

Alpha

Beta

USES OF RADIOISOTOPES

1. Radiotherapy- the ionizing effect of radiation can be used to kill cancer cells in the
body. This is known as radiotherapy. Either a beam of radiation is targeted onto the
cancer so that the surrounding tissues is not much affected.
2. Beta radiation is used to date ancient organic materials.
3. The decay of nuclides releasing alpha particles is used in batteries that must remain
unattended for long periods. Such batteries are used in space craft or heart
pacemakers.

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS(RAM)

THE ATOMIC SPECTRUM- he spectrum of frequencies of electromagnetic
radiation emitted or absorbed during transitions of electrons between energy levels
within an atom. Each element has a characteristic spectrum by which it can be
recognized.

1. Continuous spectrum (rainbow)-an emission spectrum that consists of a continuum

of wavelengths.

Visible light- is an example of continuous radiation. Continuous radiation contains all

possible wave length within a specific range.

2. Line spectrum
 Absorption spectrum
 Emission spectrum

THE BOHR MODEL

The arrangement of electrons around the nucleus of the atom remained a great
challenge for scientist for many years. This dilemma was resolved in 1913 by by the
Danish physicist Niels Bohr. Bohr was aware that if hydrogen gas is enclosed in a
tube at low pressure and subjected to a high voltage, it gives off a pink light. When
you look at the light with a spectroscope you see that it is a mixture of coloured lines,
not a continuous spectrum like a rainbow.

Bohr suggested that it was possible for electrons to remain stable in orbits around a
nucleus provided that the electron had specific energies. He also suggested that an
atom jumping from one energy state to another would give off light of a specific
colour. He suggested that the electron were held to the nuclei by both gravitational
and electric forces. Spectroscopic evidence, the existence of characteristic lines,
showed that energy levels were the same in all hydrogen atoms. Bohr called these
energy levels ‘stationary states’.

EMMISION SPECTRUM OF HYDROGEN

The emission spectrum of atomic hydrogen shows that electrons in an atom can exist

only in discrete energy levels. According to Bohr, when energy is added to the atoms,
an electron in the ground absorbs a quantum of energy and moves to an orbit with a
higher energy level which is further away from the nucleus. This excited electron in
the higher energy level cannot maintain this position for a long time and it falls back
to a lower energy level. The greater the difference in energy levels, the higher
frequency of light emitted. Each line in the emission spectrum of hydrogen therefore
corresponds to a definite wave length which corresponds to a definite frequency and
hence a definite quantum of energy thus providing evidence for discrete energy levels
within the atom.
LYMAN SERIES

The Lyman series(discovered in 1906) has wavelengths in the ultraviolet spectrum,

resulting from electrons falling from higher energy levels into the n= 3 orbit.

BALMER SERIES

The Balmer series(discovered in 1908) has wavelengths in the visible light spectrum,
resulting from electrons falling from higher energy levels into the n = 3 orbit.

THE PASCHEN

The passion series arise from transition from higher energy levels to principal
quantum number 4.

PRINCIPAL OF QUANTUM NUMBERS

1. Principal Quantum Number (n)- it describes the energy level and size of the
orbital.n = ( 1,2,3,4…)

2. Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l)- describe the shape of the orbitals.
l-(0,1,2..n-1)
Orbital Image Shape description
S-orbital Spherical in shape

P-orbital These are shaped like propellers.

D-orbital These are shaped like a clove leaf.

3. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)- it tells the orientation in space for an orbital in
a given shape.
(ml)= ( -l,0,+l)
2

4. The spin Quantum Number (Ms)- tells the direction of rotation of the electron.
(Ms)= (+1/2, -1/2)
ENERGY LEVEL OF 4S AND 3D ORBITALS

According to the Aufbauprinzip principle, the 4s sub-level is filled before the 3d sub-

level because the 4s is lower in energy. As the 3d sub-level becomes populated with
electrons, the relative energies of the 4s and 3d fluctuate relative to one another and
the 4s ends up higher in energy as the 3d sub-level fills.

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION OF AN ATOM

S can hold 2 electrons

P can hold 6 electrons
D can hold 10 electrons

To note

1s
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
4s 4p 4d 4f

Write the electronic configuration of Na

Electrons- 11

1s2 , 2s2, 2p6,3s1

This apply for all 30 elements to be considered

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION OF AN ION

Lets consider the electron configuration of Na atom

1s2 , 2s2, 2p6,3s1
When the atom is converted to an ion it would have a plus charge (Na+). When an ion
has a plus charge one electron is removed, therefore Na+ would have 10 electrons and
the electron configuration would be: 1s2 , 2s2, 2p6. Similarly when the ion has a
negative charge an electron is added.

N. B removal of the electron depends on the charge whether +2 or +3, or -3 or

+3. Also when 2 or more electron is removed, the electron is taken from the
highest energy level.

The information above applies to all 30 ions.

IONIZATION ENERGY
Ionization Energy is the energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one
mole of an atom in the gas state to produce 1 mole of an ion with a with a one plus
charge in a gas state under standard conditions.

F(g) - 1e- F+ (g)

Ca(g) Ca+ + 1e-

SUCCESSIVE IONIZATION ENERGY

Successive Ionization energies generally increases. Successive energy refers to values

relating to the removal of all the electrons from an atom leaving only the nucleus of
the atom. Every atom has a specific number of successive ionization energies.
FACTORS AFFECTING IONIZATION ENERGY

1. Atomic radius- the further the outer shell electrons are from the positive nucleus
the less they would be attracted towards the nucleus. So ionization energy would
be lower.
2. Nuclear charge- the more protons they are in the nucleus the more it will attract
the outer electrons. It would be harder to remove the electrons so the ionization
energy would be higher.
3. Electron Shielding/screening effect- the inner electron shells shield the outer shell
electrons from the attractive forces of the nucleus. Since more inner shells mean
more shielding the ionization energy would be lower.

EVIDENCE THAT PROOVE THE EXISTENCE OF SHELLS AND SUB SHELLS

1. In a plot of IE against electrons that are removed for an atom, drastic differences in
energy occur between groups of electrons that are in different shells and slight
difference occurs between groups of electrons that are in different sub shells.
2. Further evidence for shells shows that in a plot of IE against atomic number there is
a decrease of IE down a group.
3. Evidence for the existence of sub-shells comes from a decrease in IE between Mg
and Al and Be and B instead of the expected increase in IE.

DERIVING ELECTRON CONFIGURATION FROM IONIZATION ENERGY.

Ionization energy of Na

496, 4563, 6995, 9544, 13352, 16611, 20115, 25491, 28954, 141367,159079.

Blue- n=3
Purple- n=2
Green- n=1

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1`

FORCES OF ATTRACTION
TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDING:

1. Ionic bonding
2. Covalent bonding
3. Hydrogen bonding
4. Metallic bonding
5. Van Der Waals force

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FORCES OF MATTER

The physical state of matter depends on the strength of the forces of attraction in and
between the particles. Solids have strong forces of attraction while liquids have
moderate forces of attraction and gases have weak forces of attraction. Physical
properties such boiling point, melting point, melting point and solubility depends on
the types of forces of attraction present in compounds.

Physical Properties

Bonding Physical state M.p/B.p Electrical solubility

conductivity
Ionic Solid high Conductor in Soluble in
molten or polar solvent
aqueous state
Giant covalent Solid high Non conductor Insoluble
except graphite
Simple Solid, liquid or low Non conductor Usually
molecular e.g gas soluble in
diamond polar and non
polar solvent
Metallic Solid e.g Hg high Good Dissolve in
other metals to
form alloys.

FORMATION OF BONDS

Ionic bond involves the transfer of electrons from a metal to non metal atom until the
outer shells of the resulting ions are similar to those of noble gases. The metals loose
electrons and from cations, while the non metals accept the electron lost from the non
metal and form anions. The oppositely charged cations and anions are attracted to
each other by what is called the electrostatic force of attraction which is the strong
force that holds the ionic compound together. Ionic bonds are typically formed
between metals with one, two or three electrons in their outer shells and non metals
with five six or seven electrons on their outer shell.

Metallic bonding- the metal atoms come together and donate their valence electron to
form a sea of mobile electrons which is communally shared among the resulting
cations, the cations organize themselves in a lattice structure in which the sea of
electrons is free to move through the lattice. Repulsion between cations exist, but the
overall attraction between the mobile electron creates a large electrostatic force which
is extremely stable. Consider the formation of metallic sodium, if nine sodium atoms
come together, there will be nine electrons that are donated to the sea of electron.

Covalent bonding occurs between two non metals.One popular theory holds that
a covalent bond forms when a pair of electrons is shared by two atoms and is
simultaneously attracted by the nuclei of both atoms. We say that orbitals on two
different atoms overlap when a portion of one orbital and a portion of a second orbital
occupy the same region of space. In covalent bonds, an s orbital for example can
overlap end -on with a p orbital to form an sp hybrid orbital. If the overlap is end on
end then it is referred to as a sigma bond. When a p orbital overlap in a side to side
manner they form pi bonds.

Co ordinate bonding

A coordinate covalent bond, also known as a dative bond or coordinate bond is a kind
of 2-center, 2-electron covalent bond in which the two electrons derive from the same
atom. The bonding of metal ions to ligands involves this kind of interaction. This type
of interaction is central to Lewis theory.

Inter molecular forces

Inter molecular forces of attraction can be defined as the attractive forces between
molecules. They are generally very week, too week to be called bonds. However, if
these forces did not exist, gases would not be able to condense into into liquids, nor
would liquids be able to freeze to form solids. When the two aforementioned
processes occur, heat energy is given off as molecules attract one another and bonds
are formed. Conversely, heat energy has to be supplied to melt a solid or vaporize a
liquid.

Van der Waals forces

Van der Waals forces are the weakest of all inter molecular forces. These exist
between non polar atoms or molecules. They generally result from the shifting
distributions of the electron cloud within the atom or molecule.

PREDICTING MOLECULAR SHAPES

This section covers the basis of the valence shell electron pair repulsion theory
(VSEPR). The valence shell is the outermost electron occupied region of an atom, it
contains the electron that participates in bonding with other atoms. In the VSEPR
,model, double and triple bonds are treated as single bonds. This is an approximation
of of qualitative purposes. For simple molecule, the VSEPR model is applied to
anyone of them.

Trigonal Pyramidal Structure

In the case of NH3 one position is the tetrahedron will be occupied by a lone pair of
electrons. This pair repels the bonding pairs more strongly than they repel each other.
Thus the molecule has a trigonal pyramidal structure.

HYBRID ORBITALS

Hybrid orbitals are the result of a model which combines atomic orbitals on a single

atom in ways that lead to a new set of orbitals that have geometries appropariate to
form bonds in the directions predicted by the VSEPR model. The VSEPR model
predicts geometries that are very close to those seen in real molecules.

 Hybridization of;
Ethane
In ethane, C2H6 , each C atom forms four sp3 hybrid orbitals. Two of these overlap end
on to form a sigma orbital. This contains two electron, one from each atom, and
constitutes a single bond. This is the carbon-carbon single bond. The remaining three
sp3 orbitals from sigma bonds with the s orbitals of hydrogen atoms, forming carbon-
hydrogen single bonds in the two -CH3 groups.

Ethene
In ethene, C2H4 , the 2s and 2p orbitals of each carbon combine to produce three sp2
hybrid orbitals that lie in a plane 120 degrees from each other. This leaves on
unhybridized 2p orbital. The three sp2 hybrid orbitals form two sigma bonds with two
hydrogen atoms and one with a carbon atom. A pi bond is also formed between the
carbon atoms from the overlap of their unhybridized p orbital.

Benzene
The difference in benzene is that each carbon atom is joined to two other similar
carbon atoms instead of just one. Each carbon atom uses the sp2 hybrids to form
sigma bonds with two other carbons and one hydrogen atom. The next diagram shows
the sigma bonds formed, but for the moment leaves the p orbitals alone

RESONANCE

In chemistry, resonance is a way of describing bonding in certain molecules or ions

by the combination of several contributing structures into a resonance hybrid in
valence bond theory.

CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

A crystalline solid has a definite repeating arrangement of atoms, molecules or ions in

a crystal. This arrangement is known as the crystal lattice. The hardness of the
crystalline solid depends on the strength of the bonds that bind atoms, molecules or
ions in a crystal lattice. Diamond and silicon are hard and brittle because the bonds
holding the lattices together are quite strong. In graphite, although the bonds with in
the hexagonal layers are strong, only week van der waals forces hold the layers, hence
graphite is very slippery and soft. They are vary forms of solid structures:

1. Simple molecular substances e,g iodine

2. Giant molecular substances eg SiO2
3. Ionic e,g NaCl
4. Metallic e.g Cu

Ionic latices- sodium chloride forms a crystal lattice that has a giant ionic structure. It
is an orderly arrangement of ions in cubic pattern. Each sodium ion is surrounded by
six chlorine ions while each chloride is surrounded by six sodium ions.

Giant molecular structures- silicon dioxide is an example of a giant molecular

structure. Since silicon is a larger atom than carbon it can form only a single covalent
bond with an oxygen atom.

Metallic lattices- A metallic lattice is a structure that consists of positively charged

ions bound together by their inner electrons, however their outer shell electrons are
free to move around. Metals usually exist as metallic lattices, and the bonds are
called metallic bonds.

Simple molecular structure: Consists of molecules in which the atoms are joined by
strong covalent bonds. Intermolecular forces of attraction: All forces
between molecules. This means simple molecular substances are gases, liquids or
solids with low melting points, and low boiling points.